J 

.    Y\)  ^  REESE 'LIBRARY 

[University  OF  California 

Rra'hrd (£/l^^^    l^.^iSS  <^ 

Auessiotn  No.^^ly)"/^^        Shelf  No 

-4.\ 

MILITARY   DICTIONARY 

fn  AND 

GAZETTEER 


COMPRISING 

ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  MILITARY  TECHNICAL  TERMS,  HISTORICAL  ACCOUNTS 

OF  ALL  NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIANS,  AS  WELL  AS  ANCIENT  WARLIKE 

TRIBES ;  ALSO  NOTICES  OF  BATTLES  FROM  THE  EARLIEST  PERIOD 

TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME,  WITH  A  CONCISE  EXPLANATION  OF 

TERMS  USED  IN  HERALDRY  AND  THE  OFFICES  THEREOF. 


THE    WORK    AIJsO    GIVES    VALUABLE    GEOGRAPHICAL    INFORMATION. 

COMPILED  FROM  THE  BEST  AUTHORITIES  OF  ALL  NATIONS. 

WITH  AN  APPENDIX   CONTAINING  THE   ARTICLES   OF  WAR,  Etc. 

BY 

THOMAS    AVILHELM, 

CAPTAIN    EIGHTH    INFANTRY. 


REVISED  EDITION. 


PHILADELPHIA  : 

L.   R.  HAMERSLY  ct  CO. 

1881. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1880,  by 

THOMAS    WILHELM,  U.S.A., 
In  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington. 


TO 

BREVET  MAJOR-GENERAL  AUGUST  V.  KAUTZ, 

COLONEL    EIGHTH    REGIMENT    OF   INFANTRY,    U.S.A. , 

BY   WHOSE   SUGGESTIONS,   ENCOURAGEMENT,  AND   AID   THE   WORK   WAS    UNDER- 
TAKEN, PERSEVERED   IN,  AND    COMPLETED, 

THIS  COMPILATION 

IS,  WITH  KESPECT  AND  GRATITUDE,   DEDICATED 

BY    HIS    OBEDIENT    SERVANT, 

THE    COMPILER. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


It  is  with  no  small  degree  of  relief  that  the  compiler  of  this  work  now 
turns  from  a  self-imposed  task,  involving  some  years  of  the  closest  applica- 
tion, to  write  a  brief  preface,  not  as  a  necessity,  but  in  justice  to  the  work 
and  the  numerous  friends  who  have  taken  the  warmest  interest  in  its  prog- 
ress and  final  completion. 

It  is  inevitable  that  in  the  vast  amount  of  patient  and  persistent  labor  in 
a  work  of  this  kind,  extending  to  1386  pages,  and  containing  17,257  distinct 
articles,  there  should  be  a  few  errors,  oversights,  and  inconsistencies,  not- 
withstanding all  the  vigilance  to  the  contrary. 

Condensation  has  been  accomplished  where  it  was  possible  to  do  so,  and 
repetition  avoided  to  a  great  extent  by  reference,  where  further  information 
was  contained  in  other  articles  of  this  book. 

The  contributions  to  the  Eegimental  Library,  which  afforded  the  oppor- 
tunity for  this  compilation,  of  standard  foreign  works,  were  of  infinite  value, 
and  many  thanks  are  tendered  for  them. 

To  G.  &  C.  Merriam,  Publishers,  for  the  use  of  Webster's  Unabridged 
Dictionary ;  J.  B.  Lippincott  &  Co.,  Publishers,  Philadelphia ;  D.  Yan  Nos- 
TRAND,  Publisher,  New  York ;  Maj.  "William  A.  Marye,  Ordnance  Depart- 
ment, U.S.A.;  Maj.  W.  S.  Worth,  Eighth  Infantry,  U.S.A.;  Maj.  D.  T. 
Wells,  Eighth  Infantry,  U.S.A. ;  Lieut.  F.  A.  Whitney,  Adjutant  Eighth 
Infantry,  U.S.A. ;  Lieut.  C.  A.  L.  Totten,  Fourth  Artillery,  U.S.A. ;  Lieut. 
C.  M.  Bailt,  Quartermaster  Eighth  Infantry,  U.S.A.;  and  Lieut.  G.  P. 
Scriven,  Third  Artillery,  U.S.A.,  the  compiler  is  indebted  for  courteous 
assistance  in  the  preparation  of  this  volume. 

October,  1879. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  REVISED  EDITION. 


In  submitting  this  volume  to  the  public  it  is  deemed  proper  to  say  that 
the  design  of  the  work  is  to  bring  together  into  one  series,  and  in  as  compact 
a  form  as  possible  for  ready  reference,  such  information  as  the  student  of  the 
science  and  art  of  war,  persons  interested  in  the  local  or  reserve  forces,  libra- 
ries, as  well  as  the  editors  of  the  daily  press,  should  possess.  In  short,  it  is 
believed  that  the  work  will  be  useful  to  individuals  of  all  ranks  and  con- 
ditions. 

The  compiler  has  labored  under  some  disadvantages  in  obtaining  the 
necessary  information  for  this  volume,  and  much  is  due  to  the  encourage- 
ment and  assistance  received  from  accomplished  and  eminent  officers,  through 
which  he  was  enabled  to  undertake  the  revision  of  the  first  issue  of  this  work 
with  greater  assurance ;  and  among  the  officers  referred  to,  Lieut.  "William 
E.  QuiNAN,  of  the  Fourth  Artilleiy,  U.S.A.,  deserves  especially  to  be  men- 
tioned. It  may  not  be  out  of  place  here  to  state  that  the  compiler  takes  no 
credit  to  himself  beyond  the  labor  contributed  in  the  several  years  of  re- 
search, and  bringing  forward  to  date  the  matter  requiring  it,  with  such 
changes  as  the  advance  of  time  and  improvements  demand. 

As  it  was  thought  best  to  make  this  work  purely  military,  all  naval  refer- 
ences which  appeared  in  the  first  edition  have  been  eliminated. 

May,  1881. 


AUTHORITIES  CONSULTED  IN  THE  COMPILATION 
OF  THIS  WORK. 


ENGLISH  AND  AMEKICAN  WORKS. 

A  Handt  Dictionary  of  Military  Terms — Knollys. 

Aide  Memoirs  to  the  Military  Sciences — Originally  edited  by  a  Committee  of  the 

Royal  Engineers  in  England  (Revised  and  Enlarged). 
Analytical  Digest  oe  the  Military  Laws  of  the  United  States — Scott. 
A  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Evidence— Greenleaf. 
Beeton's  Dictionary  of  Universal  Biography. 
"  "  "  Geography. 

Chambers's  Encyclopedia. 
Customs  of  Service    for    Non-Commissioned   Officers    and    Soldiers   of   the 

Army — Kautz. 
Customs  of  Service  for  Officers  of  the  Army — Kautz. 
Classical  Dictionary — Smith. 

Digest  of  Opinions  of  the  Judge- Advocate-General — Winthrop. 
Dictionary  of  the  United  States  Army — Gardner. 

"  "    Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities — Smith. 

"  "        "  "  "       Biography  and  Mythology — Smith. 

"  "        "  "  "       Geography — Smith. 

"  "    Arts,  Manufactures,  and  Mines — Ure. 

"  "    Every  Days  Difficulties — Shilton. 

"  "    Science,  Literature,  and  Art — Brande. 

Elements  of  the  Art  and  Science  of  War — Wheeler. 

"  "    Military  Arts  and  Sciences — Halleck. 

Encyclopedia  Britannica. 

French  and  English  Pronouncing  Dictionary — Spiers  and  Surenne. 
Field  Exercise  (English),  1870. 
FiELD-BooK  of  the  REVOLUTION — Lossing. 
Hand-Book  OF  Artillery — Roberts. 
Haydn's  Dictionary  of  Dates — Payne. 
"  "  Science— Payne. 

"  "  THE  Bible — Payne. 

History  of  the  United  States — Bancroft. 

"  the  War  in  the  Peninsula  and  in  the  South  of  France — Napier. 

"  England — Knight. 

"  the  Rebellion — Tenney. 

Infantry,  Cavalry,  and  Artillery  Tactics,  U.S.A. 
Instructions  for  Field  Artillery. 
JoMiNi's  Art  of  War — Translated  from  the  French  by  Captains  Mendell  and  Craig- 

hill,  U.S.A. 
JoMiNi's  Treatise  on  Grand  Military  Operations,  or  a  Critical  and  Military 
History  of  the  Wars  of  Frederick  the  Great — Translated  by  Colonel  S.  B. 
Holabird,  U.S.A. 
Johnson's  New  Universal  Encyclopedia. 
Judge-Advocate  and  Recorder's  Guide — Regan. 
Law  Dictionary — Bouvier. 

Lippincott's  Pronouncing  Gazetteer  of  the  World — Thomas. 
Manual  for  Engineer  Troops — Duane. 
Maxims  of  War — Napoleon. 
Military  Bridges — Haupt. 

"  Catechism  and  Hand-Book — Walshe. 

"  Dictionary — Duane. 

"  Dictionary — Scott. 

"  Engineering — Mahan. 

"  Law  and  Court-Martial — Benet. 

"  Miscellany — Marshall. 


AUTHORITIES  CONSULTED. 


Military  Schools   and   Coubses  of  Instruction  in   the   Science  and  Art  of 
War — Barnard. 

Native  Kaces  of  the  Pacific  Slope — Bancroft. 

Naval  and  JIilitahy  Technical  Dictionary  of  the  French  Language — Burns. 

Ordnance  and  Gunnery — Benton. 

Pictorial  Field-Book  of  the  War  of  1812— Lossing. 

Practical  Treatise  on  Attack  and  Defense — Jebb. 

Queen's  Keoulations  and  Orders  for  the  Army  (British). 

Report  of  Comxii.ssioners  of  Indian  Affairs,  1870. 
"  the  Chief  of  Ordnance,  1878. 

Shifts  and  Expedients  of  Camp-Life — Lord  and  Baines. 

The  Armies  of  Europe— McClellan. 

The  Last  Century  of  Universal  History,  1767-18G7 — Fiwald. 

The  Military  Laws  of  the  United  States- Callan. 

The  Soldier's  Pockkt-Book  for  Field-Service — Major-Grenenil  Sir  G.  Wolseley. 

United  States  Army  Keoulations. 

"  "        Bridge  Equipage— Prepared  by  a  Board  of  Engineer  Offlcera— Lieu- 

tenant W.  K.  Quinan,  4th  U.  S.  Artillery. 

United  States  Revised  Statutes. 

W^ebster's  Dictionary — G.  &  C.  Merriam. 

GERMAN    WORKS. 

Dien.st-Vorschriften  der  KiiNiGLiCH  Preussischen  Armee — Karl  von  Helldorff. 

Die  Leiire  vom  neueren  Festungskrieo — W.  Riistow. 

Grundzuoe  der  Taktik  der  drei  Waffen,  Infantebie,  Kavallkrie,  und  Ar- 

tillerie — Dr.  H.  v.  Brandt. 
Heerwesenund  Infanteriedienst  deu   Koniglich   Preussischen  Armee— A.  v. 

AVitzleben. 
Kriegsfeuerwerkerei  zum  Gebrauch  f(Jb  die   Koniglich  Pbeussiscue  Abtil- 

LERiE — A.  Bath. 
KriegswoRterbuch — Carl  Ad.  Loehr. 
MiLiTAiR  Conversations-Lexikon — Hans  Eggcrt  Willibald  von  der  Luhe. 

FRENCH  WORKS. 

Encyclopkdir  Militaire  et  Maritime. 

Geographic  Phisique,  Historique  et  Militaire — Theophile  Lava. 
Legislation  et  Administration  Militaires — M.  Leon  GuilloL 
Sur  la  Fobm.\tion  des  Troupes  pour  le  Combat — Jomiui. 


IMPORTANT  MAXIMS. 


Misfortune  will  certainly  fall  upon  the  land  where  the  wealth  of  the 
tax-gatherer  or  the  greedy  gambler  in  stocks  stands,  in  public  estimation, 
above  the  uniform  of  the  brave  man  who  sacrifices  his  life,  health,  or  fortune 
in  the  defense  of  his  country. 

Officers  should  feel  a  conviction  that  resignation,  bravery,  and  faithful 
attention  to  duty  are  virtues  without  which  no  glory  is  possible,  no  army  is 
respectable,  and  that  firmness  amid  reverses  is  more  honorable  than  enthu- 
siasm in  success. 

It  is  not  well  to  create  a  too  great  contempt  for  the  enemy,  lest  the  morale 
of  the  soldier  should  be  shaken  if  he  encounter  an  obstinate  resistance. 

It  would  seem  to  be  easy  to  convince  brave  men  that  death  comes  more 
surely  to  those  who  fly  in  disorder  than  to  those  who  remain  together  and 
present  a  firm  front  to  the  enemy,  or  who  rally  promptly  when  their  lines 
have  been  for  the  instant  broken. 

Courage  should  be  recompensed  and  honored,  the  different  grades  in  rank 
respected,  and  discipline  should  exist  in  the  sentiments  and  convictions 
rather  than  in  external  forms  only. — Jomini. 

An  army  without  discipline  is  but  a  mob  in  uniform,  more  dangerous  to 
itself  than  to  its  enemy.  Should  any  one  from  ignorance  not  perceive  the 
immense  advantages  that  arise  from  a  good  discipline,  it  will  be  sufficient  to 
observe  the  alterations  that  have  happened  in  Europe  since  the  year  1700. 
— Saxe. 

If  the  first  duty  of  a  state  is  its  own  security,  the  second  is  the  security 
of  neighboring  states  whose  existence  is  necessary  for  its  own  preservation. 
— JominVs  "  Life  of  Napoleon." 

A  good  general,  a  well-organized  system,  good  instruction,  and  severe 
discipline,  aided  by  effective  establishments,  will  always  make  good  troops, 
independently  of  the  cause  for  which  they  fight.  At  the  same  time,  a  love 
of  country,  a  spirit  of  enthusiasm,  a  sense  of  national  honor,  will  operate 
upon  young  soldiers  with  advantage. 

The  officer  who  obeys,  whatever  may  be  the  nature  or  extent  of  his  com- 
mand, will  always  stand  excused  executing  implicitly  the  orders  which  have 
been  given  to  him. 

Every  means  should  be  taken  to  attach  the  soldier  to  his  colore.  This  is 
best  accomplished  by  showing  consideration  and  respect  to  the  old  soldier. 

The  first  qualification  of  a  soldier  is  fortitude  under  fatigue  and  privation. 
Courage  is  only  the  second ;  hardship,  poverty,  and  want  are  the  best  schools 
for  a  soldier. 

Troops,  whether  halted,  or  encamped,  or  on  the  march,  should  be  always 
in  favorable  position,  possessing  the  essentials  required  for  a  field  of  battle. 

Some  men  are  so  physically  and  morally  constituted  as  to  see  everything 
through  a  highly-colored  medium.  They  raise  up  a  picture  in  the  mind  on 
every  slight  occasion,  and  give  to  every  trivial  occurrence  a  dramatic  interest. 
But  whatever  knowledge,  or  talent,  or  courage,  or  other  good  qualities  such 
men  may  possess,  nature  has  not  formed  them  for  the  command  of  armies  or 
the  direction  of  great  military  operations. — Napoleon's  ^^  Maxims  of  War." 


i 


X. 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY, 


A. 


Aachen.     See  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Aar.  A  river  in  Switzerland,  flows  into 
the  Khine  opposite  and  near  Waldshut,  in 
Aarguu.  Prince  Charles,  while  crossing  the 
river,  August  17,  17'J'J,  was  repulsed  by  the 
French  generals  Ney  and  Ileudelet. 

Aarau.  A  city  in  Switzerland.  Peace 
was  here  declared,  July  18,  1712,  ending  the 
war  between  the  cantons  Zurich  and  Berne 
on  one  side,  and  Luzerne,  Uri,  Schuyz, 
Unterwalden,  and  Zug  on  the  other. 

Abad  {Abadhie.s).  A  line  of  Moorish 
kings  who  reigned  in  Seville  from  102G  to 
1090. 

Abaisse.  In  heraldry,  when  the  fesse  or 
any  other  armorial  figure  is  depressed,  or 
situated  below  the  centre  of  th©  shield,  it  is 
said  to  be  abaisse  ("  lowered"). 

Abandon.  In  a  military  sense,  used  in 
the  relintjuishment  of  a  military  post,  dis- 
trict, or  station,  or  the  breaking  up  of  a 
military  establishment.  To  abandon  any 
fort,  post,  guard,  arms,  ammunition,  or 
colors  without  good  cause  is  punishable. 

Abase,  To.  An  old  word  signifying  to 
lower  a  flag.  Abaisser  is  in  use  in  the 
French  marine,  and  both  may  be  derived 
from  the  still  older  abcigh,  to  cast  down,  to 
humble. 

Abatement.  In  heraldry,  is  a  mark  placed 
over  a  portion  of  the  paternal  coat  of  arms, 
indicating  some  base  or  ungentlemanly  act 
on  the  part  of  the  bearer. 

Abatis,  or  Abattis.  A  means  of  defense 
forujed  by  cutting  off  the  smaller  branches 
of  trees  felled  in  the  direction  from  which 
the  enemy  may  be  expected.  The  ends  of 
the  larger  branches  are  sharpened  and  the 
butts  of  the  limbs  or  trees  fastened  by  crochet 
picket,  or  by  imbedding  in  the  earth,  so  that 
they  cannot  be  easily  removed.  Abatis  is 
generally  used  in  parts  of  a  ditch  or  in- 
trench ment  to  delay  the  enemy  under  fire. 

Abblast.     See  Arbalest. 

Abblaster.     Sec  Arbalist. 

Abdivtes.  A  piratical  people  descended 
from  the  Saracens,  who  lived  south  of  Mount 
Ida  (Psilorati).  in  the  island  of  Crete  (Can- 
dia),  where  thev  established  themselves  in 
825. 

Abduction  (Fr.).  Diminution ;  diminish- 
2 


ing  the  front  of  a  line  or  column  by  break- 
ing off  a  division,  subdivision,  or  files,  in 
order  to  avoid  some  obstacle. 

Abencerrages.  A  Moorish  tribe  which 
,  occupied  the  kingdom  of  Granada.  Granada 
I  was  disturbed  by  incessant  quarrels  between 
j  this  tribe  and  the  Zegris  from  1480  to  1492. 
■  They  were  finally  extinguished  by  Abou- 
j  Abdoullah,  or  Boabdil,  the  last  Moorish 
j  king  of  Granada,  and  the  same  who  was 
!  dethroned  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in 
1  1492. 

Abensburg.  A  small  town  of  Bavaria, 
on  the  Abens,  18  miles  southwest  of  Katis- 
bon.  Here  Napoleon  defeated  the  Austrians, 
Aj^ril  20,  1«09. 

Aberconway,  or  Conway.      A  maritime 
city  of  the  Gauls  in  England,   fortified  by 
William  the  Conqueror,  and  taken  by  Crom- 
;  well  in  1G45. 

j      Abet.     In  a  military  sense  it  is  a  grave 
crime  to  aid  or  abet  in  mutiny  or  sedition,  or 
\  excite  resistance  against  lawful  orders. 
I      Abgersate.     Fortress  of  the  Osrhoene,  in 
Mesopotamia.     The  Persians  took  it  by  as- 
sault in  the  year  534. 
!      Abii.     A  Scythian   tribe  which  inhabited 
j  the  shores  of  the  Jaxartes,  to  the  northeast 
of  Sogdiana.     They  were  vanquished  by  Al- 
I  exander  the  Great. 

'      Abipones.     A  tribe  of  Indians  living  in 
the  Argentine  Confederation,  who  were  for- 
merly numerous  and  powerful,  but  are  now 
I  reduced  to  a  small  number. 
'      Able-bodied.  In  a  military  senseapplies  to 
one  who  is  physically  competent  as  a  soldier. 
Ablecti.     Ancient  military  term  applied 
\  to  a  select  body  of  men  taken  from  tlie  cx- 
iraordinaril  of  the  Koman  army  to  serve  as 
a  body-guard  to  the  commanding  general 
or  the  consul.     The  guard  consisted  of  40 
j  mounted  and  IGO  dismounted  men. 
j      Abo.     A  Russian  city  and  seaport,  on  the 
I  Aurajoki  near  its  entrance  into  the  Gulf  of 
I  Bothnia.     It  formerly  belonged  to  Sweden, 
1  but  was  taken  with  the  whole  of  Finland  by 
I  the  Russians  in  the  war  begun  by  Sweden  in 
:  1741.     By  a  treaty  of  usace  concluded  hero 
in  1743  the  conquered  possessions  were  re- 
i  stored  to  Sweden.     They  were  ceded  to  Rus- 
!  sia  in  1809. 


ABOLLA 


10 


ACCOUTKE 


Abolla.  A  warm  kind  of  military  gar- 
ment, lined  or  doubled,  worn  by  both  Greeks 
and  Romans. 

Abou-girgeh.  A  city  of  Upper  Egypt 
■where  the  French  defeated  the  Egyptians  in 
1799. 

Aboukir  (anc.  Canopus).  A  village  of 
Egypt  on  a  promontory  at  the  western  ex- 
tremity of  the  bay  of  the  same  name,  15  miles 
northeast  of  Alexandria.  In  the  bay  Nel- 
son defeated  the  Erench  fleet,  August  1, 1798. 
This  engagement,  which  resulted  in  a  loss  to 
the  French  of  11  line-of-battle  ships,  is  known 
as  the  "battle  of  the  Nile."  In  1801  a  Brit- 
ish expedition  under  Sir  llalph  Abercromby 
landed  at  Aboukir,  and  captured  the  place 
after  an  obstinate  and  sanguinary  conflict 
with  the  French  (March  8).  Here  also  a 
Turkish  army  of  15,000  men  was  defeated  by 
5000  French  under  Bonaparte,  July  25, 1799. 

Aboumand.  Village  of  Upper  Egypt, 
near  the  river  Nile,  where  the  French 
fought  the  Arabs  in  1799. 

About.  A  technical  word  to  express  the 
movement  by  which  a  body  of  troops  or  ar- 
tillery carriages  change  front. 

Abraham,  Heights  of.  Near  Quebec, 
Lower  Canada.  In  the  memorable  engage- 
ment which  took  place  here  September  13, 
1759,  the  French  under  Gen.  Montcalm 
were  defeated  by  the  English  under  Gen. 
Wolfe,  who  was  killed  in  the  moment  of 
victory. 

Abri  (Fr.).  Shelter,  cover,  concealment; 
arm-sheds  in  a  camp  secure  from  rain,  dust, 
etc. ;  place  of  security  from  the  eflfect  of 
shot,  shells,  or  attack. 

Absence,  Leave  of.  The  permission 
which  oflScers  of  the  army  obtain  to  absent 
themselves  from  duty.  In  the  U.  S.  service 
an  oflScer  is  entitled  to  30  days'  leave  in 
each  year  on  full  pay.  This  time  he  may 
permit  to  accumulate  for  a  period  not  ex- 
ceeding 4  years.  An  officer,  however,  may 
enjoy  5  months'  continuous  leave  on  full 
pay,  provided  the  fifth  month  of  such  leave 
is  wholly  distinct- from  the  four-year  period 
within  and  for  which  the  4  months'  absence 
with  full  pay  was  enjoyed.  An  officer  on 
leave  over  this  time  is  entitled  to  half-pay 
only. 

Absent.  A  term  used  in  military  returns 
in  accounting  for  the  deficiency  of  any  given 
number  of  officers  or  soldiers,  and  is  usually 
distinguished  under  two  heads,  viz. :  Abse^it 
with  teave^  such  as  officers  with  permission, 
or  enlisted  men  on  furlough.  Absent  loith- 
out  leave ;  men  who  desert  are  sometimes 
reported  absent  ivithout  leave,  to  bring  their 
crimes  under  cognizance  of  regimental,  gar- 
rison, or  field-officers'  courts ;  thus,  under 
mitigating  circumstances,  trial  by  general 
court-martial  is  avoided.  Absence  without 
leave  entails  forfeiture  of  pay  during  such 
absence,  unless  it  is  excused  as  unavoidable. 
An  ufficer  absent  •without  leave  for  three 
months  may  be  dropped  from  the  rolls  of 
the  army  by  the  President,  and  is  not  eligi- 
ble to  reappointment. 


Absolute  Force  of  Gunpowder.  Is  meas- 
ured by  the  pressure  it  exerts  on  its  environ- 
ment when  it  exactly  fills  the  space  in  which 
it  is  fired.  Various  attempts  have  been 
made  to  determine  this  force  experimentally 
with  widely  diflerent  results.  Robins  esti- 
mated the  pressure  on  the  square  inch  at 
1000  atmospheres,  Hutton  at  1800,  and 
Count  Rumford  as  high  as  100,000  atmos- 
pheres. While  Rodman,  by  experiments 
upon  strong  cast-iron  shells,  verified  the  ac- 
curacy of  Rumford's  formulas,  he  found 
that  his  estimate  of  the  force  was  greatly  in 
error.  According  to  Rodman  the  pressure 
is  approximately  14,000  atmospheres.  Dr. 
Woodbridge,  another  American  philosopher 
and  inventor,  has  shown  that,  fired  in  small 
quantities,  the  force  of  gunpowder  does  not 
exceed  6200  atmospheres.  This  agrees 
closely  with  the  conclusion  arrived  at  by 
the  English  "Committee  on  Explosives," 
1875,  who  found  that  even  in  large  guns  the 
force  did  not  exceed  42  tons. 

Absorokas.  A  tribe  of  North  American 
Indians.     See  Crows. 

Absterdam  Projectile.    See  Projectile. 

Abydus.  An  ancient  city  of  Mysia  on 
the  Hellespont  nearly  opposite  Sestus  on  the 
European  shore.  Near  this  town  Xerxes 
placed  the  bridge  of  boats  by  which  his 
troops  were  conveyed  across  the  channel  to 
the  town  of  Sestus,  480  B.C. 

Abyssinia.  A  country  of  Eastern  Africa, 
forming  an  elevated  table-land  and  contain- 
ing many  fertile  valleys.  Theodore  II.,  the 
king  of  this  country,  having  maltreated  and 
imprisoned  some  English  subjects,  an  expe- 
dition under  Lord  Napier  was  sent  against 
him  from  Bombay  in  1867.  On  April  14, 
1868,  the  mountain  fortress  of  Magdala  was 
stormed  and  taken  with  but  little  trouble, 
and  Theodore  was  found  dead  on  the  hill, 
having  killed  himself.  The  country  is  at 
present  governed  by  Emperor  John  of  Ethi- 
opia, who  was  crowned  in  1872. 

Academies,  Military.  See  Military 
Academies. 

Accelerator.  A  cannon  in  which  several 
charges  are  successively  fired  to  give  an 
increasing  velocity  to  the  projectile  while 
moving  in  the  bore.  See  Multi-charge 
Gun. 

Accessible.  Easy  of  access  or  approach. 
A  place  or  fort  is  said  to  be  accessible  when 
it  can  be  approached  with  a  hostile  force  by 
land  or  sea. 

Accintus.  A  word  in  ancient  times  sig- 
nifying the  complete  accoutrements  of  a 
soldier. 

Accolade.  The  ceremonious  act  of  con- 
ferring knighthood  in  ancient  times.  It 
consisted  of  an  embrace  and  gentle  blow 
with  the  sword  on  the  shoulder  of  the  person 
on  whom  the  honor  of  knighthood  was  being 
conferred. 

Accord.  The  conditions  under  which  a 
fortress  or  command  of  troops  is  surren- 
dered. 

Accoutre.   To  furnish  with  accoutrements. 


ACCOUTREMENTS 


11 


ACTUARIUS 


Accoutrements.  Dress,  equipage,  trap- 
pins^s.  .Specifically,  the  equipments  of  a 
soldier,  except  arms  and  clothing. 

Accused.  In  a  military  sense,  the  desig- 
nation of  one  who  is  arraigned  before  a  mil- 
itary court. 

Acerrae  (now  Acera).  A  city  in  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  talicn  and  burned  by 
Hannibal  in  216  n.c.  In  'JO  B.C.  the  Romans 
defeated  under  its  walls  the  allied  rebels 
commanded  by  Papius. 

Acerrae.  A  citv  of  the  Gauls,  taken  by 
Marcclliis  in  222  h'.c. 

Achaean  League.  A  confederacy  which 
existed  from  very  earl}'  times  among  the 
twelve  states  of  the  province  of  Achaia,  in 
the  north  of  tlie  Peloponnesus.  It  was 
broken  up  after  the  death  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  but  was  set  on  fcjot  again  by  some  of 
the  origimil  cities,  280  B.C.,  the  epoch  of  its 
rise  into  great  historical  importance;  for 
from  this  time  it  gained  strength,  and  finally 
spread  over  the  whole  Peloponnesus,  though 
not  without  much  opposition,  principally  on 
the  part  of  Lacediemon.  It  was  finally  dis- 
solved by  the  Romans,  on  the  event  of  the 
capture  of  Corinth  by  Mummius,  147  B.C. 
The  two  most  celebrated  leaders  of  this 
league  were  Aratus,  the  principal  instru- 
ment of  its  early  aggrandizement,  and  Phil- 
opo>men,  the  contemporary  and  rival,  in 
military  reputation,  of  Scipio  and  Ilanni- 
bal. 

Achern.  A  city  in  the  grand  duchy  of 
IJaden,  on  the  river  Acher.  Near  this  place 
a  monument  marks  the  spot  where  Marshal 
Turenne  was  killed  by  u  random  shot  in 
107.-). 

Acheron.  A  small  stream  in  ancient 
Bruttium.  In  330  B.C.,  Alexander,  king  of 
E])iriis,  was  killed  while  crossing  it. 

Acinaces.  A  short  sword  used  by  the 
Persians. 

Aclides.  In  Roman  antiquity,  a  kind 
of  missile  weapon  with  a  thong  fixed  to  it 
whereby  it  might  be  drawn  back  again. 

Acoluthi.  In  military  antiquity,  was  a 
title  given  in  the  Grecian  emjiirc  to  the  cap- 
tain or  connnander  of  the  body-guards  ap- 
pointed for  the  security  of  the  emperor's 
jiulace. 

Aconite.  A  poisonous  plant.  Several 
ancient  races  poisoned  their  arrows  with  an 
extract  from  tliis  plant. 

Acontium.  In  Grecian  antiquity,  a  kind 
of  dart  or  javelin  resembling  the  Roman 
spiridum. 

Acquereaux  (Fr.).  A  machine  of  war, 
which  was  used  in  the  Middle  Ages  to  throw 
sttmes. 

Acqui.  A  walled  town  of  the  Sardinian 
states  on  the  river  Boriuida  in  the  division 
of  Alessandria.  It  was  taken  by  the  Span- 
iards in  1745,  retaken  by  the  Piedmontese 
in  174ti ;  it  was  dismantled  by  the  French, 
who  defeated  the  Austrians  and  Piedmontese 
here  in  1794. 

Acquit.  To  release  or  set  free  from  an 
obligation,  accusation,  guilt,  censure,  sus- 


picion, or  whatever  devolves  upon  a  person 
as  a  charge  or  duty ;  as,  the  court  acquits 
the  accused.  This  word  has  also  the  reflexive 
signification  of  "to  bear,  or  conduct  one's 
self;"  as,  the  soldier  acquitted  himself  well 
in  battle. 

Acquittance  Roll.  In  the  British  service, 
a  roll  containing  the  names  of  the  men  of 
each  troop  or  company  or  regiment,  show- 
ing the  debts  and  credits,  with  the  signature 
of  each  man,  and  certificate  of  the  olficer 
commanding  it. 

Acre,  or  St,  Jean  d'Acre.  A  seaport 
town  of  Palestine  (in  ancient  times  the  cele- 
brated city  of  Ptolemais),  which  was  the 
scene  of  many  sieges.  It  was  last  stormed 
and  taken  by  the  British  in  1840.  ACre  was 
gallantly  defended  by  Djez/.ar  Pacha  against 
Bonaparte  in  Jul}',  1798,  till  relieved  by  Sir 
Smith,  who  resisted  twelve  attempts  by  the 
French,  between  March  IG  and  May  20, 
1799. 

Acre,  or  Acre-fight.  An  old  duel  fought 
by  warriors  between  the  frontiers  of  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  with  sword  and  lance. 
This  dueling  was  also  called  ccnnp-fiyht. 

Acrobalistes  (Fr.).  A  name  given  by 
the  ancients  to  warlike  races,  such  as  the 
Parthians  and  Armenians,  who  shot  arrows 
from  a  long  distance. 

Acropolis.  In  ancient  Greece,  the  name- 
given  to  the  citadel  or  fortress  of  a  city, 
usually  built  on  the  summit  of  a  hill.  The 
most  celebrated  was  that  of  Athens,  remains 
of  which  still  exist. 

Acs.  A  village  in  Hungary  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Danube,  noted  as  the  scene  of 
several  battles  in  the  Hungarian  revolution, 
that  of  August  3,  1849,  being  the  most  im- 
portant. 

Acting  Assistant  Surgeons.    See  SuR- 

GKONS,  AlTING  ASSISTANT. 

Action.  An  engagement  between  two 
armies,  or  bodies  of  troops.  The  word  is 
likewise  used  to  signify  some  memorable  act 
done  by  an  officer,  soldier,  detachment,  or 
party. 

Actium  (now  Azio).  A  town  of  ancient 
Greece  in  Arcanania,  near  the  entrance  of 
the  Ambracian  Gulf.  It  became  famous  for 
the  great  naval  engagement  fought  near- 
here  in  31  B.C.  between  Uctavius  and  Antony,, 
in  which  the  ft>rmer  was  victorious. 

Active  Service.  Duty  against  an  enemy  ;: 
operations  in  his  presence.  Or  in  the  pres- 
ent day  it  denotes  serving  on  full  pay,  on 
the  active  list,  in  contradistinction  to  those- 
who  are  virtually  retired,  and  placed  on  the 
retired  list. 

Activity.  In  a  military  sense,  denotes 
attention,  labor,  diligence,  and  study. 

Acto,  or  Acton.  A  kind  of  defensive 
tunic,  made  of  <]uilted  leather  or  other  strong 
material,  formerly  worn  under  the  outer 
dress  and  oven  under  a  coat  t>f  mail. 

Act  of  Grace.  In  Gnat  Britain,  an  act 
of  Parliament  for  a  general  and  tVee  pardon 
to  deserters  from  the  service  and  others. 

Actuarius.     A   name  given   by  the  Ro- 


ADACTED 


12 


ADVANCED   GUAKD 


mans  to  officers  charged  with  the  supplying 
of  provisions  to  troops. 

Adacted.  Applies  to  stakes,  or  piles, 
driven  into  the  earth  by  large  malls  shod 
with  iron,  as  in  securing  ramparts  or  pon- 
tons. 

Adda.  A  stream  in  Italy.  The  Komans 
defeated  the  Gauls  on  its  banks  in  223  B.C. 

Addiscombe  Seminary.  An  institution 
near  Croydon,  Surrey,  England,  for  the 
education  of  young  gentlemen  intended  for 
the  military  service  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany :  closed  in  1861. 

Aden.  A  free  port  on  the  southwest  cor- 
ner of  Arabia.  It  was  captured  by  Eng- 
land in  1839,  and  is  now  used  as  a  coal 
depot  for  Indian  steamers. 

Aderbaidjan  (Fr.).  A  mountainous  prov- 
ince of  Persia,  celebrated  for  raising  the 
finest  horses  in  the  province  for  army  pur- 
poses. 

Adige  (anc.  Athesis).  A  river  in  North- 
ern Italy  formed  by  numberless  streamlets 
from  the  Helvetian  Alps.  In  563  the  Ko- 
mans defeated  the  Goths  and  Pranks  on  its 
banks.     Gen.  Massena  crossed  it  in  1806. 

Adis.  A  city  in  Africa.  Xantippe,  chief 
of  the  Carthaginians,  defeated  under  its  walls 
the  Komans  commanded  by  Kegulus. 

Adit.  A  passage  under  ground  by  which 
miners  approach  the  part  they  intend  to 
sap. 

Adjeighur.  A  fortress  in  Bundelcund, 
which  was  captured  in  1809  by  a  force  under 
the  command  of  Col.  Gabriel  Martindell. 

Adjourn.  To  suspend  business  for  a  time, 
as  from  one  day  to  another  ;  said  of  military 
courts.  Adjournment  without  day  [sine  die), 
indefinite  postponement. 

Adjutant  (from  adjuvo,  "  to  help").  A 
regimental  staff-officer  with  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant, appointed  by  the  regimental  com- 
mander to  assist  him  in  the  execution  of  all 
the  details  of  the  regiment  or  post.  He  is 
the  channel  of  official  communication.  It 
is  his  duty  to  attend  daily  on  the  command- 
ing officer  for  orders  or  instructions  of  any 
kind  that  are  to  be  issued  to  the  command, 
and  promulgate  the  same  in  writing  after 
making  a  complete  record  thereof.  He  has 
charge  of  the  books,  files,  and  men  of  the 
headquarters  ;  keeps  the  rosters  ;  parades  and 
inspects  all  escorts,  guards,  and  other  armed 
parties  previous  to  their  proceeding  on  duty. 
He  should  be  competent  to  instruct  a  regi- 
ment in  every  part  of  the  field  exercise, 
should  understand  the  internal  economy  of 
his  corps,  and  should  notice  every  irregular- 
ity or  deviation  from  the  established  rules 
or  regulations.  He  should,  of  course,  be  an 
officer  of  experience,  and  should  be  selected 
with  reference  to  special  fitness,  as  so  much 
depends  upon  his  manner  and  thoughtfulness 
in  the  exercise  of  the  various  and  important 
duties  imposed  upon  him.  Unexceptionable 
deportment  is  especially  becoming  to  the 
adjutant. 

Adjutant-General,  An  officer  of  distinc- 
tion selected  to  assist  the  general  of  an  army 


in  all  his  operations.  The  principal  staff- 
officer  of  the  U.  S.  army.  The  j)rincipal 
staff-officers  of  generals  of  lower  rank  are 
called  assistant  adjutant-gen  rals. 

Adjutant-General's  Department.  In  the 
United  States,  consists  of  1  adjutant-gen- 
eral with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  ;  2 
assistant  adjutant  -  generals,  colonels ;  4 
lieutenant- colonels,  and  10  majors;  also 
about  400  enlisted  clerks  and  messengers. 
The  officers  are  generally  on  duty  with  gen- 
eral officers  who  command  corps,  divisions, 
departments,  etc.  "  They  shall  also  perform 
the  duties  of  inspectors  when  circumstances 
require  it."  The  lowest  grades  must  be  se- 
lected from  the  captains  of  the  army. 

Administration.  Conduct,  management ; 
in  military  affairs,  the  execution  of  the  du- 
ties of  an  office. 

Administration,  Council  of.  A  board  of 
officers  periodically  assembled  at  a  post  for 
the  administration  of  certain  business. 

Admissions.  In  a  military  sense,  the 
judge-advocate  is  authorized  when  he  sees 
proper  to  admit  what  a  prisoner  expects  to 
prove  by  absent  witnesses. 

Adobe  (Sp.).  An  unburnt  brick,  dried  in 
the  sun,  made  from  earth  of  a  loamy  char- 
acter, containing  about  two-thirds  fine  sand 
mixed  intimately  with  one-third  or  less  of 
clayey  dust  or  fine  sand. 

Adour.  A  river  in  the  southwest  of 
Prance,  which  Lord  Wellington,  after  driv- 
ing the  armies  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  across 
the  Pyrenees,  passed  in  the  face  of  all  op- 
position, on  the  26th  of  Pebruary,  1814. 

Adrana.  A  river  in  Germany,  at  present 
called  Eder.  Germanicus  defeated  the  Ger- 
mans on  its  bank  in  15. 

Adrianople.  A  Turkish  city  named  after 
the  Emperor  Adrian ;  unsuccessfully  be- 
sieged by  the  Goths  in  the  4th  century  ; 
the  army  of  Murad  I.  took  the  city  in  1361  ; 
unconditionally  surrendered  to  the  Kussians 
in  August,  1829;  peace  was  declared  in  this 
city  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  September 
14,  1829,  and  the  city  relinquished  to  the 
Turks. 

Adrumetum,  or  Hadrumetum.  An  an- 
cient African  city,  now  in  ruins,  situated  on 
the  Mediterranean,  southeast  from  Car- 
thage. The  Moors  took  this  city  from  the 
Komans  in  549,  but  it  was  retaken  soon 
after  by  a  priest  named  Paul. 

Advance.  Before  in  place,  or  beforehand 
in  time;  used  for  advanced;  as,  advance- 
guard,  or  that  before  the  main  guard  or 
body  of  an  army  ;  to  move  forward. 

Advanced  Covered  Way.  Is  a  ter7-e 
jjlein  on  the  exterior  of  the  advanced  ditch, 
similar  to  the  first  covered  way. 

Advanced  Ditch.  Is  an  excavation  be- 
yond the  glacis  of  the  enciente,  having  its 
surface  on  the  prolongation  of  that  slope, 
that  an  enemy  may  find  no  shelter  when  in 
the  ditch. 

Advanced  Guard.  A  detachment  of 
troops  which  precedes  the  march  of  the 
main  body. 


ADVANCED  GUARD 


13 


AGINCOURT 


Advanced  Guard  Equipage.  See  Pon- 
tons. 

Advanced  Lunettes.  Works  resembling 
hastiuiis  ur  ravelins,  liavini;  faces  or  flunks. 
Tliov  ari'  lornicd  iijion  or  beyond  the  glacis. 

Advanced  Works.  Are  such  as  are  con- 
structed Ixynnd  the  covered  way  and  glacis, 
but  within  range  of  the  musketry  of  the 
main  works. 

Advancement.  In  a  military  sense,  sig- 
nidcs  honor,  jjroniotion,  or  preferment  in 
the  army,  regiment,  or  company. 

Advantage  Ground.  That  ground  which 
affords  the  greatest  facility  for  annoyance  or 
resistance. 

Adversary.  Generally  applied  to  an  enc- 
mv,  but  strictly  an  opponent  in  single  com- 
bat. 

Advising  to  Desert.  Punishable  with 
death  ur  otlierwisc,  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct.  See  Ai'I'kndix,  Articles  of  "VVak, 
Gl. 

Advocate,  Judge-.See  Judge-Advocate. 

Adynati.  Ancient  name  for  invalid  sol- 
diers receiving  pension  from  the  public  treas- 
ury. 

IflEgide  {JEges).  A  name,  according  to 
Homer,  for  a  protecting  covering  Avound 
around  the  left  arm  in  the  absence  of  a 
shield ;  used  by  Jupiter,  Minerva,  and 
Apoll... 

.ffigolethron  {Gr.).  A  plant.  This  word 
moans  goat  and  death.  It  was  believed  by 
the  ancients  that  this  plant  would  kill  goats 
only,  if  eaten  by  them.  Xenophon  reports 
that  the  soldiers  of  the  army  of  the  "  Ten 
Thousand"  tasted  of  some  honey  prepared 
from  this  plant  which  caused  them  to  be 
aflected  with  hallucinations. 

.^gospotamos  ("Stream  of  the  Goaf). 
A  small  river  flowing  into  the  Hellespont, 
in  the  Thracian  Chersonese;  is  famous  for 
the  defeat  of  the  Athenian  fleet  by  the 
Lacedemonians  under  Lysander,  which  put 
an  end  to  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and  to  the 
predominance  of  Athens  in  Greece,  405  B.C. 

.^neatores.  In  military  antiquity,  the 
musicians  in  an  army,  including  those  who 
sounded  the  trumpets,  horns,  etc. 

.ffirarium  Militare.  In  Koman  antiquity, 
the  war  treasury  of  Home,  founded  by  Au- 
gustus ;  in  addition  to  other  revenues,  the 
one-hundredth  part  of  all  merchandise  sold 
in  Rome  was  paid  into  it. 

JE,TO.  A  basket  used  by  the  Roman  sol- 
diers to  carry  earth  in  to  construct  forti^ca- 
tions. 

.^rumnula.  A  wooden  pole  or  fork,  in- 
troduced among  the  Romans  by  Consul 
Marius.  Each  soldier  was  provided  with 
one  of  these  poles,  which  had  attached 
thereto  a  saw,  hatchet,  a  sack  of  wheat,  and 
baggage ;  and  he  was  compelled  to  carry  it 
on  a  march. 

Affair.  An  action  or  engagement,  not  of 
suflicient  magnitude  to  bo  termed  a  battle. 

Affamer  (Fr.).  To  besiege  a  place  so 
closely  as  to  starve  the  garrison  and  inhab- 
itants. 


Affidavit.  In  military  law  is  an  oath 
duly  subscribed  before  any  person  author- 
ized to  administer  it.  In  the  U.  S.  service, 
in  the  absence  of  a  civil  officer  any  com- 
missioned uflicer  is  empowered  to  administer 
an  oath. 

Afforciament.  An  old  term  for  a  for- 
tress or  stronghold. 

Afghanistan.  A  large  country  in  Central 
Asia,  at  war  with  England  1838,  and  1878- 
79. 

Afrancesados  («S/j.).  Name  given  to  the 
Spaniards  who  upheld  the  oath  of  allegiance 
to  king  Joseph  nonaparte;,  also  called  Jo- 
sephins  (in  the  Peninsular  war). 

Aga.  Rank  of  an  officer  in  the  Turkish 
army  ;  the  same  as  a  general  with  us. 

Age.  In  a  military  sense,  a  young  man 
must  be  14  years  old  before  he  can  bocotne 
an  officer  in  the  English  army,  or  be  entered 
as  a  cadet  at  Woolwich,  in  the  English 
military  academy.  For  admission  to  the 
military  academy  at  West  Point,  U.  S.,  the 
age  is  from  17  to  22  years.  Men  are  enlisted 
for  soldiers  at  from  17  to  45  in  the  Engli.sh 
army,  and  in  the  U.  S.  army  at  from  l8  to 
35.  Officers  in  the  U.  S.  army  may  be  re- 
tired, at  the  discretion  of  the  President,  at 
02  years  of  age. 

Agema  [Gr.).  In  the  ancient  military 
art,  a  kind  of  soldiery,  chiefly  in  the  Mace- 
donian army.  The  word  is  Greek,  and  de- 
notes vehemence,  to  express  the  strength 
and  eagerness  of  this  corps. 

Agen.  Principal  place  of  the  department 
Lot-ct-Garonne,  France,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  river  Garonne,  which  has  a  city  of 
the  same  name,  and  was  the  scene  of  many 
battles. 

Agency.  A  certain  proportion  of  money 
which  is  ordered  to  be  subtracted  from  the 
pay  and  allowances  of  the  British  army,  for 
transacting  the  business  of  the  several  regi- 
ments comprising  it. 

Agent,  Army.  A  person  in  the  civil  de- 
partment of  the  British  army,  between  the 
paymaster-general  and  the  jiaymaster  of  the 
regiment,  through  whom  every  regimental 
concern  of  a  pecuniary  nature  is  transacted. 

Agger.  In  ancient  military  writings,  de- 
notes the  middle  part  of  a  military  road 
raised  into  a  ridge,  with  a  gentle  slope  on 
each  side  to  make  a  drain  for  tlie  water,  and 
keep  the  way  dry  ;  it  is  also  used  for  a  mili- 
tary road.  Agger  also  denotes  a  work  or 
fortification,  used  both  for  the  defense  and 
attack  of  towns,  camps,  etc.,  termed  among 
the  moderns,  lines.  Agger  is  also  used  for  a 
bank  or  wall  erected  against  the  soa  or  some 
great  river  to  con  fine  or  keep  it  with  in  bounds, 
and  called  by  modern  writers,  dam,  sea-wall. 

Agiades.  In  the  Turkish  armies  arc  a 
kind  of  pioneers,  or  ratlier  field  engineers, 
employed  in  fortifying  tlie  camp,  etc. 

Agiem-clich.  A  very  crooked  sabre, 
rounded  near  the  point  ;  an  arm  much  in 
use  in  Persia  and  Turkey. 

Agincourt,  or  Azincourt.  A  village  of 
France,  celebrated  for  a  great  battle  fought 


AGMEN 


14 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 


near  it  in  1415,  wherein  Henry  V.  of  Eng- 
liind  defeated  the  French. 

Agmen.  Koman  name  for  an  array  on 
the  march. 

Agminalis.  Name  given  by  the  ancients 
to  a  horse  which  carried  baggage,  equip- 
ments, etc.,  on  its  baclv  ;  now  termed  paclc- 
horse. 

Agnadello.  Village  in  the  duchy  of 
Milan,  on  a  canal  between  the  rivers  Adda 
and  Serio,  celebrated  by  the  victory  of  Louis 
XII.,  king  of  France,  over  the  Venetian 
and  Papal  troops  in  1509,  and  by  a  battle 
between  Prince  ■  Eugene  and  the  Duke  of 
Vendome  in  1705. 

Agrigente  {now  Oirgenfi).  City  in  Sicily, 
situated  on  the  Mediterranean  ;  sacked  by 
the  Carthaginians  under  Amilcar  in  400 
B.C.,  and  taken  twice  by  the  Komans  in  262 
and  210  B.C. 

Aguebelle.  City  in  the  province  of  Mau- 
rienne,  in  Savoy.  The  French  and  Spaniards 
defeated  the  troops  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy 
in  1742. 

Aguerri  (F?-.).  A  term  applied  to  an 
oflRcer  or  soldier  experienced  in  war. 

Agustina.     See  Saragossa,  Maid  of. 

Ahmednuggur.  A  strong  fortress  in  the 
Deccan,  30  miles  from  Poonah,  which  was 
formerly  in  the  possession  of  Scindia,  but 
fell  to  the  British  arms  during  the  campaign 
conducted  by  Gen.  Wellesley. 

Aidan  (Prince).     See  Scotland. 

Aid-de-camp.  An  officer  selected  by  a 
general  to  carry  orders  ;  also  to  represent 
him  in  correspondence  and  in  directing 
movements. 

Aid-major  (Fr.).  The  adjutant  of  a  regi- 
ment. 

Aigremore.  A  term  used  by  the  artificer 
in  the  laboratory,  to  express  the  charcoal  in 
a  state  fitted  for  the  making  of  powder. 

Aiguille  (Fr.).  An  instrument  used  by 
engineers  to  pierce  a  rock  for  the  lodgment 
of  powder,  as  in  a  mine,  or  to  mine  a  rock, 
so  as  to  excavate  and  make  roads. 

Aiguillettes.  A  decoration,  consisting  of 
bullion  cords  and  loops,  which  was  formerly 
worn  on  the  right  shoulder  of  general  officers, 
and  is  now  confined  to  the  officers  of  house- 
hold cavalry  ;  also  worn  in  the  TJ.  S.  army 
by  officers  of  the  adjutant-general's  depart- 
ment, aids-de-camp,  and  adjutants  of  regi- 
ments. 

Aiguillon.  A  city  in  France ;  while  in 
the  possession  of  the  English  in  1345,  it  was 
besieged  by  the  Duke  oif  Normandy,  son  of 
Philip  de  Valois.  According  to  some  authors, 
cannons  were  used  on  this  occasion  for  the 
first  time  in  France. 

Aile  (Fr.).  A  wing  or  flank  of  an  army 
or  fortification. 

Ailettes  (/^r.).  Literally  "  little  wings," 
were  ajipendages  to  the  armor  worn  behind 
or  at  the  side  of  the  shoulders  by  knights  in 
the  13th  century.  They  were  made  of  leather 
covered  with  cloth,  and  fastened  by  silk  laces. 
They  are  supposed  to  have  been  worn  as  a 
defense  to  the  shoulders  in  war. 


Aim.  The  act  of  bringing  a  musket, 
piece  of  ordnance,  or  any  other  missive 
weapon,  to  its  proper  line  of  direction  with 
the  object  intended  to  be  struck. 

Aim -frontlet.'  A  piece  of  wood  hollowed 
out  to  fit  the  middle  of  a  gun,  to  make  it  of 
an  equal  height  with  the  breech  ;  formerly 
made  use  of  by  the  gunners,  to  level  and 
direct  their  pieces. 

Aiming  Drill.  A  military  exercise  to 
teach  men  to  aim  fire-arms.  Great  impor- 
tance is  justly  attached  to  this  preliminary 
step  in  target  practice. 

Aiming-stand.  An  instrument  used  in 
teaching  the  theorj'  of  aiming  with  a  mus- 
ket. It  usually  consists  of  a  tripod  with  a 
device  mounted  upon  it,  which  holds  the 
gun  and  allows  it  to  be  pointed  in  any  di- 
rection. 

Ainadin.  Name  of  a  field  near  Damas  in 
Syria,  celebrated  by  a  battle  on  July  25, 
633,  in  which  Khaled,  chief  of  the  Saracens, 
defeated  Verdan,  a  general  of  the  Roman 
army.  Verdan  lost  50,000  men  and  was 
decapitated. 

Ain-Beda. (Africa).  An  engagement  at 
this  place  between  the  French  and  Arabs  in 
October,  1833. 

Ain  Taguin.  "  Spot  of  the  little  desert," 
in  the  province  of  Algiers;  here  the  Duke 
d'Aumale  surprised  and  dispersed  the  troops 
of  Abd-el-Kader. 

Air-cylinder.  A  pneumatic  buffer  used 
in  America  to  absorb  the  recoil  of  large 
guns.  For  10-inch  guns,  one  cylinder  is 
used  ;  for  the  15-inch,  two.  They  are  placed 
between  the  chassis  rails,  to  which  they  are 
firmly  secured  by  diagonal  braces.  A  piston 
traversing  the  cylinder  is  attached  to  the 
rear  transom  of  the  top  carriage.  When 
the  gun  recoils  the  piston-head  is  drawn 
backwards  in  the  cylinder,  and  the  recoil  is 
absorbed  by  the  compression  of  the  air  be- 
hind it.  Small  holes  in  the  piston-head  al- 
low the  air  to  slowly  escape  while  the. gun  is 
brought  to  rest.  The  hydraulic  buffer  largely 
used  abroad  operates  in  the  same  way,  water 
being  used  in  place  of  air. 

Air,  Resistance  of.  The  resistance  which 
the  air  offers  to  a  projectile  in  motion.  See 
PRO.JECTILES,  Theory  of. 

Aire.  A  military  position  on  the  Adour, 
in  the  south  of  France,  where  the  French 
were  defeated  by  the  English  under  Lord 
Hill,  on  March  2,  1814. 

Air-gun.  An  instrument  resembling  a 
musket,  used  to  discharge  bullets  by  the 
elastic  force  of  compressed  air. 

Aix.  A  small  island  on  the  coast  of 
France  between  the  Isle  of  Oleron  and  the 
continent.  It  is  12  miles  northwest  of 
Rochefort,  and  11  miles  from  Rochelle.  On 
it  are  workshops  for  military  convicts. 

Aix-la-Chapelle  (Ger.  Aachen).  A  dis- 
trict in  the  Prussian  province  of  the  Lower 
Pihine.  Here  Charlemagne  was  born  in  742, 
and  died  in  814.  The  city  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  1792;  retaken  by  the  Austrians 
in  1793;  by  the  French  1794;  reverted  to 


AKERMAN 


15 


ALBANA 


Prussia  1814.  Coni;ress  held  by  the  sover- 
eigns of  Austria,  Kussia,  and  Prussia,  as- 
sisted by  ministers  from  Enghmdand  France, 
at  Aix-hi-Chapelle,  and  convention  signed 
October  9,  1818. 

Akerman  (Bessarabia).  After  being  sev- 
eral times  taken  it  was  ceded  to  Russia, 
1812.  Here  tlie  celebrated  treaty  between 
Russia  and  Turkey  was  concluded  in  182G. 

Aketon.  Another  name  for  a  portion  of 
armor,  used  in  the  feudal  times,  called  the 
gambrnon  (wliich  see). 

Akhalzikh  (Armenia).  Near  here  Prince 
Paskiewitth  defeated  the  Turks  Aug.  24, 
and  gained  the  city,  Aug.  28,  1828. 

Akindschi.  A  sort  of  Turkish  cavalry, 
cmnloyed  during  the  war  between  the  Turks 
ana  the  German  emperors. 

Aklat.  A  small  town  in  Asiatic  Turkey, 
takoii  by  Eddin  in  1228,  and  by  the  Turks 
in  the  14th  century. 

Akmerjid.  A  city  in  the  Crimea  ;  an  an- 
cient residence  of  the  khan  of  Tartary ; 
taken  by  the  Russians  in  1771. 

Akoulis.  A  city  in  Armenia,  often  pil- 
hi<;ed  by  the  Persians  and  Turks  ;  taken  in 
17-j2  by  the  Persian  general  Azad-Khan,  by 
whom  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  were 
put  to  the  sword. 

Akrebah.  At  this  place,  about  tlie  year 
(;;iO,  K baled,  general  of  the  Mussulman 
troops,  fought  the  army  of  a  new  prophet 
named  Mosseilamah,  who  perished  in  the 
combat. 

Ala.  According  to  Latin  authors,  this 
word  signifies  the  wing  of  an  army,  i.e.,  the 
flanks,  on  which  were  placed  troops  fur- 
nished by  the  allied  nations  ;  also  sometimes 
used  to  designate  a  brigade  of  cavalry  occu- 
pying the  same  position  in  battle. 

Alabama.  One  of  the  Southern  States  of 
the  American  confederacy,  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Tennessee,  east  by  Georgia, 
south  by  Florida  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
and  west  by  Mississippi.  The  celebrated 
exploring  expedition  of  De  Soto  in  1541  is 
believed  to  have  been  the  first  visit  of  the 
white  man  to  the  wilds  of  Alabama.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  the  French 
built  a  fort  on  Mobile  Bay,  but  the  city  of 
that  name  was  not  commenced  till  nine 
years  later  (1711).  In  1703,  the  entire 
French  possessions  east  of  the  Mississippi 
(except  New  Orleans)  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  English.  Alabama  was  incorporated 
first  with  Georgia,  afterwards,  in  1802,  with 
the  Mississippi  Territory  ;  but  finally,  in 
1819,  it  became  an  independent  member  of 
the  great  American  confederacy.  In  1813 
and  1814  the  Creek  Indians  waged  war  on 
the  settlers  and  massacred  nearly  400  whites 
who  had  taken  refuge  at  Fort  Minims,  on 
the  Alabama  River.  They  were,  however, 
seon  reduced  to  subjection  by  Gen.  Jackson, 
and  after  their  defeat  at  Horseshoe  Bend, 
March,  1814,  the  greater  portion  of  their 
territory  was  taken  from  them,  and  they 
were  subsequently  removed  to  the  Indian 
Territorv.    On  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war 


in  1861,  the  temporary  capital  of  the  Con- 
federate Slates  was  established  at  Mont- 
gomery, Ala.,  but  it  was  soon  afterwards 
removed  t<>  liichmond,  Va. 

Alabanda  {Hour  Dorian,  or  Arab  Hissar). 
A  city  in  Asia  Minor  ;  destroyed  by  Labi- 
enus,  a  Roman  general,  in  38  H.c. 

Alacays.  Name  given  by  the  ancients  to 
a  kind  of  soldiery,  and  afterwards  to  ser- 
vants following  an  army. 

Alage.  A  mounted  guard  of  the  Byzan- 
tine emperors,  doing  duty  in  the  palace  of 
Constantinople,  and  defending,  in  case  of 
danger,  the  person  of  the  emj)eror. 

Alaibeg.  A  Turkish  commander  of  regi- 
ments of  l(;vied  troops. 

Alamo,  Fort,  or  The  Alamo.  A  cele- 
brated fort  in  Bexar  County,  near  San  An- 
tonio, Texas,  where  a  small  garrison  of 
Texans  bravely  resisted  a  body  of  Mexicans 
ten  times  their  number,  and  perished  to  a 
man,  March  G,  1836.  This  spot  has  hence 
been  called  the  Thermopyla3  of  Texas,  and 
"  Remember  the  Alamo!"  was  used  as  the 
battle-cry  of  the  Texans  in  their  war  of  in- 
dependence. 

Alanda.  Name  of  a  legion  formed  by 
Julius  Caisar  from  the  best  warriors  of  the 
Gauls. 

Aland  Isles  (Gulf  of  Bothnia).  Taken 
from  Sweden  by  Russia,  1809.     See  Bomar- 

SUXD. 

Alani.  A  Tartar  race  ;  invaded  Parthia, 
75  ;  were  subdued  by  the  Visigoths,  452,  and 
eventually  incorporated  with  them. 

Alarcos  (Central  Spainj.  Here  the  Span- 
iards under  Alfonso  IX.,  king  of  Castile, 
were  totally  defeated  by  the  Moors,  July  19, 
1195. 

Alares.  Name  given  by  the  Romans  to 
troops  which  were  placed  on  the  wings  of  an 
army  ;  these  troops  were  generally  furnished 
by  allies. 

Alarm.  A  sudden  apprehension  of  being 
attacked  by  surprise,  or  the  notice  of  such 
attack  being  actually  made.  It  is  generally 
signifitd  by  the  discharge  of  fire-arms,  the 
beat  of  a  drum,  etc. 

Alarm  Gun.  A  gun  fired  to  give  an 
alarm. 

Alarm  Post.  In  the  field,  is  the  ground 
apj)ointed  by  the  quartermaster-general  for 
each  regiment  to  march  ti>,  in  case  of  an 
alarm.  In  a  garrison,  it  is  the  place  allotted 
by  the  governor  for  the  troops  to  assemble 
on  any  sudden  alarm. 

Alaska.  A  large  territory  forming  the 
northwest  part  of  North  America,  which 
was  purchased  by  the  United  States  from 
Russia  in  1807,  and  was  annexed  as  a  county 
to  "Washington  Territory  in  1872.  The  na- 
tive inhabitants  are  Esquimaux,  Indians, 
and  Aleuts,  with  a  few  persons  of  Russiaa 
descent. 

Alba  de  Tormes.  A  city  in  Snain,  where 
the  French  defeated  the  Spaniards  in  1809. 

Albana.  A  city  in  ancient  Albania,  situ- 
ated on  the  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea  ;  a  wall 
was  constructed  to  the  west  of  the  city  for 


ALBANIA 


16 


ALERT 


the  purpose  of  staying  the  progress  of  the 
Scythians,  by  Darius  I.,  or  by  Chosrois. 

Albania.  A  province  in  European  Turliey, 
formerly  part  of  the  ancient  Epirus,  a  scene 
of  many  battles  ;  a  revolt  in  Albania  was 
suppressed  in  1843. 

Albanians,  or  Albaniers.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  the  Turkish  territory  of  Albania, 
are  a  very  brave  and  active  race,  and  fur- 
nish the  best  warriors  for  the  Turkish  army. 

Albans,  St.  (Hertfordshire,  Eng.).  Near 
the  Koman  Verulam ;  first  battle  of  St.  Albans 
took  place  in  May,  1455,  between  the  Houses 
of  Lancaster  and  York,  wherein  the  former 
were  defeated,  and  King  Henry  VI.  taken 
prisoner ;  second  battle  took  place  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1461,  wherein  Queen  Margaret  to- 
tally defeated  the  Yorkists  and  rescued  the 
king. 

Albe.  A  city  in  Naples,  situated  near  the 
Lake  Celano;  in  ancient  times  it  was  an 
important  city  in  Samnium. 

Albeck.  A  village  in  Wiirtemberg  where 
25,000  Austrians,  under  the  command  of 
Gen.  Mack,  were  defeated  by  6000  French 
in  1805. 

Alberche.  A  river  of  Spain,  which  joins 
the  Tagus  near  Talavera  de  la  Eeyna,  where, 
in  1809,  a  severe  battle  was  fought  between 
the  French  arm}'  and  the  allied  British  and 
Spanish  troops,  in  which  the  former  were 
defeated. 

Albe-Royale.  A  city  in  Lower  Hungary, 
which  sustained  several  sieges. 

Albesia.  In  antiquity,  a  kind  of  shield, 
otherwise  called  decumnna. 

Albi.  A  city  in  the  department  of  Tarn, 
France ;  pillaged  by  the  Saracens  in  730, 
and  taken  by  Pepin  in  765. 

Albigenses.  A  sect  of  heretics,  who  were 
in  existence  during  the  12th  and  13th  cen- 
turies, and  inhabited  Albi,  France;  fought 
many  battles  ;  went  to  Spain  in  1238,  where 
they  were  slowly  exterminated. 

Albuera.  A  small  village  near  the  river 
Guadiana,  in  Spain,  where  the  French 
army  under  Marshal  Soult  was  defeated 
by  the  British  and  Spanish  forces  under 
Marshal,  afterwards  Lord,  Beresford,  March 
16,  1811. 

Albufera  (Spain,  East  Central).  A  la- 
goon, near  which  the  French  marshal  Suchet 
(afterwards  Duke  of  Albufera),  defeated  the 
Spaniards  under  Blake,  January  4,  1812; 
this  led  to  his  capture  of  Valencia,  Janu- 
ary 9. 

Alcacsbas  (Portugal).  A  treaty  was  con- 
cluded here  between  Alfonso  V.  of  Portugal 
and  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Castile. 

Alcantara.  A  creek  near  Lisbon,  on  the 
banks  of  which  a  battle  was  fought  between 
the  Spaniards  under  Alva  and  the  Portu- 
guese under  Antonio  de  Crato  (prior  of  the 
Maltese  order). 

Alcantara,  Order  of.  Knights  of  a  Span- 
ish military  order,  who  gained  a  great  name 
during  the  wars  with  the  Moors. 

Alcassar,  or  Alcacar.  A  fortified  city  in 
Morocco,  situated  between  Ceuta  and  Tan- 


gier ;  the  narrowest  point  of  the  Strait  of 
Gibraltar.  The  Portuguese  seized  this  city 
in  1468. 

Alcazar-Quiver.  A  city  near  Fez,  North- 
west Africa,  where  the  Moors  totally  de- 
feated the  Portuguese,  whose  gallant  king, 
Sebastian,  was  slain  August  4,  1578. 

Alcmaer.  A  city  in  Holland ;  besieged  by 
the  Spaniards  in  1573  without  success;  here 
th6  British  and  Russians  were  defeated  by 
the  French  in  1799. 

Aldenhofen.  A  village  of  the  Prussian 
Rhenish  province,  where  the  French,  under 
Gen.  Miranda,  were  defeated  by  Archduke 
Charles,  March  1,  1793  ;  the  Austrians  were 
defeated  March  18,  1793. 

Aldershott,  Camp.  A  moor  near  Farn- 
ham,  about  35  miles  from  London.  In  April, 
1854,  the  War  Office,  having  obtained  a 
grant  of  £100,000,  purchased  4000  acres  of 
land  for  a  permanent  camp  for  20,000  men  ; 
additional  land  was  purchased  in  1856.  The 
camp  is  used  as  an  army  school  of  instruc- 
tions. 

Aldionaire  (Aldionarms).  A  sort  of 
equerry,  who  in  the  army  was  kept  at  the 
expense  of  his  master.  Under  Charlemagne, 
the  aldionaires  were  of  an  inferior  rank. 

Alem.  Imperial  standard  of  the  Turkish 
empire. 

Alemanni  (or  all  men,  i.e.,  men  of  all 
nations,  hence  Allemannen,  German).  A 
body  of  Suevi,  who  took  this  name;  were 
defeated  by  Caracalla,  214.  After  several 
repulses  they  invaded  the  empire  under 
Aurelian  ;  they  were  subdued  in  three  bat- 
tles, 270.  They  were  again  vanquished  by 
Julian,  356-57.  They  were  defeated  by  Clo- 
vis  at  Tolbiac  (or  Zulpich),  496.  The  Sua- 
bians  are  their  descendants. 

Alemdar.  An  official  who  carries  the 
green  banner  of  Mahomet  (Mohammed), 
when  the  sultan  assists  in  ceremonies  of 
solemnity. 

Alen9on  (Northern  France).  Gave  title 
to  a  count  and  duke.  Martel,  count  of  An- 
jou,  seized  this  city,  which  was  retaken  by 
William  the  Conqueror  in  1048.  It  was  the 
scene  of  many  battles. 

Aleppo  (Northern  Syria).  A  large  town 
named  Beroeaby  Seleucus  Nicator  about  299 
B.C.  It  was  taken  by  the  Turks  in  638  ;  bv 
Saladin,  1193,  and  sacked  by  Timur,  1400. 
Its  depopulation  by  the  plague  has  been  fre- 
quent ;  60,000  persons  were  computed  to 
have  perished  by  it  in  1797 ;  and  many  in 
the  year  1827.  On  October  16,  1850,  tie 
Mohammedans  attacked  the  Christians, 
burning  nearly  everything.  Three  churches 
were  destroyed  ;  five  others  plundered,  and 
thousands  of  persons  slain.  The  total  loss 
of  property  amounted  to  about  a  million 
pounds  sterling;  no  interference  was  at- 
tempted by  the  pasha. 

Aleria.  An  important  city  in  Corsica,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Tavignano ;  was 
taken  in  259  B.C.  by  the  Romans  under  Con- 
sul Cornelius. 

Alert.  Watchful;  vigilant;  active  in  vigi- 


ALESIA 


17 


ALLECTI  MILITES 


lance;  upon  the  watch;  guarding  against 
surprise  or  danfror. 

Alesia,  or  Alisia.  Now  called  Alise- 
Sainte-Koine,  a  city  in  the  department  of 
Cote-dOr.  This  citj*  was  besici^cd  and  taken 
by  the  Komans  in  52  B.C. ;  it  was  one  of  the 
greatest  events  of  Cesar's  war  in  Gaul. 

Alessandria.  A  city  of  Tiedrnont,  built 
in  llOH,  under  the  name  of  Ciusarea  by  the 
Milanese  and  Cremonese,  to  defend  the 
Tanaro  aij^ainst  the  emperor,  and  named 
after  Pope  Alexander  III.  It  has  been  fre- 
quently besieged  and  taken.  The  French 
took  it  in  17%,  but  were  driven  out  July  21, 
1799.  They  recovered  it  after  the  battle  of 
Marengo,  in  1800,  and  held  it  until  1814, 
when  the  strong  fortifications  erected  by 
Napoleon  were  destroyed.  They  have  been 
restored  since  June,  1850. 

Alet,  or  Aleth.  A  small  city  in  the  de- 
partment of  Ande,  France;  was  taken  by 
the  Protestants  in  1573. 

Aleut.  An  inhabitant  of  the  Aleutian 
Islands.  These  people  differ  both  from  the 
Indians  of  the  neighboring  continent  and 
the  Esquimaux  farther  north.  They  are 
expert  hunters  of  the  seal  and  other  ani- 
mals. They  are  industrious  and  peaceful, 
but  addicted  to  drunkenness. 

Aleutian  Islands.  A  number  of  islands 
str(!tcliiiig  from  the  peninsula  of  Alaska  in 
North  America  to  Kamtschatka  in  Asia. 
The  greater  number  belong  to  the  territory 
of  Alaska. 

Alfere,  or  Alferez.  Standard-bearer ;  en- 
sign ;  cornet.  The  old  English  term  for  en- 
sign ;  it  was  in  use  in  England  till  the  civil 
wars  of  Charles  I. 

Alford  (Northern  Scotland),  Battle  of. 
Gen.  Biiillie,  with  a  large  body  of  Covenan- 
ters, was  defeated  by  the  Marquis  of  Mont- 
rose, July  2,  1G45. 

Alfuro.  A  city  in  Navarre,  Spain.  The 
British  proceeded  against  the  city  in  1378, 
the  garrison  being  absent;  they  found  the 
women  ranged  on  the  ramparts  disposed  to 
defend  the  place.  Capt.  Tivet,  commander 
of  the  English  forces,  would  not  attack  the 
brave  women,  but  retreated  and  did  not 
molest  the  place. 

Algebra.  A  peculiar  kind  of  mathematical 
analysis  allied  to  arithmetic  and  geometry. 

Algidus.  A  Tuountain-range  in  Latium, 
Italv,  where  Cincinnatus  defeated  the  vEqui 
in  4r)8  n.c. 

Algiers  (now  Algeria,  Northwest  Africa). 
Part  of  the  ancient  Mauritania,  which  was 
conquered  by  the  Komans,  4(j  n.c. ;  by  the 
Vandals,  439;  recovered  for  the  empire  bj- 
Belisarius,  534,  and  subdued  by  the  Arabs 
about  090.  The  city  of  Algiers  was  bom- 
barded a  number  of  times,  and  finally  taken 
by  the  French  in  1830.  Algeria  at  present 
belongs  to  Fraiu'o. 

Algonkins,  or  Alogonquins.  One  of  the 
two  great  families  of  Indians  who  formerly 
peopled  the  country  east  of  the  Mississippi. 
The  Chippewas  are  at  present  the  most 
numerous  nice  descended  from  this  stock. 


Alhama.  A  city  in  Spain,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Granada.  It  was  a  most  important 
fortress  when  the  Moors  ruled  Granada,  and 
its  capture  by  the  Christians  in  1482  was  the 
most  decisive  step  in  the  reduction  of  their 
power. 

Alhambra.  The  ancient  fortress  and  resi- 
dence of  the  Moorish  monarchs  of  Granada  ; 
tV)unded  by  Mohammed  I.  of  Granada  about 
1253;  surrendered  to  the  Christians  in  No- 
vember, 1491. 

Ali  Bey.  Colonel  of  Turkish  cavalry ; 
also  the  rank  of  a  district  commander. 

Alibi  (Lnt.  "elsewhere").  An  alibi  is 
the  best  defense  in  law  if  a  man  is  innocent ; 
but  if  it  turns  out  to  be  untrue,  it  is  conclu- 
sive against  those  who  resort  to  it. 

Alicante.  A  fortified  city  and  seaport  in 
Spain,  where  the  French  defeated  the  Span- 
iards in  a  naval  battle,  April  1,  1088. 

Alidade.  The  movable  arm  or  rule  carry- 
ing the  sights  of  an  angle-measuring  instru- 
ment. 

Alien.  In  law,  implies  a  person  born  in 
a  foreign  country,  in  contradistinction  to  a 
natural  born  or  naturalized  person. 

Alife  [Alifa).  A  city  in  the  kingdom  of 
Nai)les,  where  Fabius  defeated  the  Samnites 
in  307  B.C. 

Alighur.     See  Allyghur. 

Align.  To  form  in  line  as  troops  ;  to  lay 
out  the  ground-plan,  as  of  a  road. 

Alignment.  A  formation  in  straight  lines, 
for  instance,  the  alignment  of  a  nattalion 
means  the  situation  of  a  body  of  men  when 
drawn  up  in  line.  The  alignment  of  a  camp 
signifies  the  relative  position  of  the  tents, 
etc.,  so  as  to  form  a  straight  line  from  given 
points. 

Aliwal.  A  village  on  the  banks  of  the 
Sutlej,  contiguous  to  the  Punjab,  where  a 
British  division,  commanded  by  3Iaj.-Gen. 
Sir  Henry  Smith,  on  the  20th  of  January, 
1840,  encountered  and  defeated  a  superior 
body  of  Sikhs. 

Aljubarrota  (Portugal).  Here  John  I. 
of  Portugal  defeated  John  I.  of  Castile,  and 
secured  his  country's  independence,  August 
14,  1385. 

Alkmaer.     See  Beroex-op-Zoom. 

Allahabad  (Northwest  Hindostan).  The 
holy  city  of  the  Indian  Mohammedans, 
situated  at  the  junction  of  the  rivers  Jumna 
and  Ganges  ;  founded  by  Akbar,  in  1583  ; 
incorporated  with  the  British  possessions  in 
1803.  During  the  Indian  mutiny  several 
Sepoy  regiments  rose  and  massacred  their 
officers,  June  4.  1857  ;  Col.  Neil  marched 
promptly  from  Benares  and  suppressed  the 
insurrection.  In  November,  1801,  Lord  Can- 
ning made  this  the  capital  of  the  northwest 
provinces. 

Allecrete.  Light  armor  used  by  both 
cavalry  and  infantry  in  the  10th  century, 
especially  by  the  Swiss.  Jt  consisted  of  a 
breastplate  and  gussets,  often  reaching  to  the 
middle  of  the  thigh,  and  sometimes  below 
the  knees. 

Allecti  Milites.     A    name  given  by  the 


ALLEGIANCE 


18 


ALMONACID-DE-ZORITA 


Romans  to  a  body  of  men  who  were  drafted 
for  military  service. 

Allegiance.  In  law,  implies  the  obe- 
dience which  is  due  to  the  laws.  Oath  of 
Allegiance  is  that  taken  by  an  alien,  by  which 
he  adopts  America  and  renounces  the  au- 
thority of  a  foreign  government.  It  is  also 
applied  to  the  oath  taken  by  officers  and 
soldiers  in  pledge  of  their  fidelity  to  the 
state. 

Allegiant.     Loyal ;  faithful  to  the  laws. 

Allia  (Italy).  A  small  river  flowing  into 
the  Tiber,  where  Brennus  and  the  Gauls  de- 
feated the  Romans,  July  16,  390  B.C.  The 
Gauls  sacked  Rome  and  committed  so  much 
injury  that  the  day  was  thereafter  held  to  be 
unlucky  {nefas),  and  no  public  business  was 
permitted  to  be  done  on  its  anniversary. 

Alliage  [Fr.).  A  term  used  by  the  French 
to  denote  the  composition  of  metals  used  for 
the  fabrication  of  cannon,  mortars,  etc. 

Alliance.  In  a  military  sense,  signifies 
a  treaty  entered  into  by  sovereign  states  for 
their  mutual  safety  and  defense.  In  this 
sense  alliances  may  be  divided  into  such  as 
are  off'ensive,  where  the  contracting  parties 
oblige  themselves  jointly  to  attack  some 
other  power ;  and  into  such  as  are  defensive, 
whereby  the  contracting  powers  bind  them- 
selves to  stand  by  and  defend  one  another,  in 
case  of  being  attacked  by  any  other  power. 
Alliances  are  variously  distinguished  accord- 
ing to  their  object,  the  parties  in  them,  etc. 
Hence  we  read  of  equal,  unequal,  triple, 
quadruple,  grand,  offensive,  defensive  alli- 
ances, etc. 

AUigati.  A  name  given  by  the  Romans 
to  prisoners  of  war  and  their  captors.  A 
chain  was  attached  to  the  right  wrist  of  the 
prisoner  and  the  left  wrist  of  the  warrior 
who  captured  him. 

Allobroges.  A  powerful  race  in  ancient 
Gaul ;  inhabited  a  part  of  Savoy ;  van- 
quished by  Fabius  Maximus,  126  B.C. 

AUocutio.  An  oration  addressed  by  a 
Roman  general  to  his  soldiers,  to  animate 
them  to  "fight,  to  appease  sedition,  or  to  keep 
them  to  their  duty. 

Allodial.  Independent;  not  feudal.  The 
Allodii  of  the  Romans  were  bodies  of  men 
embodied  on  any  emergency,  in  a  manner 
similar  to  our  volunteer  associations. 

Allonge.  A  pass  or  thrust  with  a  rapier 
or  small  sword,  frequently  contracted  into 
lunge ;  also  a  long  rein  used  in  the  exercising 
of  horses. 

Allowance.  A  sum  paid  periodically  for 
services  rendered.  The  French  use  the  word 
traitment  in  this  sense.  The  allowances  of 
an  officer  are  distinct  from  his  pay  proper, 
and  are  applicable  to  a  variety  of  circum- 
stances. 

Alloy.  Is  a  composition  by  fusion  of  two 
or  more  metals.  The  alloy  most  used  for 
gun-making  is  bronze  (which  see). 

AUumelle.  A  thin  and  slender  sword 
which  was  used  in  the  Middle  Ages,  to  pierce 
the  weak  parts  or  joints  of  armor. 

Ally.     In  a  military  sense,  implies   any 


nation  united  to  another, — under  a  treaty 
either  offensive  or  defensive,  or  both. 

AUyghur.  A  strong  fortress  on  the  north- 
west of" India,  which  was  captured,  after  a 
desperate  conflict,  by  Lord  Lake,  in  1803. 
The  French  commander-in-chief.  Gen.  Per- 
ron, surrendered  himself  after  the  siege. 

Alma.  A  river  in  the  Crimea,  near  which 
was  fought  a  great  battle  on  September  20, 
1854,  between  the  Russian  and  Anglo-French 
armies;  the  Russians  were  defeated  with 
great  loss. 

Almadie.  A  kind  of  military  canoe  or 
small  vessel,  about  24  feet  long,  made  of  the 
bark  of  a  tree,  and  used  by  the  negroes  of 
Africa.  Almadie  is  also  the  name  of  a  long 
boat  used  at  Calcutta,  often  from  80  to  100 
feet  long,  and  generally  6  or  7  broad  ;  they 
are  rowed  with  from  10  to  30  oars. 

Alman-rivets,  Almain-rivets,  or  Al- 
mayne-rivets.  A  sort  of  light  armor  de- 
rived from  Germany,  characterized  by  over- 
lapping plates  which  were  arranged  to  slide 
on  rivets,  by  means  of  which  flexibility  and 
ease  of  movement  were  promoted. 

Almaraz,  Bridge  of.  In  Spain,  which  on 
the  18th  of  May,  1812,  was  captured  by  Lord 
Hill,  when  he  defeated  a  large  French  corps 
(V  armee,  which  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
actions  of  the  Peninsular  war. 

Almeida.  A  strong  fortress  of  Portugal, 
in  the  province  of  Beira.  The  capture  of  it 
by  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  in  1811,  after  it 
had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  French,  was 
deemed  a  very  brilliant  exploit. 

Almenara,  or  Almanara.  City  in  Spain, 
in  the  province  of  Lerida,  where,  in  1710, 
Gen.  Stanhope,  with  4  regiments  of  dra- 
goons and  20  companies  of  grenadiers,  de- 
feated a  Spanish  corps,  composed  of  4  battal- 
ions and  19  escadrons. 

Almeria.  City  and  seaport  in  Andalusia, 
Spain;  captured  from  the  Moors  in  1147,  by 
the  united  troops  of  Alfonso  VII.,  king  of 
Castile,  Garcias,  king  of  Navarre,  and  Ray- 
mond, count  of  Barcelona. 

Almexial,  Battle  of.  Between  the  Span- 
iards and  Portuguese  in  1663.  The  Portu- 
guese were  commanded  bySanctius  Manuel, 
count  of  Vilaflor,  and  the  celebrated  Count 
Frederick  von  Schomberg,  the  latter  being 
the  veritable  hero  of  the  "day.  The  Portu- 
guese gained  a  great  victory ;  the  Spanish 
army  was  commanded  by  Don  Juan  of  Aus- 
tria, son  of  Philip  IV. 

Almissa  (Dalminium).  City  in  Dalmatia, 
Austria ;  it  was  the  ancient  capital  of  Dal- 
matia, but  was  ruined  by  Scipio  Nasica  in 
156  B.C. 

Almogavares.    See  Catalans. 

Almohades.  Mohammedan  partisans,  fol- 
lowers of  El-Mehedi  in  Africa,  about  1120. 
They  subdued  Morocco,  1145  ;  entered  Spain 
and  took  Seville,  Cordova,  and  Granada, 
1146-56  ;  ruled  Spain  until  1232,  and  Africa 
until  1278. 

Almonacid-de-Zorita.  A  town  in  the 
province  of  Guadalaxara,  Spain,  where  the 
French  defeated  the  Spaniards  in  1809. 


ALMOKA 


19 


AMENDE   HONOKABLE 


Almora.  City  in  Beiii;al,  which  the  Eng- 
lisli  ciipturfd  in'lHl'),  mid  still  hold. 

Almoravides.  Muhaiiiinedun  partisans 
in  Africa,  rose  about  1050;  entered  Spain 
by  invitation,  1086  ;  were  overcome  by  the 
Almohades  in  1147. 

Alney.  An  island  in  the  Severn,  Glouces- 
tershire, England.  Here  a  combat  is  asserted 
to  have  taken  place  between  Edmund  Iron- 
side and  Canute  the  Great,  in  the  sight  of 
their  armies.  The  latter  was  wounded,  and 
proposed  a  division  of  the  kingdom,  the  south 

Sart  falling  to  Edmund.  Edmund  was  mur- 
ered  at  Oxford  shortly  after,  it  is  said,  by 
Aodric  Strcon,  and  Canute  obtained  posses- 
sion of  the  whole  kingdom,  1010. 

Alnwick  (Sax.  FJiiu-ix).  On  the  river  Alne 
in  Northumberland,  England,  was  given  at 
the  Conquest  to  I  vod(!  Vesco.  It  has  belonged 
to  the  I'ercios  since  1310.  Malcolm,  king  of 
Scotland,  besieged  Alnwick  in  1093,  where 
he  and  liis  sons  were  killed.  It  was  taken 
by  David  I.  in  1136,  and  attacked  in  1174, 
by  AVilliam  the  Lion,  who  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner.  It  was  owned  by  King  John 
in  1215,  and  by  the  Scots  in  1448.  Since 
1854  the  castle  has  been  repaired  and  enlarged 
with  great  taste  and  at  unsparing  expense. 

Alost.  A  city  in  Belgium,  captured  and 
disTnantled  by  Turenne  in  1067,  then  aban- 
doned to  the  allies  after  the  battle  of  Kamil- 
lies,  in  1700. 

Alps.  European  mountains.  Those  be- 
tween France  and  Italy  were  passed  by  Han- 
nibal, 218  H.c.  ;  bv  the  Romans,  154  B.C.,  and 
by  Napoleon  I.,  May,  1800. 

Alsace.     See  Elsass. 

Altenheim.  A  village  on  the  banks  of 
the  Ithiiie,  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  where  the 
French  under  Count  de  Lorges  fought  the 
Imperials,  July  80,  1675,  neither  side  being 
victorious  ;  the  French  army  retreated  after 
the  death  of  Turenne. 

Altenkirchen.  A  town  in  the  Prussian 
Rhine  province,  where  several  battles  were 
fought  during  the  war  of  the  Kcpublic,  in 
one  of  which  Gen.  Marceau  was  killed, 
while  protecting  the  retreat  of  Gen.  Jourdan, 
September  20,  i71t6. 

Altiscope.  A  device  which  enables  a  per- 
son to  see  an  object  in  spite  of  intervening 
obstacles.  In  gunnery  it  is  used  to  point  a 
piece  witliout  exposing  the  person  of  the 
gunner.  The  simplest  form  consists  of  a 
small  mirror  set  in  the  line  of  the  sights, 
which  reflects  the  sights  and  the  object  aimed 
at  to  the  eye  of  the  gunner.  This  form  of 
reflecting  sight  is  used  with  the  Moncrietl' 
counterpoise  carriage,  and  has  been  recently 
proposed  by  Col.  Laidley  (U.  S.  Ordnance 
Corps)  for  small-arms. 

Altitude.  Height,  or  distance  from  the 
ground,  measured  upwards,  and  may  be  both 
acce>sible  and  inaccessible.  Altitude  of  a 
shot  or  shell,  is  the  perpendicular  height  of 
the  vortex  of  the  curve  in  which  it  moves 
above  the  horizon.  Altitude  of  the  eye,  in 
perspective  is  a  right  line  let  fall  from  the 
eye,  perpendicular  to  the  geometrical  plane. 


Alumbagh.  A  palace  with  other  build- 
ings near  Lucknow,  Oude,  India,  taken  from 
th<!  rebels  and  heroically  defended  by  the 
British  under  Sir  James  Outram,  during  the 
mutiny,  September,  1857.  He  defeated  an 
attack  of  30.(X)0  Sepovs  on  January  12, 1858, 
and  of  20,000  on  Fel.'ruary  21. 

Aluminium  Bronze.  An  alloy  of  copper 
and  aluniiniuiji,  having  great  strength  and 
hardness.     See  Okunanck,  Mktals  for. 

Alure.  An  old  term  for  the  gutter  or 
drain  along  a  battlement  or  parapet  wall. 

Alveda.  An  ancient  city  in  Spain,  where 
a  battle  was  fought  between  Kamire  I.,  king 
of  the  Austurias,  and  the  Moors  under  the 
famous  Abdolrahman,  or  Abd-el-Kahm  ; 
according  to  Spanish  history,  the  Moors  lost 
60,000  nien. 

Amantea,  or  Amantia.  City  and  seaport 
in  Naples ;  sustained  a  siege  against  the 
French  in  1806.  It  is  believeid  that  this  city 
is  the  ancient  Nepeiitm. 

Amazons.  Female  warriors.  Tribes, 
either  real  or  imaginary,  belonging  to  Africa 
and  Asia,  among  which  the  custom  prevailed 
for  the  females  to  go  to  war ;  preparing 
themselves  for  that  purpose  by  destroying 
the  right  breast,  in  order  to  use  the  bow 
with  greater  ease.  According  to  Greek  tra- 
dition, an  Amazon  tribe  invaded  Africa,  and 
was  repulsed  by  Theseus,  who  afterwards 
married  their  queen.  Hence  all  female  war- 
riors have  been  called  Amazons. 

Amberg.  A  town  in  Bavaria,  where  the 
French  were  defeated  by  the  Austrians  in 
1796. 

Ambit.  The  compass  or  circuit  of  any 
work  or  place,  as  of  a  fortification  or  en- 
campment, etc. 

Ambition.  In  a  military  sense,  signifies 
a  desire  of  greater  posts  or  honors.  Every 
person  in  the  army  or  navy  ought  to  have 
a  spirit  of  emulation  to  arrive  at  the  very 
summit  of  the  profession  by  his  personal 
merit. 

Amblef.  Ancient  residence  of  the  kings 
of  PVance  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  in 
Germany.  Here  Charles  Martel  defeated 
Chilperic  II.  and  Kangenfroi,  mayor  of  the 
Neustrians,  716. 

Ambulances.  Are  flying  hospitals,  so 
organized  that  they  can  follow  an  army  in 
all  its  movements,  and  are  intended  to  suc- 
cor the  wounded  as  soon  as  possible;  a  two- 
or  four-wheeled  vehicle  for  conveying  the 
wounded  from  the  field  ;  called  also  an  am- 
bulance-cart. 

Ambuscade.  A  snare  set  for  an  enemy 
either  to  surprise  him  when  marching  with- 
out precaution,  or  to  draw  him  on  bydifler- 
ent  stratagems  to  attack  him  with  a  superior 
force. 

Ambush.  A  place  of  concealment  where 
an  enemy  may  be  surprised  by  a  sudden  at- 
tack. 

Ame.  A  French  term,  similar  in  its  im- 
port to  the  word  chamber,  as  applied  to  can- 
non, etc. 

Amende   Honorable    (Fr.).     In  the  old 


AMENEBOUEG 


20 


AMPHICTYONIC  COUNCIL 


armies  of  France,  signified  an  apology  for 
some  injury  done  to  another,  or  satisfaction 
given  for  an  oftense  committed  against  the 
rules  of  honor  or  military  etiquette,  and  was 
also  applied  to  an  infamous  kind  of  punish- 
ment inflicted  upon  traitors,  parricides,  or 
sacrilegious  persons,  in  the  following  man- 
ner: The  offender  being  delivered  into  the 
hands  of  the  hangman,  his  shirt  stripped  off, 
a  rope  put  about  his  neck,  and  a  taper  in  his 
hand  ;  then  he  was  led  into  the  court,  where 
he  begged  pardon  of  God,  the  court,  and  his 
country.  Sometimes  the  punishment  ended 
there  ;  but  sometimes  it  was  only  a  prelude 
to  death,  or  banishment  to  the  galleys.  It 
prevails  yet  in  some  parts  of  Europe. 

Amenebourg.  A  place  in  Hanover  which 
was  captured  from  the  English  by  the  French 
in  1762. 

Amentatse.  A  sort  of  lance  used  by  the 
Romans,  which  had  a  leathern  strap  attached 
to  the  centre  of  it. 

Amentum.  A  leathern  strap  used  by  the 
Romans,  Greeks,  and  Galicians,  to  throw 
lances.  It  was  fastened  around  the  second 
and  third  fingers,  a  knot  was  tied  on  it, 
which  at  the  throwing  of  the  lance  loosened 
itself. 

America.  One  of  the  great  divisions  of 
the  earth's  surface,  so  called  from  Amerigo 
Vespucci,  a  Florentine  navigator,  who  vis- 
ited South  America  in  1499.  It  is  composed 
of  two  vast  peninsulas  called  North  and 
South  America,  extending  in  a  continuous 
line  9000  miles,  connected  by  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  or  Darien,  which  is  only  28  miles 
wide  at  its  narrowest  part.  The  physical 
features  of  this  large  continent  are  on  a  most 
gigantic  scale,  comprising  the  greatest  lakes, 
rivers,  valleys,  etc.,  in  the  world  ;  and  its 
discovery,  which  may  be  said  to  have  doubled 
the  habitable  globe,  is  an  event  so  grand  and 
interesting  that  nothing  parallel  to  it  can  be 
expected  to  occur  again  in  the  history  of 
mankind.  Upon  its  discovery,  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  15th  century,  colonists,  settlers, 
warriors,  statesmen,  and  adventurers  of  all 
nations  began  to  flock  to  its  shores,  until  af- 
ter a  lapse  of  nearly  four  centuries  of  wars, 
struggles,  civilization,  progress,  and  amalga- 
mation of  the  more  powerful  races,  and 
weakness  and  decay  of  the  effete,  it  ranks  in 
wealth  and  enlightenment  as  the  first  of  the 
great  divisions  of  the  earth.  Of  the  differ- 
ent races,  governments,  etc.,  occupying  its 
area,  it  is  not  necessary  here  to  speak  ;  events 
of  importance  in  their  histories  will  be  found 
under  appropriate  headings  in  this  work. 

Ames  Gun.  The  rifled  guns  made  by  Mr. 
Horatio  Ames,  of  Falls  Village,  Conn.,  are 
made  of  wrought  iron  on  the  built-up  prin- 
ciple.    See  Ordnance,  Construction  of. 

Amiens.  A  city  in  Picardy  (Northern 
France).  It  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards 
March  11,  and  retaken  by  the  French  Sep- 
tember 2.5,  1587.  The  preliminary  articles 
of  the  peace  between  Great  Britain,  Holland, 
France,  and  Spain  were  signed  in  London  by 
Lord  Hawkesbury  and  M.Otto,  on  the  part  of 


England  and  France,  October  1, 1801,  and  the 
definitive  treaty  was  subscribed  at  Amiens, 
March  27,  1802,  by  the  Marquis  of  Corn- 
wallis  for  England,  Joseph  Bonaparte  for 
France,  Azara  for  Spain,  and  Schimmel- 
pennick  for  Holland.  War  was  declared  in 
1803. 

Amisus.  A  city  in  the  ancient  kingdom 
of  Pontus,  fortified  by  Mithridates,  and  cap- 
tured by  LucuUus  in  71  B.C. 

Ammedera.  An  ancient  city  in  Africa, 
where  the  rebel  Gildon  was  defeated  by 
Stilicho  in  398. 

Ammunition.  Is  a  term  which  compre- 
hends gunpowder,  and  all  the  various  pro- 
jectiles and  pyrotechnical  composition  and 
stores  used  in  the  service.  See  Ordnance, 
Ammunition  for. 

Ammunition  Bread.  That  which  is  for 
the  supply  of  armies' and  garrisons. 

Ammunition-chest.  See  Ordnance  for 
Caisson. 

Ammunition  Shoes.  Those  made  for 
soldiers  and  sailors  in  the  British  service  are 
so  called,  and  particularly  for  use  by  those 
frequenting  the  magazine,  being  soft  and 
free  from  metal. 

Ammunition,  Stand  of.  The  projectile, 
cartridge,  and  sabot  connected  together. 

Amnesty.  An  act  by  which  two  belliger- 
ent powers  at  variance  agree  to  bury  past 
differences  in  oblivion ;  forgiveness  of  past 
offenses. 

Amnias.  A  stream  in  Asia  near  which 
the  army  of  Nicomedes,  king  of  Bithynia, 
was  defeated  by  the  troops  of^Mithridates  in 
92  B.C. 

Amorce  (Fr.).  An  old  military  word  for 
fine-grained  powder,  such  as  was  sometimes 
usedfor  the  priming  of  great  guns,  mortars, 
or  howitzers  ;  as  also  for  small-arms,  on  ac- 
count of  its  rapid  inflammation.  A  port-fire 
or  quick-match. 

Amorcer  (Fr.).  To  prime;  to  decoy,  to 
make  a  feint  in  order  to  deceive  the  enemy 
and  draw  him  into  a  snare ;  to  bait,  lure, 
allure. 

Amorcoir  (Fr.).  An  instrument  used  to 
prime  a  musket ;  also  for  a  small  copper  box 
in  which  were  placed  the  percussion-caps. 

Amoy.  A  town  and  port  in  China,  which 
was  taken  by  the  troops  under  Sir  Hugh 
Gough,  assisted  by  a  naval  force,  in  August, 
1841. 

Ampfing.  A  village  in  Bavaria,  where 
Louis,  king  of  Bavaria,  defeated  Frederick 
of  Austria  in  1322;  here  Gen.  Moreau  was 
attacked  by  a  superior  force  of  Austrians  in 
1800,  and  accomplished  his  celebrated  retreat. 

Amphea.  A  city  of  Messenia,  captured 
by  the  Lacedaemonians  in  748  B.C. 

Amphec.  A  city  in  Palestine  where  the 
Philistines  defeated  the  Israelites  in  the  year 

1100  B.C. 

Amphictyonic  Council.  A  celebrated 
congress  of  deputies  of  twelve  confederated 
tribes  of  ancient  Greece,  which  met  twice 
every  year.  The  objects  of  this  council 
were  to  insure  mutual  protection  and  for- 


AMPHIPOLIS 


21 


ANDERSONVILLE 


benrance  among  the  tribes,  and  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  temple  of  Delphi. 

Amphipolis  (now  Einholi).  A  city  situ- 
ated on  tlie  Stryrnoii  in  Macedonia  ;  was  be- 
sieged in  422  n  c,  by  the  Athenians,  where 
Cleon  their  chief  was  killed.  Philip  of  Ma- 
cedon  captured  the  city  in  3G3. 

Amplitude.  In  gunnery,  is  the  range  of 
shot,  or  the  horizontal  right  line,  which 
measures  the  distance  which  it  has  run. 

Ampoulette  (Fv.).  A  wooden  cylinder 
which  contains  the  fuze  of  hollow  projectiles. 

Amsterdam.  The  capital  of  Holland. 
It  was  occujiied  by  the  French  general 
Pichegru  on  January  I'J,  1705,  and  by  the 
Prussians  in  1813. 

Amstetten.  A  village  on  the  highway 
between  Ems  and  Vienna,  where  the  Rus- 
sians were  defeated  by  the  French  under 
Murat,  November  5,  1805. 

Amusette  (Fr.).  A  brass  gun,  of  5  feet, 
carrying  a  half-pound  leaden  ball,  loaded  at 
the  breech  ;  invented  by  the  celebrated  Mar- 
shal Saxe.     It  is  no  longer  used. 

Amyclae.  An  ancient  town  of  Laconia, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Eurotas,  famous  as 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  cities  of  the  Pelo- 

Eonnesus  in  the  heroic  age.  It  is  said  to  have 
een  the  abode  of  Castor  and  Pollux.  This 
town  was  conquered  by  the  Spartans  about 
775  11. c. 

Anabash.  In  antiquity,  were  expeditious 
couriers,  who  carried  dispatches  of  great  im- 
portance in  the  Roman  wars. 

Anacara.  A  sort  of  drum  used  by  the 
Oriental  cavalry. 

Anacleticum'.  In  the  ancient  art  of  war, 
a  particular  blast  of  the  trumpet,  whereby 
the  fearful  and  flying  soldiers  were  rallied 
to  the  combat. 

Anah.  A  city  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  which 
was  captured  and  devastated  in  1807  by  the 
Wahabites,  who  were  a  warlike  Moham- 
medan reforming  sect. 

Anam,  or  Annam,  Empire  of.  Also 
called  Cochin  China,  an  empire  in  South- 
eastern Asia,  which  became  involved  in  a 
war  with  France  (1858-G2),  concluded  by  a 
treaty  by  which  the  emperor  of  Anam  ceded 
the  provinces  of  Cochin  China,  Saigon,  Bi- 
enhoa,and  Mytho  to  France.  Subsequently 
three  other  provinces  were  annexed  to  France 
in  18t;7. 

Anapa.  A  city  in  Circassia  which  was 
f(>rtili?d  by  the  Turks  in  1784  ;  stormed  and 
taken  by  the  Russians  in  17'J1. 

Anarchy.  Want  of  government ;  the  state 
of  society  where  there  is  no  law  or  supreme 
power,  or  where  the  laws  are  not  eflicient, 
and  individuals  do  what  they  please  with 
intpunity;  political  confusion  ;  hence,  con- 
fusion in  general. 

Anatha.  A  fort  on  an  island  of  the  Eu- 
phrates ;  taken  bv  Julian  the  Apostate  in 
3U3. 

Anatolia,  Nadoli,  or  Natolia.  The  mod- 
ern name  of  Asia  Minor,  a  peninsula  in  the 
most  western  territory  of  Asia,  extending 
northward  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 


Euxine,  or  Black  Sea,  and  eastward  from 
the  Grecian  Archipelago  to  the  banks  of  the 
Euphrates.  It  is  a  part  of  the  Turkish  do- 
minions, and  was  in  ancient  times  the  seat 
of  powerful  kingdoms  and  famous  cities. 

Anazarba,  or  Anazarbus.  A  city  in  Asia 
Minor,  whore  the  Christians  were  defeated 
by  the  Saracens  in  1130. 

Anazehs.  Nomadic  Arabs,  who  infested 
the  desert  extending  from  Damas  to  Bagdad  ; 
they  often  laid  under  contribution  the  cara- 
vans on  the  way  to  Mecca. 

Ancile.  In  antiquity,  a  kind  of  shield, 
which  fell,  as  was  pretended,  from  heaven, 
in  the  reign  of  Numa  Pompilius  ;  at  which 
time,  likewise,  a  voice  was  heard  declaring 
that  Rome  would  be  mistress  of  the  world 
as  l(»ng  as  she  should  preserve  this  holy 
buckler. 

Ancona.  An  ancient  Roman  port  on  the 
Adriatic.  In  1790  it  was  taken  by  the 
French  ;  but  was  retaken  by  the  Austrians 
in  17*J9.  It  was  occupied  by  the  French  in 
1832;  evacuated  in  1838;  after  an  insurrec- 
tion it  was  bombarded  and  captured  bv  the 
Austrians,  June  18,  1849.  The  Marches 
(comprising  this  city)  rebelled  against  the 
papal  government  in  September,  1800.  La- 
moriciere,  the  papal  general,  fled  to  Ancona 
after  his  defeat  at  Casteltidardo,  but  was 
compelled  to  surrender  himself,  the  city  and 
the  garrison,  on  September  28.  The  king  of 
Sardinia  entered  soon  after. 

Ancyra.  A  town  in  ancient  Galatia,  now 
Angora,  or  Engour,  Asia  Minor.  Near  this 
city,  on  July  28,  1402,  Timur,  or  Tamerlane, 
defeated  after  a  three  days'  battle  and  took 
prisoner  the  sultan  Bajazet,  and  is  said  to 
have  conveyed  him  to  Samarcand  in  a  cage. 

Andabatae.  In  military  antiquity,  a  kind 
of  gladiators  who  fought  hoodwinked,  hav- 
ing a  kind  of  helmet  that  covered  the  eyes 
and  face.  They  fought  mounted  on  horse- 
back, or  on  chariots. 

Andaman  Islands.  A  group  of  small  isl- 
ands in  the  Hay  of  Bengal,  which  has  been 
used  by  Great  Britain  as  a  penal  colony  for 
Hindoos.  The  Earl  of  Mayo,  governor-gen- 
eral of  India,  was  assassinated  here  by  a 
convict,  Fchruary  8,  1872. 

Anderlecht.  A  town  near  Brussels,  in 
Belgium,  where  the  French  under  Gen. 
Duniouriez  defeated  the  Austrians.  Novem- 
ber 13,  1792. 

Andernach.  A  city  in  Rhenish  Prussia  ; 
near  here  the  emperor  Charles  I.  was  totally 
defeated  by  Louis  of  Saxonv,  ofi  October  8, 
87fi. 

Andersonville.  A  post-village  of  Sumter 
Co.,  (ja..  about  65  miles  south-southwest  of 
Macon.  Here  was  located  a  Confederate  mil- 
itary prison  in  which  Union  soldiers  were 
coniined  during  the  civil  war.  So  severe 
was  the  treatment  which  they  received  hero 
(nearly  13,000  having  died),  that  a  general 
feeling  of  horror  was  excited  against  the 
superintendent,  Cant.  Henry  AS'irz;  and 
after  the  close  of  tnc  war  he  was  tried  for 
inhuman  treatment  of  the  prisoners,  found 


ANDREW 


22 


ANGLES 


guilty,  and  executed  November,  1865.  The 
place  is  now  the  site  of  a  national  cemetery. 

Andrew,  St.,  or  The  Thistle,  Order  of. 
A  nominally  military  order  of  knighthood 
in  Scotland.  The  principal  ensign  of  this 
order  is  a  gold  collar,  composed  of  thistles 
interlinked  with  amulets  of  gold,  having 
pendent  thereto  the  image  of  St.  Andrew 
with  his  cross  and  the  motto,  Nemo  me  im- 
pune  lacessit. 

Andrew,  St.,  Knights  of.  Is  also  a  nomi- 
nal military  order  instituted  by  Peter  III. 
of  Muscovy  in  1698. 

Andrussov,  Peace  of.  This  peace  was 
ratified  (January  30,  1667)  between  Russia 
and  Poland  for  13  years,  with  mutual  con- 
cessions, although  the  latter  power  had  been 
generally  victorious. 

Anelace,  or  Anlace.  A  kind  of  knife  or 
dagger  worn  at  the  girdle  by  civilians  till 
about  the  end  of  the  15th  century. 

Anemometer,  or  Wind-gauge.  An  in- 
strument wherewith  to  measure  the  direction 
and  velocity  of  wind  under  its  varying 
forces, — used  in  the  Signal  service. 

Aneroid  Barometer.  A  pocket  instru- 
ment indicating  variations  in  atmospheric 
pressure.  Used  in  military  surveys  to  ob- 
tain the  height  of  mountains.  It  consists  of 
a  circular  metallic  box,  hermetically  sealed, 
from  which  the  air  has  been  extracted.  The 
play  of  the  thin,  metallic  cover  under  atmos- 
pheric pressure,  is  made  to  operate  a  hand 
pointing  to  a  scale  on  the  dial-face. 

Angaria.  According  to  ancient  military 
writers,  means  a  guard  of  soldiers  posted  in 
any  place  for  the  security  of  it.  Angaria,  in 
civil  law,  implies  a  service  by  compulsion; 
as,  furnishing  horses  and  carriages  for  con- 
veying corn  and  other  stores  for  the  army. 

Angeliaphori.  Reconnoitring  parties  of 
the  Grecian  army. 

Angel-shot.  A  kind  of  chain-shot.  See 
Chain-shot. 

Angers.  Principal  city  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Maine-et-Loire,  France.  It  was 
sacked  by  the  Normans  during  the  9th  cen- 
tury;  taken  and  retaken  several  times  by 
the  Bretons,  English,  and  French. 

Anghiari.  A  city  of  Tuscany,  where  the 
Florentines  under  Berardino  Ubaldini  were 
defeated  by  the  Milanese  general  Torello, 
in  1425,  and  in  1440  the  Florentine  general 
Orsini  defeated  the  Milanese  general  Picci- 
nino. 

Angle.  In  geometry,  is  the  inclination 
of  two  lines  meeting  one  another  in  a  point, 
or  the  portion  of  space  lying  between  two 
lines,  or  between  two  or  more  surfaces 
meeting  in  a  common  point  called  the  ve?-- 
tex.  Angles  are  of  various  kinds  according 
to  the  lines  or  sides  which  form  them.  Those 
most  frequently  referred  to  in  fortification 
and  gunnery  are : 

Angle,  Diminished,  is  that  formed  by 
the  exterior  side  and  the  line  of  defense. 

Angle,  Flanked,  or  Salient,  is  the  pro- 
jecting angle  formed  by  the  two  faces  of  a 
bastion. 


Angle,  Interior  Flanking,  is  that 
which  is  formed  by  the  meeting  of  the  line 
of  defense  and  the  curtain. 

Angle  of  Arrival.  The  angle  of  arrival 
is  the  angle  which  the  tangent  to  the  tra- 
jectory at  the  crest  of  the  parapet  makes 
with  the  horizon. 

Angle  of  Departure,  or  Angle  of 
Pro.jection,  is  the  angle  which  the  tangent 
makes  with  the  horizontal  at  the  muzzle. 

Angle  of  Elevation,  or  Angle  of 
Fire,  in  gunnery,  is  that  which  the  axis  of 
the  barrel  makes  with  the  horizontal  line. 

Angle  of  Fall,  in  gunnery,  is  the  angle 
made  at  the  point  of  fall  by  the  tangent  to 
the  trajectory  with  a  horizontal  line  in  the 
plane  of  fire. 

Angle  of  Fire,  in  gunnery,  is  the  angle 
included  between  the  line  of  fire  and  hori- 
zon ;  on  account  of  the  balloting  of  the  pro- 
jectile, the  angle  of  fire  is  not  always  equal 
to  the  angle  of  departure,  or  projection. 

Angle  of  Incidence  is  that  which  the 
line  of  direction  of  a  ray  of  light,  ball  from 
a  gun,  etc.,  makes  at  the  point  where  it  first 
touches  the  body  it  strikes  against,  with  a 
line  drawn  perpendicularly  to  the  surface  of 
that  body. 

Angle  of  Reflection  is  the  angle  inter- 
cepted between  the  line  of  direction  of  a  body 
rebounding  after  it  has  struck  against  an- 
other body,  and  a  perpendicular  erected  at 
the  point  of  contact. 

Angle  of  Sight,  in  gunnery,  is  the  angle 
included  between  the  line  of  sight  and  line 
of  fire.  Angles  of  sight  are  divided  into 
natural  and  artificial  angles  of  sight,  corre- 
sponding to  the  natural  and  artificial  lines  of 
sight,  which  inclose  them.     See  Pointing. 

Angle  of  the  Centre  is  the  angle  formed 
at  the  centre  of  the  polygon  by  lines  drawn 
thence  to  the  points  of  two  adjacent  bas- 
tions. 

Angle  of  the  Epaule,  or  Shoulder,  is 
formed  by  one  face  and  one  flank  of  the 
bastion. 

Angle  of  the  Face  is  formed  by  the 
angle  of  the  face  and  the  line  of  defense 
produced  till  they  intersect  each  other. 

Angle  of  the  Flank  is  that  formed  by 
the  flank  and  curtain. 

Angle  of  the  Line  of  Defense  is  that 
angle  made  by  the  flank  and  the  line  of  de- 
fense. 

Angle  of  the  Polygon  is  that  formed 
by  the  meeting  of  two  of  the  sides  of  the 
polygon;  it  is  likewise  called  the  polygon 
angle. 

Angle  of  the  Tenaille,  or  Flanking 
Angle,  is  made  by  two  lines  fichant, — that 
is,  the  faces  of  the  two  bastions  extended 
until  they  meet  in  an  angle  towards  the  cur- 
tain, and  is  that  which  always  carries  its 
point  towards  the  outworks. 

Angle,  Re-entering.  An  angle  whose 
vertex  points  inward,  or  towards  the  place. 
A  re-entering  angle  which  is  not  defended 
by  a  flanking  flre  is  said  to  be  dead. 

Angles.     An  ancient  German  tribe  from 


ANGLOU 


ANNUNCIADA 


which  England  derives  its  name.  They  oc- 
cupied a  narrow  district  in  the  south  of 
yieswick,  whence  some  of  them  passed  over 
in  the  oth  century,  in  conjunction  with 
other  Saxon  tribes,  into  IJritain,  wliere  they 
conquered  the  native  IJritons,  and  estal>- 
li.siied  the  Anglo-Saxon  Ueptarchy.  See 
Hkptakchy. 

Anglou.  A  place  in  Armenia  where  a 
Persian  army  4000  strong  defeated  and  cut 
to  pieces  a  Roman  army  of  30,0(X),  in  .'A'i. 

Angon.  In  ancient  military  history,  was 
a  kind  of  a  dart  of  modern  length,  having 
an  iron  beaded  head  and  cheeks ;  in  use 
about  the  5th  century.  Tliis  sort  of  javelin 
was  much  used  by  the  French.  The  iron 
head  of  it  resembled  ajfeur-de-lis. 

Angora.     See  Ancyra. 

Angouleme.  A  city  in  the  department 
of  Charciite,  France.  It  was  ruined  by  the 
Normans  during  the  Oth  century,  and  de- 
vastated several  times  during  the  10th  cen- 
tury. 

Anguis.  A  flag  adopted  by  the  Eomans, 
which  was  carried  at  the  head  of  a  cohort 
(the  tenth  part  of  a  Roman  legion,  consist- 
ing of  GOO  men) ;  this  flag  resembled  a  ser- 
pent in  shape,  and  was  more  commonly 
called  draco. 

Angusticlave.  A  robe  or  tunic  embroid- 
ered with  purple  studs  or  knobs,  and  with 
narruw  purple  stripes,  worn  by  Roman 
knights,  to  distinguish  them  from  members 
of  the  senatorian  order,  who  wore  a  gar- 
ment with  broad  stripes,  called  laiuti  claims. 

Anholt,  Island  of  ( Denmark).  Was  taken 
possession  of  by  England,  May  18,  1809,  in 
the  French  war,  on  account  of  Danish  cruisers 
injuring  British  commerce.  The  Danes  made 
an  attempt  to  regain  it  with  a  force  which 
exceeded  1000  men,  but  were  gallantly  re- 
pulsed bv  the  British  force,  not  amounting 
to  more  than  loO,  March  27,  1811. 

Animate,  To.  In  a  military  sense,  is  to 
encourage,  to  incite,  to  add  fresh  impulse  to 
any  body  of  men  who  are  advancing  against 
an  enemy,  or  to  prevent  them  from  shame- 
fully abandoning  their  colors  in  critical  sit- 
uations. 

Anime  (Fr.).  A  sort  of  ancient  cuirass, 
also  called  hrigandlne ;  was  used  in  Italy 
until  the  17th  century,  under  the  name  of 
anii/ia,  or  anlmrita. 

Anio  (now  Teverone).  A  river  of  ancient 
Italy,  an  attluent  of  the  Tiber.  On  its  banks 
tlie  Romans  gained  two  great  battles  over 
the  Ciauls,  one  by  Camillus  about  367  B.C., 
and  the  other  about  sixty  years  afterwards. 

Aniocrater.  The  highest  military  rank 
of  the  l^acediemonians  ;  one  who  commanded 
ihe  whole  army  during  the  absence  of  the 
king. 

Anippus.  Name  of  the  light  cavalry  of 
the  Ciri'cians. 

Anisocycle.  An  ancient  machine  of  a 
spiral  form,  like  the  spring  of  a  watch,  used 
for  throwing  arrows  to  a  great  distance. 

Anitorgis.  A  city  in  Spain,  near  which 
Asdrubal,   general    of    the    Carthaginians, 


gained  a  memorable  battle  over  the  Romans 

under   Scipio   and   his  brother   Publius,  in 
212  ii.c. 

Anjou,  or  Beauge,  Battle  of.  Between 
the  English  and  French ;  the  latter  com- 
manded by  the  Dauphin  of  France,  March 
22,  1421.  'The  English  were  defeated;  the 
Duke  of  Clarence  was  slain  by  Sir  Allan 
Swinton,   a  Scotch    knight,  and   loOO   men 

terished  on  the  field  ;  the  Earls  of  Somerset, 
>orset,  and  Huntingdon  were  taken  pris- 
oners. Beauge  was  the  first  battle  that 
turned  the  tide  of  success  against  the  Eng- 

Annals.  A  species  of  military'  history, 
wherein  events  are  related  in  the  chronolog- 
ical order  they  happened.  They  ditter  from 
a  perfect  history,  in  being  only  a  mere  re- 
lation of  what  passes  every  year,  as  a  journal 
is  of  what  passes  every  day. 

Annatinae.  Were  transport-ships  (so 
called  by  Julius  CiB6ar)in  which  were  trans- 
ported provisions,  etc.,  to  armies  and  fleets. 
Also  called  Corbitce. 

Anneau  d'Or  (Z'/-.).  A  gold  ring.  In  ac- 
cordance with  the  example  of  the  ancients, 
Francis  I.  of  France  instituted  a  military 
recompense  in  the  shape  of  an  anneau,  for 
all  who  distinguished  themselves  in  any 
military  enterprise. 

Annee  de  Corbie  (Fr.).  Name  given  to 
the  year  16o6,  when  the  capture  of  Corbie 
(by  the  Austrians),  a  small  city  of  the  de- 
partment of  the  Somrae,  France  (during  the 
war  which  Richelieu  had  decided  to  under- 
take against  the  Austrian  house),  nearly 
caused  the  overthrow  of  France. 

Anne,  St.,  Order  of.  An  order  of  knight- 
hood, originally  established  in  Holstein,  and 
carried  with  the  princes  of  that  country  into 
Russia.  It  was  made  a  Russian  order  in 
1796,  and  is  now  widely  difl'used. 

Annihilate.  To  reduce  to  nothing;  to 
destroy  the  existence  of;  to  cause  or  cease  to 
be;  as,  the  army  was  annihilated. 

Annoy.  To  injure  or  disturb  by  con- 
tinued or  repeated  acts  ;  to  incommode  or 
molest;  as,  to  annoj*  an  army  by  impeding 
their  march,  or  by  a  continued  cannonade. 

Annuity.  A  sum  of  money  jiayable  yearly, 
to  continue  for  a  given  number  of  years,  for 
life  or  forever;  an  annual  allowance.  The 
U.  S.  government  furnishes  annuities  and 
annuity  goods  to  certain  tribes  of  Indians. 

Annul.  To  make  void,  or  of  no  eti'ect; 
to  abrogate;  to  rescind; — used  of  laws,  de- 
cisions of  courts,  or  other  established  rules, 
permanent  usages,  and  the  like,  which  are 
made  void  by  competent  authority. 

Annunciada.  An  order  of  military 
knighthi>od  in  Savoy,  first  instituted  by 
Amadcus  I.  in  the  year  1400;  their  collar 
was  of  fifteen  links,  interwoven  one  with  an- 
other, and  the  motto  "  F.  E.  R.  T.,"  signi- 
fying fortltudo  eju.s  lihodum  tenuii.  Ama- 
deus  VIII.  changed  the  image  of  St.  Maurice, 
patron  of  Savoy,  which  hung  at  the  collar, 
for  that  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  instead  of 
the  motto  above  mentioned,  substituted  the 


ANSE   DES   PIECES 


24 


ANTIETAM 


words  of  the  angel's  salutation.  Now  ex- 
tinct. 

Anse  des  Pieces  (Fr.).  A  term  for  the 
handles  of  cannon.  Those  of  brass  have 
two,  those  of  iron  seldom  any.  These 
handles  serve  to  pass  cords,  handspikes,  or 
levers  through,  the  more  easily  to  move  so 
heavy  a  body,  and  are  made  to  represent 
dolphins,  serpents,  etc. 

Antandros  (now  St.  Dimitri).  A  city  of 
Troas,  inhabited  by  the  Leleges,  near  which 
vEneas  built  his  fleet  after  the  destruction  of 
Troy. 

Antecessores,  or  Antecursores.  Light 
cavalry  of  the  Komans,  which  formed  the 
advance-guard  of  an  army  while  on  the 
march. 

Antemuraille.  In  ancient  military  art, 
denoted  what  now  the  moderns  generally 
call  the  outworks. 

Antepilani.  Soldiers  of  a  Roman  legion 
who  composed  the  first  and  second  ranks  in 
line  of  battle,  and  who  were  accordingly 
placed  in  front  of  the  third  rank.  The  first 
rank  was  called  hastati,  the  second principes, 
and  the  third  ^ji^«ni,  or  triarii. 

Antequera.  A  city  in  Spain,  formerly 
fortified ;  besieged  and  captured  from  the 
Moors  by  Ferdinand  of  Castile,  September 
16,  1410 ;  he  also  defeated  under  the  walls 
of  this  city  the  Moorish  king  of  Toledo, 
who  had  an  army  of  100,000  men. 

Antesignani.  A  name  given  to  the  sol- 
diers of  the  Eoman  army  who  protected  the 
colors,  etc. ;  according  to  some  authorities 
they  were  the  hastati  or  principes,  and  ac- 
cording to  others  they  were  a  select  detach- 
ment consisting  of  picked  soldiers. 

Antestature  {Fr.).  A  small  intrench- 
ment  or  work  formed  of  palisades  or  sacks 
of  earth. 

Anthony,  St.,  Knights  of.  A  military 
order  instituted  by  Albert,  Duke  of  Bavaria, 
Holland,  and  Zealand,  when  he  designed  to 
make  war  against  the  Turks  in  1382.  The 
knights  wore  a  collar  of  gold  made  in  the 
form  of  a  hermit's  girdle,  from  which  hung 
a  stick  like  a  crutch,  with  a  little  bell,  as 
they  are  represented  in  St.  Anthony's  pic- 
tures. 

Antibes.  A  city  in  the  department  of 
Alpes  Maritimes,  France.  It  was  ruined 
some  time  after  the  capture  of  Marseilles  by 
Caesar.  This  city  was  fortified  by  Francis  I. 
and  Henry  IV. ;  besieged  without  success 
by  the  Imperials  in  1746. 

Anti-corrosion.  A  lacker  applied  to  iron 
traversing  platforms,  gun-carriages,  and  the 
outside  of  guns.     See  Lacker. 

Antietam.  A  small,  deep  river  in  Mary- 
land, which  empties  into  the  Potomac  about 
6  miles  above  Harper's  Ferry.  Here  was 
fought  a  terrible  battle  on  September  17, 1862, 
between  the  Federals,  under  Gen.  McClellan, 
and  the  Confederates,  under  Gen.  Lee.  After 
his  victory  at  Bull  Eun,  August  30,  Lee  in- 
vaded Maryland,  and  was  immediately  fol- 
lowed by  McClellan.  On  September  16, 
Lee  was  joined  by  Jackson.     The  battle 


on  which  was  staked  "  the  invasion  of  Mary- 
land," in  the  view  of  the  Federal  govern- 
ment, but  in  reality  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Union,  was  near  at  hand.  On  the  night  of 
the  15th  the  greatest  part  of  McClellan's 
troops  were  in  bivouac  behind  the  heights 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Antietam,  sheltered 
from,  but  within  range  of,  the  enemy's  bat- 
teries. The  morning  of  the  16th  was  occu- 
pied in  reconnoissance  of  the  enemy's  posi- 
tion, in  rectifying  the  position  of  the  Federal 
troops,  and  perfecting  the  arrangements  for 
the  attack.  At  about  3  o'clock  p.m.  Gen. 
Hooker  crossed  the  Antietam  by  the  bridge 
in  the  village  on  the  Hagerstown  road,  and 
an  adjacent  ford,  and  soon  gained  the  crest 
of  the  height  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
stream.  He  then  turned  to  his  left  and  fol- 
lowed down  the  ridge  under  a  strong  oppo- 
sition, until  brought  to  a  standstill  by  the 
darkness.  Gen.  Mansfield  was  ordered  to 
follow  Gen.  Hooker,  so  as  to  be  in  a  position 
to  support  him  at  daybreak. 

At  daybreak  on  the  17th,  Gen.  Hooker  at- 
tacked the  forces  in  his  front,  and  for  a  time 
drove  them  before  him.  The  enemy,  how- 
ever, rallying,  and  strengthened  from  their 
supporting  columns,  repulsed  him.  Gen. 
Mansfield's  corps  was  then  drawn  to  Hook- 
er's support,  and  the  two  masses  repelled 
the  enemy.  Gen.  Mansfield  was  killed  and 
Gen.  Hooker  wounded  at  this  crisis,  and 
obliged  to  withdraw  from  the  field.  Gen. 
Sumner's  corps  soon  reached  this  portion  of 
the  field  and  became  hotly  engaged.  This 
corps  suftered  greatly  at  this  period  of  the 
contest.  Gens.  Sedgwick  and  Crawford  being 
wounded,  and  portions  of  the  line  were  com- 
pelled to  fall  back.  The  enemy,  however, 
were  checked  by  the  Federal  artillery.  Sum- 
ner's corps  was  soon  reinforced,  and  the 
lost  ground  was  recovered.  The  contest  in 
the  mean  time  on  the  right  was  most  obsti- 
nate, and  the  losses  in  this  part  of  the  field 
were  very  heavy.  Gen.  Burnside's  corps, 
on  the  left,  was  ordered  early  in  the  day  to 
carry  the  bridge  across  the  Antietam  and  to 
attack  the  enemy's  right.  The  approaches 
to  the  bridge  being  in  the  nature  of  a  defile, 
and  being  swept  by  batteries  of  tlie  enemy, 
the  opposite  bank  of  the  Antietam  was  only 
reached  after  a  severe  struggle.  It  was 
afternoon  before  the  heights  were  in  his  pos- 
session. The  enemy  were  driven  back,  and 
a  portion  of  their  line  in  disorder.  By  the 
most  desperate  eflTorts,  however,  the  enemy 
rallied  their  retreating  regiments,  strength- 
ened their  lines  with  all  their  available 
fresh  troops,  and  opened  batteries  on  the 
hills. 

Gen.  Burnside  could  not  maintain  his 
advantage,  and  was  obliged  to  withdraw  from 
the  extreme  position  which  he  had  gained  to 
one  slightly  in  rear.  He,  however,  held  his 
bank  of  the  river  completely,  and  main- 
tained much  ground  beyond  it  which  he  had 
taken  from  the  enemy.  During  the  advance 
on  the  left  Gen.  Rodman  was  wounded. 

Notwithstanding  substantial  and  decided 


ANTIOCH 


25 


APPARATUS 


successes  of  the  day,  the  Federal  forces  had 
suffered  so  severely  during  the  conflict,  hav- 
ing lost  11,426  killed  iind  wounded,  and 
among  them  many  general  and  superior 
officers,  that  it  was  deemed  prudent  by  Gen. 
McClellan  to  reorganize  and  give  rest  and 
refreshment  to  the  trooj)s  before  renewing 
the  attack.  The  18th  was  accordingly  de- 
voted to  those  objects.  On  the  night  of  the 
18th,  however,  Gen.  Lee.withdrew  his  forces 
hastily  across  the  Potomac,  abandoning 
further  contest  with  the  Union  forces,  and 
yielding  all  hopes  of  further  remaining  on 
Maryland  soil.  The  Confederate  army  is 
supposed  to  have  lost  nearly  30,000  men 
during  its  brief  campaign  in  Maryland. 
The  Federal  forces  captured  39  colors,  13 
guns,  mure  than  15,000  small-arms,  and 
more  than  fiOOO  prisoners. — Extracts  frotn 
D.  Appleton's  "  Hi.ston/  of  the  Itebellion," 
by  Teiuiey,  '^  Lippincoit's  Gazetteer,"  and 
Hai/c/n's  ^^ Dates." 

Antioch.  A  city  in  Syria,  built  by  Se- 
leucus  300  B.C. ;  after  the  battle  of  Ipsus  it 
acquired  the  name  "Queen  of  the  East." 
Here  the  disciples  were  first  called  Chris- 
tians, A.i>.  42.  Antioch  was  taken  by  the 
Persians,  540;  by  the  Saracens  about  638; 
recovered  from  the  Eastern  emperor,  966; 
lost  again  in  1086  ;  retaken  by  the  Crusaders 
in  1098,  and  held  by  them  till  1268,  when  it 
was  captured  by  tlie  sultan  of  Egypt.  It 
was  taken  from  the  Turks  in  the  Syrian  war, 
Aug.  1,  1833,  by  Ibrahim  Pasha,  but  re- 
stored at  the  peace. 

Antium.  A  maritime  city  of  Latium, 
now  Porto  d'Anzio,  near  Kome ;  after  a 
long  struggle  for  independence  it  became  a 
Konian  colony  at  the  end  of  the  great  Latin 
war,  340-38  u.c.  The  treasures  deposited  in 
the  Temple  of  Fortune  here  were  taken  by 
Octavius  Cajsar  during  his  war  with  Antony 
in  41  B.C. 

Antonia.  A  fortress  in  Jerusalem  on  the 
north  side  of  the  area  of  the  temple,  origi- 
luilly  l)uilt  by  the  Maccabees  under  the  name 
of  Haris,  and  afterwards  rebuilt  with  groat 
strength  and  splendor  by  the  first  Herod. 
Tlie  fortress  cotninunicated  with  the  north- 
ern and  western  porticoes  of  the  temple  area, 
so  that  the  garrison  could  at  any  time  enter 
the  courts  of  the  temple  and  prevent  tu- 
mults. Josephus  describes  it  as  jstanding  on 
a  rock  50  cubits  high,  and  having  every- 
thing nofc>=iiry  witliin  itself. 

Antustriones.  A  body-guard  of  the  kings 
or  cliicfs  of  tiic  ancient  Germans,  which  was 
composed  of  volunteers. 

Antwerp  (Fr.  Anvers).  The  principal 
port  of  Belgium  ;  is  mentioned  in  history 
in  517;  it  was  pillagcnl  and  burnt  by  the 
Spaniards  ami  tlie  inhabitants  nnissacred, 
November  4.  1576.  This  event  has  been 
termed  the  ''Spanish  Fury."  After  Marl- 
borough's victory  at  Kuiuillies,  Antwerp 
surrendered  at  once,  June  6,  170ti ;  tlio  Bar- 
rier treaty  concluded  here,  November  Iti, 
1715  ;  taken  by  Marshal  Saxe,  .May  9,  1746; 
occupied  by  tlie  French,  1792-94  »\nd  1814. 
3 


The  Belgian  troops,  having  entered  Ant- 
werp, werci  ()pposed  by  the  Dutch  garrison, 
who,  after  a  dreadful  conflict,  being  driven 
into  their  citadel,  cannonaded  the  town  with 
hot  shot  and  shells,  October  27,  1830;  the 
citadel  was  bonibarded  by  the  French,  De- 
cember 4 ;  surrendered  by  Gen.  Chasse, 
December  23,  1832.  The  exchange  burnt, 
archives,  etc.,  destrf)yed,  August  2,  1858; 
fortification  completed,  1865. 

Anvil.  An  archaism  for  the  handle  or 
hilt  of  a  sword.  Also,  a  little  narrow  flag  at 
the  end  of  a  lance. 

Anvil.  Th(!  resisting  cone,  plate,  or  bar 
against  which  the  fulminate  in  a  metallic 
cartridge  is  exj)loded.     See  Pkimkk. 

Aosta.  A  town  in  Piedmont,  which  was 
captured  by  the  Romans  in  24  B.C. 

Aous,  or  Aeas  (now  the  Voyussa).  A 
river  in  Epirus,  Greece,  which  flows  into  the 
Adriatic  Sea  ;  on  the  banks  of  this  river 
Philip  of  Macedon  was  twice  defeated  by 
the  R(mians. 

Apaches.  A  warlike  tribe  of  savage  In- 
dians who  infest  New  Mexico  and  Arizona. 
Until  witliin  a  few  years  they  were  hostile, 
making  frequent  raids  into  the  neighboring 
Mexican  states  of  Sonora  and  Chihuahua, 
and  robbing  and  murdering  the  settlers. 
They  are  now  peaceable,  and  settled  on 
reservations  (with  the  exception  of  a  few 
renegades);  but  being  entireh'  uncivilized, 
their  peaceful  condition  is  uncertain.  See 
Indians  and  their  Aoencik.s. 

Aparejo.  A  kind  of  pack-.saddle  used  in 
the  American  military  service.     See  Pack- 

SADDLE.S. 

Apex.  The  tip,  point,  or  summit  of  any- 
thing. The  Romans  so  named  the  crest  of 
a  helmet,  or  the  part  whereon  the  horse-hair 
plume  was  attached. 

Aphracti.  In  the  ancient  military  art, 
open  vessels,  without  decks  or  hatches,  fur- 
nished only  at  head  and  stern  with  cross- 
planks,  whereon  the  men  stood  to  fight. 

Apobates.  A  name  given  by  the  ancients 
to  warriors  who  fought  mounted  on  chari- 
ots; they  were  also  called  Atinhntrs,  or  Pa- 
rnehntrs ;  they  were  generally  leaders  who 
fought  in  this  manner  ;  their  armor  and  arms 
consisted  of  helmet,  breast-armor,  lance, 
javelin,  sword,  and  shield.  These  warriors 
occasionally  alighted  from  the  chariots  to 
attack  their  adversaries  on  foot. 

Apology.  In  a  military  sense,  when  made 
and  accepted,  debars  the  officer  wiio  accepts 
from  bringing  forward  the  matter  as  a  sub- 
stantive accusation.  See  Appendix,  Arti- 
cles OK  War,  25. 

Apomaque.  This  word,  with  the  Gre- 
cians, signified  those  soldiers  who  were  dis- 
qualified for  nnlitary  service  from  physical 
disability  or  other  causes. 

Appaiachee  Indians.  A  tribe  of  Indians 
once  powerful  in  West  Florida.  In  17lK>  a 
part  of  them  removed  into  what  is  now  Ala- 
itaina,  and  the  tribe  soon  ceased  to  exist. 

Apparatus.  Ammunition  and  equipage 
for  war. 


APPAREILLES 


26 


AQUILA 


Appareilles.  Are  those  slopes  that  lead 
to  the  {ilatform  of  the  bastion. 

Appastis,  or  Pactis.  A  war-tax,  which 
was  levied  in  ancient  times  upon  the  inhab- 
itants of  conquered  countries. 

Appeal.  See  Appendix,  Articles  of 
War,  '29,  30. 

Appel  (Fr.).  A  smart  stroke  with  the 
blade  by  a  fencer  on  the  sword  of  his  antag- 
onist on  the  opposite  side  to  that  which  he 
engaged,  generally  accompanied  with  a 
stamp  of  the  foot,  and  used  for  the  purpose 
of  procuring  an  opening. 

Appian  Way.  A  Roman  road,  made  by 
Apjiius  Claudius  Csecus,  while  censor,  312 

B.C. 

Appointe  (Fr.).  This  word  was  applica- 
ble to  French  soldiers  only,  during  the  old 
monarchy  of  France,  and  meant  a  man  who 
fur  his  service  and  extraordinary  bravery 
received  more  than  common  pay.  There 
were  likewise  instances  in  which  ofRcers 
were  distinguished  by  being  styled  officers 
appointes. 

Appointing  Power.  It  has  been  con- 
tended by  advocates  of  executive  discretion, 
that  army  appointments  are  embraced  in 
the  power  granted  to  the  President  in  the 
2d  section  of  the  Constitution,  to  nominate, 
and,  by  arid  with  the  advice  and  con.sent  of 
the  Senate,  appoint  "all  other  officers  of  the 
United  States,  whose  appointments  are  not 
herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  may 
be  established  by  law.  But  the  Congress  may, 
by  law,  vest  the  appointment  of  such  infe- 
rior officers  as  they  think  proper  in  the 
President  alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in 
the  heads  of  departments."  If  due  regard, 
however,  be  paid  to  the  words  "  whose  ap- 
pointments are  not  herein  otherwise  provided 
for,"  the  pretension  set  up  in  favor  of  execu- 
tive power  will  receive  no  support  from  the 
terms  of  the  Constitution.  The  powers 
granted  to  Congress  to  raise  and  support  ar- 
mies, and  to  make  all  7-ules  for  tha  government 
and  regulation  of  the  land  and  naval  forces, 
are  necessarily  so  comprehensive  in  character, 
as  to  embrace  all  means  which  Congress,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances,  may  deem  proper 
and  necessary  in  order  to  raise  armies,  or 
govern  them  when  raised.  Kules  of  appoint- 
ment to  office,  rules  of  promotion, — another 
form  of  appointment, — and  all  rules  what- 
ever in  relation  to  the  land  and  naval  forces, 
save  the  appointment  of  the  commander-in- 
chief  of  those  united  forces,  who  is  desig- 
nated by  the  Constitution,  are  hence  within 
the  competency  of  Congress. 

Appointment.  Office,  rank,  or  employ- 
ment. 

Appointment.  The  equipment,  ordnance, 
furniiure,  and  necessaries  of  an  army. 

Appointments,  Military.  The  accoutre- 
ments of  an  officer. 

Appointon  {Fr.).  A  sort  of  poniard 
which  w;is  used  in  ancient  times. 

Apprehend.  In  a  military  sense,  implies 
the  seizing  or  confining  of  any  person  ;  as, 
to  apprehend  a  deserter,  etc. 


Apprenti  (Fr.).  Apprentice.  Formerly 
in  the  French  service  they  had  apprentices 
or  soldiers  among  the  artillery,  who  served 
for  less  pay  than  the  regular  artillerymen, 
until  they  became  perfect  in  their  profes- 
sion, when  they  were  admitted  to  such 
vacancies  as  occurred  in  their  respective 
branches. 

Approach.  The  route  by  which  a  forti- 
fied place  or  military  position  can  be  ap- 
proached by  an  attacking  force. 

Approaches.  The  trenches  or  covered 
roads  by  which  the  besiegers  convey  ord- 
nance, ammunition,  and  stores,  and  march 
troops  to  and  from  the  parallels  ;  also  the 
trenches  by  means  of  which  the  successive 
parallels  are  established. 

Appropriations.  For  the  support  of  the 
U.  S.  army  are  made  annually ;  the  bill 
for  the  same  must  originate  in  the  lower 
house  of  Congress.  The  English  army  is 
raised  by  the  queen,  and  maintained  by 
annual  appropriations  by  Parliament ;  the 
system  for  the  support  of  armies  is  much 
tiie  same  throughout  Europe.  In  the  United 
States,  the  term  is  also  used  by  post  and 
regimental  councils  of  administration  in  the 
exjienditure  of  funds. 

Appui.  See  Point  d'Appui. 
Apri,  or  Apros.  A  small  town  in  Thrace, 
on  the  river  Melas,  where  the  daring  leader 
of  the  Catalonians,  Berengar  de  Kocafort, 
defeated  the  Greeks  under  the  Emperor 
Michael,  1307. 

Apron.  A  piece  of  sheet-lead  used  to 
cover  the  vent  of  a  cannon. 

Apulia.  A  province  in  Southeast  Italy, 
conquered  by  the  Normans,  whose  leader, 
Guiscard,  received  the  title  of  Duke  of 
Apulia  from  Pope  Nicholas  II.  in  1059. 
After  many  changes  of  masters,  it  was  ab- 
sorbed into  the  kingdom  of  Naples  in 
12(35. 

Aqueduct.  A  channel  to  convey  water 
from  one  place  to  another.  Aqueducts  in 
military'  architecture  are  generally  made  to 
bring  water  from  a  spring  or  river  to  a  fort- 
ress, etc.  ;  they  are  likewise  used  to  carry 
canals  over  low  ground,  and  over  brooks  or 
small  rivers  ;  they  are  built  with  arches  like 
a  bridge,  only  not  so  wide,  and  are  covered 
by  an  arch,  to  prevent  dust  or  dirt  from 
being  thrown  into  the  water, — there  are  also 
subterranean  aqueducts,  such  as  pipes  of 
wood,  lead,  or  iron. 

Aquila  (Southern  Italy).  Near  here  the 
Aragonese,  under  the  condottiere  Braccio 
Fortebraccio,  were  defeated  by  the  allied 
Papal,  Neapolitan,  and  Milanese  army  under 
Jacob  Cald(jra,  June  2,  1424.  Braccio,  a 
wounded  prisoner,  refused  to  take  food,  and 
died,  June  5. 

Aquila.  The  principal  standard  of  a  Ro- 
man legion.  The  standard  of  Komulus  is 
said  to  have  consisted  of  a  handful  of  hay, 
straw,  or  fern,  affixed  to  a  pole  or  spear; 
whence  the  company  of  soldiers  who  served 
under  it  v/ -as  caWed  Manipulus.  This  primi- 
tive standard   was  soon  superseded  by  the 


AQUILIFER 


27 


AliCH-GAYE 


figures  of  animals.  In  104  b  c.  the  eagle 
was  jiernianently  tidopted ;  it  was  made  of 
silver  or  bronze,  and  was  represented  with 
exparulfd  wings. 

Aquilifer.  A  name  given  by  the  Romans 
to  the  ofiicers  who  carried  the  eagles  of  the 
legions. 

Aquitaine.  A  province  in  the  southwest 
of  France  ;  conquered  by  the  liomans  in  'J8 
u.<;.  ;  by  the  Visigoths,  418;  taken  from 
them  by  Clovis  in  507.  Henry  11.  of  Eng- 
land obtained  it  with  his  wile  Eleanor,  1152. 
It  wa.s  erected  into  a  principality  for  Edward 
the  Blaik  Prince  in  13(;2;  but  was  annexed 
to  France  in  1370.  The  title  of  duke  of 
Aquitaine  was  taken  by  the  crown  of  Eng- 
land on  the  conquest  of  this  duchy  by  Henry 
V.  in  1418.  Tlie  province  was  lost  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  V'l. 

Arabia.  A  "tract  of  land  in  Western  Asia ; 
the  terms  Petraa  (stony ),  Fe/i.c  (happy), 
and  Desfrt'i  arc  .«aid  to  have  been  applied  to 
its  divisions  by  Ptolemy,  about  140.  Arabia 
was  unsuccessfully  invaded  by  Gallus,  the 
lloman  governor  of  Egypt,  24  n.c.  In  622, 
the  Arabians  under  tlie  name  of  Saracens 
(which  see),  followers  of  Mohammed,  their 
general  and  prophet,  commenced  their 
course  of  conquest.  The  Arabs  greatly  fa- 
vored literature  and  the  sciences,  especially 
mathematics,  astroniMuy,  and  chemistry. 
To  tliem  we  owe  our  ordinary  (Arabic)  nu- 
merals and  ariilimetii  al  notation. 

Aracillum.  A  city  in  Spain.  The  Can- 
tabriaiis  being  besieged  in  this  city  by  the 
Komans,  killed  each  other  rather  than  sur- 
render. 

Aradus  (now  Rund).  A  city  of  Phoe- 
nicia ;  laptured  by  the  lioman  general  Ven- 
tidius,  38  B.C. 

Aragon.  Part  of  the  Roman  Tarracon- 
ensis,  a  kingdom.  Northeast  ."^pain,  was  con- 
queied  by  the  Carthaginians,  who  were 
expelled  by  the  Konums  about  200  u.c. 
It  became  an  independent  monarchy  in 
1035. 

Aranjuez  (Central  Spain).  Contains  a 
fine  royal  palace,  at  which  several  important  j 
treaties  were  concluded.  On  March  17,  \ 
1808,  an  insurrection  broke  out  here  against 
Cbarles  IV.  and  his  favorite,  Godoy,  the 
I'rince  of  Pence.  The  former  was  compelled 
to  abdicate  in  favor  of  his  son,  Ferdinand 
VII.,  March  19. 

Aransas.  A  small  river  of  Texas,  which 
empties  into  a  bay  of  the  same  name,  imme- 
diately north  of  Corpus  C  hristi  Hay.  The 
Conlederate  works  near  this  jilace  were  cap- 
tured by  the  Federal  troops  November  20, 
18»;4. 

Arapahoe  Indians.  A  tribe  of  Indians 
assotiaud  with  tlie  C  heyennes.  who  inhabit 
the  country  between  the  South  Fork  of  the 
Platte  Kiver  and  the  head-waters  of  the  Ar- 
kansas.   See   Indians    and  theib  Aoen- 

CIKS. 

Arapiles.  A  village  of  Spain,  4  miles 
southeast  of  Salamanca.  It  was  the  scene 
of  the  sanguinary    engagement    called    the 


battle  of  Salamanca,  in  which  the  allies 
under  "Wellington  defeated  the  French 
under  Marmont,  July  22,  1812. 

Arausio  (now  Oratuje,  Southeast  France). 
Through  jealousy  c>f  the  Roman  proconsul 
Q.  Servilius  Ca-pio,  who  would  not  wait  for 
the  arrival  of  the  army  of  the  consul  0. 
Manlius,  both  were  here  defeated  by  the 
Cinibri  with  much  slaughter,  105  u.c. 

Arbalest.  In  the  ancient  art  of  war,  a 
cross-bow  made  of  steel,  set  in  a  shaft  of 
wood,  with  a  string  and  trigger,  bent  with 
a  piece  of  iron  fitted  for  that  purpose,  and 
used  to  throw  bullets,  large  arrows,  darts, 
etc. 

Arbalestina.  In  the  military  system  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  was  a  small  window  or 
wicket  through  which  the  cross-bow  men 
shot  their  quarrels  or  arrows  at  an  enemy 
besieging  a  fortiticd  pla<('. 

Arbaletrier  d'une  Galere  {Fr.).  That 
part  of  a  galley  where  the  cross-bow  men 
were  placed  during  an  engagement. 

Arbalist,  or  Arblast.     A  cros.s-bow  man. 

Arbela(now  A'/-6i7).  A  city  in  Asiatic  Tur- 
key ;  near  here  was  fought  the  third  and  deci- 
sive battle  between  Alexander  the  Great  and 
Darius  Codomanus  which  decided  the  fate 
of  Persia,  October  1,  331  B.C.,  on  a  plain  in 
Assyria,  between  Arbela  and  Gaugamela. 
The"  army  of  Darius  consisted  of  1,000,000 
foot  and  40,000  horse  ;  the  Macedonian  army 
amounted  to  only  40,000  foot  and  7000  horse. 
The  gold  and  silver  found  in  the  cities  of 
Susa,  Persepolis,  and  Babylon,  which  fell  to 
Alexander  from  this  victory,  amounted  to 
£30,000,000  sterling;  and  'the  jewels  and 
other  precious  sjioil  belonging  to  Darius 
sufficed  to  load  20,000  mules  and  555o 
camels. 

Arbourg.  A  city  in  Switzerland,  whose 
citadel,  which  was  constructed  in  lOGO,  is  an 
important  depot  for  military  stores. 

Arbrier  {Fr.).     Stock  of  a  cross-bow. 

Arc  (/'>.).     A  bow  ;    an  arch  in  building. 

Arc  a  Jalet  (Fr.).  A  small  cross-bow, 
used  to  throw  bullets,  etc. 

Arc,  Elevating.  In  gunnery,  is  an  arc 
attached  to  the  base  of  the  breech  parallel  to 
the  ratchets  and  graduated  into  degrees  and 
parts  of  a  degree.  A  pointer  attacJied  to  the 
fulcrum  points  to  the  zero  of  the  scale  when 
the  axis  of  the  piece  is  horizontal.  Eleva- 
tions and  depressions  are  indicated  by  the 
scale.  Besides  the  graduations  on  the  arc, 
the  ranges  (in  yards)  and  the  charges  for 
shot  and  shells  are  given. 

Arch.  In  military  architecture,  is  a  vault 
or  concave  building,  in  form  of  a  curve, 
erected  to  support  some  heavy  structure,  or 
passage. 

Archers.  In  military  history,  a  kind  of 
militia  or  soldiery,  armed  with  bows  and 
arrows.  They  were  much  used  in  former 
times. 

Archery.  The  use  of  the  bow  and  arrow  ; 
the  practice,  art,  or  skill  of  archers  ;  the  art 
of  shooting  with  a  bow  and  arrow. 

Arch-gaye,    or    Lance-gaye    (Fr.).     A 


AKCHITONNERRE 


28 


ARKANSAS 


lance  used  by  the  Gauls  and  Franks,  which 
consisted  of  a  sharp-pointed  piece  of  iron 
attached  to  a  light  wooden  handle. 

Architonnerre  {Fr.).  A  machine  made 
of  copper,  which  threw  iron  bullets  with 
great  force  and  noise;  it  was  used  in  an- 
cient times,  being  an  invention  of  Archim- 
edes. 

Architrave.  The  master-beam,  or  chief 
supporter,  in  any  part  of  subterraneous 
fortification. 

Arch,  Triumphal.  In  military  history,  is 
a  stately  monument  or  erection,  generally  of 
a  semicircular  form,  adorned  with  sculpture, 
inscriptions,  etc.,  in  honor  of  those  heroes 
who  have  deserved  a  triumph. 

Arcis-sur-Aube.  A  small  town  in  the 
French  department  of  Aube ;  here  a  battle 
took  place  on  March  20,  1814,  between  Na- 
poleon and  the  allied  forces  under  Prince 
Schwartzenbcrg.  The  battle,  beginning  with 
several  skirmishes  on  the  first  day,  and  end- 
ing in  a  general  engagement  on  the  second 
day,  when  the  French  retreated  over  the 
Aube,  was  not  in  itself  very  important. 
But  Napoleon  now  formed  the  plan  of  oper- 
ating in  the  rear  of  the  allies,  and  left  the 
road  to  Paris  open;  assuming  that  they 
would  not  venture  to  proceed  without  at- 
tempting first  to  secure  their  rear.  The  allies 
marched,  nevertheless,  on  the  capital,  and 
thus  decided  the  campaign. 

Arco.  A  metal  composed  of  70  parts  of 
pure  copper,  27  of  zinc,  and  3  of  lead ;  used 
for  the  brass-work  of  small-arms. 

Areola  (Lombardy).  The  site  of  battles 
between  the  French  under  Bonaparte,  and 
the  Austrians  under  Field-Marshal  Alvinzi, 
fought  November  15-17,  1796.  The  Austri- 
ans^lost  18,000  men  in  killed,  wounded,  and 
prisoners,  4  flags,  and  18  guns.  The  French 
lost  about  15,000,  and  became  masters  of 
Italy. 

Arcot  (East  Indies).  This  city  (founded 
1716)  was  taken  by  Col.  Clive  August  31, 
1751 ;  was  retaken,  but  again  surrendered 
to  Gol.  Coote,  February  10,  1760;  besieged 
and  taken  by  Hyder  Ali,  when  the  British 
under  Col.  Baillie  suffered  severe  defeat, 
October  31,  1780.  Arcot  has  been  subject  to 
Great  Britain  since  1801. 

Arcubalist.     See  Akbalest. 

Ardalion.  A  river  in  Algeria.  On  the 
banks  of  this  river  in  398,  Mascezil,  a  Ro- 
man genera],  defeated  Gildo,  a  Moorish 
chieftain,  then  in  rebellion  against  Rome. 

Ardebil.  A  city  in  Persia ;  its  citadel 
was  constructed  by  French  officers  ;  captured 
by  the  Turks  in  1827. 

Ardres.  A  city  in  the  department  of  Pas- 
de-Calais,  France^  it  was  dismantled  in  1850. 
This  city  was  captured  by  the  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, brother  of  Charles  V.,  from  the  Eng- 
lish in  1377;  a  treaty  was  concluded  here 
between  Francis  I.  of  France  and  Henry 
VIII.  of  England  June  7,  1546;  captured 
by  the  Spaniards  in  1596 ;  returned  to  France 
in  1598. 

Area.     In  a  military  sense,  is  the  superfi- 


cial contents  of  any  rampart  or  other  work 
of  a  fortification. 

Areoscope.  An  instrument  used  for  ana- 
lyzing tlic  air  of  rooms;  used  in  English 
medical  corps. 

Ares.  Tlie  god  of  war  in  Greek  mythol- 
ogy, corresponding  to  the  Roman  Mars 
(which  see). 

Argaum.  A  village  in  the  Deccan,  near 
to  which  Gen.  Wellesley  (afterwards  Duke 
of  Wellington)  totally  defeated  the  army  of 
Dawlut  Rao  Scindia  in  October,  1803. 

Argelinos,  or  Algerinos.  The  Spaniards 
so  named  the  foreign  legion,  which  was  sent 
to  them  from  Algiers  by  France,  during  the 
reign  of  Louis  Philippe. 

Argent.  This  word  means  silver  in 
French,  and  is  always  used  in  heraldry  to 
designate  that  metal.  In  engraving  English 
shields  the  part  designated  as  argent  is  left 
white. 

Argentaria  (now  Colmar,  Northern 
France).  Where  the  Roman  Emperor  Gra-' 
tian  totally  defeated  the  Alemanni  and 
secured  the  peace  of  Gaul,  378. 

Argentine  Republic.  Formerly  the  Con- 
federation of  La  Plata,  a  South  American 
federal  republic,  consisting  of  14  provinces 
extending  over  an  immense  area  of  country. 
Buenos  Ayres,  one  of  its  provinces,  with  the 
city  of  the  same  name,  now  the  capital, 
seceded  from  the  confederation  in  1853,  and 
was  reunited  in  1860.  The  country  is  re- 
markable chiefly  for  its  internecine  wars, 
revolutions,  and  struggles,  incident  to  all  the 
countries  colonized  by  the  Spanish  race.  See 
Buenos  Ayres. 

Argives.  The  inhabitants  of  Argos,  a 
state  of  ancient  Greece  of  which  Mycenae 
was  the  capital,  and  which  was  ruled  by 
Agamemnon  at  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war. 
The  name  is  frequently  used  by  Homer  to 
signify  the  whole  body  of  the  Greeks. 

Argos  (now  Pnnitza).  An  ancient  city  of 
Greece;  near  here,  in  272  B.C.,  Antigonus 
Gonatas,  king  of  Macedon,  defeated  the 
army  of  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus  ;  the  latter 
was  killed. 

Argoulet  {Fr.).  An  ancient  dragoon. 
Also  an  inferior  sort  of  a  musket  made  at 
Liege  for  trading  with  the  negroes. 

Arich  (anc.  Rhinocolura).  A  fortress  in 
Lower  Egypt.  The  French  occupied  this 
place  in  1793,  but  were  obliged  to  surrender 
it  in  1800. 

Aries  {Laf.  "  a  ram").  An  ancient  bat- 
tering-ram.    See  Battering-kam. 

Arizona.  A  Territory  of  the  United  States, 
originally  part  of  New  Mexico,  organized 
February,  1863.  For  many  years  known 
for  its  Indian  hostilities,  and  conflicts  be- 
tween the  Indians  and  U.  S.  troops ;  also  for 
frequent  terrible  massacres  of  whites. 

Arkansas.  One  of  the  Southwestern  States 
of  the  Union.  It  was  settled  by  the  French 
in  1685,  and  formed  a  part  of  the  great  tract 
purchased  from  the  French  in  1803  under 
the  name  of  Louisiana  Territory.  It  was 
organized  as  a  Territory  in  1819,  and  ad- 


ARKANSAS  INDIANS 


29 


ARMISTICE 


mitted  as  a  State  in  1836.  Arkansas  passed 
an  ordinance  of  secession  Murcli  4,  1801  ; 
was  the  scene  of  several  ent^afjements  dur- 
ing the  civil  war,  and  sufierod  its  share  of 
the  hardships  of  that  eventful  period.  The 
battles  of  Tea  Itidije  and  Fayetteville  were 
fouglit  in  its  territory  ;  Arkansas  Post  was 
captured  in  18*33;  and  Helena  and  Little 
Rook  were  taken  the  same  year. 

Arkansas  Indians.  A  trihe  of  Indians 
allied  to  tile  Dakiitas,  who  formerly  resided 
on  the  Ohio.  At  |)reseiit  they  numher  about 
2(K),  and  live  in  the  Indian  Territory. 

Arkansas  Post.  A  village  in  Arkansas, 
on  the  Arkansas  Kiver,  aboiit  40  miles  from 
its  mouth,  garrisoned  hy  the  Confederates 
during  tlie  civil  war.  The  combined  forces 
of  Admiral  Porter  and  Gen.  McClernand 
made  an  attack  upon  the  place  January  11, 
1803,  and  carried  it  by  storm. 

Arklow.  A  town  in  Ireland,  where  a  bat- 
tle was  fought  between  the  insurgent  Irish, 
amounting  to  31,000,  and  a  small  regular 
force  of  IJritish,  which  signally  defeated 
them,  June  10,  1798. 

Aries.  A  city  in  the  department  Mouths- 
of-the-Khone,  France;  said  to  have  been 
founded  2000  ii.c. ;  was  formerly  a  powerful 
Roman  city  ;  sustained  four  memorable  sieges 
against  the  Visigoths,  in  42"),  420,  4')2,  and 
457;  besieged  by  Clovis  I.,  king  of  the  Franks, 
508.  The  Count  of  Barcelona  took  posses- 
sion of  it  in  115G,  and  Alfonso  11.,  king  of 
Aragon,  in  1107. 

Arlon.  A  town  in  the  province  of  Lux- 
embourg, Belgium.  Here  the  French,  com- 
manded by  Jourdan,  defeated  the  Austrians 
in  April,  17'J3,  and  again  in  April,  1794. 

Arm.      In   a   military   sense,   signifies   a 

f)articular  species  of  troops, — thus  the  artil- 
ery  is  an  arm,  and  the  cavalry,  and  infantry, 
etc.,  are  each  called  an  arm  of  the  service. 
The  word  is  also  used  to  denote  an  instru- 
ment of  warfare ;  a  weapon  of  offense  or 
defense. 

Arm.  To  be  provided  with  arms,  weapons, 
or  means  of  attack  or  resistance ;  to  take 
arms. 

Armament.  A  body  of  forces  equipped 
for  war  ; — used  as  a  land  force.  All  arrange- 
ments made  for  the  defense  of  a  fortification 
with  musketry  and  artillery. 

Armamentary.  An  armory  ;  a  magazine 
or  arsoiial. 

Arm  a  Shot,  To.  Is  to  roll  rope-yarns 
about  a  cross-bar  shot  in  order  to  facilitate 
ramming  it  hon>e,  and  also  to  prevent  the 
ends  catching  anv  accidental  inequalities  in 
the  bore. 

Armatoles.  A  Grecian  militia  of  Thes- 
saly,  instituted  by  Selim  I.  at  the  beginning 
of  "the  10th  centiiry,  to  ojipose  the  raids  of 
the  mountaineers  called  klrp/ife.i,or  brigands. 
Later  the  Armatoles  and  Klephtes  united 
against  the  Turks. 

Armatura.  In  ancient  military  history 
signified  the  fixed  and  established  military 
exercises  of  the  Romans.  Under  this  word 
is   understood    the    throwing   of  the   spear. 


javelin,  shooting  with  bows  and  arrows, 
etc.  Armatura  was  also  an  appellation 
given  to  the  soldiers  who  were  light-armed  ; 
and  was  a  name  also  given  to  the  soldiers  in 
the  emperor's  retinue. 

Armature.  Armor;  whatever  is  worn  or 
used  for  the  protection  and  defense  of  the 
body. 

Arm-chest.  A  portable  locker  for  hold- 
ing arms,  and  affording  a  ready  supply  of 
pistols,  muskets,  or  other  weapons.  Also 
used  in  the  military  service  for  the  trans- 
portation of  rifles,  revolvers,  etc. 

Arme  Courtoise  (/•>.).  This  arm  was 
used  in  tilts  or  tournaments  during  the 
Middle  Ages;  it  was  a  kind  of  sword  with 
a  ring  or  knob  placed  at  the  tip  of  the  blade 
to  prevent  it  causing  a  dangerous  wound. 

Armed.  Furnished  with  weapons  of  of- 
fense or  defense  ;  furnished  with  the  means 
of  security  or  protection  ;  furnished  with 
whatever  serves  to  add  strength,  force,  or 
efficiency.  Armed  neutrality,  the  ccmdition 
of  affairs  when  a  nation  assumes  a  threaten- 
ing position,  and  maintains  an  armdd  force 
to  repel  any  aggression  on  the  part  of  bel- 
ligerent nations  between  which  it  is  neutral. 

Armentiers.  A  city  of  the  department 
of  the  North,  F'rame ;  captured  and  burned 
by  the  English,  1339 ;  pillaged  by  the  French, 
1382;  destroyed  by  the  Calvinists  in  ir>00; 
occupied  by  Marshals  de  Gassion  and  de 
Kantzan,  1045;  by  Archduke  Leopold,  1047  ; 
by  the  French  in  1007,  and  remained  a  city 
of  France  in  accordance  with  the  peace  treaty 
of  Aix-la-C'hapelle  in  1008. 

Armes  de  Jet  (/■>.).  Missive  weapons; 
offensive  arms  or  instruments  wliich  act  by 
propulsion,  whether  by  the  force  of  powder, 
steam,  wind,  or  mechanism. 

Armet  {/•>.).  A  helmet  or  head-piece 
much  in  use  in  the  10th  century,  and  worn 
with  or  without  the  beaver. 

Armgaunt.  Worn  by  military  service  ; 
as,  an  armgaunt  steed. 

Armiger.  Formerly  an  armor-bearer,  as 
of  a  knight;  an  esquire  who  bore  his  shield 
and  rendered  other  services.  In  later  use, 
one  next  in  degree  to  a  knight,  and  entitled 
to  a  coat  of  arms. 

Armilausa.  A  military  uniform  coat, 
worn  by  the  Romans  over  their  armor. 

Armiludia.  A  name  given  b\-  the  Romans 
to  tlu!  exercises  of  arms,  and  also  applied 
to  the  day  on  which  these  e.\ercises  took 
place. 

Armilustrium.  This  name  was  given  by 
the  Romans  to  a  military  fe.stival  which  took 
place  on  the  19th  of  October  annually.  Af- 
ter review  the  soldiers  otlered  up  sacrifices 
for  the  success  of  the  RonMn  arms. 

Armipotent.  Powerful  in  arms;  mighty 
in  battle. 

Armisonous.  Rustling  in  arms  ;  resound- 
ing with  arms. 

Armistice.  A  cessation  of  hostilities  be- 
tween belligerent  nations  ior  a  considerable 
time.  It  is  either  partial  and  K>cal,  or  gen- 
eral.    It  dirt'ers  from  a  mere  suspension  of 


AKMLESS 


30 


ARMSTRONG  GUN 


arms,  which  takes  place  to  enable  the  two 
armies  to  bury  their  dead,  their  chiefs  to 
hold  conferences  or  pourparlers,  and  the 
like.  The  terms  truce  (see  Truce)  and 
armistice  are  sometimes  used  in  the  same 
sense. 

Armless.     Without  arms  or  armor. 

Armlet.  The  name  of  a  piece  of  armor 
for  the  arm,  to  protect  it  from  the  jar  of  the 
bow-string. 

Armor.  Defensive  arms  for  the  body ; 
any  clothing  or  covering  worn  to  protect 
one's  person  in  battle.  In  English  statutes, 
armor  is  used  for  the  whole  apparatus  of 
war,  including  offensive  as  well  as  defensive 
arms.  The  statutes  of  armor  directed  what 
arms  every  man  should  provide.  Armor 
has  also  been  extensively  used  in  England 
in  plating  important  fortifications  as  those 
of  Portsmouth,  and  also  in  Germany  for  the 
forts  along  the  frontier. 

Armor-bearer.  One  who  carries  the 
armor  of  another;  an  armiger  ;  an  esquire. 

Arm9rer.  The  person  who  makes,  cleans, 
or  repairs  arms. 

Armorial.  Belonging  to  armor,  or  to  the 
arms  or  escutcheon  of  a  family. 

Armor  Plates.  From  experiments  of  the 
effects  of  shot  and  shell  on  armor  plates  in 
England,  the  following  results  have  been 
obtained:  Where  it  is  required  to  perforate 
the  plate,  the  projectile  should  be  of  hard 
material,  such  as  steel,  or  chilled  iron,  and 
the  form  best  suited  for  this  purpose  is  the 
pointed  ogeeval.  The  resistance  of  wrought- 
iron  plates  to  perforation  by  steel  projectiles 
varies  as  the  squares  of  their  thickness.  Hit- 
ting a  plate  at  an  angle  diminishes  the  elfect 
as  regards  the  power  of  perforation  in  the 
proportion  of  the  sine  of  the  angle  of  inci- 
dence to  unity.  The  resistance  of  wrought- 
iron  plates  to  perforation  by  steel  shot  is 
practically  not  much,  if  at  all,  increased  by 
backing  simply  of  wood,  within  the  usual 
limits  of  thickness  ;  it  is,  however,  much  in- 
creased by  a  rigid  backing  either  of  iron 
combined  with  wood,  or  of  granite,  iron, 
brick,  etc. 

Till  quite  recently  armor  plates  have  been 
made  of  wrought  iron  only,  as  numerous  ex- 
periments in  England  had  served  to  show 
that  notwithstanding  the  enormous  resist- 
ance of  steel  to  penetration  it  was  unfit  for 
armor  plating, — the  damage  from  the  impact 
.of  shot  not  being  localized  as  in  wrought 
iron.  The  Italians  were  led,  however,  by 
the  experiments  with  the  100-ton  gun  on 
targets  of  both  metals  at  Spezzia,  1876,  to 
adopt  steel  for  their  new  ships,  the  "  Duilio"' 
and  "  Dandolo."  Since  that  time  an  armor 
compounded  of  ?leel  and  wrought  iron  has 
been  introduced  in  England  which  bids  fair 
to  supersede  all  others.  It  is  made  by  cast- 
ing a  heavy  facing  of  steel  upon  wrought- 
iron  plates.  A  section  of  this  compound 
armor  exhibits  a  gradual  change  of  struc- 
ture from  the  hard  steel  face  to  the  soft  iron 
backing.  Its  resistance  to  penetration  is 
equal  to  steel,  while  in  toughness  and  endur- 


ance under  the  blows  of  shot  it  resembles 
wrought  iron. 

To  glance  at  some  of  the  heaviest  armor 
plating  afloat,  the  English  "  Inflexible" 
carries  a  maximum  thickness  of  24  inches  of 
iron,  the  Italian  frigates  mentioned  above 
21.5  of  steel,  the  French  "Admiral  Du- 
perre"  21.6  of  'mm,  the  Ru.ssian  "  Peter  the 
Great"  14  inches  of  iron.  In  regard  to  the 
power  of  some  of  the  most  noted  of  modern 
guns,  the  12-inch  calibres  used  now  by  all 
leading  nations  will  penetrate,  at  1000  vards, 
16  to  18  inches  of  iron.  The  38-ton  English 
gun  of  this  calibre  has  penetrated  fat  shorter 
range)  22  inches' of  iron  and  6  inches  of  teak 
backing.  The  80-ton  Woolwich  gun  will 
penetrate  23  inches  of  iron  at  1000  yards. 
The  largest  Krupp,  72  tons,  will  penetrate 
26  inches,  and  the  100-ton  Armstrong  30 
inches  at  the  same  distance.  None  of  the 
guns  mentioned  would  penetrate  at  a  single 
shot  the  steel  armor  of  the  Italian  ships,  but 
any  of  them  would  destroy  it  in  a  number 
of  rounds. 

Armory.  A  manufactory,  or  place  of  de- 
posit for  arms.     See  Arsenal. 

Armory,  National.  The  U.  S.  govern- 
ment establishment  for  the  manufacture  of 
small-arms  at  Springfield,  Mass. 

Arm-rack.  A  frame  or  fitting  for  the 
stowage  of  arms  (usually  vertical)  out  of 
harm's  way,  but  in  readiness  for  immediate 
use.  In  the  conveyance  of  troops  by  sea 
arm-racks  form  a  part  of  the  proper  accom- 
modation. Arm-racks  are  also  used  in  sol- 
diers' barrack-rooms. 

Arms.  In  a  general  sense,  comprehend 
weapons  both  of  an  offensive  and  defensive 
character,  but  in  the  usual  restricted  sense 
they  only  embrace  the  former,  and  in  mod- 
ern warfare  include  the  gun  and  bayonet, 
the  rifle,  the  pistol,  the  carbine,  the  sword, 
the  lance,  cannon,  etc.,  all  of  which  are 
noticed  under  their  respective  heads.  For 
punishment  inflicted  upon  soldiers  who  sell 
or  otherwise  dispose  of  their  arm's,  see  Ap- 
pendix, Articles  of  War,  17. 

Arms.  This  term  is  used  in  heraldrj'  to 
designate  the  devices  borne  on  shields,  and 
includes  all  the  accompaniments,  such  as  the 
crest,  helmet,  supporters,  etc. 

Arms,  Bells  of.  Are  tents,  used  in  the 
English  service,  mostly  of  a  conical  shape, 
for  containing  the  small-arms  for  each  com- 
pany in  a  regiment  of  infantry.  The  tent 
is  frequently  painted  with  the  color  of  the 
facings  of  the  regimental  uniforms. 

Arms,  Stand  of.  A  complete  set  for  one 
soldier,  as  a  rifle  and  bayonet,  cartridge-box 
and  belt,  frequently  the  rifle  and  bayonet 
alone. 

Armstrong  Gun.  The  Armstrong  gun 
as  a  breech-loading  field-piece  first  attracted 
attention  in  England  about  1850.  About 
1858  it  was  adopted  by  the  British  govern- 
ment. This  gun  was  made  of  wrought  iron, 
and  consisted  of  a  single  coiled  tube  rein- 
forced at  the  breech  with  two  thin  tubes, 
the  outer  one  being  a  coiled  tube,  the  inner 


ARMSTRONG  PROJECTILE 


31 


ARRACAN 


heinir  formed  by  bending  a  pbite  and  weld- 
ing ihi'  edges.  Tbe  coiled  tuJ)es  were  formed 
by  bending  square  burs  of  iron  around  a 
mandrel  and  welding  the  coils  together. 
Tubes  made  in  this  way  ofl'cir  great  resist- 
ance to  tangei\tial  strains.  The  intermediate 
tube  was  designed  to  take  up  the  longi- 
tudinal strain  near  the  breech,  and  for  this 
reason  was  made  differently.  The  breech 
was  closed  with  a  vent-piece,  slipjjcd  by  the 
hand  into  a  slot  cut  in  the  piece  near  the 
breech,  and  hold  in  its  place  by  a  breech- 
screw,  which  supported  it  from  behind. 
This  screw  was  made  in  the  form  of  a  tube, 
so  that  its  hollow  formed  a  part  of  the  bore 
prolonged,  when  the  vent-piece  was  drawn. 
Through  the  hollow  screw  the  charge  was 
passed  into  the  chamber.  The  vent  was 
formed  in  the  breech-piece.  This  gun  was  a 
;5-inch  12-pounder,  firing  a  lead-coated  pro- 
jectile. It  was  followed  by  the  40-pounder, 
110-pounder,  and  otlicr  calibres.  Muzzle- 
loaders  were  also  made.  The  breech-load- 
ing apparatus  did  not  prove  entirely  success- 
ful in  large  guns,  and  was  accordingly  dis- 
carded except  for  small  calibres.  The  method 
of  construction  was  changed  f(jr  larger  guns, 
and  a  plan  adopted  which  has  been  adhered 
to  ever  since,  and  is  that  now  used.  The 
barrel  or  part  surrounding  the  bore  is  made 
of  steel  tempered  in  oil  ;  that  portion  at  and 
in  rear  of  the  trunnions  is  enveloped  by  sev- 
eral layers  of  wrought-iron  tubes,  the  num- 
ber of  layers  depending  upon  the  size  of  the 
gun.  These  tubes,  instead  of  being  joined 
at  their  ends  by  welding,  are  hooked  on  to 
each  other  by  a  system  of  shoulders  and 
recesses.  There  are  also  projections  fitting 
into  corresponding  recesses,  which  servo  to 
prevent  the  tubes  from  slipping  within  each 
other.  The  tube  which  immediately  sur- 
rounds the  barrel  opposite  to  the  seat  of  the 
charge  is  called  the  breech-piece.  It  is 
made  with  its  fibres  and  welds  running  lon- 
gitudinally, so  as  to  resist  the  recoil  of  the 
barrel  against  the  head  of  the  breech-plug, 
which  is  screwed  into  the  breech-piece.  The 
shunt  system  of  rifling  was  first  a)>plied  to 
muzzle-loading  Armstrongguns,  which  have 
fewer  grooves  than  the  breech-loaders.  The 
method  of  manufacturing  originally  pro- 
posed by  Sir  William  Armstrong  has  been 
greatly  modilied  by  Mr.  Eraser,  of  the  Royal 
Arsenal,  Woolwich.  (See  Okdxanck,  Akm- 
STRONo  CA^■^■o^•).  For  some  years  largo 
numbers  of  Armstrong  guns  were  made  at 
the  Royal  Arsenal,  Woolwich,  under  the 
supervision  of  the  inventor.  His  works  are 
now  located  at  Klswick,  Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne,  and  are  known  as  the  Klswick  Ord- 
nance Works.  To  distinguish  the  system 
of  gun-constructjon  from  the  "Woolwich," 
which  it  closely  resembles,  it  is  frequently 
called  the  "  Klswick'  system.  The  largest, 
as  well  as  the  most  jwwerful  guns  ever  nuule, 
are  the  lOO-ton  guns  manufactured  nt  Kls- 
wick for  the  Italian  navy.  See  Cannon 
AND  Okdnanck,  Modkkx  History  ok. 
Armstrong  Projectile.    See  Projectilk. 


Army.  A  large  and  organized  body  of 
sftldiers,  consisting  of  infantry,  cavalry,  and 
artillery,  completely  armed,  and  ]irovided 
with  the  necessary  stores,  etc.,  the  whole 
being  compo.sed  of  companies,  battalions, 
n-giments,  brigades,  divisions,  and  corps, 
under  proper  officers,  and  the  entire  force 
being  under  the  direction  of  one  general, 
who  is  called  the  general-in-chief,  and  some- 
times ihe  ffrnrralissinif).  Armies  are  distin- 
guished by  different  appellations;  as,  &corer- 
iriff  army,  a  bluckndlnrf  army,  an  army  of  ob- 
sf ruction,  an  army  of  rename,  afying  army, 
etc.  An  army  is  said  to  cover  a  place  when 
it  is  encamped  or  in  cantonments  for  the 
protection  of  the  different  passes  which  lead 
to  a  principal  object  of  defense.  An  army 
is  said  to  blorknde.  a  place  when,  being  well 
provided  with  heavy  ordnance  and  other 
warlike  means,  it  is  em])loyed  to  invest  a 
town  for  the  direct  and  immediate  purpose 
of  reducing  it  by  assault  or  famine.  An 
army  of  obstruction  is  so  called  because  by 
its  advanced  positions  and  desultory  move- 
ments it  is  constantly  employed  in  watching 
the  enemy.  A  fyivf]  army  means  a  strong 
body  of  horse  and  foot,  which  is  always  in 
motion,  both  to  cover  its  own  garrisons  and 
keep  the  enemy  in  continual  alarm.  For 
method  of  providing  for  armies,  sec  Appro- 

PKIATIONS. 

Army  Corps.    See  Corps  d'Armke. 

Army  Regulations.  This  is  the  name  of 
a  work  jmbli-hed  by  the  War  Department 
embodying  all  thi;  acts  of  Congress,  and 
the  rules  laid  down  by  the  President  for  the 
management  of  the  army,  both  in  peace  and 
war.     See  Rkoui-ation.s. 

Arnaouts,  or  Arnouts,  Corps  des.  ^lil- 
itia  of  Greece  organized  during  the  war  of 
Russia  against  the  Porte  iii  17»i'.>. 

Arnheim.  A  fi)rtified  city  in  Holland  ; 
it  was  captured  by  the  French  in  1072; 
taken  bv  storm  by  the  Prussians  under  Gen. 
Von  Hiilnw  in  IKl.j. 

Arnott's  Pump.  An  ingeniously  arranged 
machine  fur  forcing  jnire  air  into  buildings. 

Arquebusade.  Shot  of  an  arquebuse. 
Also  distilled  water  from  a  variety  of  aro- 
matic plants,  as  rosemary,  millefoil,  etc., 
applied  to  a  bruise  or  yound  ;  so  called  be- 
cause it  was  originally  used  as  a  vulnerary 
in  gunshot  wounds. 

Arquebuse,  <>r  Harquebuse.  An  old  fire- 
arm resembling  a  musket,  which  was  suj- 
ported  on  a  rest  by  a  hook  of  iron  fastened 
to  the  barrel.  It  was  longer  than  a  mus- 
ket, and  of  large  calibre,  and  formerly  used 
to  fire  through  the  loop-holes  of  antique  for- 
tifications. 

Arquebusier.  A  soldier  armed  with  an 
arquebuse. 

Arques  (Northern  France).  Near  here 
the  league  army,  commanded  by  the  Ducde 
Mayenne,  was  defeated  by  Henry  IV.,  Sep- 
tem'ber  21,  l.')89. 

Arracan.  A  province  of  Northeast  In- 
dia. Arracan,  the  capital,  taken  by  tbe 
Burmese,  1783;    was  taken   from  them  bjt 


AKRAH 


32 


ARTIFICE 


Gen.  Morrison,  April  1,  1825.  The  sub- 
jugation of  the  whole  province  soon  fol- 
lowed. 

Arrah.     A  town  in  British  India,  in  the 

presidency  of  Bengal,  the  scene  of  several 
exciting  incidents  in  the  Indian  mutiny. 
The  English  troops  gained  a  victory  here 
over  themutinous  Sepoys  in  1857. 

Arras  (Northeast  France).  The  ancient 
Atrebates  ;  conquered  by  Ca?sar  in  50  B.C.  ; 
captured  and  sacked  by  the  Vandals  in  407; 
captured  by  the  Normans  in  880 ;  besieged 
by  Charles  VI.  in  1414;  captured  bv  Louis 
XI. ;  held  by  the  Austrians  from  1493  till 
1640,  when  it  was  taken  by  Louis  XIII.  ; 
besieged  by  the  Spaniards  in  1654. 

Arrawak  Indians.  A  race  or  collection 
of  tribes  of  Indians  in  Guiana,  who  were 
formerly  numerous  and  powerful. 

Array.  Order;  disposition  in  regular 
lines  ;  hence,  a  posture  for  fighting ;  as, 
drawn  up  in  battle  array. 

Arrayer.  In  some  early  English  statutes, 
an  ofBcer  who  had  care  of  the  soldiers'  ar- 
mor, and  who  saw  them  duly  accoutred. 

Arrest.  The  temporary  confinement  of 
officers  in  barracks,  quarters,  orients,  pend- 
ing trial  by  court-martial,  or  the  considera- 
tion of  their  imputed  offenses  previous  to 
deciding  whether  they  shall  or  shall  not  be 
tried.  (See  Appendix,  Articles  of  War, 
65.)  Private  soldiers  are  usually  placed  un- 
der guard  ;  by  the  custom  of  the  service 
non-commissioned  officers  may  be  simply 
placed  in  arrest  in  quarters. 

Arrest  {Old  Fr.,  now  ai-j-et).  A  French 
phrase,  similar  in  its  import  to  the  Latin 
word  retinaculum ;  it  consisted  of  a  small 
piece  of  steel  or  iron,  which  was  formerly 
used  in  tlie  construction  of  fire-arms,  to  pre- 
vent the  piece  from  going  oft'.  A  familiar 
phrase  among  military  men  in  France  is,  Ce 
pistolet  est  en  arret ,  "  this  pistol  is  in  arrest 
or  is  stopped." 

Arreste  of  the  Glacis.  Is  the  junction 
of  the  talus  which  is  formed  at  all  the  an- 
gles. 

Arretium.  A  city  of  the  Gauls,  now  in 
the  department  of  the  Yonne,  France,  where 
the  Gauls  defeated  the  Romans  in  a  bloody 
battle  in  284  B.C. 

Arrow.  In  fortification,  a  work  placed 
at  the  salient  angles  of  the  glacis,  communi- 
cating with  the  covert  way. 

Arrow.  A  missile  weapon  of  defense, 
straight,  slender,  pointed,  and  barbed,  to  be 
shot  with  a  bow. 

Arrow-head.     The  head  of  an  arrow. 

Arrow-wood.  A  species  of  Viburnum, 
from  the  long  straight  stems  of  which  the 
Indians  dwelling  between  the  Mississippi 
and  the  Pacific  make  their  arrows. 

Arrowy.     Consisting  of  arrows. 

Arroyo  del  Molinos.  A  small  town  in 
Estremadura,  Spain,  near  the  river  Guad- 
iana,  where  Lord  Hill,  on  the  28th  of  Oc- 
tober, 1811,  surprisedand  defeated  the  French 
under  Gen.  Gerard.  Nearly  1500  prisoners 
were  taken,  including  Prince  d'Aremburg, 


Gen.  Brun,  one  colonel,  two  lieutenant- 
colonels,  a  commissaire  de  guerre,  and  no 
less  than  30  captains  and  inferior  officers. 
It  was  altogether  a  most  brilliant  achieve- 
ment. 

Arsenal.  A  public  establishment  for  the 
storage  or  for  the  manufacture  and  storage 
of  arms  and  all  military  equipments,  whether 
for  land  or  naval  service.  In  the  United 
States  there  are  17  arsenals  and  1  armory 
(Springfield,  Mass.),  situated  at  diflferent 
points  throughout  the  whole  country  conve- 
nient for  the  distribution  of  materiel^  as  fol- 
lows :  Alleghany  arsenal,  at  Pittsburg,  Pa. ; 
at  Augusta,  Ga.  ;  Benicia,  Cal.  ;  Fort  Mon- 
roe, Va. ;  Fort  Union,  N.  M.  ;  Frankford 
arsenal,  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Indianapolis, 
Ind.  ;  Kennebec  arsenal,  Augusta,  Me.  ; 
New  York;  Pikesville,  Md.  ;  Rock  Island, 
111.  ;  Jefterson  Barracks,  Mo.  ;  San  An- 
tonio, Texas  ;  Vancouver,  W.  T. ;  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  ;  Watertown,  Mass.;  and 
Watervliet  arsenal,  West  Troy,  N.  Y. 

Arsouf  (Syria).  At  a  battle  here  Rich- 
ard I.  of  England,  commanding  the  Chris- 
tian forces,  reduced  to  30,000,  defeated 
Saladin's  army  of  300,000  and  other  in- 
fidels on  September  6,  1191.  Ascalon  sur- 
rendered, and  Richard  marched  to  Jerusa- 
lem, 1192. 

Art,  Military.  Military  art  may  be  di- 
vided into  two  principal  branches.  The  first 
branch  relates  to  the  order  and  arrangement 
which  must  be  observed  in  the  management 
of  an  army,  when  it  is  to  engage  an  enemy, 
to  march,  or  to  be  encamped.  This  branch 
is  called  tactics.  The  same  appellation  be- 
longs to  the  other  branch  of  military  art, 
which  also  includes  the  composition  and  ap- 
plication of  warlike' machines.  See  Logis- 
tics, Strategy,  Stratagem,  Tactics,  and 
War. 

Arta,  or  Narda.  A  town  in  Albania. 
The  Greek  insurgents  again.st  the  Porte  were 
defeated  here,  July  16,^1822. 

Artaxata.  The  ancient  capital  of  Ar- 
menia ;  burned  by  the  Roman  general  Car- 
bulo,  about  59. 

Artemisium.  A  promontory  in  Euboea, 
near  which  indecisive  conflicts  took  place 
between  the  Greek  and  Persian  fleets  for 
three  days,  480  b.c.  The  former  retired  on 
hearing  of  the  battle  of  Thermopylffi. 

Articles  of  War.  Are  known  rules  and 
regulations,  fixed  by  law,  for  the  better  gov- 
ernment of  an  army.  The  articles  of  war 
of  the  United  States  consists  of  128  articles. 
(See  Appendix,  Articles  of  War.)  All 
that  relates  to  the  army  not  comprehended 
therein  is  published  in  general  orders  or 
in  established  regulations,  issued  from  time 
to  time  from  the  War  Department,  copies  of 
which  are  furnished  and  read  to  the  troops. 
In  England  they  may  be  altered  and  enlarged 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  sovereign,  but  must 
be  annually  confirmed  by  Parliament  under 
the  Mutiny  Act. 

Artifice.  Among  the  French,  is  under- 
stood as  comprehending  everything  which 


ARTIFICER 


33 


ASHANTEES 


enters  the  composition  of  lire- works,  as  the 
sulithiir,  saltpetre,  charcoal,  etc.     See  Py- 

ROTKCHNICS. 

Artificer.  One  who  miikes  fire-work?,  or 
•work.s  in  the  artillery  laboratory,  and  pre- 
pares the  shells,  fuzes,  grenades,  etc.  It  is 
also  applied  to  military  mechanics,  such  as 
carpenters,  blacksmiths,  masons,  etc. 

Artificial  Line  of  Sight.  Is  the  right 
line  from  the  eye  to  the  object  to  be  hit, 
passing  through  the  front  and  rear  sights. 
See  PoiXTiNo. 

Artillery.  In  a  general  sense,  signifies 
all  sorts  of  great  guns  or  cannon,  mortars, 
howit/.fTs,  petards,  and  the  like,  together 
with  all  the  apparatus  and  stores  thereto  be- 
longing, which  are  not  only  taken  into  the 
field,  but  likewise  to  sieges,  and  made  use  of 
both  to  attack  and  defend  fortified  places; 
also  the  (itt]<ers  and  men  of  that  branch  of 
the  army  to  which  the  care  and  management 
of  such  machines  have  been  confided.  (See 
Ordnance.  )  Artillery,  in  a  particular  sense, 
signifies  the  .science  of  artillery  or  gunnery, 
which  art  includes  a  knowledge  of  survey- 
ing, leveling,  geometry,  trigonometry,  conic 
sections,  laws  of  motion,  mechanics,  fcjrtifica- 
tions,and  projectiles.  See  Battery,  Fikld 
Battkky,  Field  Artillery,  Sieoe  Ar- 
tillery. 

Artillery  Company,  Honorable.  A  band 
of  infantry,  rifies,  and  artillery,  forming 
part  of  the  militia,  or  city  guards  of  London, 
England.  It  was  instituted  in  1  ")85;  having 
ceased,  was  revived  in  KilO.  In  the  civil 
war,  lti41-48,  the  company  took  the  side  of 
the  Parliament,  and  greatly  contributed  to- 
wards its  success.  The  companv  numbered 
1200  in  1803,  and  800  in  18()1.  'Since  1842 
the  oflScers  have  been  appointed  by  the 
queen.  On  the  decease  of  the  Duke  of  Su.s- 
sex,  in  1843,  the  prince  consort  became  col- 
onel and  captain-general.  He  died  Decem- 
ber 14,  18(11,  and  the  Prince  of  Wales  was 
aj)pi>iiit((l  his  successor,  August  24,  18<j3. 

Artilleryman.  A  man  who  manages,  or 
assists  in  managing,  large  guns  in  firing. 

Artillery-park.  The  camp  of  one  or  more 
field  batteries;  the  indosure  where,  during 
a  siege,  the  general  camp  of  foot  artillery, 
and  depots  of  guns,  materiel,  etc.,  are  col- 
lected. 

Artillery,  Royal  Regiment  of.  Is  the 
collective  name  fnr  tlu-  wliolc  of  the  artillery 
belonging  to  the  Hritish  army.  There  was 
no  regular  regiment  or  corps  of  artillery 
soldiers  in  the  Hritish  army  till  the  time  of 
Queen  Anne,  when  the  present  royal  regi- 
ment was  formed.  Since  that  period,  from 
some  anomaly  which  is  not  easily  explained, 
all  the  additions  have  been  made  to  the  same 
regiment,  instead  of  forming  new  regiments, 
to  be  combined  into  a  division  or  corjvs. 
The  regiment  is  now  almost  an  entire  army 
in  itself,  and  to  increase  the  anomaly,  it 
comprises  horse  as  well  as  foot.  Formerly 
the  foot  was  divided  into  battalions  and  c<mi- 
panies,  and  the  horse  into  troop«,  but  these 
terms  have  been  abolished,  in  favor  of  bri- 


gade and  battery,  which  apply  both  to  horse 
and  foot  artillery.  The  regiment  now  con- 
sists of  33,500  men,  thus  distributed  : 

6  brigades,  Jiorse  artillery,    30  Uttteries. 
8         "         fiil.l  artillery,     62         " 
14         "         gurriititii  art.,     10-i         '* 
3        "         uiixeU  artillery,  19        " 

214 

1         "        coast  artillery  not  in  batteries. 
1         "         deput  artillery         "        " 

Of  the  above,  the  field,  garriscm,  and  mixed 
are  foot  artillery.  This  force  rcfiresents  from 
1200  to  1300  giins  fully  equipped  for  action. 
Of  the  foot  artillery,  the  garri.son  batteries 
are  readily  converted  to  field  batteries  by  the 
additiim  of  a  few  drivers. 

Artillery  Schools.  Are  special  schools  for 
instruction  and  training  in  artillery,  which 
are  organized  through  all  civilized  countries. 
In  the  United  States,  an  artillery  school  was 
established  at  Fort  Monroe,  "\'a.,  18G7.  Its 
object  is  to  train  both  otticers  and  enlisted 
men  in  the  construction  and  service  of  all 
kinds  of  artillery  and  artillery  material,  and 
in  gunnery  and  mathematics  as  applied  in 
the  artillery  service.  For  artillery  schools 
in  other  countries,  see  3Iilitary  Acade- 
mies. 

Artillery,  Systems  of.  See  Systems  of 
Artillery. 

Artillery-train.  A  number  of  pieces  of 
ordnance  mounted  on  carriages,  with  all 
their  furniture,  fit  for  marching. 

Arx.  In  the  ancient  military  art,  a  fort, 
castle,  etc.,  for  the  defense  of  a  place. 

Arzegages  (/•>.).  Hatons  or  canes  with 
iron  at  both  ends.  They  were  carried  by 
the  Estradiots,  or  Albanian  cavaliers,  who 
served  in  France  under  Charles  VIII.  and 
Louis  XII. 

Asapes.  An  inferior  class  of  Turkish 
soldiers  employed  in  sieges  to  work  in  in- 
trenchments  and  perform  other  pitmeer  duty. 

Asaraouas.  A  tribe  in  Algeria  against 
whom  the  French  undertook  an  expedition 
in  1837. 

Ascalon  (Syria).  A  city  of  the  Philis- 
tines which  shared  the  fate  of  Plnenicia  and 
Judea.  The  Egyptian  army  was  defeated 
here  by  the  Crusaders  under  Gi>dl'rey  of 
Bouillon,  August  12,  lOlV.t ;  it  was  besieged 
by  the  latter  in  1148,  taken  in  1153,  and 
again  in  llltl.  Its  fortifications  were  de- 
stroyed through  fear  of  the  Crusaders,  by 
the  "sultan,  in  1270. 

Aschaffenburg.  On  the  Maine,  Bavaria, 
Southwestern  (Jermany  ;  here,  op  July  14, 
18tit'.,  the  Prussians  defeated  the  German 
I'ederal  army,  captured  the  town,  and  took 
20(X)  prisoners. 

Asculum  (now  Asml!^  Apulia,  Southern 
Italy).  Near  it  Pyrrhus  of  Epirus  defeated 
the  Romans  270  n.c.  Asculum,  a  city  of  the 
Piceni,  with  all  their  country,  was  conquered 
by  the  Consul  Sempronius  2f>8  ».r.  Andrea, 
general  of  the  Emperor  Henry  VI..  en- 
deavoring to  wrest  Naples  from  Tancred, 
was  deteated  and  slain  in  1190. 

Ashantees.      Warlike  negroes  of  West 


ASHBURTON  TREATY 


34 


ASSAULT 


Africa.  In  1807  they  conquered  Fantee,  in 
which  the  British  settlement  of  Cape  Coast 
Castle  is  situated.  On  the  death  of  their 
king,  who  had  been  friendl}-  to  the  English, 
hostilities  began;  and  on  January  21,  1824, 
the  Ashantees  defeated  about  1000  British 
under  Sir  Charles  McCarthy  at  Accra,  and 
brought  away  his  skull  with  others  as  tro- 
phies. They  were  totally  defeated  August 
27,  1826,  by  Col.  Pardon.  The  governor 
of  Cape  Coast  Castle  began  a  war  with  them 
in  the  spring  of  1803  ;  but  the  British  troops 
suffered  much  through  disease,  and  the  war 
was  suspended  by  the  government  in  Mav, 
1864. 

Ashburton  Treaty.  Concluded  at  "Wash- 
ington, August  9,  1842,  by  Alexander,  Lord 
Ashburton,  and  John  Tyler,  President  of 
the  United  States  ;  it  defined  the  boundaries 
of  the  respective  countries  between  Canada 
and  Maine,  settled  the  extradition  of  crimi- 
nals, etc 

Ashdod,  or  Azotus.  An  ancient  city  of 
Judea,  identified  with  the  site  of  the  modern 
Asdood,  about  12  miles  northeast  of  Ascalon. 
It  is  celebrated  by  Herodotus  as  having  stood 
a  siege  of  29  years  from  Psammatichus,  king 
of  Egypt  (about  630  B.C.).  It  was  taken  by 
the  Assyrians  under  Tartan,  the  general  of 
Sennacherib  (713  B.C.)  ;  taken  and  destroyed 
by  Judas  Maccabaeus  and  his  brother  Jon- 
athan ;  restored  by  Gabinius,  and  given  by 
Augustus  to  Salome. 

Ashdown,  or  Assendune.  Now  thought 
to  be  Asliton,  Berks,  England,  where  Ethel- 
red  and  his  brother  Alfred  defeated  the 
Danes  in  1171. 

Asia  Minor.     See  Anatolta. 
Askeri  Mohammedize.     A  name   given 
to  the  Turkish  regular  troops  organized  ac- 
cording to  modern  tactics. 

Aslant.  Formed  or  placed  in  an  oblique 
line. 

Asow.  An  old  fortified  city  in  Southern 
Russia.  Towards  the  end  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Timur  ;  the 
Turks  took  possession  of  it  in  1471  ;  cap- 
tured by  the  Cossacks  in  1637 ;  besieged 
without  success  by  the  Turks  in  1641,  they 
returned  the  following  year  with  a  large 
army  to  attack  the  city,  when  the  Cossacks, 
thinking  it  impossible  to  hold  the  city  against 
such  a  force,  plundered  and  burned  it ;  the 
Turks  then  rebuilt  the  city  and  fortified  it ; 
it  was  surrendered  to  Peter  the  Great  in 
1696;  the  city  again  came  into  the  Turkish 
possession  .  after  the  peace  treaty  on  the 
Pruth.  In  the  war  between  Turkey  and 
Russia,  Asow  was  besieged  by  Field-Marshal 
Munich  ;  it  surrendered  to  Gen.  Lascy,  July 
4,  1736. 

Aspe.  A  village  in  the  department  of  the 
Lower  Pyrenees,  France,  where  a-  small  de- 
tachment of  the  French  army  defeated  6000 
Spaniards  in  1792. 

Aspect.  An  army  is  said  to  hold  a  men- 
acing aspect,  when  by  advanced  move- 
ments or  positions  it  gives  the  opposing 
enemy  cause  to   apprehend   an  attack.     A 


country  is  said  to  have  a  military  aspect, 
when  its  general  situation  presents  appropri- 
ate obstacles  or  facilities  for  an  army  acting 
on  the  offensive  or  defensive.  An  army  is 
said  to  have  an  imposing  aspect,  when  it 
appears  stronger  than  it  really  is.  This  ap- 
pearance is  often  assumed  for  the  purpose  of 
deceiving  an  enemy,  and  may  not  improp- 
erly be  considered  as  a  principal  ruse  de 
guerre,  or  feint  in  war. 

Aspern,  Great.  A  town  near  the  Danube 
and  Vienna,  where  a  series  of  desperate  con- 
flicts took  place  between  the  Austrian  army 
under  the  Archduke  Charles,  and  the  French 
under  Napoleon,  Massena,  etc.,  on  May  21- 
22,  1809,  ending  in  the  retreat  of  Napoleon 
on  May  22.  The  loss  of  the  former  exceeded 
20,000men,  andof  the  latter  30,000.  The  dar- 
ing Marshal  Lannes  was  mortally  wounded 
on  May  22,  and  died  May  31.  The  bridge 
of  the  Danube  was  destroyed  and  Napo- 
leon's retreat  endangered  ;  but  the  success  of 
the  Austrians  had  no  beneficial  effect  on  the 
subsequent  prosecution  of  the  war. 

Aspic  {Fr.).  An  ancient  piece  of  ord- 
nance which  carried  a  12-pound  shot;  the 
piece  itself  was  11  feet  long,  and  weighed 
4250  pounds. 

Aspis.  A  large,  round,  or  oblong  shield 
which  was  used  by  the  heavy  infantry  of 
the  ancient  Grecians. 

Aspromonte  (Naples).  Here  Garibaldi 
was  defeated,  wounded,  and  taken  prisoner, 
August  29,  1862,  having  injudiciously  risen 
against  the  French  occupation  of  Rome. 

Assagai,  or  Assegai.  An  instrument  of 
warfare  among  the  Kaffirs. 

Assail.  To  attack  with  violence,  or  in 
a  hostile  manner  ;  to  assault,  etc.  See  At- 
tack. 

Assailable.  Capable  of  being  assailed, 
attacked,  or  invaded. 

Assas-Bachi.  A  superior  oiBcer  of  jan- 
issaries, who  was  also  administrator  of  the 
police  department  in  Constantinople,  and 
presided  over  public  executions. 

Assassins,  or  Assassinians.  Fanatical 
Mohammedans,  collected  by  Hassan-ben- 
Sabah,  and  settled  in  Persia  about  1090.  In 
Syria  they  possessed  a  large  tract  of  land 
among  the  mountains  of  Lebanon.  They 
murdered  the  Marquis  of  Montferrat  in 
1192,  Louis  of  Bavaria  in  1213,  and  the 
Khan  of  Tartary  in  1254.  They  were  ex- 
tirpated in  Persia  about  1258,  and  in  Syria 
about  1272.  The  chief  of  the  corps  was 
named  "  Old  Man  of  the  Mountain."  They 
trained  up  young  people  to  assassinate  such 
persons  as  their  chief  had  devoted  to  de- 
struction. From  them  the  word  assassin 
has  been  derived. 

Assault.  A  furious  but  regulated  effort 
to  carry  a  fortified  post,  camp,  or  fortress  by 
personal  attack,  uncovered  and  unsupported. 
While  an  assault  during  a  siege  continues, 
the  batteries  of  the  besiegers  cease,  lest  the 
attacking  party  should  be  injured.  The 
party  which  leads  the  assault  is  sometimes 
called  "the  forlorn  hope." 


ASSAYE 


35 


ASYLUM 


Assaye.  A  small  town  in  the  province  I 
of  Baliar,  in  the  Doccan,  celebrated  for  a 
buttle  foiiEcht  in  1803,  between  the  British 
army,  4ij(M)  strong,  under  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
linjjton,  then  Gen.  W'ellesley,  and  the  con- 
federated armies  of  India,  numbering  50,- 
000  troops  ;  the  latter  were  completely 
routed,  leavinij  1200  dead  on  the  field,  with 
nearly  the  whole  of  their  artillery.  Such 
was  the  battle  of  Assaye,  which  established 
the  fame  of  the  greatest  commander  of  the 
age,  and  fi.xed  the  dominion  of  Britain  over 
prostrate  India. 

Asseerghur.  A  strong  hill  fortress,  situ- 
ated about  12  miles  northerly  and  easterly 
from  Burhampoor,  India.  It  was  taken 
from  the  Mahrattas  by  the  British  on  two 
occasions  ;  the  first  time  in  1803,  and  finally 
in  181!». 

Asseguay.  The  knife-dagger  used  in  the 
Levant. 

Assembly.  A  beat  of  the  drum  or  sound 
of  tlie  bugle  as  a  signal  to  troops  to  as- 
semble. 

Assens.  A  maritime  town  of  Denmark 
on  the  island  of  Funen  ;  here  Christian  III. 
deft'utcd  his  insurgent  subjects  in  l.')3o. 

Asser.  An  instrument  of  warfare  used 
by  tlie  Romans  on  their  war  ships;  it  con- 
sisted of  a  heavy  pole  with  an  iron  head, 
and  was  used  as  a  battering-ram  against 
hostile  ships.  Other  authorities  assert  that 
it  was  u-f'il  to  destroy  the  rigging  only. 

Assessment  of  Damages.  In  the  Eng- 
lish army,  is  the  determination  by  a  com- 
mittee of.oHicers  of  the  value  of  the  injury 
done  to  the  barracks  each  month,  in  order 
that  stoppages  in  liquidation  may  be  made 
from  men  who  have  committed  the  damage. 

Assidui  Milites.  Roman  soldiers  who 
served  in  the  army  without  receiving  pay. 

Assignment.  If,  upon  marches,  guards, 
or  in  (juarters,  different  corps  of  the  army 
shall  happen  to  join  or  do  duty  together, 
the  officer  highest  in  rank  of  the  line  of  the 
army,  marine  corps,  or  militia,  by  commis- 
sion, there  on  duty  or  in  quarters,  shall 
command  the  whole,  and  give  orders  for 
what  is  needful  to  the  service,  unless  other- 
wise specially  directed  by  the  President  of 
the  United  States,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  case.  See  Appendix,  Articles  of 
War.  122. 

Assignment  of  Pay.  By  a  non-commis- 
sioned otHcer  or  private,  previous  to  dis- 
charge, is  invalid.  A  transfer  subsequent 
to  the  discharge  is  valid. 

Assinaries,  or  Assinaires.  Festivals 
which  were  instituted  at  Syracuse,  in  com- 
memoration of  the  destruction  of  the  Athe- 
nian fi|^t  commanded  by  Nicias  and  De- 
mosthimes. 

Assinarus  fnow  Fabtnara).  A  small  river 
in  Sicily,  near  which  the  army  of  Nicias  and 
Demosthenes  was  defeated  413  n.r. 

Assistant.     In  the  English  army,  is  the 
third  grade  in  any  jiarticulur  branch  of  the 
start",    such    as    the   quartermaster-general  s  j 
or  adjutant-generals.     After  the  principal  | 


comes  the  deputy  and  then  the  assistant.  In 
the  United  States  it  is  the  second  grade  in 
the  staff  branches  of  the  army. 

Assyria.  A  name  which  is  usually  ap- 
propriated to  the  first  of  what  are  known  as 
the  four  great  empires  of  the  world,  but 
which  in  geography  nearly  correspcmds  with 
the  modern  Koordistan.  Its  capital  was 
Nineveh,  of  which  the  ancient  ruins  may 
still  be  traced.  In  025  n.r.,  Nineveh  was 
destroyed  by  Cyaxare.s  the  Mede,  and  As- 
syria became  a  province  of  Media. 

Astapa  (  now  KHtepn).  A  city  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Seville,  Spain  ;  it  was  besieged  by 
the  Komaiis  under  ^larius;  the  besieged 
slew  their  women  and  children  and  allowed 
themselves  to  be  cut  down  to  a  man  before 
they  would  surrender  to  the  Romans. 

Asta-Regia.  A  city  of  Spain  (now  in 
ruins) ;  near  here  the  pnetor  Caius  Atinius 
gained  a  victory  over  the  ancient  Lusitan- 
ians.  in  18i;  h.c. 

Asti.or  Asta.  A  city  in  Piedmont,  Italy. 
Chevert  took  its  fortress  in  1745. 

Astorga  (anc.  Asturicn  Augusta).  A  city 
in  Spain,  which  was  taken  bv  the  French  in 
1810. 

Astragal  and  Fillets.  Are  the  mould- 
ings at  the  front  end  of  the  chase,  used  in 
the  ornamental  work  of  ordnance. 

Astrakhan  (Southeast  Ru-ssia).  Capital  of 
a  province  of  the  same  name;  it  was  captured 
by  the  Russians  in  1554;  besieged  by  the 
Turks  in  15(;!t,  who  were  defeated  with  great 
slaughter;  seized  by  the  rebel  Stenko  Ra/.in 
in  1670,  who  was  soon  dispo.ssessed  of  it  by 
his  uncle  Jacc>lof.  The  province  was  visited 
and  settled  by  Peter  the  Great  in  1722. 

Astrolabe.  An  instrument  for  observing 
the  position  of  the  stars,  now  disused.  A 
graduated  ring  with  sights  for  taking  alti- 
tudes at  sea  was  also  formerly  so  called. 

Asturias.  An  ancient  princi[>ality  in 
Northwest  Spain.  Here  Pelayo  collected 
the  Gothic  fugitives,  about  713.  founded  a 
new  kingdom,  and  by  his  victories  checked 
Moorish  conquests.  In  1808  the  junta  of 
Asturias  began  the  organized  resistance  to 
the  French  usurpation. 

Asylum,  Royal  Military.  A  benevolent 
institution  erected  at  Chelsea.  Middlesex, 
England,  for  the  reception  and  education  of 
the  children  of  soldiers  of  the  regular  army. 
The  first  stone  was  laid  by  the  Duke  of  York, 
June  19, 1801.  The  direction  and  control  of 
the  instifution  are  placed  in  the  hands  of 
commissioners  appointed  by  her  maje.ety, 
the  principals  of  which  are  the  commander- 
in-chief,  the  secretary  of  war.  the  master- 
general  of  the  ordnance,  and  other  high  offi- 
cials connected  with  the  government.  In 
the  selection  of  children  for  admissit>n  pref- 
erence, in  general,  is  given:  —  First,  to  or- 
fihans ;  second,  to  those  whose  fathers  have 
•een  killed,  or  have  died  on  foreign  service; 
third,  to  those  who  have  lost  their  mothers, 
and  whose  fathers  are  absent  on  duty  abroad  ; 
fourth,  to  those  whose  fathers  are  ordered 
on  foreign  service,  or  whose  parents   have 


ASYLUM 


36 


ATTACK 


other  children  to  maintain.  There  is  also  a 
branch  establishment  at  Southampton,  for 
the  maintenance  and  education  of  girls. 

Asylum,  Military.  See  Soldiers'  Homes. 

As  You  Were.  A  word  of  command  cor- 
responding to  the  French  remettez  vous,  fre- 
quently used  by  drill  instructors  to  cause  a 
resumption  of  the  previous  position,  when 
any  motion  of  the  musket  or  movement  of 
the  body  has  been  improperly  made. 

Atabal.  A  kettle-drum  ;  a  kind  of  tabor, 
used  by  the  Moors. 

Ataghan.     See  Yataghan. 

Ataman.  A  hetman,  or  chief  of  the  Cos- 
sacks. 

Atchevement.  In  heraldry,  is  a  term 
nearly  equivalent  to  arms,  or  armorial  bear- 
ings, and  is  often  used  in  its  abbreviated 
form  of  hntchment  when  speaking  of  the 
arms  of  a  deceased  person  as  displayed  at  his 
funeral  or  elsewhere. 

Ategar.  The  old  English  hand-dart, 
named  from  the  Saxon  aeton,  "  to  fling," 
and  ga)\  "  a  weapon." 

Ategna.  An  important  city  of  ancient 
Italy.  It  was  taken  from  the  Republicans 
by  Julius  Cfesar,  in  45  B.C. 

Atella  (now  San  Arpino).  A  place  in 
Italy,  where  the  French  under  the  Duke  of 
Montpensier,  general  of  Charles  VIII.,  had 
to  capitulate  and  surrender  to  Ferdinand  II. 
of  Naples,  in  1496.  The  prisoners  were 
transported  to  the  island  of  Procida,  where 
the  majority  of  them,  including  the  Duke 
of  Montpensier,  perished  by  contracting  an 
infectious  disease. 

Ath.  A  fortified  town  in  Belgium  ;  it 
was  ceded  to  France  in  1668;  fortified  by 
Vauban  ;  restored  to  the  Spaniards  in  1678  ; 
captured  by  the  French  under  Marshal 
Catinat  in  1697,  but  was  restored  in  the 
same  year  by  the  peace  of  Ryswick.  The 
allies  under  Field-Marshal  d'Auvergne  took 
it  October  1,  1706.  It  remained  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Dutch  till  1716,  when  it  was  given 
up  to  the  emperor  of  Austria,  with  the  re- 
mainder of  the  Spanish  Netherlands.  Louis 
XV.  of  France  captured  it  in  1745.  France 
lost  it  by  the  treaties  of  1814-15. 

Athanati.  A  corps  of  picked  soldiers  be- 
longing to  the  ancient  Persian  army,  10,000 
strong,  which  were  called  the  "Immortals," 
for  the  reason  that,  as  soon  as  one  of  the 
corps  died,  another  was  put  in  his  place. 

Athenry.  A  town  in  Galway,  Ireland; 
near  here  the  Irish  were  totally  defeated, 
and  a  gallant  young  chief,  Feidlim  O'Con- 
nor, slain  in  1316. 

Athens.  A  celebrated  city,  the  capital 
of  the  modern  kingdom  of  Greece,  situated 
in  the  plain  of  Attica,  about  4  miles  north- 
east of  the  Gulf  of  ^gina.  It  was  for  sev- 
eral ages  the  centre  of  European  civilization. 
The  city  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Cecrops,  and  afterwards  enlarged  by  Theseus, 
who  made  it  the  capital  of  the  new  state 
which  he  formed  by  uniting  into  one  politi- 
cal body  the  12  independent  states  into  which 
Attica  had  previously  been  divided.   A  new 


era  in  the  history  of  the  city  commences 
with  its  capture  by  Xerxes,  who  reduced  it 
almost  to  a  heap  of  ashes,  480  B.C.  This 
event  was  followed  by  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  maritime  power  of  the  city  and 
the  establishment  of  her  empire  over  the 
islands  of  the  ^gean  Sea.  Her  increasing 
wealth  afforded  her  ample  means  for  the  em- 
bellishment of  the  city,  and  during  the  half 
century  which  elapsed  between  the  battle  of 
Salami's  and  the  commencement  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war,  the  Athenians  erected  those 
masterpieces  of  architecture  which  have 
been  the  wonder  of  succeeding  ages.  The 
city  was  captured  by  the  Lacediemonians 
in  404  B.C.,  and  was  conquered  by  Sulla,  the 
Ivoman  general,  86  B.C.,  after  which  it  dwin- 
dled into  insignificance  as  a  maritime  city. 
Its  prosperity  continued,  however,  under  the 
Roman  sway,  and  it  continued  to  be  famous 
as  the  centre  of  philosophy,  literature,  and 
art,  many  famous  buildings  having  been 
erected  there  by  foreign  rulers  after  the  de- 
cline of  its  power.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  it  sunk  into  insignificance.  It  has 
successively  belonged  to  the  Goths,  Byzan- 
tines, Bergundians,  Franks,  Catalans,  Flor- 
entines, Venetians,  and  Turks.  In  1687  the 
buildings  of  the  Acropolis  suffered  severe 
injury  in  the  siege  of  Athens  by  the  Vene- 
tians under  Morosini.  In  1834  Athens  was 
declared  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Greece. 

Athlone.  A  town  in  Roscommon,  Ire- 
land, which  was  burnt  during  the  civil  war 
in  1641.  After  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  Col. 
R.  Grace  held  Athlone  for  James  II.  against 
a  besieging  army,  but  fell  when  it  was  taken 
by  assault  by  Ginkel,  June  80,  1691.     See 

AUGHRIM. 

Atilt.  In  the  manner  of  a  tilter ;  in  the 
})Osition  or  with  the  action  of  a  man  making 
a  thrust.     "  To  run  a  tilt  at  men." 

Atlanta.  A  city  of  Fulton  Co.,  Ga., 
and  the  capital  of  the  State  In  its  vicinity 
a  battle  was  fought  between  the  Federal 
forces  under  Gen.  Sherman  and  the  Confed- 
erates under  Gen.  Hood,  July  22,  1864.  The 
city  was  taken  by  Gen.  Sherman  on  Septem- 
ber 2,  and  held  by  him  until  November  15, 
when  he  set  out  on  his  famous  "  march  to 
the  sea." 

Atmidometer,  or  Admometer.  An  in- 
strument for  measuring  the  rate  of  evapora- 
tion, used  in  English  medical  corps. 

Atrebates.  A  Belgic  people  subdued  by 
Ca?sar,  57  B.C. 

Attach.  To  place,  to  appoint.  Officers 
and  non-commissioned  officers  are  said  to  be 
attached  to  the  respective  army,  regiment, 
battalion,  troop,  or  company  witl^ which 
they  are  appointed  to  act. 

Attache  [Ft:].  The  seal  and  signature 
of  the  colonel-general  in  the  old  French 
service,  which  were  affixed  to  commissions 
of  officers  after  they  had  been  duly  exam- 
ined. 

Attack.  Any  general  assault  or  onset 
that  is  given  to  gain  a  post  or  break  a  body 


ATTACK  AND  DEFENSE 


37 


AUSTERLITZ 


of  troops.  False  attnck,  a  feigned  or  second- 
ary movement  in  tiie  urrrtni^cments  of  an  as- 
sault, intended  to  divert  the  attention  of  an 
enemy  from  the  real  or  principal  attack. 
Such  a  movement  luis  been  sometinie.s  con- 
verted into  a  real  att«cl<,  and  .succeeded 
when  the  main  assault,  to  which  it  was  in- 
tended to  be  subsidiary,  had  failed.  Adnr.k 
of  a  niege,  is  a  furious  attack  made  by  the  be- 
siegers by  means  of  trenches,  galleries,  saps, 
breaches,  or  n)ines,  etc.,  by  storming  any 
part  of  the  front  attack.  To  attack  in  front 
or  iiank,  in  fortifications,  means  to  attack  the 
salient  angle,  or  both  sides  of  the  bastion. 

Attack  and  Defense.  A  part  of  the  sword 
exorci.-e  drill. 

Attacking.  The  act  of  making  a  general 
assault  or  onset  for  the  capture  of  a  post, 
fort,  etc.,  or  the  breaking  of  a  body  of  troops. 
Previous  to  an  a.ssault  on  a  fortified  position, 
the  artillery  ought  to  support  the  other 
troops  by  a  combined  tire  of  guns,  howitzers, 
and  small  mortars,  so  that,  if  possible,  the 
lire  may  be  simultaneous,  as  such  diversity 
of  projectiles  would  tend  to  distract  tlie  de- 
fenders, and  prevent  them  from  extinguish- 
ing any  tires  among  buildings,  besides 
throwing  them  into  confusion  at  the  mo- 
ment of  as-sault.  In  cases  of  surprise,  when 
immediate  action  is  required,  this  method 
cannot,  of  course,  be  practicable. 

Attention.  A  cautionary  command  ad- 
dressed to  troops  preparatory  to  a  particular 
exercise  or  manoeuvre.  Uare-n-vous  has  the 
same  signification  in  the  French  service. 

Attestation.  In  the  English  service,  is  a 
certificate  which  is  granted  by  a  justice  of 
the  peace  within  four  days  after  the  enlist- 
ment of  a  recruit.  This  certificate  bears 
testimony  that  the  recruit  has  been  brought 
before  the  justice  in  conformity  to  the  Slu- 
tiny  Act,  and  has  declared  his  assent  or  dis- 
sent to  such  enlistment,  and  that  (if  accord- 
ing to  the  said  act  he  shall  luive  been  duly 
enlisted)  the  proper  oaths  have  been  admin- 
istered to  him  by  the  magistrate,  and  the 
sections  of  the  articles  of  war  against  mu- 
tiny and  desertion  road  to  the  said  recruit. 

Audenarde.     See  Otdknaudk. 

Auditor,  Second.  An  otlicial  connected 
with  the  Tnasiuy  l)('|iartmcMt,  whose  duties 
consist  in  examining  all  accounts  relating  to 
the  pay  and  clothing  of  the  army,  the  sub- 
sistence of  officers,  bounties,  premiums,  mil- 
itary and  hospital  stores,  and  the  contingent 
expenses  of  the  War  Department,  etc.,  and 
transmitting  them  with  vouchers,  etc.,  to 
the  Second  (.'oiuptroller  for  his  decision. 

Auditor,  Third.  To  him  is  assigned  the 
duty  of  examining  all  accounts  relative  to 
the  subsistence  of  tlie  army,  the  quartcr- 
ma.ster's  department,  and  generally  all  ac- 
counts of  the  War  Department  other  than 
those  provided  for;  also  all  accounts  relating 
to  pensions,  claims  for  compensation  for  loss 
of  hor.ses  and  equipments  of  officers  and  en- 
listed men  in  the  military  service  of  the 
United  States,  etc. 

Auditor,  Fourth.     Examines  all  accounts 


accruing  in  the  Navy  Department,  or  rela- 
tive thereto,  and  all  accounts  relating  to 
navy  pensions. 

Auerstadt  (Prussia).  Here  and  at  Jena, 
on  October  4,  IWk;.  the  From  h  signally  de- 
feated the  Prussians.     See  .Ikna. 

Auget.  A  kind  of  small  trough  used  in 
mining,  in  which  tlie  saucisson  or  train-hose 
is  laid  in  straw,  to  prevent  the  powder  from 
contracting  any  dampness. 

Aughrim.  Near  Athlone,  in  Ireland, 
where,  on  .July  12,  lOiM,  a  battle  was  fought 
between  the  Irish,  headed  by  the  French 
general  St.  Kuth,  and  the  English,  under 
Gen.Ginkel.  The  former  were  defeated  and 
lost  7000  men  ;  the  latter  lost  only  GOO  killed 
and  %0  wounded.  St.  Kuth  was  slain.  This 
engagement  proved  decisively  fatal  to  the 
interests  of  James  II.,  and  Ginkel  was  cre- 
ated earl  of  Atlilone. 

Augusta.  A  city  and  capital  of  Richmond 
Co.,  (ia.,  on  the  Savannah  Kiver.  It  was 
an  important  place  at  the  time  of  the  Revo- 
lution, and  was  captured  by  the  English  and 
Tories  in  1779,  but  surrendered  to  Col.  Henry 
Lee,  of  the  Revolutionary  armv,  June  5, 
1781. 

Augusta,  or  Agosta.  A  well-built  and 
fortitifd  city  in  the  intendancy  of  Catania, 
in  Sicily;  near  here,  on  April  21,  l(>7'i,  a 
naval  battle  was  fought  between  the  French 
under  Duquesne,  and  the  Dutch  and  Spanish 
fleet  under  Ruy  ter,  the  advantage  remaining 
with  the  French.  Ruyter  was  wounded  at 
this  battle,  and  died  a  few  days  after  at 
Syracuse. 

Augusticum.  A  bounty  that  was  given 
by  the  Roman  emperors  to  their  soldiers 
upon  the  latter  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance 
for  the  first  time,  or  upon  a  renewal  of  the 
oath. 

Aulic  Council.  A  term  applied  to  a 
council  of  the  War  Department  of  the  Aus- 
trian empire,  and  the  members  of  different 
provincial  chanceries  of  that  empire  are 
called  aulic  councillors. 

Aumacor.  A  title  similar  to  general-in- 
chief,  which  was  given  to  the  chief  of  the 
Saracens  during  the  Crii-sadcs. 

Ausen.  A  name  given  by  the  Goths  to 
their  victoriovis  generals.  This  word  in 
their  language  signifies  "  more  than  mortal,"' 
i.e..  demi-gods. 

Aussig.  A  village  in  Prussia,  where,  in 
142tj,  the  army  of  the  margrave  Frederick 
von  Meissen  was  defeated  by  the  Hussites 
and  Poles  under  Jakubko  von  Wrezezow- 
ecez  and  Prince  Sigismund  Koribut.  The 
city  was  ydundered  and  burned  the  same 
night  by  the  Hussites. 

Austerlitz  ( .Moravia).  Here  a  battle  was 
fought  between  the  French  and  the  allied 
Austrian  and  Russian  armies,  December  2, 
180o.  Three  em|)erors  c»>mmanded  :  Alexan- 
per  of  Russia,  Francis  of  Austria,  and  Na- 
doleon  of  France.  The  killed  and  wounded 
exceeded  .SO.lKKl  on  the  si<leof  the  allies,  who 
lost  40  standards,  loO  pieces  of  cannon,  and 
thousands    of    prisoners ;    the   French    loss 


AUSTRIA 


38 


AVALLON 


amounted  to  about  12,000  men.  The  de- 
cisive victory  of  the  French  led  to  the  treaty 
of  Presburg,  sii^ned  December  20,  1805. 

Austria,  Empire  of  (Ger.  Oesterreich, 
"eastern  liingdom").  One  of  the  most  ex- 
tensive and  most  populous  of  European 
kingdoms,  comprising  the  southeast  part  of 
Central  Europe  and  more  than  half  the 
territory  of  the  Danube.  It  is  composed  of 
a  union  of  different  states,  some  of  them  at 
one  time  forming -independent  kingdoms, 
inhabited  by  races  of  people  differing  from 
each  other  in  descent,  language,  customs, 
laws,  and  religion,  held  together  as  one  em- 
pire by  being  united  under  one  sovereign 
and  one  central  government.  This  terri- 
tory, which  was  comprised  in  Noricum  and 
part  of  Pannonia,  was  anne-xed  to  the  Ro- 
man empire  in  33,  was  overrun  by  Huns, 
Avars,  etc.,  in  the  5th  and  6th  centuries, 
and  taken  from  thein  by  Charlemagne, 
who  united  it  to  Germany  as  the  "eastern 
kingdom,"  791-96.  In  1156  the  country 
was  made  a  hereditary  duchy  by  the  em- 
peror Frederick  I.,  and  in  1453  was  raised 
to  an  archduchy.  Rodolph,  count  of  Haps- 
burg,  elected  emperor  of  Germany  in  1273, 
acquired  Austria  in  1278,  and  from  1493  to 
1804  his  descendants  were  emperors  of  Ger- 
many. On  August  11,  1804,  Francis  II. 
became  hereditary  emperor  of  Austria.  Vi- 
enna, the  capital,  was  entered  by  a  French 
army  November  14,  1805,  and  evacuated 
January  12,  1806,  Austria  losing  Venice 
and  the  Tyrol  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg. 
Francis  renounced  the  title  of  emperor  of 
Germany  August  6,  1806.  Vienna  was 
again  taken  by  the  French  May  13,  1809, 
but  was  restored  at  the  peace,  October  14 
following.  In  1848  Lombardy  revolted,  and 
Milan  and  other  disaffected  towns  formed 
an  alliance  with  Charles  Albert,  king  of 
Sardinia,  who  then  invaded  the  Austrian 
territory  at  the  head  of  a  large  army,  victory 
seeming  for  a  time  to  favor  the  Italians.  In 
the  following  year,  however,  both  the  in- 
surgents and  their  Sardinian  ally  were  re- 
peatedly defeated  by  the  Austrian  forces 
under  Marshal  Radetzky,  and  Lombardy 
was  again  brought  under  the  Austrian  sway, 
\\xt  was  ceded  to  Sardinia  in  1859.  Prussia 
and  Italy  declared  war  against  Austria  in 
1866 ;  but,  through  the  intervention  of  Na- 
poleon, peace  was  concluded  the  same  j'ear, 
Austria  losing  Venice  and  the  Quadrilat- 
eral. 

Authority.  In  a  general  acceptation  of 
the  term,  signifies  a  right  to  command  and 
a  consequent  right  to  be  obej'cd.  For  the 
appointment  of  officers  of  the  U.  S.  army, 
see  Appointing  Power.  It  appears  that 
the  sovereigns  of  Great  Britain  and  other 
nations  have  the  power  to  appoint  and  dis- 
miss officers  at  pleasure. 

Autocrat.  A  person  vested  with  an  ab- 
solute independent  power,  by  which  he  is 
rendered  unaccountable  to  any  other  for  his 
actions.  The  power  of  the  Athenian  gen- 
erals or  commanders  was  usually  limited,  so 


that,  at  the  expiration  of  their  office,  they 
were  liable  to  render  an  account  of  their  ad- 
ministration. But,  on  some  extraordinary 
occasions,  they  were  exempted  from  this  re- 
straint, and  sent  with  a  full  and  uncon- 
trollable authority ;  in  which  sense  they 
were  styled  autocrats.  Somewhat  similar 
was  the  Roman  dictator.  This  term  is 
sometimes  applied  to  the  czar  of  Russia. 

Automatic  Fire.  A  mixture  of  combus- 
tibles used  by  the  Greeks.  It  was  exploded 
by  the  rays  of  the  sun. 

Autonomy.  The  power  or  right  of  self- 
government.  This  was  a  privilege  jealously 
preserved  in  all  the  important  cities  of  an- 
cient Greece,  nearly  every  one  of  which  was 
an  independent  state.  The  right  to  make 
their  own  laws  and  elect  their  own  magis- 
trates was  also  granted  by  the  Romans  to 
some  of  their  cities,  and  was  regarded  as  a 
mark  of  honor. 

Autun  (anc.  Bihi-acte,  Augustodimum).  A 
town  in  France,  department  of  the  Saone- 
et-Loire.  Here,  in  the  year  21,  two  Roman 
legions  under  Silius  gained  a  victory  over 
Sacrovir,  chief  of  the  ^dui,  who  had  as- 
sembled a  considerable  force  to  oppose  Silius. 
The  Germans  besieged  it  in  355 ;  captured 
by  the  Burgundians  in  414 ;  devastated  by 
the  Saracens  in  731  ;  burned  by  the  Nor- 
mans in  888  and  895.  This  city  was  be- 
sieged without  success  by  Marshal  d'Au- 
mont  in  1591.  It  was  also  the  scene  of 
hostile  operations  between  Garibaldi  and  the 
Germans  in  the  winter  of  1870-71.  • 

Auxerre.  Chief  town  of  the  department 
of  Yonne,  France.  It  is  supposed  to  be  on 
the  site  of  the  Ancient  AidiHslodurum,  which 
was  a  flourishing  town  before  the  Roman 
invasion  of  Gaul.  It  successfully  resisted 
the  Huns  under  Attila,  was  taken  from  the 
Romans  by  Clovis,  and  after  his  death  be- 
came a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy. 
The  English  took  it  in  1339,  but  it  was  re- 
taken by  Du  Guesclin.  It  was  finally  united 
to  the  kingdom  of  France  by  Louis  XI. 
John,  "Sans  Peur,"  duke  of  Burgundy 
(reigned  from  1404-19),  caused  the  assassi- 
nation of  Louis,  duke  of  Orleans,  in  14u7, 
which  gave  rise  to  a  civil  war  between  the 
Burgundians  and  the  dukes  of  Orleans  and 
their  allies,  which  was  ended  by  the  treaty 
of  Auxerre,  August  10,  1412. 

Auxiliary.  Foreign  or  subsidiary  troops 
which  are  furnished  to  a  belligerent  power 
in  consequence  of  a  treaty  of  alliance,  or 
for  pecuniary  considerations.  Of  the  latter 
description  may  be  considered  the  Hessians 
that  were  employed  by  Great  Britain  to 
enslave  America. 

Auxiliary  War.     See  War,  Auxiliary. 

Auximum  (now  Oslmo).  A  town  in  Italy, 
9  miles  from  Ancona,  which  Belisarius  (a 
great  general  of  the  Byzantine  empire)  cap- 
tured from  the  Goths  in  539. 

Avallon  (anc.  Aballo).  A  town  in  the 
department  of  Yonne,  France,  which  sus- 
tained a  long  siege  and  was  dismantled 
during  the  reign  of  King  Robert  in  the  10th 


avXnt 


39 


AYACUCHO 


century.  It  was  sacked  by  tlie  Saracens  in 
731,  and  by  the  Nornuins  in  843;  taken  by 
Charles  VII.  in  1433,  retaken  by  Philip  the 
Good,  duke  of  Burgundy,  in  li.'iij,  and  pil- 
laged by  the  troops  of  the  League  in  IjV.iS. 

Avant  (7'V.).  Foremost,  most  advanced 
towards  the  enemy;  as,  Arniit-chewin  con- 
vert, the  advanced  covered  way  which  is 
made  at  the  foot  of  the  glacis  to  o})pose  the 
approaches  of  an  enemy.  Aintit-duc,  tlie 
pile-work  whidi  is  formed  b}-  a  number  of 
young  trees  on  tlie  edge  or  entrance  t>f  a 
river.  They  are  driven  into  the  ground 
with  battering-rams  or  strong  pieces  of  iron, 
to  form  a  level  floor  by  means  of  strong 
planks  being  nailed  ujion  it,  which  serve  for 
the  foundation  of  a  bridge.  iJoats  are  placed 
wherever  the  avant-duc  terminates.  The 
avnui-duc  is  had  recourse  to  when  the  river 
is  so  broad  that  there  are  not  boats  sufficient 
to  make  a  bridge  across.  Avnnt-ducs  are 
made  on  each  side  of  the  river.  Avnn(-fo.isc, 
the  ditch  of  the  counterscarp  next  to  the 
country.  It  is  dug  at  the  foot  of  the  glacis. 
Avnnt-gnrde,  advance-guard.  Avaitt-traius, 
the  limbers  of  tield-pieccs  on  which  are 
placed  boxes  containing  ammunition  enough 
for  immediate  service. 

Avars.  Barbarians  who  ravaged  Pan- 
nonin  and  annoyed  the  Eastern  empire  in 
the  0th  and  7th  centuries ;  subdued  by 
Charlemagne  about  79'J,  after  an  eight 
years'  war. 

Avein,  or  Avaine.  A  village  in  Luxem- 
bourg, where,  on  May  20,  1(>3.).  the  French 
and  Dutch,  under  Marsluils  de  Chatillon 
and  de  Hrere,  defeated  the  Spaniards  under 
Prince  Thonuis  of  Savoy.  The  prince  lost 
4000  men  killed  and  wounded,  900  prisoners, 
and  14  pieces  of  cannon. 

Aventaile.  The  movable  part  of  a  hel- 
met. 

Averysborough.  A  village  of  North 
Carolina,  on  Cajie  Fear  Kivcr,  about  40 
miles  .south  of  Kalcigh.  During  Gen.  Sher- 
man's South  Carolina  campaign,  in  1805, 
this  place  was  the  scene  of  an  engage- 
ment between  his  forces  and  about  20,000 
Confederates  under  Gen.  Hardee,  who  were 
intrenched  in  a  swampy  neck  between  Cape 
Fear  and  South  llivers  in  order  to  check 
Sherman's  progress,  and  gain  time  for  tlie 
concentration  of  (>en.  Johnston's  forces  in 
the  rear  at  Raleigh,  Sniithfield,  or  Golds- 
boro'.  The  position  of  the  Confederates 
was  ft  strong  one  to  carry  by  reasoq  of 
the  nature  of  the  ground,  which  was  very 
soft;  but  after  four  hours'  lighting  they 
were  driven  back  to  a  second  line  better  and 
more  strongly  held,  losing  3  guns  and  217 
prisoners.  Here  the  tighting  was  continued 
until  late  in  the  afternoon,  when  the  entire 
Federal  line  advanced  and  drove  the  Con- 
federates within  their  intrencliments,  press- 
ing them  so  hard  that  during  the  night  of 
March  10,  which  was  stormy,  they  retreated 
towards  Smithfield.  The  Union  loss  was  12 
officers  and  05  men  killed  and  477  wounded. 
Avesnes.     A  city  in  the  department  of 


the  North,  France;  captured  by  Louis  XI.  ; 
recaptured  by  the  Spaniards  in  1559;  re- 
turned to  France  in  1059;  occupied  by  the 
Russians  in  1814,  and  by  the  Prussians  in 
1815. 

Avesnes  le  Sec,  Battle  of.  The  French 
were  defeated  by  the  Auslrians  in  this  bat- 
tle, September,  *1793. 

Avigliana.  A  city  in  Italy  where  the 
French  dctcatcd  the  Piedmoiite«e  in  1030. 

Avignon.  A  city  in  Southeastern  Franc; 
besieged  and  cajiluicd  by  Louis  Vlll.  of 
France  in  1220;  ceded  by  Philij)  IIL  to  the 
pope  in  1273.  The  papal  seat  was  removed 
by  Clement  V.  to  Avignon  in  1-309.  In  1348, 
Clement  VI.  purchased  the  sovereignty  from 
Jane,  countess  of  Provence  and  queen  of 
Naples.  In  1408  the  French,  wearied  of  the 
schism,  expelled  Benedict  XIII.,  and  Avig- 
non ceased  to  be  the  seat  of  pajiacv.  Here 
were  held  nine  councils  (1080-1457).  This 
city  was  seized  and  restored  several  times  by 
the  French  kings;  the  last  time  in  1773.  It 
was  claimed  by  the  National  Assembly,  1791, 
and  was  confirmed  to  Frame  by  the  congress 
of  sovereigns  in  1815.  In  October,  1791,  hor- 
rible massacres  took  place  here. 

Avis,  or  Aviz.  An  order  of  knighthood 
in  Portugal,  instituted  by  Sancho,  the  tirst 
king  of  Portugal,  in  imitation  of  the  order  of 
Calatrava,  and  having,  like  it,  for  its  object 
the  subjugation  of  the  Moors.  The  king  of 
Portugal  is  grand-master  of  the  order. 

Avranches  (anc.  Ahrancae).  A  city  in  the 
department  of  La  Manche,  France.  It  was 
a  jilace  of  importance  during  the  Konutn 
j  )ieriod.  Charlemagne  forlitied  it,  but  it  was 
I  taken  by  the  Normans  in  805.  It  was  cap- 
tured bv  Geofl'rev  Plantagenet  in  1141;  by 
Guy  de'Thouars'in  1203;' by  the  English  in 
1418;  by  the  Calvinisls  in  1*502;  besieged  by 
the  royal  troops  in  1591. 

Award.  A  judgment,  the  result  of  arbi- 
tration. In  a  military  sense,  the  decision 
or  sentence  of  a  court-martial.  To  award 
medals  of  honor. 

Awkward  Squad.     See  Squad. 
Axel.    A  town  in  tli<*  province  of  Zealand, 
Holland ;    captured    by    escalade   from    the 
Spaniards  August  20,  1580,  by  Prince  Mau- 
rice of  Saxony,  who  was  then   but  twenty 
years  of  age ;  captured  by  assault  on  May 
'   10,  1747,  by  Marshal  Maurice  de  Saxe. 
I       Axis.     A  straight  line,  real  or  imaginary, 
I  about   which   a   body  revolves   is  called   the 
axis  of  rotation.     In  gunnery,   the  axis  of 
,  the  piece  is  the  central  line  of  the  bore  of 
I   the  gun. 

Axum,  or  Axoum.  A  town  in  Abyssinia, 
said  to  have  been  the  capital  of  a  kimrdom 
,  whose  i>eople  were  cimverted  to  Christianity 
I  by  Frunieiitius,  in  the  4tli  lentury,  and  to 
I  have  been  the  allies  of  Justinian,  533;  cap- 
tured and  burned  by  the  Arabs  in  l.')32. 
j  Aya-Bassi,  or  Bachi.  A  non-conimis- 
;  sioned  grade  in  the  corps  of  janissaries,  cor- 
,  responding  to  that  of  corporal  in  modern 
'  armies. 
^      Ayacucho.    A  city  in  Peru  ;  hero  the  Pe- 


AYLESBURY 


40 


BACK-PLATE 


ruvians  finally  gained  their  independence 
by  defeating  the  Spaniards,  December  9, 
1824.  The  Spaniards  lost  6  generals  killed, 
and  General  Lascerna  wounded  and  taken 
prisoner  ;  700  men  under  Canterac  and  Val- 
dez,  who  tried  to  escape,  were  forced  to  sur- 
render. 

Aylesbury.  A  town  in  Buckinghamshire, 
England  ;  was  reduced  by  the  West  Saxons 
in  571.  St.  O'Syth,  beheaded  by  the  pagans 
in  Essex,  was  buried  there,  600.  "William 
the  Conqueror  invested  his  favorites  with 
some  of  its  lands,  under  the  tenure  of  pro- 
viding straw  for  his  bed-chambers,  three  eels 
for  his  use  in  winter,  and  in  summer,  straw, 
rushes,  and  two  green  geese,  thrice  every 
year. 

Aylesford.  A  town  in  Kent,  England ; 
here,  it  is  said,  the  Britons  were  victorious 
over  the  Saxon  invaders,  455,  and  Horsa  was 
killed. 

Azaine  (Fr.).  A  name  formerly  applied 
to  a  trumpet  in  the  French  army. 

Azapes.  Auxiliary  troops  which  were 
levied  by  the  Turks  among  the  Christians 
(under  their  dominion),  whom  they  exposed 
to  the  first  attack  of  the  enemy. 

Azay-le-Rideau.  A  small  town  in  the 
department  of  Indre-et-Loire,  France,  for- 
merly fortified ;  it  sustained  several  sieges 
during  the  reign  of  Charles  VI. 

Azaz.  A  fortress  which  was  situated  be- 
tween Aleppo  and  Antioch  ;  captured  by  the 
Saracens  in  688  B.C. 


Azmooz.  A  village  in  Switzerland,  where 
the  French  under  Massena  defeated  the 
Austrians  and  took  3000  prisoners. 

Azoe,  or  Azov.  A  town  in  Russia  in  Eu- 
rope, captured  by  Tamerlane  in  1392,  by  the 
Turks  in  1471,  by  the  Russians  in  1696;  re- 
turned to  the  Turks  in  1711  ;  ceded  to  Rus- 
sia in  1774.  It  was  bombarded  and  destroyed 
by  an  allied  English  and  French  squadron 
in  1855. 

Azof,  Sea  of.  The  Palus  Mcjeotia  of  the 
ancients,  communicates  by  the  Strait  of 
Yenikale,  or  Kertch  (the  Bosphorus  Cim- 
merius),  with  the  Black  Sea,  and  is  entirely 
surrounded  by  Russian  territory.  An  expe- 
dition composed  of  British,  French,  and 
Turkish  troops,  commanded  by  Sir  G. 
Brown,  arrived  at  Kertch,  May  24,  1855, 
when  the  Russians  retired,  after  blowing  up 
the  fortifications.  On  the  27th  the  allies 
marched  upon  Yenikale,  which  also  offered 
no  resistance.  On  the  same  evening  the  al- 
lied fleet  entered  the  sea  of  Azof,  and  in  a 
few  days  completed  their  occupation  of  it, 
after  capturing  a  large  number  of  merchant 
vessels,  etc.  "immense  quantities  of  stores 
were  destroyed  by  the  Russians  to  prevent 
them  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  allies. 

Azotus.     See  Ashdod. 

Aztecs.  The  ruling  tribe  in  Mexico  at 
the  time  of  the  Spanish  invasion,  1519. 

Azure.  A  French  word  used  in  heraldry 
to  signify  blue.  In  engraving  arms  it  is 
always  represented  by  horizontal  lines. 


'»  iiTOr  (  o 


B. 


Baalbec.  An  ancient  city  of  Syria.  From 
the  accounts  of  Oriental  writers,  it  Was  a 
place  of  importance  down  to  the  time  of  the 
Moslem  invasion  of  Syria.  After  the  cap- 
ture of  Damascus,  it  was  regularly  invested 
by  the  Moslems,  and  after  a  courageous  de- 
fense at  length  capitulated  ;  sacked  and  dis- 
mantled by  the  caliph  of  Damascus,  and 
the  principal  inhabitants  put  to  the  sword, 
748;  pillaged  by  Timour  Bey,  1400;  after- 
wards subjected  to  Turkish  supremacy  ;  pil- 
laged August  8,  1860,  and  the  Christian  in- 
habitants massacred  by  the  Mohammedans. 

Bab-el-Thaza.  A  place  in  Algeria  where 
the  French  fought  the  Arabs,  April  22, 
1842. 

Babylon.  One  of  the  oldest  and  most 
celebrated  cities  in  the  world,  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  Babylonio-Chaldean  empire, 
was  situated  in  an  extensive  plain  on  the 
Euphrates,  about  60  miles  south  of  Bagdad. 
The  modern  town  of  Hillah  is  supposed  to 
occupy  a  portion  of  its  site.  About  588  B.C., 
Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon,  captured 


Jerusalem,  burned  the  great  temple  of  Solo- 
mon, and  carried  away  the  .Jews  as  captives 
to  Babylon.  Cyrus  besieged  Babylon,  took 
it  by  stratagem  in  538,  and  put  to  death  the 
king  Belshazzar,  after  which  the  kingdom 
of  Babylon  ceased  to  exist.  The  city  was 
occupied  by  Darius  in  518,  and  taken  by 
Alexander  the  Great  in  831.  Alexander 
having  selected  it  as  the  capital  of  his  em- 
pire, died  there  in  323  B.C. 

Bacchi.  Two  ancient  warlike  machines; 
the  one  resembled  a  battering-ram,  the  other 
cast  out  fire. 

Bachelier  [Fr.).  A  young  squire,  or 
knight,  who  has  passed  through  his  first  cam- 
paign, and  received  the  belt  of  the  order. 

Bachevaleureux,  A  term  which,  in  the 
old  French  language,  signified  warrior,  brave, 
valiant,  etc. 

Backing.  The  heavy  plating  of  wood, 
or  of  wood  and  iron,  used  to  support  and 
strengthen  iron  plates. 

Back-plate.  A  piece  of  armor  for  cover- 
ing the  back. 


BACK-SIGHT 


41 


BAGS 


Back-sight.     See  Sight,  Kkar. 

Back-step.  The  retrograde  movement 
of  a  man,  or  a  body  of  men,  w'thout  chang- 
ing front. 

Backsword.  A  sword  with  one  sharp 
edge.  In  England,  a  stick  with  a  basket 
handle,  used  in  rustic  amusements;  the 
game  in  which  it  is  used  ;  called  also  "  single 
stick." 

Backwards.  A  technical  word  made  use 
of  in  the  British  service  to  express  the  retro- 
grade movement  of  troops  from  line  into 
column,  and  vice  versa.  Also  a  word  of 
comnuind  in  the  U.  S.  service,  to  cause  a 
man,  or  body  of  men,  to  march  to  the  rear 
without  changing  front. 

Bactria  (n<)W  Bokhara).  A  province  of 
the  Persian  empire;  it  was  inhabited  by  a 
rude  and  warlike  people,  who  were  subdued 
by  Cyrus  or  his  next  successors.  It  was  in- 
cluded in  the  conquests  of  Alexander,  and 
formed  a  j)art  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Selu- 
cidib  until  255  u.c,  when  Theodotus,  its 
governor,  revolted  from  Antiochus  II.,  and 
founded  the  Greek  kingdom  of  IJactria ; 
overthrown  by  the  Parthians  184  or  125  B.C. 

Bacule.  A  kind  of  portcullis  or  gate, 
made  like  a  pitfall,  with  a  counterpoise.  See 
13.VSCULK  Hkidcjk. 

Badajos  (Southwest  Spain).  An  impor- 
tant harrier  fortress,  surrendered  to  the 
French,  under  Soult,  March  11,  1811;  was 
invested  by  the  British,  under  Lord  Wel- 
lington, on  March  IG,  1812,  and  stormed  and 
taken  on  April  0,  1812.  The  French  re- 
treated in  haste. 

Badaleers.  Musket-charges  of  powder  in 
tin  or  copper  tubes,  worn  dangling  from  a 
shoulder-belt,  before  the  introduction  of  car- 
tridges. 

Baddesdown  Hill,  or  Mount  Badon. 
Near  Bath,  England,  where  Bcde  says  the 
Britons  defeated  the  Saxons,  41)3  ;  others  say 
in  511  or  5L'(i. 

Badelaire,  or  Bandelaire  (Fr.).  A  short, 
broad,  curved,  and  double-edged  pointed 
sword. 

Baden  (Southwest  Germany).  A  grand 
ducliv  ;  broke  out  in  insurrection  and  joined 
by  th'e  free  city  of  Rastadt,  May,  184'J;  the 
Prussians  entered  it,  and  defeated  the  in- 
surgents commanded  by  .Mierolawski,  June 
15,  1849.  Noted  as  the'place  where  the  Em- 
peror Napoleon  III.,  the  prince  regent  of 
Prussia,  and  the  German  kings  and  princes 
held  an  interview,  June  1(3,  1800. 

Badge.  A  distinctive  mark,  token,  or 
sign,  worn  on  the  person.  Corps  badges 
were  worn  to  distinguish  the  army  corps 
during  the  civil  war,  1861-65.  Marksmen's 
badfjes  are  given  to  good  shots  in  most 
armies. 

Badon,    Mount.     The  scene  of  a  battle 
said  to   have  been  fought  by  King  Arthur  I 
against  the  Saxons  who  invaded  his  king-  I 
dom,  and  in  which  the  latter  were  signally 
defeated.     By  some  writers  Badon  has  been 
identiticd  with  Bath,  by  others  in  Berkshire. 

Bsecula.     An  ancient   town  in  Uispunia  j 
4 


Tarraconensis,  west  of  Cmtulo,  where  the 
liomans  under  Scipio  defeated  the  Cartha- 
ginians under  Ilasdrubal,  209  B.C. 

Bagaudes.  A  natne  given  to  the  peas- 
ants of  Gaul,  who  revolted  against  the  Ro- 
mans in  270;  they  pillaged  cities  and  vil- 
lages and  massacred  the  Roman  officers  ;  two 
of  the  insurgent  chiefs,  Aliandus  and  Aman- 
dus,  were  elected  emperors;  their  reign  was 
of  short  duration  ;  besieged  in  their  camp 
near  the  confluence  of  the  Seine  and  Marne, 
where  Saint-Maur  is  now  situated,  they 
died  in  arms.  This  place  was  named  for  a 
long  time  "Camp  des  Bagaudes." 

Bagdad.  In  Asiatic  Turkey,  built  by  Al 
Mansour,  and  made  the  seat  of  the  .Saracen 
empire  about  762  ;  taken  by  the  Tartars,  and 
a  period  put  to  the  Saracen  rule,  1258;  often 
taken  by  the  Persians,  and  retaken  by  the 
Turks,  with  great  slaughter ;  the  latter  took 
it  in  l(i.38,  and  have  held  it  since. 

Baggage.  The  clothes,  tents,  utensils  of 
divers  sorts,  and  provisions,  etc.,  belonging 
to  an  army,  or  part  of  an  army. 

Baggonet.     The  old  term  for  bayonet. 

Bagpipe.  The  name  of  a  musical  warlike 
instrument,  of  the  wind  kind,  used  by  the 
Scotch  regiments,  and  sometimes  by  the- 
Irish.  Bagpipes  were  used  by  the  Danes, 
by  the  Romans,  and  by  the  Asiatics.  The 
Greeks  also  had  an  instrument  composed  of 
a  pipe  and  blown-up  skin.  The  bagpipe  has 
been  a  favorite  instrument  among  the  Scots. 
There  are  two  varieties,  the  one  with  long 
pipes,  sounded  with  the  rnouth  ;  the  other,, 
with  short  pipes,  filled  with  air  by  a  bellows, 
and  played  on  with  the  lingers.'  The  first,, 
the  loudest  and  most  ear-piercing  of  all 
music,  is  the  genuine  Highland  pipe,  and 
was   suited   to   the  warlike  genius  of  that 

Eeople.  It  formerly  roused  their  courage  to 
attle,  alarmed  them  when  secure,  and  col- 
lected them  when  scattered,  solaced  them  in- 
their  long  and  jiainful  marches,  and  in  time- 
of  peace  kept  up  the  memory  of  the  gallan- 
try of  their  ancestors  by  the  tunes  composed 
after  signal  victories.  The  other  is  the  Iri&b 
bagpipe. 

Bags.  Articles  used  in  field  fortifications, 
and  in  works  to  cover  a  besieging  army. 
Sa?t(/-ba(/s,  which  are  generally  16  inches- 
in  diameter,  and  80  high,  are  filled  with 
earth  or  sand,  to  repair  breaches  and  embra- 
sures of  batteries,  when  damaged  by  the 
enemy's  fire  or  by  the  blast  of  the  guns. 
They  are  also  placed  on  jiarapets,  so  arranged 
as  to  form  a  covering  for  men  to  fire  through. 
Earth-bafjH  contain  about  a  cubical  foot  of 
earth,  and  are  used  to  raise  a  parapet  in 
haste,  or  to  repair  one  that  is  beaten  down. 
They  are  only  employed  where  tlu;  ground 
is  rocky,  or  too  hard  for  the  pickaxe  and 
spade,  and  does  not  afford  ready  material  fur 
a  temporary  paraj>et. 

Bags,  Cartridge-.     See  Cartridgk. 
Bags  of  Powder.  Are  used  to  blow  down 
gates,  stockades,  and  slight  oKstructions.    In 
future  wars  the  higher  explosives  will  prob- 
ably be  used  for  such  purposes. 


BAHAMA 


42 


BALLISTIC 


Bahama  Isles  (North  America).  Were 
the  first  points  of  discovery  by  Cohimbus. 
New  Providence  was  settled  by  the  English 
in  1629.  They  were  expelled  "^by  the  Span- 
iards in  1G41  ;  returned  in  16G6 ;  again  ex- 
pelled in  1703.  These  isles  were  formally 
ceded  to  the  English  in  1783.  The  Bahamas 
profited  by  blockade-running  during  the 
American  civil  war,  1861-65. 

Bahar.  A  province  in  Northern  India ; 
conquered  by  Baber  in  1530.  Bahar,  Ben- 
gal, and  Orissa,  a  princely  dominion,  be- 
came subject  to  the  English  East  India  Com- 
pany in  1765,  by  the  treaty  of  Allahabad. 

Baiclaklar.  A  color-bearer  in  the  Turk- 
ish army. 

Baiky.  The  ballium,  or  inclosed  plat  of 
ground  in  an  ancient  fort. 

Bail.  A  stout  iron  yoke  placed  over  heavy 
guns  and  fitting  closely  over  the  ends  of  the 
trunnions,  to  which  it  is  attached  by  pins  in 
the  axis  of  the  trunnions ;  used  to  raise  or 
lower  the  gun  by  means  of  the  gin. 

Bailie  (Fr. ).  A  term  formerly  used  to  des- 
ignate a  work  or  fortification  which  served 
as  an  outpost  or  exterior  defense. 

Baionnier  (Fr.).  A  name  formerly  given 
to  soldiers  who  were  armed  with  a  bayonet. 

Baker,  Post.  The  person  who  bakes 
bread  for  a  garrison.  In  the  U.  S.  service 
an  enlisted  man,  who  receives  additional 
pay  for  his  labor. 

iSakery,  or  Bakehouse.     See  Ovens. 

Balaklava.  A  small  town  in  the  Crimea, 
with  a  tine  harbor,  about  10  miles  from  Se- 
bastopol.  Near  here  about  12,000  Ilussians, 
commanded  by  Gen.'Liprandi,  were  repulsed 
by  a  furious  charge  of  heavy  English  cav- 
alry, led  by  Brig.-Gen.  Scarlett,  under  the 
orders  of  Lord  Lucan,  October  25,  1854. 
After  this,  from  an  unfortunate  misconcep- 
tion of  Lord  Kaglan's  order.  Lord  Lucan 
ordered  Lord  Cardigan,  with  the  light  cav- 
alry, to  charge  the  Kussian  army,  which  had 
reformed  on  its  own  ground,  with  its  artil- 
lery in  front.  This  order  was  most  gallantly 
obeyed,  and  great  havoc  was  made  on  the 
Kussians  ;  but  of  670  British  horsemen  only 
198  returned  (termed  by  Tennyson  "The 
Charge  of  the  Six  Hundred").  On  March 
22,  1855,  a  sortie  from  the  garrison  of  Se- 
bastopol  led  to  a  desperate  engagement  here, 
in  which  the  Russians  were  vigorously  re- 
pulsed, with  the  loss  of  2000  men  killed  and 
wounded  ;  the  allies  lost  about  600. 

Balance-step.  An  exercise  in  squad  drill, 
a  preliminary  to  marching. 

Balbec.     See  Baalbec. 

Baldrick,  or  Baudrick.  A  girdle,  or 
richly  ornamented  belt,  worn  pendent  from 
one  shoulder  across  the  breast,  and  under 
the  opposite  arm. 

Bale,  or  Basel.  One  of  the  largest  towns 
in  Switzerland;  captured  and  burned  by  the 
Hungarians  in  917.  In  1444  there  was  a 
bloody  battle  fought  about  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  beyond  its  gates,  called  the  battle  of 
St.  Jacob,  between  the  Swiss,  1600  strong, 
and  a  French  army  that  was  twenty  times 


their  number,  commanded  by  the  dauphin, 
afterwards  Louis  XII.  For  ten  hours  the 
brave  Swiss  band  kept  this  large  army  in 
check;  but  nearly  all  the  Swiss  fell,  not 
more  than  10,  according  to  some  accounts, 
escaping  alive.  This  exploit  first  spread  the 
fame  of  Swiss  valor,  and  led  to  the  enroll- 
ment of  the  Swiss  body-guard  of  France. 
Tiie  treaties  of  peace  between  France  and 
Spain,  and  France  and  Prussia,  were  signed 
here,  July  22,  1795. 

Balearic  Islands.  A  group  of  islands  in 
the  Mediterranean  ;  conquered  by  the  Ro- 
mans 123  B.C.  ;  by  the  Vandals  about  426 
B.C.,  and  formed  part  of  Charlemagne's  em- 
pire, 799.  They  were  conquered  by  the 
Moors  about  1005,  and  held  by  them  till 
about  1280,  when  they  were  annexed  by  Ar- 
agon.     See  Majorca  and  Minorca. 

Balista.  A  machine  in  ancient  warfare 
used  for  throwing  stones,  burning  objects, 
leaden  balls,  and  even  dead  and  putrefied 
bodies.  The  latter  were  thrown  to  cause 
sickness  in  besieged  cities. 

Balistarium.  A  store-room  or  arsenal  in 
which  the  Romans  stored  their  balistas. 

Balister.  A  term  applied  in  ancient  times 
to  a  cross-bow. 

Balistrier.  A  name  applied  to  cross-bow 
men  in  ancient  times. 

Balkan.  The  ancient  H^mus,  a  range  of 
mountains  extending  from  the  Adriatic  to 
the  Euxine.  Their  passage,  up  to  that  time 
deemed  impracticable,  was  completed  by  the 
Russians  under  Diebitsch  during  the  Russian 
and  Turkish  war,  July  26,  1829.  An  armis- 
tice was  the  consequence,  and  a  treaty  of 
peace  was  signed  at  Adrianople,  September 
14,  following.  The  Balkan  was  again  crossed 
by  the  victorious  Russians  in  the  face  of  all 
opposition  during  the  Russian  and  Turkish 
war,  1877. 

Balks.  Joist-shaped  spars,  which  rest  be- 
tween the  cleats  upon  the  saddles  of  two  pon- 
tons, to  support  the  chess  or  flooring. 

Ball.  Is  a  general  term  applied  to  every 
kind  of  spherical  shot  fired  from  a  musket, 
rifle,  or  cannon.  Leaden  balls  are  chiefly 
used  for  the  small-arms  and  iron  for  the  ar- 
tillery.    See  Cartridge,  Shot,  Shells. 

Ball  and  Chain.  For  serious  offenses  sol- 
diers are  sometimes  sentenced  to  wear  a  6- 
or  12-pounder  ball  attached  by  a  chain  to 
the  leg. 

Ball-cartridge.  A  cartridge  containing  a 
ball. 

Ballinamuck.  A  town  in  the  county  of 
Longford,  Ireland.  Here,  on  Septen'iber  8, 
1798,  the  Irish  rebels  and  their  French  aux- 
iliaries were  defeated  and  captured. 

Ballistea.  In  antiquity,  songs  accompa- 
nied by  dancing,  used  on  occasions  of  vic- 
tory. 

Ballistic,  or  Electro-ballistic  Machine. 
Is  a  machine  designed  to  determine  by  elec- 
tricity the  initial  velocity  of  a  projectile. 
The  West  Point  ballistic  machine,  devised 
for  use  at  the  Military'  Academy  by  Col. 
Benton,   of  the  ordnance  department,  and 


BALLISTIC 


43 


BAN 


since  adopted  by  that  department,  consists 
of  a  iK'd-plate  of  niotal  i-iippiirling  an  arc 
placed  in  a  perpendicular  position,  and  grad- 
uated. Suspended  perpendicular  to  the  plane 
of  this  arc  are  two  pendulums,  having  a  com- 
mon axis  of  motion  passing  through  the 
centre.  Two  electro-magnets  are  attached 
to  the  horizontal  limb  of  the  arc  to  hold 
up  the  pendulums  when  thej'  are  deflected 
through  angles  of  90°.  There  is  also  an  ap- 
paratus which  rect)rds  the  pi»int  at  which 
the  pendulums  pass  each  other,  when  they 
fall  by  the  breaking  of  the  currents  which 
excite  the  magnets,  two  targets  being  placed 
60  as  to  support  tl|^  wires  in  a  position  to  be 
cut  by  the  projectile.  The  velocity  of  the 
electric  currents  being  considered  instan- 
taneous, and  the  loss  of  the  power  of  the 
magnet.s  simultaneous  with  the  rupture  of 
the  currents,  it  follows  that  each  pendulum 
begins  to  move  at  the  instant  that  the  pro- 
jectile cuts  the  wire,  and  that  the  interval  of 
time  corresponds  to  the  ditlerence  of  the  arcs 
described  by  the  pendulums  up  to  the  time 
of  meeting. 

Ballistic  Pendulum.  A  machine  consist- 
ing of  a  massive  block  of  wood  suspended 
by  a  bar.  It  was  devised  for  experiments  on 
the  initial  velocities  of  cannon-shot.  The 
shot  being  tired  into  the  bloik,  the  velocity 
is  calculated  from  the  vibrating  effect  on  the 
pendulum. 

Ballistics.  Is  that  branch  of  gunnery 
which  treats  of  the  motion  of  projectiles. 

Ballistraria.  Cruciform  apertures  in  the 
walls  of  a  stronghold,  through  which  the 
cross-bow  men  discharged  their  bolts.  It  also 
signified  a  projecting  turret,  otherwise  called 
a  bartizan,  such  as  is  commonly  seen  in  old 
castles. 

Ballium.  A  term  used  in  ancient  military 
art,  and  probably  a  corruptioti  of  vallium. 
In  towns,  the  appellation  "ballium"  was 
given  to  a  work  fenced  with  palisades,  and 
sonu'times  to  masonry  covering  the  suburbs  ; 
but  in  castles,  it  was  the  space  imniediately 
within  the  outer  wall. 

Ballon.  A  town  in  the  department  of  the 
Sartlie,  France,  formerly  fortified;  captured 
by  the  English  in  1417;  retaken  by  Charles 
VII.  of  France. 

Balloon.  A  bag  or  hollow  vessel,  made 
of  silk  or  other  light  material,  atid  filled  with 
hydrogen  gas  or  heated  air,  so  as  to  rise  and 
float  in  the  atmosphere;  called  for  distinc- 
tion an  nu--ba!loon.  IJalloons  were  used  ex- 
tensively as  a  means  of  ()hservation  during 
the  American  civil  war,  18t)l-G5,  and  in  the 
Franco-Prussian  war  of  1870. 

Balloting.  A  bounding  movement  of  a 
spherical  projectile  in  the  bore  of  a  cannon. 
See  In.hkiks  to  Cannon. 

Ball-proof.  I  nca|>able  of  being  penetrated 
by  balls  t'r.im  tire-arms. 

Ball's  Bluff.  In  Virginia,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Totomac.  On  October  21,  18(11,  by  di- 
rection of  the  Federal  general  C.  P.  Stone, 
the  heroic  Col.  Haker  crossed  the  river  to 
reconnoitre.      He  attacked  the  Confederate 


camp  at  Leesburg,  and  was  defeated  with 
great  loss.  The  disaster  was  attributed  to 
mismanagement,  and  in  February,  1802, 
Gen.  Stone  was  arrested  on  suspicion  of 
treason,  but  was  afterwards  discharged,  and 
at  a  later  period  again  given  a  command. 
The  FY'deral  loss  in  killed,  wounded,  and 
drowned  was  probably  1000  men. 

Ballynahinch.  A  town  in  Ireland  where 
a  sanguinary  engagement  took  place  between 
a  large  body  of  the  insurgent  Irish  and  the 
British  troops,  under  Gen.  Nugent,  June  13, 
17'*8.  A  large  part  of  the  town  was  de- 
stroyed, and  the  royal  army  gutlered  very 
severely. 

Balots  (Fr.).  Sacks  or  hales  of  wool, 
made  use  of  in  cases  of  great  emergency,  to 
form  parapets  or  places  of  arms.  They  are 
likewise  adapted  for  the  defense  of  trenches, 
to  cover  the  workmen  in  saps,  and  in  all  in- 
stances where  j)romptitude  is  required. 

Baltic  Sea  (Ger.  Oxtsee,  or  "  Eastern 
Sea").  Separates  Sweden  and  the  Danish 
Isles  from  liussia,  Prussia,  and  (iermany. 
Declared  neutral  for  commerce  by  treaty  be- 
tween Kussia  and  Sweden,  11 V.),  and  Den- 
mark, 1700.  It  is  often  partially  frozen. 
Charles  X.  of  Sweden  with  an  army  crossed 
the  Belts  in  1058.  Several  Baltic  expedi- 
tions were  undertaken  by  the  British  and 
French  against  Denmark  and  Russia. 

Baltimore.  The  chief  city  in  Maryland, 
situated  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
Patapsco  Hiver;  it  was  founded  in  1729. 
On  September  12,  1814,  the  British  army 
under  Col.  Koss  advanced  against  this 
place.  He  was  killed  in  a  skirmish,  and  the 
command  was  assumed  by  Col.  Brooke,  who 
attacked  and  routed  the  American  army, 
which  lost  000  killed  and  wounded,  and  300 
prisoners.  The  projected  attack  on  the  town 
was,  however,  abandcmed. 

Baltimore  (Ireland).  A  decayed  town; 
early  in  the  17th  century,  the  Algerine 
pirates  plundered  the  town,  carrying  away 
2(M)  prisoners. 

Baltinglass.  A  town  in  the  county  of 
AVicklow,  Ireland.  Here  an  action  took 
place  in  1798  between  the  royalists  and  the 
insurgents,  in  which  the  latter  were  de- 
feated. 

Bamberg.  A  town  in  Bavaria,  said  to 
have  been  founded  bv  the  Saxons  in  804; 
taken  and  pillaged  by  the  Prussians  in 
17o9. 

Bampton.  A  town  in  Devonshire,  Eng- 
land. A  great  battle  was  fought  here,  614, 
between  the  West  Saxons  and  Britons,  in 
which  the  former  were  defeated. 

Ban  (Fr.).  A  sort  of  proclamation  made 
at  the  head  of  a  body  of  troops.  ..r  in  the 
several  quarters  or  cantonments  of  an  army, 
by  sound  of  trumpet  or  beat  of  drum,  either 
for  observing  martial  discipline,  or  for  de- 
claring a  new  officer,  or  punishing  a  sol- 
dier, or  the  like.  At  present  such  kind  of 
proclamations  are  given  out  in  the  written 
orders  of  the  day. 

Ban.     In  the  former  days  of  France,  when 


BANBURY 


44 


BANYULS-DE-ASPRES 


the  feudal  barons,  who  held  their  estates  and 
honors  from  the  king,  were  summoned  to 
attend  him  in  time  of  war,  they  were  culled 
the  ban,  or  the  levy  first  called  out;  while 
the  tenants,  subordinate  to  these  barons, 
formed  the  Arriere  ban,  or  secondary  levy. 

Banbury.  A  town  in  Oxfordshire,  Eng- 
land. The  castle  erected  by  Alexander  de 
Blois,  1125,  has  been  frequently  besieged  ; 
in  1046  it  was  taken  by  the  Parliamentarians 
and  demolished.  At  Edgecote,  or  Danes- 
more,  near  Banbury,  Edward  IV.  defeated 
the  Lancastrians  under  the  Earl  of  Pem- 
broke, July  26,  1469,  and  their  leader  and 
his  brother  were  soon  after  taken  prisoners 
and  executed. 

Bancal  (Fr.).  A  curved  sabre,  which 
was  used  in  France  during  the  Republic  and 
the  Empire. 

Band,  Military,  Consists  of  a  body  of 
musicians  attached  to  each  army  regiment 
or  battalion.  The  law  provides  for  a  band 
at  the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point,  and 
for  each  artillery,  cavalry,  and  infantry 
regiment.  A  chief  musician,  who  shall  be 
instructor  of  music,  and  for  each  artillery 
and  infantry  regiment  two  principal  musi- 
cians ;  each  cavalry  regiment  to  have  one 
chief  trumpeter.  Musicians  for  regimental 
bands  are  enlisted  as  soldiers,  and  formed 
under  the  direction  of  the  adjutant,  but  are 
not  permanently  detached  from  their  compa- 
nies, and  are  instructed  in  all  the  duties  of 
a  soldier. 

Banda  Isles.  Eastern  Archipelago,  visited 
by  the  Portuguese  (1511),  who  settled  on 
them  1521,  but  were  expelled  by  the  Dutch 
about  IGOO.  Rohun  Island  was  ceded  to  the 
English  in  1616.  The  Bandas  were  taken 
by  the  latter  in  1796  ;  restored  in  1801 ;  re- 
taken, 1811,  and  restored  in  1816. 

Banded-mail.  A  kind  of  armor,  which 
consisted  of  alternate  rows  of  leather  or  cot- 
ton and  single  chain-mail. 

Banderet.  In  military  history,  implies 
th  •  commander-in-chief  of  the  troops  of  the 
canton  of  Berne,  in  Switzerland. 

Banderol.  A  small  flag  used  in  marking 
out  a  camp,  etc. ;  a  camp  color. 

Bandes  (Fr.).  Bands,  bodies  of  infantry. 
Bandes  Frnngaifies ;  the  French  infantry  was 
anciently  so  called;  the  term,  however,  be- 
came less  general,  and  was  confined  to  the 
Prevot  des  Bandes,  or  the  judge  or  provost- 
marshal  that  tried  the  men  belonging  to  the 
French  guards. 

Banditti.  Bands  of  robbers  who  infest 
the  mountainous  parts  of  Italy  and  Greece. 
Formerly  they  frequently  attacked  travelers, 
hurried  them  oft'  into  their  mountain  fast- 
nesses, and  held  them  captive  until  ran- 
somed. 

Bandoleer.  In  ancient  military  history, 
a  large  leathern  belt  worn  over  the  right 
shoulder,  and  hanging  under  the  left  arm, 
to  carry  some  kind  of  warlike  weapons. 

Bandoleer.  A  little  wooden  case  covered 
with  leather ;  every  musketeer  used  to  wear 
12  of  them  hanging  on  a  shoulder-belt ;  each 


case  contained  the  charge  of  powder  for  a 
musket.  Bandoleers  are  now  superseded  by 
the  cartridge-box. 

Banffshire.  A  maritime  county  in  the 
northeast  of  Scotland  ;  it  was  the  scene  of 
many  bloody  conflicts  between  the  Scots  and 
their  Danish  invaders,  and  was  the  theatre 
of  almost  incessant  struggles  from  1624  to 
1645. 

Bangalore.  A  fortified  town  of  Hindos- 
tan,  in  Mysore,  which  was  taken  from  Tip- 
poo  Saib  by  Lord  Cornwallis  in  1791. 

Baniwas.  A  tribe  of  South  American 
Indians  living  on  the  Amazon  and  the  Rio 
Negro. 

Banner.  Originally  a  small  square  flag 
borne  before  a  banneret,  whose  arms  were 
embroidered  on  it ;  hence,  a  military  ensign  ; 
the  principal  standard  of  a  prince  or  state  ; 
a  pennon  ;  a  streamer. 

Bannered.  Furnished  with  or  bearing 
banners. 

Banneret.  Was  originally  a  military 
rank  conferred  only  on  such  as  were  able  to 
bring  a  certain  number  of  vassals  into  the 
field ;  hence,  a  rank  corresponding  to  this  ; 
also,  a  small  banner. 

Bannockburn.  In  Stirlingshire,  Scot- 
land ;  the  site  of  two  battles :  1.  Between 
Robert  Bruce  of  Scotland  and  Edward  II. 
of  England,  June  24,  1314.  The  army  of 
Bruce  consisted  of  30,000;  that  of  Edward 
of  100,000  men,  of  whom  52,000  were 
archers.  The  English  crossed  the  rivulet 
to  the  attack,  and  Bruce  having  dug  and 
covered  pits,  they  fell  into  them  and  were 
thrown  into  confusion.  The  rout  was  com- 
plete;  the  English  king  narrowly  escaped, 
and  50,000  were  killed  or  taken  prisoners. 
2.  At  Sanchieburn,  near  here  James  II.  was 
defeated  and  slain  on  June  11,  1488,  by  his 
rebellious  nobles. 

Banquette.  Is  the  step  of  earth  within 
the  parapet,  sufficiently  high  to  enable  the 
defenders,  when  standing  upon  it,  to  fire 
over  the  crest  of  the  parapet  with  ease. 

Banquette  Slope.  Is  a  slope  of  earth  or 
timber,  place  in  rear  of  the  banquette  when 
the  top  cannot  be  reached  by  an  ordinary 
step. 

Bantam.  In  Java ;  here  a  British  factory 
was  established  by  Capt.  Lancaster  in  1603. 
The  English  and  Danes  were  driven  from 
their  factories  by  the  Dutch  in  1683.  Ban- 
tam surrendered  to  the  British  in  1811,  but 
was  restored  to  the  Dutch  at  the  peace  in 
1814. 

Bantry  Bay.  In  the  south  of  Ireland, 
where  a  French  fleet  bringing  succor  to  the 
adherents  of  James  II.  attacked  the  English 
under  Admiral  Herbert,  May  1,  1689.  A 
French  squadron  of  7  sail  of  the  line  and  2 
frigates,  armed  en  flute,  and  17  transports 
anchored  here  for  a  few  days,  but  without 
eft'ect,  December,  1796.  Mutiny  of  the 
Bantrv  Bay  squadron  took  place  in  Decem- 
ber, 1801. 

Banyuls-de-Aspres.  A  town  in  the 
department  of  the  Eastern  Pyrenees,  France, 


BAPAUME 


45 


BARI 


wliioh  is  memorable  for  the  defense  which 
its  inhabitunts  made  in  1793,  when  they 
compelled  7000  Spaniards,  who  had  attacked 
them,  to  surrender. 

Bapaume.  A  fortified  town  of  France, 
department  of  Pas-de-Calais.  A  portion  of 
the  allied  troops  advanced  to  this  place  after 
compelling]:  the  French  to  abandon  their  for- 
tified position,  and  to  retreat  behind  the 
scarpe,  in  Aniinst,  1703. 

Baptism  of  Blood.  As  the  name  implies, 
is  the  act  of  bfini^  l)aptized  with  blood,  and 
was  used  s|)ccially  with  reference  to  soldiers 
who  fought  on  their  first  battle-field.  In 
the  old  French  service,  baptism  of  blood 
equalized  all  grades,  and  military  services, 
not  rank,  were  the  recognized  claims  for 
promotion. 

Baptism  of  Fire.  A  figurative  term  ap- 
plied to  soldiers  who  have  passed  through 
their  first  fire  in  battle. 

Bar.  A  long  piece  of  wood  or  iron.  Bars 
have  various  denominations  in  the  construc- 
tion of  artillery-carriages,  as  sweep-  and 
cross-bars  for  tumbrils,  fore,  hind,  and  un- 
der cross-bars  for  powder-carts,  shaft-bars 
for  wagons,  and  dowel-bars,  used  in  mortar- 
beds. 

Bar.  In  heraldry,  is  one  of  those  impor- 
tant figures  or  charges  known  as  ordinaries. 
It  is  formed  by  two  horizontal  lines  passing 
over  the  shield  like  the  fess,  but  it  differs 
from  it  in  size, — the  fess  occupying  a  third, 
the  bar  only  a  fifth  part  of  the  shield.  The 
fess  is  also  confined  to  the  centre,  while  the 
bar  may  be  borne  in  several  parts  of  the 
shield. 

Barb.  The  reflected  points  of  the  head  of 
an  arrow.  The  armor  for  horses  was  so 
called. 

Barbacan,  or  Barbican.  In  fortification, 
a  watth-tower  for  the  purpose  of  descrying 
an  enemy  at  a  distance;  advanced  works  of 
a  place  or  citadel,  properly  the  boulevards 
of  the  gates  and  walls ;  a  fort  at  the  entrance 
of  a  tower  or  bridge,  with  a  double  wall; 
or  an  aperture  or  loop-hole  in  the  walls  of 
a  fortress  through  which  to  fire  upon  an 
enemy. 

Barbary.  A  country  in  North  Africa, 
considered  to  comprise  Algeria,  Morocco, 
Fez,  Tunis,  and  Tripoli,  with  their  depend- 
encies (all  of  wliich  see).  Piratical  states 
(nominally  subject  to  Turkey)  were  founded 
on  the  coast  by  IJarbarossa  about  lolS. 

Barbels.  Were  peasants  of  Piedmont, 
who  abandoned  tlu^ir  dwellings  when  an 
enemy  had  taken  possession  of  them.  They 
formed  into  bodies  and  defended  the  Alps." 

Barbette.  An  earthen  terrace,  raised 
within  a  parapet,  so  high  as  to  enable  guns 
to  be  fired  over  the  latter,  and  therefore  with 
a  freer  range  tlian  when  worked  at  an  em- 
brasure. 

Barbette  Carriage.  Is  a  carriage  of  the 
stali«>iiary  class,  on  which  a  gun  is  mounted 
to  fire  over  a  parapi-t  ;  and  a  barbette  gun  is 
any  gun  niountcil  on  a  barbcltc  carriage. 

Barbette    Centre-pintle    Carriage.     See 


Ordnance,    Carriages    for,    Sea-coast 
Carriaok-s. 

Barbette  Front-pintic  Carriage.  See 
Orona.nck,  Cakriacjks  for.  Ska-coast 
Carkiaoks. 

Barbole  (Fi:).  A  heavy  battle-axe,  used 
in  ancient  times. 

Barboursville,  or  Cabell  Court-house. 
The  cai-ital  of  Cabell  Co.,  W.  Va.  It  was 
the  scene  of  a  brilliant  action  between  the 
Confederate  and  Federal  forces,  in  which 
the  latter  were  victorious,  July  18,  18i;i. 

Barce,  or  Berche  (/•'/•.).  A  small  gun, 
shorter  and  tliicker  than  a  falconet,  which 
was  formerly  used  on  board  ship. 

Barcelona.  An  ancient  maritime  city  in 
Northeastern  Spain,  said  to  have  been  rebuilt 
by  Hatnilcar  Harca,  father  of  the  great  Han- 
nibal, about  233  n.c.  The  city  has  suffered 
much  by  war.  The  siege  by  the  French,  in' 
l()fl4,  was  relieved  by  theapproach  of  the  Eng- 
lish fleet  commanded  by  Admiral  Russell; 
but  the  city  was  taken  liy  the  Earl  of  Peter- 
borough in  1706;  bombarded  and  taken  by 
the  Duke  of  Berwick  and  the  French  in  1714; 
taken  by  Napoleon  in  1808,  and  retained 
till  1814.  It  revolted  against  the  queen  in 
1841,  and  was  bombarded  and  taken  in  De- 
cember, 1842,  by  ilspartero. 

Bard.  A  fortress  and  village  of  Piedmont 
on  the  bank  of  the  Dora  Baltea,  23  miles 
south-southeast  of  Aosta.  The  fortress  is 
situated  on  an  impregnable  rock,  and  ar- 
rested for  some  time  Napoleon's  march  in 
the  valley  of  the  Dora,  at  the  outset  of  his 
campaign  of  1800,  almost  compelling  him  to 
abandon  it.  The  garrison  consisted  of  400 
men,  and  was  finally  passed  only  by  strata- 
gem. It  was  subsequently  razed  by  the 
French  (1800),  but  has  since  been  restored. 

Bardewick.  A  town  in  Hanover,  which 
was  dismantled  by  Henry  the  Lion  in  1180. 

Bareilly.  A  province  of  Delhi,  North- 
west India,  ceded  to  the  East  India  Com- 
pany by  the  ruler  of  Oude,  1801.  A  mutiny 
at  Bareilly,  the  capital,  was  suppressed  in 
April,  181<j;  on  May  7,  1858,  it  was  taken 
from  the  cruel  Sepoy  rebels. 

Barezim.  A  small  town  in  Poland,  where 
the  Russians  were  defeated  by  the  Poles  in 
167.'>. 

Barfleur.  An  ancient  seaport  town  in  the 
department  of  Manche,  France,  where  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror  equipped  the  fleet  by 
which  he  conquered  England,  10(U;.  Near 
it  Prince  William,  duke  of  Normandy,  son 
of  Henry  I.,  in  his  passage  from  Normandy, 
was  shipwrecked  November  2"),  1120.  Bar- 
fleur was  destroyed  by  the  English  in  the 
campaign  in  whiih  they  won  the  battle  of 
Crecy,  1346.  The  French  navy  was  destroyed 
near  the  cape  by  Admiral  Kussell  after  the 
victory  of  La  Hogue  in  lti<,t2. 

Bari  (Southern  Italy).  The  Barium  of 
Horace  was  in  the  0th  century  a  stronghold 
of  the  Saracens,  and  was  captured  by  the 
emperor  Louis  II  ,  a  descendant  of  Charle- 
magne, in  871.  In  the  10th  century  it  be- 
came  subject  to  the   Eastern   empire,  and 


BAKIL   AKDENT 


46 


BAPvRITUS 


remained   so   till    it    was   taken   by  Eobert 
Guiscaid,  the  Norman,  about  1060. 

Baril  Ardent  (/'>•)•  Fire-barrel ;  a  barrel 
filled  with  layers  of  tarred  chips  intermixed 
with  powder  and  primed  at  each  end  with  a 
shell-fuze;  it  had  holes  bored  in  it  for  tlie 
purpose  of  admitting  air  to  the  burning 
contents ;  formerly  used  for  illuminating 
purposes. 

Baril  Foudroyant,  or  D'artifice  {Fr.). 
Of  the  same  nature  as  the  ba7-U  ardent,  with 
the  addition  of  grenades  placed  between  the 
layers  of  chips.  Barils  foudroyants  were 
used  at  the  defense  of  a  breech,  by  rolling 
them  upon  the  assailants. 

Barkam.  A  fortress  on  the  banks  of  the 
Danube.  Near  here  John  Sobieski,  king  of 
Poland,  was  defeated  by  Pasha  Ka-Me- 
hemed,  October  7,  1683. 

Barking-irons.  Large  dueling  pistols. 
Barnacles.  In  heraldry,  resemble  what 
are  now  called  twitchers,  or  instruments 
used  by  farriers  to  curb  unruly  horses.  They 
are  frequently  introduced  into  coats  of  arms 
as  a  charge. 

Barnet.  A  town  in  Hertfordshire,  Eng- 
land. Here,  at  Gladsmore  Heath,  Edward 
IV.  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Lan- 
castrians on  £astei'-day,  April  14,  1471, 
when  the  Earl  of  Warwick  and  his  brother, 
the  Marquis  of  Montacute,  or  Montague, 
and  10,000  men  were  slain. 

Barometer.  An  instrument  for  measur- 
ing the  weight  of  the  atmosphere.  The 
form  ordinarily  used  was  invented  in  1643, 
by  Torricelli.  It  consists  of  a  glass  tube 
filled  with  mercury  inverted  in  an  open  cup. 
Baron.  In  England  a  title  of  nobility, — 
the  grade  between  the  baronet  and  viscount, 
— the  lowest  grade  in  the  House  of  Lords. 

Barons'  War.  Arose  in  consequence  of 
the  faithlessness  of  King  Henry  III.  and 
the  oppression  of  his  favorites  in  12-58.  The 
barons,  headed  by  Simon  de  Montfort,  earl 
of  Leicester,  and  Gilbert  de  Clare,  earl  of 
Gloucester,  met  at  Oxford  in  1262,  and 
enacted  statutes  to  which  the  king  objected. 
In  1263  their  disputes  were  in  vain  referred 
to  the  decision  of  Louis  IX.,  king  of  France. 
"War  broke  out,  and  on  May  14,  1264,  the 
king's  party  were  totally  defeated  at  Lewes, 
and  De  Montfort  became  the  virtual  ruler  of 
the  kingdom.  Through  treachery  the  war 
was  renewed,  and  at  the  battle  of  Evesham, 
August  4,  1265,  De  Montfort  was  slain,  and 
the  barons  were  defeated.  They,  however, 
did  not  render  their  final  submission  till  1268. 
Barrackpore.  A  native  town  and  mili- 
tary cantonment  on  the  river  Hoogly,  16 
miles  from  Calcutta,  India.  In  1857  it  be- 
came famous  as  the  cradle  of  the  formidable 
mutiny  or  rebellion  of  that  year.  Several 
regiments  of  native  troops  were  stationed  at 
Barrackpore.  The  meii  objected  to  bite  oft" 
the  ends  of  the  cartridges  for  the  Enfield 
rifle,  believing  the  paper  to  be  polluted  by 
animal  fat.  The  troubles  connected  there- 
with— a  mere  prelude  to  the  fatal  outbreak 
at  Meerut  in  May — commenced   about  the 


beginning  of  February,  and  continued  to 
assume  various  degrees  of  intensity,  till  at 
last  two  regiments  of  Bengal  native  inftintry 
had  to  be  disbanded.  An  intoxicated  Sepoy 
of  one  of  the  disbanded  regiments  attacked 
and  wounded  his  officer,  Lieut.  Baugh,  with 
sword  and  pistol.  This  fellow,  whose  name 
was  Mungal  Pandy,  would  seem  to  have  had 
the  equivocal  honor  of  giving  the  local  des- 
ignation of  Pandies  to  the  entire  body  of 
insurgents. 

Barrack-allowance.  In  the  British  army, 
is  a  specific  allowance  of  bread,  beef,  wood, 
coals,  etc.,  to  regiments  stationed  in  barracks. 

Barrack-guard.  When  a  regiment  is  in 
barracks  the  principal  guard  is  called  the 
barrack-guard,  the  officer  being  responsible 
for  the  regularity  of  the  men  in  barracks, 
and  for  all  prisoners  duly  committed  to  his 
charge  while  on  that  duty. 

Barrack-master.  The  officer  who  super- 
intends the  barracks  of  soldiers. 

Barracks.  Are  permanent  structures  for 
the  accommodation  of  soldiers,  as  distin- 
guished from  huts  and  tents,  which  have 
usually  a  square  or  open  place  in  front,  for 
the  purpose  of  drill  and  parade. 

Barrack-sergeants.  In  the  British  army, 
are  faithful  old  sergeants  who  are  selected 
from  the  line  and  placed  in  charge  of  bar- 
racks, under  the  superintendence  of  the  tar- 
rack-nuisters. 

Barrel.  A  round  vessel  or  cask,  of  more 
length  than  breadth,  and  bulging  in  the 
middle,  made  of  staves  and  headings  and 
bound  with  hoops.  Powder- barrels  are 
made  to  contain  100  pounds  each,  the  bar- 
rels being  large  enough  to  allow  sufficient 
space  for  the  powder  to  move  when  rolled, 
to  prevent  its  caking.  Also  any  hollow  cyl- 
inder or  tube,  as  the  barrel  of  a  gun.  See 
Fire-barrel. 

Barricade.  An  obstruction  formed  in 
streets,  avenues,  etc.,  so  as  to  block  up  access 
to  an  enemy.  They  are  generally  formed  of 
overturned  wagons,  carriages,  large  stones, 
breastworks,  abatis,  or  other  obstacles  at 
hand. 

Barrier.  In  a  general  sense  means  any 
fortification  or  strong  place  on  the  frontiers 
of  a  country.  It  is  likewise  a  kind  of  fence 
composed  of  stakes  and  transoms,  as  over- 
thwart  rafters,  erected  to  defend  the  entrance 
of  a  passage,  retrenchment,  or  the  like.  In 
the  middle  of  the  barrier  is  a  movable  bar  of 
wood,  which  is  opened  or  shut  at  pleasure. 
It  also  implies  a  gate  made  of  wooden  bars, 
about  5  feet  long,  perpendicular  to  the  hori- 
zon, and  kept  together  by  two  long  bars 
going  across  and  another  crossing  diago- 
nally. Barriers  are  used  to  stop  the  cut 
made  through  the  esplanade  before  the  gate 
of  a  town. 

Barrier  Treaty.  A  treaty  by  which  the 
Low  Countries  were  ceded  to  the  emperor 
Charles  VI.,  and  which  was  signed  by  the 
British,  Imperial,  and  Dutch  ministers  No- 
vember 15,  1715. 

Barritus,   or   Bardites.     A  word  which 


BARROSA 


47 


BASHKIRS 


not  only  signified  the  battle-cry  of  the  an- 
cient Gcrmuns,  but  all  battle-cries  were 
formerly  so  called. 

Barrosa,  or  Barosa.  In  Southern  Spain, 
where  a  battle  was  fought  on  Marc*  o, 
1811,  between  the  Britisii  army,  commanded 
by  Maj.-Oen.  Sir  Thomas  (Jraham.  after- 
wards Lord  Lynedoch,  and  the  French 
under  Marshal  Victor.  After  a  long  con- 
flict, the  IJritish  achieved  one  of  the  most 
glorious  triumphs  of  the  Peninsular  war. 
Although  they  fought  at  great  disadvantage 
the  British  compelled  the  French  to  retreat, 
leaving  nearly  3000  dead.  6  piecef  of  cannon, 
and  an  eagle,  the  first  that  the  British  had 
taken.  The  loss  of  the  British  was  1169 
men  killed  and  wounded. 

Bar-shot.  An  obsolete  projectile,  con- 
sisting of  two  shot  connected  by  a  bar  of 
iron. 

Bar-sur-Aube.  An  ancient  town  of 
France,  on  the  Aube,  in  the  department 
of  Aulic,  where  the  French  under  Oudinot 
and  MacDonuld  were  defeated  by  the  allies, 
February  27,  1814. 

Bar-sur-Seine.  A  town  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Aube,  France;  often  ruined  and 
sacked  during  the  wars  of  Burgundy.  It 
was  the  scene  of  a  severe  engagement  be- 
tween Napoleon  and  the  allies,  May  25, 
1814. 

Bartholomew,  St,  The  massacre  of  St. 
Bartholomew  commenced  at  Paris  on  the 
night  of  the  festival  of  this  saint.  Accord- 
ing to  Sully  70,000  Huguenots,  or  French 
Protestants,  including  women  and  children, 
were  murdered  throughout  the  kingdom  by 
secret  orders  from  Charles  IX.,  at  the  insti- 
gation of  his  mother,  the  queen-dowager, 
Catherine  de  Medicis,  Augiist  24,  1572. 

Bartholomew,  St.  A  West  India  island 
held  by  Sweden.  It  was  colonized  by  the 
French  in  lf!48;  and  has  b»;en  several  times 
taken  and  restored  by  the  British.  It  was 
ceded  to  Sweden  by  France  in  1785. 

Bartizan.  A  small  stone  closet  thrown 
out  upon  corbels  over  doorways  and  on 
other  parts  of  mediaeval  castles,  generally 
for  defensive  purposes,  but  sometimes  for 
the  convenience  of  the  inmates. 

Bascinet.  A  light  helmet,  generally 
without  a  visor;  so  called  from  its  resem- 
blance to  a  basin. 

Baschi.  A  Turkish  title,  signifying  a 
superior  commander,  officer,  chief,  etc. ;  this 
title  is  only  used  in  connection  with  the 
office  title;  the  most  prominent  are: 

Toptschjy-Baschi,  general  of  artillery 
and  inspector  of  forts,  etc. 

Solacki-Basciii,  sub-commander  of  the 
archers. 

Sandschjack-Darlars-Baschi,  chief  of 
the  50  cob>r-bearer3. 

Konadscujy-Baschi,  quartermaster-gen- 
eral. 

BoLUCK-BA.srni,  colonel  of  a  regiment 
(Boluck)  of  1000  militia. 

Oda-B  ASCII  IS,  company  officers  who  su- 
perintend drill. 


Bascule  Bridge.  A  kind  of  draw-bridge 
with  a  counterpiiise  swinging  up  and  down, 
and  usually  a  pit  behind  it,  in  which  the 
counterpoise  falls  or  rises  as  the  bridge  rises 
or  falls.  Bascule  is  the  arrangement  of  the 
counterpoise  in  bascule  bridges. 

Base.  In  fortifications,  is  the  exterior 
side  of  the  polygon,  or  that  imaginary  line 
which  c(mnects  the  salient  angle  of  two  ad- 
jacent bastions. 

Base.  In  heraldry,  denotes  the  lower 
part  of  the  shield. 

Base-line.  In  gunnery,  is  a  line  traced 
around  the  gun  in  rear  of  the  vent;  also 
the  measured  line  used  to  obtain  ranges  by 
triangulation. 

Base  of  Operations.  That  secure  line 
of  frontier  or  fortres.ses,  or  strong  country 
occufiied  by  troops,  or  of  sea  occupied  by 
fleets,  from  which  forward  movements  are 
made,  supydies  furnished,  and  upon  which 
a  retreat  may  be  made,  if  necessary. 

Base  of  the  Breech.  In  gunnery,  is  the 
rear  surface  of  the  breech  of  a  gun. 

Basel,  Treaty  of.  This  place  gives  its 
name  to  two  important  treaties  of  peace, 
concluded  here  on  April  5  and  July  22, 
1795,  between  the  representatives  of  the 
French  Republic,  Prussia,  and  Spain,  by 
which  Prussia  withdrew  from  the  coalition 
against  France,  took  under  her  protection 
all  the  states  of  Northern  Germany  which 
sho\ild  like  herself  relinquish  the  war  in 
which  the  German  empire  was  engaged,  and 
also  give  up  to  the  victorious  republic  her 
possessions  beyond  the  Rhine;  whilst  Spain 
gave  up  her  portion  of  St.  Domingo,  and 
prepared  the  way  for  that  alliance  with 
France  which  was  afterwards  productive  of 
consequences  so  important. 

Base-ring.  In  gunnery,  is  a  projecting 
band  of  metal  adjoining  the  base  of  the 
breech,  and  connected  with  the  body  of  the 
gun  by  a  concave  moulding. 

Bashaw.     See  Pasha. 

Bashi-Bazouks.  Are  irregular  troops 
in  the  pay  of  the  sultan.  Very  few  of  them 
are  Europeans ;  they  are  mostly  Asiatics, 
from  some  of  the  pashalics  in  Asiatic  Tur- 
kej' ;  they  are  wild,  turbulent  men,  ready 
to  enter  the  sultan's  service  under  some 
leader  whom  they  can  understand,  and  still 
more  ready  to  plunder  whenever  an  oppor- 
tunity oflfers.  During  the  Russia-Turkish 
war  of  1854,  etc.,  they  had  many  encounters 
with  the  enemy  in  that  kind  of  irregular 
warfare  which  the  Russians  intrust  to  Cos- 
sack horsemen  ;  but  the  peaceful  villagers 
had  almost  as  much  distrust  of  the  Bashi- 
Bazouks  as  of  the  Russians.  They  were 
also  partially  employed  by  the  British  dur- 
ing the  Crimean  war. 

Bashkirs.  A  race  supposed  to  be  descend- 
ed from  the  Nogay  Tartars,  who  inhabit  the 
Russian  provinces  of  Ufa  and  Yekaterin- 
boorg,  in  the  governments  of  Orenburg  and 
Perm  respectively.  They  are  but  partially 
civilized,  and  are  generally  employed  by 
Russia  as  guards  on  the  frontier  of  Asia. 


BASIENTELLO 


48 


BASTION 


Basientello  (Southern  Naples).  Here 
the  army  of  Otto  II.,  in  an  ambuscade, 
was  nearly  cut  to  pieces  by  the  Greeks  and 
Saracens,  July  13,  982;  the  emperor  barely 
escaped. 

Basilisk.  An  ancient  piece  of  ordnance, 
which  was  10  feet  long  and  weighed  7200 
pounds ;  so  called  from  its  supposed  resem- 
blance to  the  serpent  of  that  name,  or  from 
its  size. 

Basillard.     An  old  term  for  a  poniard. 

Basket-hilt.  The  hilt  of  a  sword,  so 
made  as  to  contain  and  guard  the  whole 
hand. 

Basket-hilted.  Having  a  hilt  of  basket- 
work. 

Baskets.     See  Gabion. 

Baslard.  A  short  sword  or  dagger,  worn 
in  the  15th  century. 

Basnet.     See  Bascinet. 

Basque  Provinces  (Northwest  Spain, 
Biscay,  Guipuzcoa,  and  Alva).  The  Basques, 
considered  to  be  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Iberi,  were  termed  Vascones  by  the  Romans, 
whom  they  successfully  resisted.  They  were 
subdued  with  great  difficulty  by  the  Goths 
about  580,  and  were  united  to  Castile  in  the 
13th  and  14th  centuries. 

Basque  Roads  (Western  France).  Four 
French  ships  of  the  line,  riding  at  anchor 
here,  were  attacked  by  Lords  Gambler  and 
Cochrane  (the  latter  commanding  the  tire- 
ships),  and  all,  with  a  great  number  of  mer- 
chant and  other  vessels,  were  destroyed, 
April  11-12,  1809.  Cochrane  accused  Gam- 
bier  of  neglecting  to  support  him,  and 
thereby  allowing  the  French  to  escape.  At 
a  court-martial  Lord  Gambier  was  acquitted. 

Bassee,  La.  A  town  in  the  department 
of  the  North,  France,  formerly  fortified.  It 
sustained  several  sieges.  Louis  XIV.  cap- 
tured it  from  the  Spaniards  and  caused  it  to 
be  dismantled. 

Basseterre  Roads,  St.Christopher's,  West 
Indies.  Here  the  French  admiral,  the  Comte 
de  Grasse,  was  repulsed  with  loss  in  three 
desperate  attacks  on  the  British  fleet,  com- 
manded by  Sir  Thomas  Graves,  January  25- 
26,  1782. 

Basson  (Northern  Italy).  Here  the  Aus- 
trians  under  Wurmser  were  defeated  by 
the  French  under  Massena,  September  8, 
1796. 

Bassorah,  Basrah,  or  Bussorah  (Asia 
Minor).  A  Turkish  city,  founded  by  the 
Caliph  Omar  about  035.  It  has  been  several 
times  taken  and  retaken  by  the  Persians 
and  Turks. 

Bass  Rock.  An  isle  in  the  Frith  of  Forth, 
Southern  Scotland  ;  granted  to  the  Landers 
in  1316;  purchased  for  a  state  prison,  1671 ; 
taken  by  the  Jacobites,  1690;  surrendered, 
1694;  granted  to  the  Dalrymples,  1706. 

Bastard,  or  Batarde  (Fr.).  An  ancient 
piece  of  ordnance  of  about  8  pounds  calibre, 
9J  feet  long,  and  weighing  1950  pounds.  It 
was  invented  by  Jean  Maurique  de  Lard, 
master-general  of  ordnance  under  Charles 
V.  of  France  in  1535.     He  also  had  several 


bastards  cast  of  a  larger  calibre.  This  term 
was  also  applied  to  guns  of  an  unusual  make 
or  proportion,  whether  longer  or  shorter. 

Bastarnse,  or  Basternae.  A  warlike  Ger- 
mar#  people  who  migrated  to  the  country 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Danube.  They  are 
first  mentioned  in  the  wars  of  Philip  and 
Perseus  against  the  Romans,  and  at  a  later 
period  they  frequently  devastated  Thrace, 
and  were  engaged  in  wars  with  the  Roman 
governors  of  the  province  of  Macedonia. 
In  30  B.C.  they  were  defeated  by  Marcus 
Crassus,  and  driven  across  the  Danube,  and 
we  find  them,  at  a  later  period,  partly  settled 
between  the  Tyras  (now  Dniester)  and  Bo- 
rysthenes  (now  Dnieper),  and  partly  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Danube,  under  the  name  of 
Peucini,  from  their  inhabiting  the  island  of 
Pence,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river. 

Bastia.  A  fortified  seaport  town,  and 
formerly  capital  of  Corsica,  on  its  north- 
east coast,  and  67  miles  from  Ajaccio  ;  be- 
sieged without  success  by  the  Piedmontese 
in  1748  ;  captured  by  the'English,  1794. 

Bastide  (Fr.).  In  ancient  times,  a  bas- 
tion, block-house,  fortress,  or  outer  fortifica- 
tions. 

Bastile.  Originally,  a  temporary  wooden 
tower  used  in  warfare  ;  hence,  any  tower  or 
fortification. 

Bastile,  or  Bastille  (Paris).  A  castle 
built  by  Charles  V.,  king  of  France,  in 
1369,  for  the  defense  of  Paris  against  the 
English  ;  completed  in  1383,  and  afterwards 
used  as  a  state  prison.  Henry  IV.  and  his 
veteran  army  assailed  it  in  vain  in  the  siege 
of  Paris  during  the  war,  1587-94.  On  July 
14-15,  1789,  it  was  pulled  down  by  the  pop- 
ulace, the  governor  and  other  officers  seized, 
conducted  to  the  Place  de  Greve,  their  hands 
and  heads  were  cut  off,  and  the  heads  car- 
ried on  pikes  through  the  streets. 

Bastinado.  A  punishment  among  the 
Turkish  soldiers,  which  is  performed  by 
beating  them  with  a  cane  or  flat  of  a  sword 
on  the  soles  of  their  feet. 

Bastion.  A  work  consisting  of  two  faces 
and  two  flanks,  all  the  angles  being  salient. 
Two  bastions  are  connected  by  means  of  a 
curtain,  which  is  screened  by  the  angle  made 
by  the  prolongation  of  the  corresponding 
faces  of  two  bastions,  and  flanked  by  the 
line  of  defense.  Bastions  contain,  sheltered 
by  their  parapets,  marksmen,  artillery, 
platform,  and  guards.  They  are  protected 
by  galleries  of  mines,  and  by  demi-lunes 
and  lunettes  outside  the  ditch,  and  by  pali- 
sades, if  the  ditch  is  inundated.  The  faces 
of  the  bastion  are  the  parts  exposed  to  being 
enfiladed  by  ricochet  batteries,  and  also  to 
being  battered  in  breach. 

Bastion,  Composkd,  is  where  two  sides  of 
the  interior  polygon  are  very  unequal,  which 
makes  the  gorges  also  unequal. 

Bastion,  Cut,  is  that  which,  instead  of  a 
point,  has  a  re-entering  angle. 

Bastion,  Deformed,  is  when  the  irregu- 
larity of  the  lines  and  angles  puts  the  bas- 
tion out  of  shape  ;  as,  when  it  wants  a  demi- 


BASTIONED 


49 


BATTERIE  EN  ROUAGE 


gorge,  one  side  of  the  interior  polygon  being 
too  short. 

Bastion,  Demi,  is  that  whit-h  has  only 
one  face  and  one  flank,  out  oflf  by  the  capital, 
— like  the  extremities  of  horn-  and  crown- 
works. 

Bastion,  Douhle,  is  that  which  is  raised 
on  the  plane  <>f  another  bastion. 

Bastion,  Flat,  is  a  bastion  built  in  the 
middle  of  the  curtain,  when  it  is  too  long  to 
be  defended  by  the  bastions  at  its  extremes. 

Bastions,  Hoi.low,  are  those  surrounded 
only  with  a  rampart  and  parajiet,  having 
the  space  within  unocinpifd  where  the 
ground  is  so  low  that  no  retrenchment  can 
be  made  in  the  centre  in  the  event  of  the 
rampart  being  taken. 

Bastion,  Regular,  is  that  which  has  true 
proportion  of  faces,  flanks,  and  gorges. 

Bastions,  Solid,  are  those  which  have  the 
void  space  within  them  filled  entirely,  and 
raised  of  an  ofjual  height  with  the  rampart. 

Bastioned  Fort.     A  fort  having  bastions. 

Baston.  A  start'  or  cudgel  formerly  used 
in  tournaments.  In  heraldry,  a  staff  or  cud- 
gel generally  borne  as  a  mark  of  bastardy, 
and  properly  containing  one-eighth  in 
breadth  of  the  bend-sinister. 

Bat  de  Mulet  (/•>.).  A  pack-saddle  used 
on  service  when  mules  are  employed  to  carry 
stores.  Aparejos  in  the  United  States  ser- 
vice are  used  for  a  similar  purpose.  See 
Pack-sawdles. 

Batage  (/•>.).  The  time  employed  in  re- 
ducing gunpowder  to  its  proper  consistency. 
The  French  usually  consumed  24  hours  in 
pounding  the  materials  to  make  good  gun- 
powder. Supposing  the  mortar  to  contain 
IT)  pounds  of  composition,  it  would  require 
the  application  of  the  pestle  3r)00  times  each 
hour.  The  labor  required  in  this  process  is 
less  in  summer  than  in  >vinter,  because  the 
water  is  softer. 

Bataillon  de  la  Salade  (Fr.).  A  name 
formerly  given  in  PVance  to  old  corps  which 
wore  a  peculiar  kind  of  helmet  called  salade. 
See  Salade. 

Batardeau  (Fr.).  A  wall  built  across  a 
ditch  or  fortification,  with  a  sluice-gate  by 
which  the  height  of  the  water  in  the  ditch 
on  both  sides  may  be  regulated.  To  prevent 
this  wall  being  used  as  a  passage  across  the 
ditch,  it  is  built  up  to  an  angle  at  the  top, 
and  armed  with  iron  sj>ikos;  and  to  render 
the  attempt  to  cross  still  more  diflicult,  a 
tower  of  masonry  is  built  <>n  it. 

Batavia  and  Batavian  Republic.  See 
Holland. 

Bateau  { Fr.).     A  light  boat. 

Bateau-bridge.  Is  a  floating  bridge  sup- 
ported by  bateaux  or  light  boats.  See  Pon- 
tons. 

Bateau  d'Avant-garde  (Fr).  A  sniall 
light  boat  attached  to  the  advance-guard  of 
an  army.  It  is  ;?;?  feet  in  length  by  5  feel  6 
inches  in  breadth. 

Bate  Isle.     An  island  of  Ilindostan,  be-  i 
longing  to  the  province  of  Guzerat,  situated 
at  the  southwestern  extremity  of  the  Gulf  of  i 


Cutch.  It  was  formerly  a  rendezvous  for 
pirates,  who  were  the  dread  of  all  traders  on 
the  western  coast  (»f  India.  In  1803  a  naval 
force,  consisting  of  a  British  frigate  and  two 
Bombay  cruisers,  succeeded  in  destroying 
several  of  the  j)irate  boats  and  vessels;  but 
an  attack  U{)on  the  castle,  though  cf^pducted 
under  the  tire  of  the  ships,  was  repulsed  with 
some  loss.  In  1807  a  treaty  was  entered 
into  with  the  chiefs  of  the  island,  whereby 
they  consented  to  relinquish  their  piratical 
practices. 

Bath,  Knights  of  the.  See  Order  of 
Knights  ok  the  Hath. 

Bat-horse.  A  baggage  horse  which  bears 
the  bat  or  pack. 

Bat-man.  A  servant  in  charge  of  the 
bat-horses.  The  term  is  now  applied  in  the 
English  service  to  a  soldier  who  acts  as  ser- 
vant to  an  oflScer. 

Baton.  A  truncheon  borne  by  generals 
in  the  French  army,  and  afterwards  by  the 
marshals  of  other  nations.  Henry  III.  of 
France  before  he  ascended  the  throne  was 
made  generalissimo  of  the  army  of  his 
brother  Charles  IX.,  and  received  the  baton 
as  the  mark  of  the  high  command,  1509. 

Baton.  A  staflf  used  by  drum-majors  of 
foot  regiments. 

Baton  Rouge.  A  city  of  Louisiana.  It 
was  captured  by  the  Federals  August  6,  1862, 
after  a  fierce  conflict. 

Batourin.  A  town  of  Russia,  C3  miles 
east  of  Tcheringov,on  the  Seim.  It  was  the 
residing  place  of  the  hetman  of  the  Ukraine 
Cossacks  from  lOItO  to  1708;  captured  and 
sacked  by  the  Russians  in  1708. 

Batta.  An  allowance  made  to  military 
oflScers  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany in  addition  to  their  pay.  See  Half- 
batta. 

Battalia.  The  order  of  battle  ;  disposition 
or  arrangement  of  troops,  brigades,  regi- 
ments, battalions,  etc.,  as  for  action.  For- 
merly the  term  a[)plii'd  to  the  main  body  of 
an  army  in  array,  as  distinguished  from  the 
winu^s. 

Battailant.  Equipped  for  battle;  war- 
like; a  combatant.  This  word  is  now  ob- 
solete. 

Battalion.  A  body  of  troops,  so  called 
from  being  originally  a  body  of  men  ar- 
ranged for  battle;  consisting  in  European 
armies  of  about  800  or  1000  men  ;  in  the 
U.  S.  service,  an  aggregation  of  from  two 
to  twelve  companies. 

Battard.     An  early  cannon  of  small  size. 

Batten.  The  sloping  of  a  wall  which 
brings  the  perpendicular  from  the  top  inside 
the  base. 

Batter.  A  cannonade  of  heavy  ordnance, 
from  the  first  or  second  parallel  of  intrench- 
ment,  against  any  fortress  or  works.  To 
batter  in  breach  implies  a  heavy  cannonade 
of  many  pieces  directed  to  one  part  of  the 
revetment  from  the  third  parallel. 

Batterie  en  Rouage  (  Fr. ).  Is  an  enfilad- 
ing battery,  when  directed  against  another 
batterv. 


BATTERING 


50 


BATTERY-WAGON 


Battering.  In  military  affairs,  implies 
the  firing  with  heavy  artillery  on  some  for- 
tification or  strong  post  possessed  by  an 
enemy,  in  order  to  demolish  the  works. 

Battering  Charge.  The  charge  of  powder 
used  in  battering.  The  heaviest  charge  used 
in  a  gun. 

Battering-pieces.  Are  large  pieces  of 
ordnance,  used  in  battering  a  fortified  town 
or  post. 

Battering-ram.  In  antiquity,  a  military 
engine  used  to  batter  and  beat  down  the 
walls  of  places  besieged.  There  were  two 
different  kinds  of  battering-rams,  one  rude 
and  plain,  the  other  compound.  The  former 
seems  to  have  been  no  more  than  a  great 
beam,  which  the  soldiers  bore  on  their  arms 
and  shoulders,  and  with  one  end  of  it,  by 
main  force,  assailed  the  walls.  The  com- 
pound ram  was  a  large  beam  with  a  head  of 
iron,  which  was  sometimes  made  to  resemble 
the  head  of  a  ram.  It  was  suspended  by  ropes 
to  a  beam  supported  by  posts,  and  balanced 
so  as  to  swing  backwards  and  forwards,  and 
was  impelled  by  men  against  the  wall.  These 
rams  were  sometimes  120  feet  in  length. 

Battering-train.  A  train  of  artillery  used 
solely  for  besieging  a  strong  place,  inclu- 
sive of  mortars  and  howitzers.  See  Siege- 
train. 

Battery.  A  battery  consists  of  two  or 
more  pieces  of  artillery  in  the  field.  The 
term  battery  also  implies  the  implacement 
of  ordnance  destined  to  act  offensively  or 
defensively.  It  also  refers  to  the  company 
charged  with  a  certain  number  of  pieces  of 
ordnance.  The  ordnance  constitutes  the 
battery;  men  serve  it;  horses  drag  it,  and 
epaulments  may  shelter  it. 

Ambulant  Battery,  heavy  guns  mount- 
ed on  traveling  carriages,  and  moved  as 
occasion  may  require,  either  to  positions  on 
the  coast  or  in  besieged  places. 

Barbette  Batteries  are  those  without 
embrasures,  in  which  the  guns  are  raised  to 
fire  over  the  parapet. 

Battery  d'Enfilade  is  one  that  sweeps 
the  whole  length  of  a  line,  or  the  face  or 
flank  of  any  work. 

Battery  de  Reverse  is  one  which  plays 
upon  the  rear  of  the  troops  appointed  to  de- 
fend a  place. 

Battery  en  Echarpe  is  that  which 
plays  obliquely. 

Breaching  Battery.     See  Breach. 

Covered,  or  Masked  Battery  is  when 
the  c/innon  and  gunners  are  covered  by  a 
bank  or  breastwork,  commonly  made  of 
brushwood,  fagots,  and  earth. 

Cross-batteries  are  two  batteries  which 
play  athwart  each  other  upon  the  same  ob- 
ject, forming  there  an  angle,  and  battering 
with  more  effect,  because  what  one  battery 
shakes  the  other  beats  down. 

Facine  and  Gabion  Batteries  are  bat- 
teries constructed  of  those  machines  where 
sods  are  scarce,  and  the  earth  very  loose  and 
sandy. 

Floating    Batteries   are  such  as  are 


erected   either  on  rafts  or   on  the  hulls  of 
ships. 

Gun-battery  is  a  defense  constructed  of 
earth  faced  with  green  sods  or  fascines,  some- 
times of  gabions  filled  with  earth.  It  con- 
sists of  a  breastwork,  epaulment,  or  parapet ; 
the  open  spaces  through  which  the  muzzles 
of  the  cannon  are  pointed  are  called  embra- 
sures, and  the  solid  masses  between  the  em- 
brasures, ■)nerlons ;  the  genouiliei-es  are  those 
parts  of  the  parapet  which  cover  the  carriage 
of  the  gun.  The  platforms  are  plank  floors 
made  to  prevent  the  cannon  from  sinking 
into  the  ground  ;  they  are  made  with  a  slope 
to  check  the  recoil  of  the  guns,  and  to  render 
it  more  easy  to  bring  them  forward  again 
when  loaded. 

Half-sunken  Battery.  This  term  is 
applied  to  a  battery  in  which  the  earth  to 
form  the  parapet  is  derived  partly  from  a 
ditch  in  front  and  partly  from  the  excava- 
tion of  the  terre-plein.  See  Artillery, 
also  Cavalier. 

Mortar-batteries  differ  from  gun- 
batteries  in  this,  that  the  parapets  have  no 
embrasures,  and  the  platforms  have  no  slope, 
but  are  exactly  horizontal ;  the  shells  being 
fired  quite  over  the  parapet,  commonly  at  an 
elevation  of  45°. 

Open  Battery  is  a  number  of  cannon, 
commonly  fieM-pieces,  ranged  in  a  row 
abreast  on  some  natural  elevation  of  ground, 
or  on  an  artificial  bank  raised  for  that  pur- 
pose. 

Raised  Battery,  one  whose  terre-plein 
is  elevated  considerably  above  the  ground. 

Redan  Batteries  are  such  as  flank  each 
other  at  the  salient  and  re-entrant  angles  of 
a  fortification. 

Ricochet  Battery,  so  called  by  its  in- 
ventor Vauban,  was  first  used  at  the  siege 
of  Aeth  in  1697.  It  is  a  method  of  dis- 
charging cannon  with  a  very  small  charge 
of  powder,  and  with  just  elevation  enough 
to  fire  over  the  parapet.  When  properly 
managed  its  effects  are  most  destructive  ;  for 
the  shot,  rolling  along  the  opposite  rampart, 
dismounts  the  cannon  and  disperses  or  de- 
stroys the  troops.  Ricochet  practice  is  not 
confined  to  cannon  alone;  small  mortars 
and  howitzers  may  be  effectually  employed 
for  the  same  purpose. 

Sunken  Battery,  where  the  sole  of  the 
embrasures  is  on  a  level  with  the  ground, 
and  the  platforms  are  consequently  sunk 
below  it. 

Battery-boxes  are  square  chests  or  boxes, 
filled  with  earth  or  dung;  used  in  making 
batteries,  where  gabions  and  earth  are  not  to 
be  had.  They  must  not  be  too  large,  but  of 
a  size  that  is  governable. 

Battery-wagon.  It  consists,  besides  the 
limber,  of  a  long-bodied  cart  with  a  round 
top,  which  is  connected  with  the  limber  in 
the  same  way  as  all  other  field-carriages. 
The  lid  opens  on  hinges  placed  at  the  side  ; 
and  in  the  rear  is  fixed  a  movable  forage- 
rack  for  carrying  along  forage.  One  of  these 
wagons  accompanies  each  field  battery,  for 


BATTERY,  ELECTRIC 


51 


BATTERY  GUN 


the  purpose  of  transporting  carriage-maker's 
and  saddler's  tools,  spare  parts  of  carriages, 
harness,  and  equipments,  and  rough  ma- 
terials for  replacing  different  parts.  Both  it 
and  the  forge  arc  made  of  equal  mobility 
with  the  other  field-carriages,  in  order  to 
accompany  them  wherever  they  may  be  re- 
quired to  go.     See  Ordnance,  Carriaoks 

FOR. 

Battery,  Electric.  The  apparatus  used  to 
generate  a  current  of  electricity. 

Battery,  or  Traveling  Forge.     See  Ord- 

NANCK,  CaKRIAOES  FOR. 

Battery  Gun.  A  gun  capable  of  firing 
continuously  a  great  number  of  shots  in  a 
short  time.  Applied  to  guns  mounted  upon 
tripods,  stands,  swivels,  or  carriages.  A  7nag- 
azine  cannon  in  contradistinction  to  a  maga- 
zine small-arm.  Also  called  mnc.hine  qiin 
and  mitrailleur.  Guns  of  this  kind  existed 
as  early  as  the  14th  century.  From  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  barrels  they  were  called 
killinp  organs.  They  have  always  been  used 
in  various  forms,  but  were  comjiaratively  in- 
efficient till  recent  times,  when  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  metallic  cartridge  gave  the  sub- 
ject a  new  importance 

Pucklf.'n  revolve}-,  1718,  was  ingeniously 
mounted  upon  a  tripod  with  good  elevating 
and  traversing  arrangements.  It  had  one 
barrel  and  a  movable  rotating  breech  contain- 
ing nine  charges.  These  were  fired  in  suc- 
cession, and  a  new  breech,  ready  charged, 
was  slipped  on.  Two  kinds  of  bullets  were 
used, — round  bullets  against  Christians  and 
square  ones  for  Turks. 

]yina)is'is  steam  gun,  invented  about  1801 
by  the  celebrated  American  inventor  and 
engineer  Thomas  Winans,  of  Baltimore,  was 
a  battery  gun  of  large  calibre.  The  shot  fell 
from  a  hopper  into  a  breech-chamber,  and 
were  projected  through  the  barrel  by  the 
sudden  admission  behind  it  of  steam  under 
enormous  pressure. 

The  infernal  machine  with  which  Ficschi 
killed  Marshal  Mortier  and  a  large  number 
of  others  in  his  attempt  to  assassinate  Louis 
Philippe,  in  1885,  was  a  crude  form  of  bat- 
tery gun,  consisting  of  a  row  of  gun-barrels 
fired  by  a  train  of  powder.  Many  battery 
guns  arc  of  this  type. 

The  lici/na  battery — American — used  in 
the  civil  war,  ISGl-d"),  consisted  of  a  row  of 
24  barrels  on  a  wheel -carriage,  so  arranged 
as  to  ijive  either  j)arallel  or  divergent  fire. 
It  was  breech-loading,  the  cartridges  being 
forced  iifto  the  barrels  by  a  transverse  bar 
worked  by  levers.  It  was  capable  of  seven 
volleys  a  minute. 

One  of  the  forms  of  mitrailleur  used  in  the 
Franco-Prussian  war  was  very  much  the 
same.  The  loading-bar  was  rotating,  and 
had  two  sets  of  chambers.  One  set  was  fired 
while  the  other  was  being  loaded. 

The  Ahhfrtini  gun  used  in  Europe  has  10 
barrels  arranged  as  in  the  Kequa  battery. 
It  is  worked  by  a  crank.  The  cartridges 
are  conveyed  by  mechanical  devices  from  a 
box  magazine  to  the  rear  of  the  barrels. 


The  form  in  which  a  cluster  of  barrels  is 
used  was  |)robably  first  introduced  in  France, 
and  was  nuide  by  inserting  25  gun-barrels 
into  the  bore  of  a  brass  field-piece,  into  the 
breech  of  which  a  slot  was  cut,  the  open 
rear  ends  of  the  barrels  being  flush  with  the 
front  wall  of  the  slot.  A  cylinder-i-ase  con- 
taining cartridges  beitig  placed  in  the  slot,  a 
set  of  plungers  pushed  the  cartridges  into 
the  barrels.  The  case  was  then  replaced  by 
a  firing-block  containing  a  lock  and  pin  for 
each  cartridge. 

This  was  improved  by  mo\inting  the  bar- 
rels (37)  without  the  casing  and  replacing 
the  cartridge-case  by  a  steel  block  in  which 
the  cartridges  were  fired  without  being 
pushed  into  the  barrels. 

The  first  successful  gun  in  which  the  clus- 
ter of  barrels  was  made  to  revolve  was  the 
Catling.  (See  Gatlino  Gun.)  In  this  both 
the  barrels  and  the  locks  revolve.  The  Gat- 
ling  gun  in  its  various  forms  is  used  by  all 
the  leading  nations  of  Europe.  It  is  used  in 
a  variety  of  ways  for  field  service,  moun- 
tain service,  flank  defense  of  fortificati(»ns, 
in  the  main-tops  of  ships,  etc.  It  has  been 
mounted  upon  the  backs  of  camels,  on  tri- 
pods, swivels,  and  field-carriages.  In  Eu- 
rope its  principal  rival  is  the  Noj-denfelt,  in 
which  the  barrels  are  stationary  and  the 
breech  mechanism  works  horizontally.  It 
is  probably  su|)erior  to  the  Catling  in  the 
amount  of  metal  thrown  in  a  given  time. 
In  mechanism  and  accuracy  it  is  inferior. 
Its  principal  claim  to  superiority  is  that  it 
fires  either  volleys  or  single  shots.  The  re- 
coil, which  is  always  great  in  volley-guns, 
requires  a  very  heavy  stand,  making  it 
clumsy  and  unwieldy  compared  to  the  Gat- 
ling.  Accidents  have  also  hapj)ened  in  its 
use  from  defective  mechanism.  Among 
other  American  battery  or  machine  guns 
are  the  Lowell  and  Gardner,  both  of  which 
have  won  enviable  reputations.  A  late 
form  of  the  Gardner  consists  of  two  barrels 
fixed  in  a  brass  casing,  giving  it  the  exter- 
nal appearance  of  an  ordinary  field-piece. 
It  has  less  rapidity  of  fire  (its  maximum 
being  about  3o7  shots  a  minute)  than  some 
other  guns,  but  it  is  simple,  strong,  and 
efficient. 

The  Tai/lor  gun  was  something  like  the 
Nordenfelt  in  principle,  having  a  fixed  clus- 
ter of  barrels  and  a  sliding  breech  mechan- 
!  ism,  firing  volleys  or  sini:lc  shots  at  discro- 
I  tion.  A  later  form  of  Taylor  gun  has  the 
barrels  in  a  horizontal  row.  The  imjirovc- 
ment  consists  in  rapidity  of  loading.  Tho 
cartridges  are  carried  in  the  ordinary  paper 
or  wooden  cases,  ex|>osing  the  heads.  Tho 
gun  has  a  number  of  upright  pieces  at  tho 
breech  with  grooves  between  them.  By 
drawing  the  cartridge-<-ase  downward  over 
these  uprights  the  cartridges  are  caught  in 
the  grooves  by  their  flanged  heads.  They 
fall  by  gravity,  and  are  conducted  by  suit- 
able devices  in  grooved  duinnels  to  the  bar- 
rels. This  gun,  it  is  believed,  fires  more 
shots  a  minute  than  anv  other,  but  its  me- 


BATTLE 


52 


BATTLE 


chanisrn  is  not  so  perfect  as  several  of  its 
rivals. 

The  Hotchkiss  revolving  cannon  has  the 
largest  calibre  of  the  modern  machine  guns. 
It  differs  from  the  Gatling  in  having  but 
one  lock  for  all  the  barrels.  It  is  worked  by 
a  crank  like  the  Gatling,  but  the  mechanism 
is  such  that  during  a  part  of  the  revolution 
of  the  crank  the  barrels  are  stationary.  It 
is  during  this  time  that  one  cartridge  is  fired 
and  another  case  extracted.  The  rapidity  of 
fire  is  much  less  than  the  Gatling  and  most 
others,  but  in  perfection  of  mechanism,  ac- 
curacy, and  other  qualities,  it  is  unsurpassed. 
A  peculiar  form  of  brake  is  fitted  to  the 
wheels  of  the  field-gun  to  prevent  the  recoil 
from  moving  the  carriage.  For  the  larger 
sizes  both  shells  and  canister  are  used.  The 
metallic  cartridge-case  is  of  brass.  This  gun 
is  the  invention  of  B.  B.  Hotchkiss,  an 
American,  now  residing  in  Paris.  His  guns 
are  made  at  the  Hotchkiss  Works,  jiear  that 
city,  and  have  been  adopted  for  flank  de- 
fense of  fortifications  and  for  naval  use  by 
several  of  the  continental  powers. 

Battle.  An  action  or  engagement  be- 
tween the  forces  of  two  armies.  A  battle  is 
either  general  or  partial ;  general,  where  the 
whole  or  the  greater  part  of  each  army  is 
brought  into  action ;  and  partial,  where 
only  brigades,  divisions,  or  corps  (Varinee 
are  engaged.  But,  however  the  numbers 
may  vary,  the  great  principles  to  be  applied 
in  delivering  battle  are  in  almost  every  case 
the  same.  Palamedes  of  Argos  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  who  ranged  an  army  in 
order  of  battle,  placed  sentinels  round  a 
camp,  and  excited  the  soldier's  vigilance  by 
giving  him  a  watch-word. 

Battles  may  be  arranged  into  three  gen- 
eral classes,  defetisive,  offensive,  and  mixed 
battles.  In  a  purely  defensive  battle,  an 
army  chooses  a  position  in  which  to  await 
the  enemy,  and  there  to  give  battle  with  no 
other  end  in  view  than  to  hold  this  position 
and  repulse  the  enemy.  In  a  purely  offen- 
sive battle,  an  army  seeks  the  enemy  and 
attacks  him  wherever  he  is  to  be  found.  A 
mixed  battle,  is  a  combination  of  these  two. 
The  most  common  case  of  this  last  class  is 
that  in  which  a  position  is  selected  before- 
hand, where  the  army  awaits  the  attack  of 
the  enemy,  and,  at  a  suitable  moment,  moves 
from  it,  and  attacks  the  assaulting  columns. 
This  case  is  sometimes  known  as  a  defen- 
sive-offensive battle.  Details  of  particular 
battles  and  engagements  are  given  under 
their  respective  headings  in  this  work. 

Battle-Abbey.  In  Sussex,  England ; 
founded  by  William  I.  1067,  on  the"  plain 
where  the  battle  of  Hastings  was  fought, 
October  14,  1066.  It  was  dedicated  to  St. 
Martin,  and  given  to  Benedictine  monks, 
who  were  to  pray  for  the  souls  of  the  slain. 
The  original  name  of  the  plain  was  Hethe- 
land.  After  the  battle  of  Hastings,  a  list 
was  taken  of  William's  chiefs,  amounting 
to  629,  and  called  the  B  a  tile- Roll ;  and 
among  these  chiefs  the  lands  and  distinc- 


tions of  the  followers  of  the  defeated  Harold 
were  distributed. 

Battle-array.  Array  or  order  of  battle  ; 
the  disposition  of  forces  preparatory  to  a 
battle. 

Battle-axe.  A  weapon  much  used  by  the 
early  northern  nations,  Celtic  and  Scandi- 
navian, requiring  great  strength  in  its  use. 
Some  were  held  with  one  hand,  some  with 
two;  the  former  kind  could  be  wielded 
equally  by  horse  and  foot,  but  the  latter  was 
for  foot  soldiers  only.  The  battle-axe  has  a 
longer  handle,  and  a  broader,  stronger,  and 
sharper  blade  than  the  common  axe.  During 
the  Middle  Ages  and  somewhat  earlier,  it 
was  much  used  in  sorties,  and  to  prevent 
the  escalading  of  a  besieged  fortress.  The 
/)oZ«-rt.ce  diflfered  but  little  from  the  battle-axe. 
The  black-bill  and  broivn-bill  were  a  sort  of 
halbert,  having  a  cutting  part  like  a  wood- 
man's bill,  with  a  spike  projecting  from  the 
back,  and  another  from  the  head.  The 
qlaive  was  a  kind  of  pole-axe  or  bill  used  by 
the  Welsh. 

Battle-cries.     See  War-cries. 

Battle-ground.  A  village  of  Tippecanoe 
Co.,  Ind.,  where  the  battle  of  Tippecanoe 
was  fought,  November  7,  1811,  between 
Gen.  Harrison  and  the  Indians  under  the 
chief  Tecumseh  and  his  brother  the  "Pro- 
phet." 

Battlements.  The  indentations  in  the 
top  of  old  castles,  or  fortified  walls,  in  the 
form  of  embrasures,  for  the  greater  con- 
venience of  firing  or  looking  through. 

Battle  of  the  ioiants.     See  Marignano. 

Battle  of  the  Herrings.  A  name  given 
by  historians  to  an  engagement  which  took 
place  February  12,  1429,  in  which  Sir  John 
Fastolfe,  an  English  general  at  the  head  of 
1500  men,  gained  a  victory  over  6000  French- 
men near  Orleans,  and  brought  a  convoy  of 
stores  in  safety  to  the  English  camp  before 
that  place.  The  stores  comprised  a  large 
quantity  of  herrings. 

Battle  of  the  Nations.     See  Leipsic. 

Battle  of  the  Spurs.  A  name  given  to 
the  battle  of  Courtrai  (which  see);  also  to 
that  of  Guinegate.     See  Guineoate. 

Battle  of  the  Standard.  A  name  given 
to  a  battle  between  the  English  and  Scotch 
at  Northallerton  (which  see). 

Battle  of  the  Thirty.  A  name  given  in 
English  and  French  history  to  a  celebrated 
engagement  which  took  place  at  a  spot 
known  as  Midway  Oak,  half-way  between 
the  castles  of  Josselin  and  Ploe'rmel,  in 
France,  March  27,  1351.  The  French  gen- 
eral Beaumanoir,  commanding  at  the  former 
place,  being  enraged  at  the  English  general 
Bemborough,  occupying  the  latter  position, 
challenged  him  to  fight.  Upon  this  it  was 
agreed  that  30  knights  of  each  party  should 
meet  and  decide  the  contest.  At  the  first 
onset  the  English  were  successful,  but  Bem- 
borough having  been  killed,  the  French  re- 
newed the  struggle  with  redoubled  courage, 
and  finally  won  the  victory. 

Battle-range.     The  range  corresponding 


BATTLE 


53 


BAZAR 


to  the  maximum  "dangerous  space"  for  the 
trajectory  of  any  fire-arm.  Tliis  rani^e  is 
somewhat  greater  for  sucli  tire-arm  employed 
against  mounted  troops  than  against  foot 
troops.  For  instance,  it  is  202  yards  for  the 
Springfield  rifle  (calihre  .45)  when  used 
against  foot  troops,  and  rcjiresents  the  ex- 
treme range  for  whicli  the  rear  siglit  may  be 
set  so  as  to  cover  sucii  foot  troops  continu- 
ously between  that  point  and  the  firer. 
There  is  also  a  "dangerous  space"  of  75 
yards  behind  that  point  for  the  foot  soldier; 
hence  the  maximum  "dangerous  space"  is 
3:57  yards,  and  is  a  continuous  one.  For  the 
same  arm  and  against  cavalry,  the  "battle- 
range"  is  201  yards,  corresponding  to  a  max- 
imum continuous  "dangerous  space,"  front 
and  rear,  of  (291+95=)  380  yards.  For 
the  carbine  (cal.  .45)  against  infantry,  this 
range  is  204  yards,  and  the  maximum  "  dan- 
gerous space"  is  300  yards.  Upon  the  latest 
model  sights  (1879)  "for  these  two  fire-arms, 
the  letter  "/}"  is  placed  opposite  the  "bat- 
tle-range" elevation,  and  indicates  the  most 
suitable  one  for  firing  at  an  enemy's  line  of 
battle  ;  with  this  elevation  and  the  aim  taken 
at  the  foot,  the  enemy  will  be  hit  wherever  i 
he  may  be  within  a  range  of  about  400  yards.  ' 
The  most  eflective  fire,  and  one  covering  the 
greatest  zone  of  continuous  "dangerous 
space,"  can  be  secured  by  causing  troops  to 
lie  down,  to  fire  at  the  feet  of  the  opposing 
line,  and  to  use  the  "  battle"  elevation.  The 
zone  then  swept  will  be  round  about  500 
yards  for  troops  armed  with  the  service  rifle, 
tjoe  Danukkous  Si'ack. 

Battle,  The  Fearless.  An  engagement 
between  the  Lacedaemonians  under  Archi- 
damus  IIL  and  the  Arcadians. 

Battre  (/•>.).  To  direct  one  or  more  pieces 
of  ordnance  in  such  a  manner  that  any 
given  object  nuiy  be  destroyed  or  broken 
into  by  the  continued  discharge  of  cannon- 
ball,  or  other  warlike  material ;  it  likewise 
means  to  silence  an  enemy's  fire. 

Battre  de  Front  (/•>.').  To  throw  can- 
non-balls in  a  perpendicular  or  almost  per- 
])endiiular  direction  against  any  body  or 
place  which  becomes  an  object  of  attack. 
This  mode  of  attack  is  less  eflectual  than  any 
other  unless  bntfering  in  breach. 

Baulois.  A  piece  of  punk  stuff,  used  by 
millers  for  firing  the  saucision,  or  train. 

Bavaria.  A  kingdom  in  South  Germany  ; 
conquered  from  the  Celtic  Gauls  by  the 
Franks,  between  030  and  tiOO.  The  country 
was  afterwards  governed  by  dukes  subject  to 
the  French  monarchs.  Tasillon  H.  was  de- 
posed by  Charlemagne,  who  established  mar- 
graves in  788.  lienry  the  Lion,  duke  of 
Saxony,  Bavaria,  and  Brunswiik,  was  dis- 
possessed in  1180  by  the  emperor  Frederick 
Barbarossft  (who  had  previously  been  his 
friend  and  benefactor.)  Havaria  supported 
Austria  in  the  contest  with  Prussia  in  June, 
1800,  and  took  part  in  the  war;  made  peace 
with  Prussia  August  22.  Took  part  with 
Prussia  against  the  French  in  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war,  1870.  [ 


Bavier.     The  beaver  of  a  helmet. 

Bavin.     The  old  word  for  fascine. 

Bayberry  Tallow.  A  product  of  the  wax 
myrtle,  used  as  lubricant  for  bullets. 

Bayeux.  A  city  in  the  department  of 
Calvados,  France,  17  mile.s  west-northwest  of 
Caen  ;  captured  and  sacked  bv  Henry  L  of 
England  in  1100;  by  Philip  (if  Nava'rre  in 
1350  ;  the  P:nglish  took  p.issession  of  it,  1450  ; 
the  Protestants  in  1501  ;  Lamoriciere  for  the 
League  in  1589,  and  the  Duke  of  Alontpen- 
sier  in  1590. 

Baylen.  A  town  in  Southern  Spain,  where 
on  July  20,  1808,  the  French,  commanded  by 
(iens.  Uupont  and  Wedel,  were  defeat<'d  by 
the  Spaniards  under  Keding,  Coujiigny,  and 
other  generals,  whose  force  amounted  to 
25,000. 

Bayonet.  A  triangular  dagger,  made  with 
a  hollow  handle  and  a  shoulder,  to  fix  on  the 
muzzle  of  a  rifle,  so  that  its  presence  does  not 
impede  either  the  charging  or  firing  of  the 
piece.  It  is  said  to  have  been  invented  at 
Hayonne,  in  France,  about  1047,  1070,  or 
lOliO.  It  was  used  at  Killiecrankie  in  1089, 
and  at  Marsaglia  by  the  French  in  1093, 
"  with  great  success  against  the  enemy,  un- 
prepared for  the  encounter  with  so  formid- 
able a  novelty."  Bayonets  are  sometimes 
made  in  other  shapes.  See  Sword-bayonet 
and  Trowki.-hayonkt. 

Bayonet  Exercise.  A  drill  in  fencing 
with  till'  bayonet  fixed  on  the  gun. 

Bayonet  Scabbard.  A  leather  or  metal- 
lic case  for  carrving  the  bavonet  suspended 
from  the  belt. 

Bayonne.  An  ancient  city  in  Southern 
France,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Adour  and 
Nive;  held  by  the  British  from  1295  till  it 
was  taken  by  Charles  VII.  The  queens  of 
Spain  and  France  met  here  in  1505  the  cruel 
l)uke  of  Alva,  it  is  supposed  to  arrange  the 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew.  Charles  IV. 
of  Spain  abdicated  here  in  favor  of  his 
"friend  and  allv,"  the  emperor  Napoleon, 
May  4,  1808.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Ba- 
yonne was  much  desperate  fighting  between 
the  French  and  English  armies,  December 
10,  11,  and  13,  1813  Tinvested  by  the  British 
January  14,  1814;  on  April  14,  the  French 
made  a  sally  and  attacked  the  English  with 
success,  but  were  at  length  driven  back.  The 
loss  of  the  British  was  considt-rable,  and 
Lieut.-Gen.  Sir  John  Hope  was  wounded 
and  taken  prisoner. 

Bayou.  A  long  and  narrow  place;  a 
branch  of  a  trench  in  fortification;  a  hose 
or  leathern  pipe;  the  outlet  of  a  lake;  a 
channel  for  water. 

Baza.  A  city  in  Andalusia,  Spain  ;  it 
was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  under  Ferdi- 
nand V.  from  the  Moors  inl)ecember,  1489, 
after  a  siege  of  nearly  seven  months ;  in 
1810  the  Spaniards  under  (iens.  Blake  and 
Freire  were  defeated  by  the  French  under 
Mar>lial  Soult. 

Bazar.  The  sutler  establishment  which 
accoMi]iMnies  a  native  regiment  in  the  India 
service  wherever  it  goes. 


BAZEILLES 


54 


BEDOUINS 


Bazeilles.  A  village  in  the  Ardennes, 
Northeast  France.  During  the  dreadful 
battle  of  Sedan,  September  1,  1870,  Bazeilles 
was  burnt  by  the  Bavarians,  and  outrages 
committed.  Of  nearly  2000  inhabitants 
scarcely  50  remained  alive,  and  these  indig- 
nantly denied  having  given  provocation. 
The  cause  of  provocation  appears  to  have 
been  that  an  old  woman  whose  husband  and 
sons  had  been  killed  had  fired  upon  and 
killed  two  Bavarians. 

Bazoche-des-Hautes.  Near  Orleans, 
Central  France.  Here  a  part  of  the  army 
of  the  Loire,  under  Gen.  d'Aurelle  de  Pala- 
dines,  was  defeated  after  a  severe  action  by 
the  Germans  under  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Mecklenburg,  December  2,  1870. 

Beach-master.  Formerly  a  superior  offi- 
cer, appointed  to  superintend  the  disembar- 
kation of  an  attacking  force,  who  holds  ple- 
nary powers,  and  generally  leads  the  storm- 
ing-party.  His  acts  when  in  the  heat  of 
action  are  unquestioned. 

Beachy  Head.  A  promontory.  Southeast 
Sussex,  England,  near  which  the  British  and 
Dutch  fleets,  commanded  by  the  earl  of  Tor- 
rington,  were  defeated  by  a  superior  French 
force  under  Admiral  Tourville,  June  30, 
1690;  the  allies  suffered  very  severely.  The 
Dutch  lost  2  admirals,  500  men,  and  several 
ships, — sunk  to  prevent  them  from  falling 
into  the  hands  of  the  enemy ;  the  English 
lost  2  ships  and  400  men.  The  admirals  on 
both  sides  were  blamed, — the  English  for 
not  fighting,  the  French  for  not  pursuing 
the  victory. 

Beacon.  A  signal-fire  to  notify  the  ap- 
proach of  an  enemy. 

Bear.  In  a  military  sense,  a  piece  of 
ordnance  is  said  to  bear,  or  come  to  bear,  or 
is  brought  to  bear,  when  pointed  directly 
against  the  object ;  that  is,  pointed  to  hit  the 
object. 

Bear,  Order  of.  Was  a  military  order  in 
Switzerland,  instituted  by  the  emperor 
Frederick  II.  in  1213,  by  way  of  acknowl- 
edgment for  the  service  the  Swiss  had  done 
him,  and  in  favor  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Gall. 
To  the  collar  of  the  order  hung  a  medal,  on 
which  was  represented  a  bear  raised  on  an 
eminence  of  earth. 

Beard.  The  reflected  points  of  the  head 
of  an  ancient  arrow,  particularly  of  such  as 
were  jagged. 

Beat.  In  a  military  sense,  to  gain  the 
day,  to  win  the  battle,  etc. 

Beating  the  Wind.  Was  a  practice  in 
use  in  the  ancient  method  of  trial  by  combat. 
If  one  of  the  combatants  did  not  appear  in 
the  field  at  the  time  appointed,  the  other  was 
to  make  so  many  flourishes  with  his  weapon, 
by  which  he  wifs  entitled  to  all  the  advan- 
tages of  a  conqueror. 

Beauceant,  or  Beaucent  {Fr.).  Standard 
of  the  Knights  Templar;  it  was  white  on 
one  side  and  black  on  the  other. 

Beaugency.  An  ancient  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  Loiret,  and  situated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Loire.     It  was  at  one 


time  surrounded  by  walls,  flanked  with  tow- 
ers and  bastions,  and  defended  by  a  strong 
castle,  now  ruined.  In  the  history  of  the 
wars  of  France  Beaugency  occupies  a  con- 
spicuous place;  it  was  successively  in  the 
hands  of  the  Huns,  Saxons,  Normans,  and 
English,  but  the  town  sustained  most  dam- 
age during  the  religious  wars  of  the  16th 
century. 

Beaumont.  A  town  in  the  department  of 
the  Somme,  France;  here  the  French  routed 
the  allies,  June  16,  1815. 

Beaumont.  A  village  near  Sedan,  de- 
partment of  Ardennes,  Northeast  France. 
Near  here  a  part  of  the  army  of  Marshal 
MacMahon,  under  De  Failly,  which,  after 
vainly  endeavoring  to  reach  Metz,  was  re- 
treating before  the  Germans  under  the  crown 
prince  of  Prussia,  was  surprised,  defeated, 
and  driven  across  the  Meuse  at  Mouzon, 
August  30,  1870.  The  French  loss  included 
about  7000  prisoners,  many  guns,  and  much 
camp  equipage.  The  victory  was  chiefly 
gained  by  the  Bavarians. 

Beaune-la-Rolande.  A  village  in  the 
Loiret,  France.  Here  the  French  army  of 
the  Loire  under  Gen.  d'Aurelle  de  Pala- 
dines  was  defeated  by  the  Germans  under 
Prince  Frederick  Charles,  in  an  attempt  to 
march  in  the  direction  of  Fontainebleau,  to 
relieve  Paris,  November  28,  1870.  The 
French  loss  was  reported  by  the  Germans  to 
be  1000  dead  and  4000  wounded,  with  more 
than  1700  prisoners.  Their  own  loss  was 
also  heavy. 

Beauvais  (Northern  France).  The  an- 
cient Bellovaci,  formerly  capital  of  Picardy. 
When  besieged  by  Charles  the  Bold,  duke 
of  Burgundy,  with  80,000  men,  the  women 
under  Jeanne  Fourquet  or  Laine,  also  called 
de  la  Hachette,  from  her  using  that  weapon, 
particularly  distinguished  themselves,  and 
the  duke  raised  the  siege,  July  10,  1472.  In 
memory  of  this,  the  women  of  Beauvais  walk 
first  in  the  procession  on  the  anniversary  of 
their  deliverance. 

Bebra.  A  sort  of  javelin,  used  by  the 
ancient  Germans  ;  it  was  an  imitation  of  the 
pllmn  of  the  Romans. 

Bee  de  Corbin  {Fr.).  A  kind  of  halbert 
formerly  used  by  the  body-guards  of  the 
kings  of  France. 

Bechlis.  Light  cavalry  of  the  Turks, 
composed  of  picked  men  and  horses. 

Bedaines  [Fr.)'.  Stone  bullets  which 
were  thrown  from  catapults  during  the 
Middle  Ages. 

Bednore,  or  Nuggur.  A  large  city  of 
Mysore,  India.  In  1763  it  was  taken  and 
pillaged  by  Hyder  Ali,  who  subsequently 
made  it  the  seat  of  his  own  government.  It 
was  taken  b}'  the  British  under  Gen.  Mat- 
thews in  1783,  but  was  soon  retaken  by 
Tippoo,  at  the  head  of  a  vastly  superior  force, 
when  Gen.  Matthews  and  all  the  principal 
British  officers  were  put  to  death. 

Bedouins.  Wandering  tribes  of  Arabs, 
living  on  the  plunder  of  travelers,  etc.  They 
profess  a  form  of  Mohammedanism,  and  are 


BEDS 


55 


BELLAIR 


governed  by  sheikhs.  They  are  said  to  be 
descendiirits  of  Ishmael. 

Beds.  Are  receptacles  for  ordnance  of 
lari^c  calibre, — mortar-beds  serve  the  same 
purpose  as  {jun-carriages.  They  are  made 
of  solid  timber,  consisting  generally  of  two 

Iiieces  fastenc^d  together  with  strong  iron 
lolts  and  bars.  Their  sizes  depend  on  the 
kind  of  mortar  they  carry.  The  beds  for 
the  smaller  mortars  are  made  of  one  solid 
block  only.  Tlie  reason  that  a  bed  is  used 
for  a  mortar  instead  of  a  wheel-carriage  is 
on  account  of  the  high  elevation  at  which  a 
mortar  is  usually  tired,  when  the  recoil,  in- 
stead of  forcing  the  piece  backwards,  tends 
to  torce  it  downwards,  and  this  tendency 
becomes  so  great  at  the  higher  angles  that 
no  wheel-carriage  could  long  sustain  the 
shock. 

Beeren,  Gross.  A  village  of  Prussia, 
11  miles  east-southeast  of  I'otsdam,  well 
known  as  the  scene  of  a  great  victory  gained 
by  the  Prussians  over  the  French  on  August 
22-'2:^,  1813. 

Beetles.  In  a  military  sense,  are  large 
wooden  hammers  for  driving  down  palisades, 
and  for  other  uses. 

Beetlestock.  The  stock  or  handle  of  a 
beetle. 

Befort,  or  Belfort.  A  fortified  town  in 
the  departmiMit  of  Haut-l{hin,  France; 
sustained  several  sieges;  taken  by  the  Aus- 
trians  in  1814.  Its  citadel  was  constructed 
by  Vauban. 

Beg,  or  Bey.  A  Turkish  title,  rather 
vague  in  its  import,  and  commonly  given  to 
superior  military  officers,  ship-captains,  and  ■ 
distinguished  foreigners.  More  strictly,  it 
applies  to  the  governor  of  a  small  district, 
who  bears  a  horse-tail  as  a  sign  of  his  rank. 
Beglerbeg,  or  more  correctly  Beilerbcgi 
("  inrd  of  lords"),  is  the  title  given  to  the 
governor  of  a  province  who  bears  three 
horse-tails  as  his  badge  of  honor,  and  has 
authority  over  several  begs,  agas,  etc. 

Begkos,  or  Beikos.  A  large  village  of 
Anatolia,  on  the  IJosphorus,  8  mihjs  north- 
northeast  of  Scutari,  said  to  be  the  locality 
of  the  contest  between  Pollux  and  Amycus, 
in  which  the  latter  was  killed;  At  the 
commencement  of  the  Crimean  war,  the 
allied  fleets  anchored  in  Begkos  Bay,  prior 
to  their  entering  the  Black  Sea,  in  January, 
1854.  "^  ^' 

Behourd,  Bihourt,  or  Bohourt  ( Fr. ).  This 
name  was  given  during  tin-  .Middle  Ages,  to 
a  combat  on  horseback,  lance  in  hand  ;  also 
a  tilting  of  cavaliers,  which  took  place  at 
public  amusements. 

Beilan.  A  town  and  mountain-pass  of 
Syria  at  its  northern  extremity,  on  the  east 
side  of  the  (iulf  of  Iskanderoon.  Here  the 
Egyptian  troops  totally  defeated  the  Turks 
in  1832. 

Belbeys,  or  Belbeis.  A  town  of  Lower 
Egypt,  on  the  eastern  arm  of  the  Nile, 
28  miles  north-northeast  of  Cairo;  it  is 
inclosed  by  earthen  ran)parts,  and  is  n 
station  on  the  route  from   Egypt  to  Syria. 


During  the  expedition  of  the  French  into 
Egypt,  Gen.  Bonaparte  had  the  ancient  for- 
titications  repaired. 

Beleaguer.  To  invest  a  town  or  fortress, 
so  as  to  j)reclude  escape  ;  to  besiege  •,  to  block- 
ade. 

Belem.  A  town  of  Portugal,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Tagus,  near  Lisbon.  It  is  his- 
torically interesting  as  the  place  from 
whence  Vasco  de  Gama  set  sail  on  his  voy- 
age of  oriental  discovery;  it  was  taken  in 
November,  1807,  by  the  French,  the  royal 
family  of  Portugal  embarking  from  its  quay 
for  Brazil  as  they  entered  ;  in  1833,  it  was 
occupied  by  Don  Pedro's  troops. 

Belemnon.  A  dart  used  by  the  ancient 
Grecians. 

Belfry,  or  Beffroi.  Among  military 
writers  of  the  Middle  Ages,  a  movable 
tower,  often  several  stories  high,  erected 
by  besiegers  for  purposes  of  attack  and  de- 
fense. 

Belgian-fuze.     See  Bormann-fuze. 

Belgium.  Late  the  southern  portion  of  the 
kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  and  anciently 
the  territory  of  the  Belgse,  who  were  tinally 
conquered  by  Julius  Cajsar,  51  H.c.  ;  a  revo- 
lution commenced  at  Bru.ssels,  August  25, 
1830;  Antwerp  taken  (ex<e|)t  the  citadel), 
December  23,  1830.  The  king  of  the  Neth- 
erlands commenced  war  August  3,  1831, 
but  France  sent  50,000  troops  to  assist  Bel- 
gium, which  eftected  an  armistice.  Ant- 
werp was  taken  by  the  French,  December 
23,  1832,  and  the  French  army 


returned  to 
For    previous 


France    inuiiedialely    after, 
history,  see  Flanukks. 

Belgrade.  An  ancient  city  in  Servia,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Danube.  It  was  taken 
from  the  Greek  emperor  by  Sohmion,  king 
of  Hungary,  in  108tj ;  gallantly  defended  by 
John  Uuniades,  against  the  Turks  under 
Mahomet  II.,  July  to  September,  1456, 
when  the  latter  was  defeated  with  the  loss 
of  40,000  men  ;  it  was  taken  by  Sultan  Soly- 

)  man,  1521,  and  retaken  by  the  Imperialists 
in  lt)88,  from  whom  it  was  again  taken  by 
the  Turks,  ItJ'JO;  besieged  in  May,  1717,  by 
Prince  Eugene.  On  August  5,  of  that  year, 
the  Turkish  army,  2(M),000  strong,*  a|>- 
proached  to  relieve  it,  and  a  sanguinary  battle 
was  fought  at  Peterwardein,  in  which  the 
Turks  lost  20,000  men  ;  after  this  battle  Bel- 
grade surrendered.  In  173'.>  it  was  ceded  to 
the  Turks,  after  its  line  foriitications  had 
been  demolished;  retaken  in  178H.  and  re- 
stored at  the  peace  of  Heichenbach  in   17JK). 

j  The  Servian  insurgents  had  jmssession  of  it 
in  180();  in  1815,  it  was  jdaced  under  Prince 
Milosch,   subject  to  Turkey;    the  fortitica- 

1  tions  were  restored  in  1820;  the  fortress  was 
surrendered  by  the  Turks  to  the  Servians 
about  August,'  18»J7. 

Belier  (/>.).  A  batfering-ram,  inve.nted 
by  the  Carthaginians  about  441  H.c.  ;  used 
in  ancient  times  for  siege  pur|>oses.  Also  a 
wooden  machine  for  driving  wedges  under  u 
ship's  button). 

Bellair.     In    North    America;  this  town 


BELLE-ALLIANCE 


56 


BENEYENTO 


was  attacked  by  the  British  forces  under  Sir 
Peter  Parker,  who,  after  an  obstinate  en- 
gagement, were  repulsed  with  considerable 
loss ;  their  gallant  commander  was  killed 
August  30,  f814. 

Belle-Alliance.  A  farm-house  on  the 
field  of  Waterloo,  Belgium  ;  it  is  situated 
on  the  right  side  of  the  high-road  to  Brussels 
and  about  two  miles  from  Mount-Saint-Jean. 
Here  Napoleon  marshaled  his  guards  for 
their  last  eflbrt  at  Waterloo  ;  and  here  Wel- 
lington and  Bliicher  met  after  the  battle 
was  gained  by  the  allies. 

Bellegarde.  A  hill  fortress  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  the  Pyrenees  Orien- 
tales.  Here  the  French  under  Philip  III. 
were  defeated  by  Peter  III.  of  Aragon,  in 
1285;  captured  by  the  Spaniards  in  1674, 
and  again  by  the  French  under  Marshal 
Schoniberg,  in  1675;  blockaded  and  taken 
by  the  Spaniards  under  Pvicardos,  but  was 
retaken  by  the  French  in  the  following  year. 

Belleisle.  An  isle  on  the  southeast  of 
Brittany,  France,  erected  into  a  duchy  for 
Marshal  Belleisle  in  1742,  in  reward  of  his 
military  and  diplomatic  services,  by  Louis 
XV.  Belleisle  was  taken  by  the  British 
forces  under  Commodore  Keppel  and  Gen. 
Hodgson,  after  a  desperate  resistance,  June 
7,  1761  ;  restored  to  France  in  1763. 

Belley,  Bellica,  Bellicum,  or  Bellicium. 
A  town  in  the  department  of  Ain,  France, 
39  miles  east  from  Lyons,  formerly  fortified. 
Belley  served  as  a  place  of  arms  to  Caisar 
against  the  Allobroges ;  burned  by  Alaric 
in  390  ;  it  was  in  the  possession  of  the  dukes 
of  Savoy;  it  was  ceded  to  France  in  1601. 

Belligerent.  In  a  state  of  warfare.  Hence 
any  two  or  more  nations  at  war  are  called 
belligerent  powers. 

Bellinzona.  A  town  in  the  Swiss  canton 
of  Ticino,  on  the  river  Ticino.  It  has  several 
castles,  and  was  captured  and  recaptured 
several  times  by  the  Germans,  Swiss,  and 
French. 

Bellipotent.    Powerful  or  mighty  in  war. 

Bell-metal.  An  alloy  of  about  78  parts 
copper  and  22  of  tin,  used  in  making  bells. 
It  is  harder  and  more  sonorous  than  gun- 
metal,  but  much  more  brittle. 

Bellovaci.  The  most  powerful  of  the 
Belgce,  dwelt  in  the  modern  Beauvais,  be- 
tween the  Seine,  Oise,  Somme,  and  Bresle. 
In  Caesar's  time  they  could  bring  100,000 
men  into  the  field,  but  they  were  subdued 
by  Caesar  with  the  other  Belgae. 

Bellows-house.  See  Ordnance,  Car- 
riages FOR,  Traveling  Forge. 

Bells  of  Arms.  In  the  British  service, 
are  tents  in  front  of  the  quarters  of  each 
company  of  infantry,  in  which  the  arms  are 
piled.  In  Indian  cantonments,  the  bells  of 
arms  are  of  masonry. 

Beloochistan,  Southern  Asia.  The  an- 
cient Gedrosia.  The  capital,  Kelat,  was 
taken  by  the  British  in  the  Afghan  war,  in 
1839;  abandoned  in  1840;  taken  and  held 
for  a  short  time  in  1841. 

Belt,  Great.    A  strait  forming  the  central 


communication  between  the  Baltic  and  the 
Cattegat;  it  separates  the  island  of  Funen 
from  that  of  Seeland.  In  the  winter  of 
1658,  while  frozen,  it  was  crossed  by  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden,  and  his 
army,  on  his  way  to  besiege  Copenhagen. 

Belts.  Leathern  suspenders  of  ditferent 
sorts  and  for  various  purposes,  viz. :  sword 
belts,  to  which  swords  hang ;  shoulder  or 
cross  belts,  broad  leathern  belts,  crossing 
from  the  right  shoulder,  and  to  which  the 
pouch  is  aifixed ;  and  leathern  straps  fixed 
round  the  waist,  by  which  a  sword  or  bay- 
onet is  suspended. 

Benares.  A  holy  city  of  the  Hindoos 
in  India ;  it  was  ceded  by  the  nabob  of 
Oude  to  the  English  in  1755;  the  scene  of 
an  insurrection  in  1781,  which  nearly  proved 
fatal  to  the  British  interests  in  Hindostan. 
In  June,  1857,  Col.  Neil  succeeded  in  sup- 
pressing attempts  to  join  the  Sepoy  mutiny. 

Ben-Azzedin.  A  place  in  Algiers,  where 
the  French  fought  the  Kabyles,  September 
9,  1848. 

Benburb.  Near  Armagh  (Northern  Ire- 
land). Here  O'Neill  totally  defeated  the  Eng- 
lish under  Monroe,  June  5, 1646.  Moore  says 
that  it  was  "  the  only  great  victory  since  the 
days  of  Brian  Boru  achieved  by  an  Irish 
chieftain  in  the  cause  of  Ireland." 

Bend.  In  heraldry,  is  one  of  the  ordi- 
naries, or  more  important  figures.  It  is 
formed  of  two  parallel  lines  drawn  from  the 
dexter  to  the  sinister  base,  and  consequently 
passing  athwart  the  shield.  It  is  supposed 
to  represent  a  shoulder-belt,  or  scarf  worn 
over  the  shoulder. 

Bender  (Bessarabia,  European  Kussia). 
Was  the  asylum  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden 
after  his  defeat  at  Pultowa  bv  the  czar  Peter 
the  Great,  July  8,  1709.  "  The  i)eace  of 
Bender  was  concluded  in  1711 ;  it  was  taken 
by  storm,  by  the  Kussians,  in  September, 
1770;  again  taken  by  Potemkin  in  1789; 
and  again  stormed  in  1809.  It  was  restored 
at  the  peace  of  Jassy,  but  retained  at  the 
peace  of  1812. 

Benevente.  A  small  town  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Alentejo,  Portugal,  where  Lord 
Paget,  afterwards  Marquis  of  Anglesea,  in 
1808,  greatly  distinguished  himself  by  a 
brilliant  cavalry  action,  against  the  French 
under  Marshal  Soult ;  when  Gen.  Lefebre 
Desnouettes,  who  commanded  the  advanced 
guard  of  the  French  forces,  was  taken 
prisoner. 

Benevento  (anc.  Beneventuni).  An  an- 
cient city  in  South  Italy,  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Diomedes  the  Greek,  after  the 
fall  of  Troy;  Pyrrhus  of  Macedon,  during 
his  invasion  of  Italy,  was  totally  defeated 
near  Beneventum,  275  B.C.  At  a  battle 
fought  here,  February  26,  1266,  Manfred, 
king  of  Sicily,  was  defeated  and  slain  by 
Charles  of  Anjou,  who  thus  became  virtu- 
ally master  of  Italy.  It  was  seized  by  the 
king  of  Naples,  but  restored  to  the  pope, 
1773;  it  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1798, 
and  restored  to  the  pope  in  1814. 


BENGAL 


57 


BERLIN 


Bengal.     Chief  presidency  of  British  In- 

diii,  containing  Calcutta,  the  capital.  Its 
governors  were  delegated  by  the  sovereigns 
of  Deilii  till  1.340,  when  it  became  independ- 
ent. It  was  added  to  the  Mogul  empire  by 
Baber  about  152'J. 

Beni-Abbes.  An  Algerian  tribe  who 
fou-lit  tlic  French,  May  KJ,  1847. 

Beni-Achour.  An  Algerian  tribe  who 
were  defeated  by  the  French,  September  22, 
184H. 

Benicke.  A  kind  of  military  fete  among 
the  Turks,  similar  to  a  tournament,  but 
without  tli(!  jiresence  of  ladies. 

Beni-Mered.  An  Algerian  tribe  who 
were  defeated  by  the  French,  May  27,  183G. 

Beni-Yala.  An  Algerian  tribe  who  were 
chastised  by  tlic  French,  ^lay  -31,  1847. 

Ben-Nahr.  A  place  in  'Algeria  where 
the  French  defeated  the  Arabs,  February  7, 
184»i. 

Bennington.  A  post-township  of  Ben- 
nington Co.,  Vt.,  117  miles  southwest  of 
3Iontpelier.  Here  a  detachment  of  the 
English  army  under  Gen.  Burgoyne  were 
defeated  by  the  Americans  under  Gen. 
Stark,  August  IG,  1777,  and  GOO  prisoners 
cajiturcd. 

Ben-Tijour.  A  place  in  Algeria  where 
the  French  engaged  the  Arabs,  September 
22,  1S4S. 

Bentonville.  A  village  in  Johnston  Co., 
N.  C.  Here  part  of  the  army  of  Gen.  Sher- 
man encountered  a  Confederate  army  (40,000 
strong)  under  Gen.  Johnston,  March,  18G5. 
The  attack  was  made  by  Gen.  Johnston  on 
the  left  wing  of  the  Federal  army  with  the 
intention  of  overwhelming  it  before  it  could 
be  relieved.  Six  assaults  were  gallantly  sus- 
tained by  the  Federals  against  the  combined 
forces  of  (icns.  Hoke,  Hardee,  and  Cheat- 
ham. During  the  night  Gen.  Slocum  re- 
ceived reinforcements  which  rendered  his 
positicm  impregnable.  On  March  21,  Gen. 
Sherman  ordered  a  general  attack  by  his 
skirmish-line,  and  the  ensuing  night  Johns- 
ton retreated  towards  Sniithtield,  leaving 
his  jiickets  to  fall  into  Gen.  Sherman's  hands. 
The  Federal  lo.-^s  was  1G4G ;  the  Confederate 
loss  is  unknown,  but  about  1800  prisoners 
were  taken  by  the  Union  forces. 

Beraun.  A  walled  town  of  Bohemia,  cap- 
ital of  a  circle,  on  the  Heraun  Kivor.  Here 
the  Au«trians  defeated  the  Prussians  in  1744. 

Berbers.  The  general  name  usually  given 
to  till'  tribes  inhabiting  the  mountainous  re- 
gions of  IJarbary  and  the  northern  portions 
of  the  Groat  Desert.  They  were  conquered 
in  succession  by  the  Phienicians,  Komans, 
Vandals,  and  Arabs.  They  are  of  middle 
stature,  sparely  but  strongly  built;  com- 
plexion varies  t^rom  a  red  to  a  yellow  brown  ; 
hair  is,  in  general,  dark,  and  eyes  dark  and 
piercing.  Their  manners  are  austere,  and  in 
disposition  they  are  cruel,  suspicious,  and 
implacable.  They  are  usually  at  war  with 
their  neighbors  or  among  themselves. 

Beresina,  or  Berezina.  A  river  in  Rus- 
sia, crossed  bv  the  French  main  army  after 


its  defeat  by  the  Russians,  November  25-29, 
1812.  The  French  lost  upwards  of  20,000 
men,  and  their  retreat  was  attended  by  great 
calamity  and  sutlering. 

Bereung.  A  description  of  Swedish  mi- 
litia, consisting  of  every  man  in  the  king- 
dom, from  20  to  25  years  of  age,  capable  of 
bearing  arms. 

Bergamo.  A  fortified  city  of  Lombardy, 
Italy;  captured  by  the  French  in  1G'J8. 
During  the  height  of  the  Venetian  power, 
Bergamo  was  a  dependency  on  its  territory  ; 
under  Na])oleon,  it  was  the  capital  of  the 
department  of  Serio. 

Bergedorf.  A  town  of  North  Germany  ; 
it  was  taken  from  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Lauen- 
berg  in  1736  by  the  cities  of  Hamburg  and 
Lubeck ;  recaptured  in  1412;  and  again 
taken  by  the  same  two  cities  in  1720. 

Bergen.  A  small  town  in  Germany,  about 
5  miles  from  Frankfort.  Here  the  French, 
under  the  Duke  of  Broglie,  defeated  the 
allies  under  the  Duke  Ferdinand  of  Bruns- 
wick, April  13,  1759.  The  allies  lost  2^300 
killed  and  wounded,  and  the  French  lost 
about  1800. 

Bergen.  A  town  in  Holland.  Here  the 
allies  under  the  Duke  of  York  were  defeated 
by  the  French,  under  Gen.  Brune,  with  great 
loss,  September  19,  1799.  In  another  battle 
fought  October  2,  the  same  year,  the  duke 
gained  the  victory  over  Brune ;  but  on  the 
Gth,  the  duke  was' defeated  before  Alkmaer, 
and  on  the  20th  entered  into  a  convention, 
by  which  his  army  was  exchanged  for  G0(»0 
French  and  Dutch  prisoners  in  England. 

Bergen-op-Zoom,  or  Berg-op-Zoom. 
A  strongly-fortified  town  of  Holland,  in 
North  Brabant,  on  the  river  Zoom.  In  158G 
it  was  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the  famous 
Duke  of  Parma,  and  afterwards,  in  1(522,  it 
defied  the  utmost  attemjtts  of  Spinola,  who 
was  forced  to  abandon  the  enterprise  after  a 
siege  of  ten  weeks,  with  the  loss  of  12.000 
men.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  under 
Count  Lowendahl  in  1747,  and  in  1795  was 
again  occupied  by  them.  An  attemj)t  made 
by  the  British  under  Gen.  Sir  T.  Graham 
(afterwards  Lord  Lynedoch)  to  carry  the 
fortress  by  storm  was  defeated  ;  after  forcing 
an  entrance,  their  retreat  wa-s  cut  ofi",  and  a 
dreadful  slaughter  ensued ;  nearly  all  were 
cut  to  pieces  or  made  prisoners,  March  8, 
1814. 

Bergerac.  A  town  in  the  department  of 
Dordogne,  France  ;  it  was  formerly  fortified, 
and  sustained  many  sieges  ;  taken  by  the 
English  in  1345,  and  retaken  by  the  Duke  of 
Anjou  in  1370.  Its  fortifications  were  razed 
by  Louis  XIII.  in  lf,21. 

'  Bergfried,  Combat  of.  A  combat  which 
took  place  between  tlio  French  and  Rus*ians, 
February  3,  1807,  in  which  the  latter  wero 
repulsed. 

Bergues.  .V  fortified  town  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  North,  France;  it  was  captured 
and  recaptured  by  the  Spaniards  and  French  ; 
the  last  time  by  Turenne  in  1058. 

Berlin.     Cajiital  of  Prussia,  in  the  proy- 


BERME 


58 


BEYROOT 


ince  of  Brandenburg  ;  alleged  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  margrave  Albert  the  Bear, 
about  1163.  It  was  taken  by  an  army  of 
Russians  and  Austrians  in  1760,  but  they  were 
obliged  to  retire  in  a  few  days.  On  October 
26,  1806,  after  the  battle  of  Jena  (October 
14),  the  French  entered  Berlin;  and  from 
this  place  Napoleon  issued  the  famous  "  Ber- 
lin decree"  or  interdict  against  the  commerce 
of  England,  November  20.  On  November 
5,  1808,  Napoleon  entered  into  a  convention 
with  Prussia  by  which  he  remitted  to  Prus- 
sia the  sum  due  on  the  war-debt  and  with- 
drew many  of  his  troops  to  reinforce  his 
army  in  Spain.  An  insurrection  commenced 
here  in  March,  1848;  a  treaty  of  peace  be- 
tween Prussia  and  Saxony  was  signed  on 
October  21,  1866. 

Berme.  A  narrow  path  round  fortifica- 
tions between  the  parapet  and  the  ditch,  to 
prevent  the  earth  from  falling  in. 

Bermuda  Hundred.  In  Chesterfield  Co., 
Va.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  James  River, 
just  above  the  mouth  of  the  Appomattox. 
Here  on  May  16,  1864,  the  Federal  forces 
under  Gen.  Butler  were  attacked  by  the  Con- 
federates under  Beauregard,  and  after  sev- 
eral hours'  severe  fighting  Butler  was  com- 
pelled to  fall  back  to  his  first  line  of  intrench- 
ments,  with  a  loss  of  about  2500. 

Bermuda  Islands,  or  Bermudas.  A 
group  of  islands  in  the  North  Atlantic 
Ocean,  discovered  by  Juan  Bermudez,  a 
Spaniard,  in  1527,  but  not  inhabited  until 
1600,  when  Sir  George  Somers  was  cast  away 
upon  them.  The  Bermudas  are  garrisoned 
by  British  troops. 

'  Bernard,  The  Great  St.  A  famous  moun- 
tain-pass of  the  Pennine  Alps,  so  called  from 
a  monastery  founded  on  it  by  Bernardine 
de  Meuthon  in  972.  Velan,  its  highest  peak, 
is  about  8000  feet  high,  covered  with  per- 
petual snow.  Hannibal,  it  is  said,  conducted 
the  Carthaginians  by  this  pass  into  Italy,  218 
B.C. ;  and  by  the  same  route,  in  May,  1800, 
Bonaparte  led  his  troops  to  Italy  before  the 
battle  of  Marengo,  June  14,  1800. 

Berne.  The  sovereign  canton  of  Switzer- 
land ;  joined  the  Swiss  League  in  1352 ;  the 
town  of  Berne  was  made  a  free  city  by  the 
emperor  Frederick,  May,  1218;  it  success- 
fully resisted  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  1288. 
It  surrendered  to  the  French  under  Gen. 
Brune,  April  12,  1798;  the  town  was  made 
capital  of  Switzerland  in  1848. 

Berry  (anc.  BUurigum  regis),  Central 
France ;  held  by  the  Romans  since  the  con- 
quest by  Caesar,  58-50  B.C.,  till  it  was  sub- 
dued by  the  Visigoths ;  from  whom  it  was 
taken  by  Clovis  in  507. 

Bersaglieri.  The  sharpshooters  of  the 
Sardinian  army ;  first  employed  about  1848. 

Berserker.  A  legendary  Scandinavian 
hero  of  the  8th  century,  celebrated  for  his 
strength  and  valor.  He  fought  without  a 
coat  of  mail  or  helmet,  whence  his  name. 
The  name  Berserkers  was  also  applied  to  a 
class  of  warriors  who,  under  the  influence  of 
a  sort  of  demoniac  possession,  fought  naked, 


performing  marvelous  feats  of  valor,  un- 
mindful or  insusceptible  of  wounds. 

Berwick-on-Tweed.  A  fortified  town 
on  the  northeast  extremity  of  England  ;  the 
theatre  of  many  bloody  contests  while  Eng- 
land and  Scotland  were  two  kingdoms ;  it 
was  claimed  by  the  Scots  because  it  stood  on 
their  side  of  the  river  ;  annexed  to  England 
in  1333 ;  and  after  having  been  taken  and 
retaken  many  times,  was  finally  ceded  to 
England  in  1482;  in  1651  it  was  made  inde- 
pendent of  both  kingdoms  ;  the  town  sur- 
rendered to  Cromwell  in  1648,  and  after- 
wards to  Gen.  Monk  in  1659. 

Besan9on.  A  fortified  city  of  France, 
capital  of  the  department  of  Doubs  ;  sacked 
by  Attila  ;  captured  and  ruined  by  the  an- 
cient Germans  ;  rebuilt  by  the  Burgundians  ; 
it  was  ceded  to  Spain  by  the  peace  of  West- 
phalia; taken  bv  Louis  XIV.  on  May  15, 
1670  ;  united  to  France  in  1678  ;  in  1814  the 
Austrians  besieged  it  without  success. 

Besiege.  To  lay  siege  to  or  invest  any 
fortified  place  with  armed  forces. 

Besieged.  The  garrison  that  defends  the 
place  against  the  army  that  lays  siege  to  it. 

Besiegers.  The  army  that  lays  siege  to 
a  fortified  place. 

Bessarabia,  A  frontier  province  of  Eu- 
ropean Russia,  part  of  the  ancient  Dacia. 
After  being  possessed  by  the  Goths,  Huns, 
etc.,  it  was  conquered  by  the  Turks  in  1474, 
and  ceded  to  Russia  in  1812. 

Bessemer  Steel.  See  Ordnance,  Metals 

FOR. 

Bessi.  A  fierce  and  powerful  Thracian 
people,  who  dwelt  along  the  whole  of  Mount 
Hfcemus  as  far  as  the  Euxine.  After  the 
conquest  of  Macedonia  by  the  Romans,  168 
B.C.,  the  Bessi  were  attacked  by  the  latter, 
and  subdued  after  a  severe  struggle. 

Bethoron.  A  village  of  Palestine.  Near 
here  Judas  Maccabajus  gained  advantages 
on  two  different  occasions  over  the  generals 
of  Antiochus. 

Bethsur.  An  ancient  city  of  Palestine, 
now  extinct.  The  Syrian  general  Lysias 
captured  it,  163  B.C.,  after  a  severe  combat  in 
which  Eleazar,  a  brother  of  Judas,  perished. 

Beton.  French  term  for  concrete.  Much 
used  in  permanent  fortifications.  See  Con- 
crete. 

Beton  Agglomere.  A  species  of  concrete 
invented  by  M.  Coignet.  Used  in  building 
arches,  aqueducts,  cellar  walls,  etc.  It  dif- 
fers from  ordinary  beton,  having  much 
greater  strength  and  hardness, — qualities 
derived  from  the  ramming  to  which  it  is 
subjected. 

Betray.  To  deliver  perfidiously  any  place 
or  body  of  troops  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy.  To  discover  that  which  has  been 
intrusted  to  secrecy. 

Betty.  A  machine  used  for  forcing  open 
gates  or  doors.     See  Petard. 

Bey.     See  Beq. 

BejTOOt,  or  Beyrout  (anc.  Berytus).  A 
seaport  of  Syria,  colonized  from  Sidon ; 
alternately  possessed  by  the  Christians  and 


B^ZIERS 


59 


BIG  BETHEL 


Saracens;  and  after  many  changes,  fell  into 
the  power  of  Ainurath  IV.,  since  when  it 
remained  with  the  Ottoman  empire  up  to 
the  revolt  of  Ibrahim  Pasha  in  1882.  The 
total  defeat  of  the  Egyptian  army  by  the 
allied  British,  Turkish,  and  Austrian  forces, 
and  evacuation  of  Beyroot  (the  Egyptians 
losing  70(K)  in  killed,  wounded,  and  pris- 
oners, and  20  pieces  of  cannon),  took  place 
October  10,  1840.  Sir  C.  JJapier  was  the 
English  admiral  engaged.  Beyroot  suffered 
greatly  in  consequence  of  the  massacres  in 
Syria  "in  May,  1860. 

Beziers.  A  city  of  France,  department 
of  Ilcrault;  sacked  by  the  Vandals  in  the 
5th  century;  by  the  Visigoths  in  the  5th, 
0th,  and  7th  centuries;  by  the  Saracens  in 
720;  by  Charles  Martel  in  787;  in  1209, 
this  city  was  taken  by  the  Catholics  under 
Simon  de  Montfort  and  Arnaud,  abbe  of 
Citeaux,  and  was  the  scene  of  a  barbarous 
massacre  of  the  Albigenses;  60,000  inhab- 
itants were  slain  without  consideration  of 
sex  or  age  (7000  were  found  dead  in  the 
church  (k  la  Mnqdclcine,  where  they  sought 
refuge  from  their  relentless  slayers). 

Bhootan.  A  country  north  of  Lower 
Bengal.  Invaded  by  the  Hritish  in  Decem- 
ber, 18(14,  in  consequence  of  injurious  treat- 
ment of  an  envoy. 

Bhurtpoor  (India).  Capital  of  Bhurt- 
poor.  was  besieged  by  the  British,  January 
3,  1805,  and  attacked  five  times  up  to  March 
21,  without  success.  The  fortress  was  taken 
by  Gen.  Lake,  after  a  desperate  engage- 
ment with  Holkar,  the  Mahratta  chief,  April 
2,  1805;  this  led  to  a  treaty  on  April  17. 
On  the  rajah's  death,  during  a  revolt  against 
his  son,  Bhurtpoor  was  taken  by  storm,  by 
Lord  Combcrmere,  January  18,  1826. 

Biacolytes.  A  military  organization  in 
the  Grecian  empire,  whose  duty  was  to  pre- 
vent the  committal  of  any  excesses  against 
life  or  property.  Their  service  was  analo- 
gous to  that  of  the  French  gendarmes. 

Biagrasso,  or  Abbiategrasso.  A  city  on 
the  Ticiiiella,  in  Lonibartiy  ;  here,  in  1524, 
the  French  were  defeated  by  tlie  Imperialists. 

Bibans,  or  Bibens.  "  The  Gates  of 
Iron."  A  dangerous  defile  of  the  Atlas 
Mountains,  between  Algiers  and  Constan- 
tine  ;  it  is  traversed  by  a  number  of  currents. 
The  French,  led  by  the  Duke  of  Orleans  and 
Marshal  Valee,  passed  through  it  in  1839. 

Bibaux,  or  Petaux  (Fr.).  In  ancient 
times,  were  soldiers  who  fought  on  foot, 
with  cross-bow  and  lance. 

Biberach  (  Wiirtemberg).  Here  Moreau 
twice  defeated  the  Austrians, — under  La- 
tour,  October  2,  1796,  and  under  Kray, 
May  9.  1800. 

Bicker.  A  word  formerly  used  in  the 
sense  of  to  skirmish ;  to  fight  ofl'  and  on  ; 
to  make  repeated  attacks. 

Bicocca  (Northern  Italy).  Lautrec  and 
the  French  were  here  defeated  by  Colon  na 
and  the  Imperialists,  April  29,  1522,  and 
Francis  thereby  lost  his  conquests  in  Milan. 

Bicoque  [Fr.).     A  term  used  in  France 


to  signify  a  place  ill  fortified  and  incapable 
of  much  defense.  It  is  derived  from  a  place 
on  the  road  between  Lodi  and  Milan,  which 
was  originally  a  gentleman's  country-house 
surrounded  by  ditches.  In  1522,  a  body  of 
Imperial  troops  were  stationed  in  it,  and 
stood  the  attack  of  the  whole  French  arniy, 
during  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  This  en- 
gagement was  called  the  battle  of  Bicoque. 

Bicorneurs  {Fr.).  Name  given  to  the 
militia  of  Valenciennes, 

Bidarkee.  A  skin  boat  used  by  the 
Aleuts. 

Bidassoa.  A  river  of  the  Pyrenees, 
which  forn)s  one  of  the  boundaries  of 
France  and  Spain,  the  passage  of  which  is 
memorable  as  completing  the  endeavors  of 
Lord  Wellington  to  drive  the  French, 
under  Marshal  Soult,  out  of  the  Penin- 
sula into  France.  In  1808,  Marshal  Juiiot 
crossed  the  Bidassoa  with  the  armies  of 
France  to  invade  the  Peninsula,  and  in 
1813,  Lord  AVellington  crossed  it,  after 
driving  the  French  out  of  Spain. 

Bidauts,  or  Bidaux  (Fr.).  An  ancient 
French  corps  of  infantry  ;  according  to  some 
authorities  they  were  armed  with  two  jave- 
lins. 

Bien-Hoa.  A  fortified  seaport  town  of 
the  French  colony  in  Cochin  China;  it  was 
taken  from  the  Annamites  by  the  French 
under  Kear-Admiral  Bonard,  December  15, 
1861. 

Bienne.  A  town  of  Switzerland  ;  it  was 
captured  and  burned  by  the  bishop  of  Basel 
in  1367. 

Biga.  A  Roman  term  applied  in  ancient 
times  to  vehicles  drawn  by  two  horses 
abreast,  and  commonly  to  the  Roman 
chariot  used  in  processions  or  in  the  circus. 
In  shape  it  resembled  the  Greek  war-chariot, 
— a  short  body  on  two  wheels,  low,  and  open 
behind,  where  the  charioteer  entered,  but 
higiier  and  closed  in  front. 

Big  Bethel.  A  village  of  York  Co.,  Va., 
near  Back  River,  about  12  mile.s  northwest 
of  Fortress  Monroe,  on  the  road  frt)m  IIamj>- 
ton  to  Yorktown,  and  about  3  miles  beyond 
Little  Bethel,  on  the  same  road.  In  June, 
1861,  the  main  body  of  the  Confederate 
army,  under  Gen.  ^lagruder,  being  in  the 
vicinity  of  Yorktown,  an  outpost  of  con- 
siderable strength  was  established  at  Lit- 
tle Bethel,  which  Gen.  Butler,  who  was  in 
command  at  Fortress  Mimroe,  determined 
to  dislodge.  Accordingly,  on  the  night  of 
June  9,  two  New  York  regiments  were 
ordered  to  gain  the  rear  of  the  enemy's 
position,  while  a  battalion  of  Vermont  and 
Massachusetts  troops  and  a  New  York  regi- 
ment were  to  attack  in  front  at  break  of 
day.  Before  daybreak,  through  some  error, 
these  forces  approached  and  fired  into  each 
other,  and  thus  betrayed  their  projected 
movements  to  the  enemy,  who  retreated  to 
Big  Bethel,  where  there  was  another  out- 
'  post,  with  works  of  some  strength  in  pro- 
I  cess  of  erection.  Gen.  Pierce,  who  was  in 
;  command  of  the  Federal  expedition,  deter- 


BIG  HORN 


60 


BITHYNIA 


mined  to  carry  these  works.  An  attack 
was  ordered,  and  after  nearly  three  hours' 
fighting,  the  Federals  being  exposed  to  a 
heavy  "fire,  while  the  Confederates  were 
almost  entirely  protected.  Gen.  Pierce  de- 
termined to  retreat,  which  he  did  in  good 
order,  the  enemy  falling  back  the  same  day 
to  Yorktown.  The  number  of  Federal 
troops  was  between  3000  and  4000,  while 
that  of  the  enemy  was  nearly  1500.  The 
Federal  loss  was  about  60,  that  of  the  Con- 
federates was  small  in  comparison. 

Big  Horn.  A  navigable  river  of  the 
United  States,  near  Fremont's  Peak,  in 
the  Kocky  Mountains.  It  has  a  north- 
east course  of  about  400  miles,  being  the 
longest  affluent  of  the  Yellowstone,  which, 
again,  is  the  largest  affluent  of  the  Mis- 
souri. A  desperate  battle  was  fought  on 
the  Little  Big  Horn,  between  the  7th  XJ.  S. 
Cavalry  and  the  Sioux  Indians,  June  2-5, 
1876. 

Bigles.  A  military  corps  of  Rome,  whose 
particular  duty  was  to  furnish  sentinels  ;  the 
bread  which  these  troops  received  was  called 
bigliaticicm. 

Bihach,  or  Bichacz.  One  of  the  strongest 
fortress-towns  of  Croatia,  European  Tur- 
key ;  it  has  been  the  scene  of  frequent  con- 
tests during  the  Turkish  wars. 

Bilbo.  A  rapier,  a  sword ;  so  named,  it 
is  said,  from  Bllboa,  in  Spain,  where  the 
best  are  made. 

Bilboa,  or  Bilbao  (Northeast  Spain). 
Founded  about  1300;  taken  by  the  French 
in  1795;  captured  and  recaptured  during 
the  invasion  of  the  French  in  1808;  deliv- 
ered from  the  Carlists  bv  Espartero,  aided 
by  the  British,  December '24,  1836. 

Bilboquet.  A  small  8-inch  mortar,  whose 
bore  is  only  half  a  caliber  in  length.  It 
throws  a  shell  of  60  pounds  about  400 
toises. 

Bill.  A  weapon  much  used  by  infantrj^, 
in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries,  for  defense 
against  cavalry,  consisting  of  a  broad,  hook- 
shaped  blade,  having  a  short  pike  at  the 
back  and  another  at  the  summit,  and  at- 
tached to  the  end  of  a  long  staff. 

Billet  (Fr.  Billet  de  loffemerit).  In  Eng- 
land, is  a  ticket  for  quartering  soldiers  on 
publicans  and  others,  which  entitles  each 
soldier,  by  act  of  Parliament,  to  candles, 
vinegar,  and  salt,  with  the  use  of  fire  and 
the  necessary  utensils  for  dressing  and  eat- 
ing his  meat.  In  the  United  States,  no 
soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered 
in  any  house  without  the  consent  of  the 
owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  the  man- 
ner to  be  prescribed  by  law  (Art.  3,  Amend- 
ments to  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States). 

Bill-hook.  A  small  hatchet  used  in  Eu- 
ropean armies  in  cutting  wood  for  fascines 
and  other  military  purposes.  The  pioneers 
of  the  infantry  are  always  provided  with 
them,  and  a  sufficient  supply  is  issued  to 
regiments  engaged  on  active  service. 

Binche.     A  town  in  the  province  of  Hai- 


naut,  Belgium.  The  French  drove  the  Aus- 
trians  out  of  this  place  in  1794. 

Bipennis.  A  double-headed  axe,  the 
weapon  which,  according  to  ancient  histo- 
rians and  authors,  particularly  distinguished 
those  fabulous  female  warriors,  the  Amazons. 

Biporus.  With  the  ancients  this  word 
signified  a  double-prowed  boat,  so  that  it 
could  change  its  course  to  the  opposite  direc- 
tion without  turning. 

Bir,  or  Biridjek,  A  walled  town  of  Asi- 
atic Turkey,  on  the  Euphrates,  which  was 
ruined  by  Tamerlane. 

Birse.  A  small  river  in  Switzerland,  on 
the  banks  of  which,  on  August  26,  1444, 
1500  Swiss  fought  an  army  of  about  20,000 
men,  commanded  by  the  dauphin  of  France, 
afterwards  Louis  XL  There  were  but  11  of 
the  Swiss  who  survived  the  day,  while  their 
enemy  left  8000  men  and  1100  horses  on  the 
battle-field.  On  the  same  river  6000  confed- 
erate Swiss  gained  a  splendid  victory  over 
15,000  Austrums,  July  22,  1499. 

Birtha.     See  Tkkrit. 

Biscaien  (Fr.).  A  name  formerly  given 
to  a  long-barreled  musket,  the  range  of 
which  was  greater  than  the  ordinary  mus- 
ket. Now  this  appellation  is  given  to  a 
leaden  ball  about  the  size  of  an  egg,  which 
is  used  for  canister  or  case-shot. 

Bisceglia.  A  fortified  seaport  town  of 
Naples,  on  the  Adriatic,  21  miles  northwest 
of  Bari.  Here  a  celebrated  combat  took 
place  between  13  Spaniards  and  the  same 
number  of  French.  Among  the  latter  was 
the  Chevalier  Bayard. 

Biskara,  or  Biskra.  A  town  of  Algeria, 
on  the  Kantara,  taken  by  the  French,  March 
3,  1844. 

Bistritz.  A  fortified  town  of  Transylva- 
nia, situated  on  the  Bistritz  River.  Form- 
ing, as  it  does,  the  last  strong  position  in  the 
northeast  of  Transylvania,  it  was  repeatedly, 
during  1848-49,  the  scene  of  hot  strife  be- 
tween the  Hungarian  and  Austrian  gen- 
erals. 

Bitche.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Moselle,  in  a  wild  and  wooded 
pass  of  the  A'osges.  The  Prussians,  under 
Colonel  Count  von  Wartensleben,  attempted 
to  surprise  it  in  1793,  but  failed. 

Bithynia.  An  ancient  division  of  Asia 
Minor,  separated  from  Europe  by  the  Pro- 
pontus  (Sea  of  Marmora)  and  the  Thracian 
Bosphorus  (Strait  of  Constantinople).  It 
contained  the  famous  Greek  cities  or  colonies 
of  Chalcedon,  Heraclea,  etc.,  and  at  later 
periods,  Nicomedia,  Nica^a,  and  Prusa. 
The  inhabitants  were  supposed  to  be  of 
Thracian  origin.  The  country  is  said  to 
have  been  subdued  by  Crcesus  of  Lydia 
(560  B.C.),  and  five  years  later  fell  under 
the  Persian  dominion.  About  440  or  430 
B.C.  it  became  an  independent  kingdom,  un- 
der a  dynasty  of  native  princes,  who  made 
Nicomedia  their  capital.  It  afterwards  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  and  was  gov- 
erned as  a  province.  In  1298,  Osman  the 
Turk  broke  into  the  country,  and  in  1328 


BITONTO 


61 


BLAIR-ATHOL 


Prui^a,  or  Bnisa,  then  its  chief  town,  bociime 
tile  caiiital  of  the  i<inu;d<)m  of  the  Osmatili. 

Bitonto.  A  town  of  Naples  where  Mor- 
temar  and  the  Spaniards  defeated  the  Ger- 
mans, on  May  2ti,  1734,  and  eventually 
^'aincd  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  for 
D..I1  Carlos. 

Biturritae  (now  Bedarrideif).  In  the  de- 
partment of  Vaucluse,  France.  It  was  a 
city  of  the  Allohroijes,  who  were  totally  de- 
feated in  its  environs  by  Domitius  Aheno- 
barhiis  in  122  n.c. 

Bivouac.  A  night-watch  in  open  air. 
Troop>  bivouac  when  they  make  the  best  of 
it  for  the  night,  encamping  in  the  open  air. 
The  term  was  also  applied  to  a  night-guard 
of  the  whole  army,  when  apiirelionsive  of 
surprise.  The  word  comes  from  the  German 
bei,  "near,"  and  wache,  "watch."  In  re- 
cent times  it  is  common  for  soldiers  on  the 
march  to  use  the  tf)iti'  d'abri,  or  shelter-tent. 

Bizerta,  or  Benzerta.  The  most  north- 
ern town  of  Africa,  and  a  fortified  seaport 
of  Tunis.  It  is  defended  by  two  castles, 
which,  liowcver,  are  commanded  by  adja- 
cent heights.  Though  its  port  now  only 
admits  small  vessels,  it  was  formerly  one  of 
the  best  in  the  Mediterranean.  TJiis  city 
was  noted  for  the  piracy  of  its  inhabitants. 

Black.  In  blazonry,  sable  denotes  con- 
stancy, wisdom,  and  prudence. 

Black-book.  An  ancient  book  of  English 
admiralty  law,  compiled  in  the  reign  of 
Eduaid  III.  It  has  always  been  deemed  of 
the  highest  authority  in  matters  concerning 
the  admiralty  in  England. 

Blackfeet.  A  once  powerful  and  fero- 
cious tribe  of  American  Indians  of  Algon- 
kin  stock,  who  infest  the  countrv  between 
the  Yellowstone  and  Missouri  Rivers,  and 
are  also  found  in  British  America.  See  In- 
dians AND  THKIR  AliKNCIKS. 

Blackheath  (Kent,  near  London).  Here 
Wat  Tyler  and  his  followers  assembled,  Juno 
12,  l;;s'l.  and  here  also  Jack  Cade  and  his 
20, (KM)  Kentish  men  encamped,  June  1,  HoO. 
lltpi'  the  Cornish  rebels  were  defeated  and 
Flaiinock's  insurrection  quelled,  June  22, 
14',»7.  The  cavern  on  the  ascent  to  Hlack- 
hcath,  the  retreat  of  Cade  and  the  haunt  of 
banditti  in  the  time  of  Cromwell,  was  redis- 
cov.-rcd  in  17S0. 

Black  Hole.  The  appellation  familiarly 
given  in  England  to  the  dungeon  or  dark 
cell  of  a  jirison.  The  name  is  associated 
with  a  horrible  catastrophe  in  the  history  of 
Hritish  India,  namely,  the  cruel  confinement 
of  a  party  of  English  in  an  apartment  called 
the  "  Hhick  Hole  of  Calcutta,"  on  the  night 
of  June  lit,  17ot).  The  garrison  of  a  fort  at 
Calcutta  having  been  captured  by  the  nabob 
Surajah  Dowlah,  he  caused  the  whole  of  the 
prisoners  taken,  \A(\  in  number,  to  be  con- 
lined  in  an  apartment  20  feet  square,  having 
only  two  small  windows,  which  were  ol)- 
structed  by  a  veranda.  After  a  night  of  ex- 
cruciating agony  from  heat,  thirst,  and  want 
of  air,  there  remained  in  the  morning  but 
23  survivors. 


Black  Rod,  Usher  of  the.  An  officer  of 
the  English  House  of  Lords,  whose  emblem 
of  authority  is  the  wand  or  rod,  with  a  gold 
lion  on  top.  He  behmgs  to  the  order  of  the 
Garter,  and  keejjs  the  door  when  tlie  chapter 
of  that  order  is  in  session.  His  principal 
duty  is  to  summon  the  Commons  to  the 
House  of  Lords  when  royal  assent  is  given 
to  bills,  etc.,  and  to  take  into  custody  any 
peer  guilty  of  breach  of  privilege. 

Black  Sea,  or  Euxine.  Pontus  Euxinus 
of  the  ancients  ;  a  large  internal  sea  between 
the  southwest  provinces  of  Russia  and  Asia 
Minor,  connected  with  the  Sea  of  Azof  by 
the  Straits  of  Yenikale  and  with  the  Sea  of 
Marmora  by  the  Bosphorus.  This  sea  was 
much  frequented  by  the  Greeks  and  Italians 
till  it  was  closed  to  all  nations  by  the  Turks 
after  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  in  14.")3. 
The  Russians  obtained  admission  by  the 
treaty  of  Kainavdji,  July  10,  1774.  In  1779 
it  was  partially  opened  to  British  and  other 
traders,  since  which  time  the  Russians  grad- 
ually obtained  the  preponderance.  It  was 
entered  by  the  British  and  French  fleets, 
January  3,  1854.  A  dreadful  storm  in  this 
sea  raged  from  November  13  to  1(5,  1854, 
and  caused  great  loss  of  life  and  shipping, 
and  valuable  stores  for  the  allied  armies.  By 
the  treaty  of  1850  the  Black  Sea  was  opened 
to  the  commerce  of  all  mitions,  the  Russians 
and  Turks  not  being  allowed  to  keep  ships 
of  war  on  it.  In  1871  the  Russians  were 
again  permitted  to  have  men-of-war  on  this 
sea. 

Black  Watch.  Armed  companies  of  the 
loyal  clans  (Campbells,  Munros,  etc.)  em- 
ployed to  watch  the  Highlands  fr(»m  about 
1725  to  1739,  when  they  were  formed  into 
the  celebrated  42d  Regiment,  which  was  for- 
merly enrolled  "The  Royal  Highland  Black 
"Watch."  Their  removal  probably  facilitated 
the  outbreak  of  1745.  They  wore  dark  tar- 
tans, and  hence  their  name. 

Blackwater,  Battle  of.  In  Ireland,  Aug- 
ust 14,  1598,  when  the  Irish  chief  O'Neal 
defeated  the  English  under  Sir  Henry  Bag- 
nail.  Pope  Clement  VIII.  sent  O'Neal  a 
consecrated  plume,  and  granted  to  his  fol- 
lowers the  same  indulgences  as  to  Crusaders. 

Bladensburg.  A  village  of  Prince  George 
Co.,  Md.,  memorable  for  the  battle  which 
was  fought  here  August  24,  1814,  between 
the  British  and  Americans,  and  which  re- 
sulted in  the  lapture  of  Washington. 

Blair-Athol.  A  village  in  Perthshire, 
Scotland  ;  it  was  occupied  by  the  Marquis  of 
Montrose  in  1644;  stormed  by  a  party  under 
the  command  of  one  of  Cromwell's  officers 
in  1653;  and  gallantly  defended  by  Sir  An- 
drew Agnew,  in  174ii,  when  besieged  by  a 
portion  of  the  Highland  army,  until  he  wjvs 
relieved  by  the  Hessians  under  the  Earl  of 
Crawford.'  The  pass  of  Killekrankie,  about 
two  miles  from  Hlair  Castle,  is  famous  for 
the  battle  which  was  there  fought  in  1689, 
between  the  Highlanders  under  Viscount 
Dundee,  and  King  Williains  troops  under 
Gen.  Mackav. 


BLAISE 


BLAUBEUREN 


Blaise.  A  military  order  instituted  by 
the  kings  of  Armenia,  in  honor  of  St.  Blaise 
the  Martyr,  anciently  bishop  of  Sebasta, 
and  the  patron  saint  of  Armenia.  Justinian 
calls  them  Knights  of  St.  Blaise  and  St. 
Mary,  and  places  them  not  only  in  Ar- 
menia, but  in  Palestine.  They  made  a  vow 
to  defend  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  followed 
the  rule  of  St.  Basil.  This  institution  ap- 
pears to  have  commenced  about  the  same 
time  with  the  Knights  Templar  and  Hospit- 
allers. 

BlakelyGun.  See  Ordnance,  Built- 
up  GUN.S. 

Blakely  Projectiles.     See  Projectile. 

Blamont.  A  small  town  of  France,  de- 
partment of  Doubs.  This  small  place  was 
protected  by  an  ancient  fortress,  which  was 
ruined  by  the  allies  in  1814. 

Blanch-Lyon.  A  title  of  one  of  the 
English  pursuivants-at-arms.  See  Pursui- 
vant. 

Blank.  The  point  of  a  target  at  which 
aim  is  taken,  marked  with  a  white  spot; 
hence,  the  object  to  which  anything  is  di- 
rected. 

Blank  Cartridge.     See  Cartridge. 

Blanket-boats.  A  practical  and  highly 
useful  plan  for  crossing  streams  is  by  means 
of  boats  constructed  of  a  single  rubber  blan- 
ket, capable  of  carrying  a  soldier,  knapsack, 
arms,  and  accoutrements,  with  only  4  inches 
of  displacement.  The  size  of  some  of  the 
ordinary  blankets  is  6  feet  long  and  4  feet  9 
inches  wide;  but  7  feet  by  5  ifeet  would  be 
preferable.  If  the  height  of  the  boat  be 
made  1  foot,  the  length  will  be  4  feet,  and 
the  width  2  feet  9  inches,  so  as  to  be  com- 
pletely covered  by  the  blanket.  The  frame 
may  be  made  of  round  sticks,  1  inch  and 
Ih  inch  in  diameter,  in  the  following  man- 
ner: 

For  the  bottom  the  two  end-sticks  are  2  feet 
9  inches  long,  and  the  side-pieces  3  feet  9 
inches  long.  They  are  connected  by  boring 
a  |-inch  hole  through  the  end-pieces,  and 
into  the  ends  of  the  side-pieces,  into  which 
pins  are  driven.  The  top  is  formed  in  the 
same  manner,  and  both  top  and  bottom  of 
1^-inch  sticks.  The  side-pieces  of  the  bot- 
tom, and  the  top  and  bottom  frames  are  con- 
nected by  1-inch  round  sticks  inserted  in 
^-inch  holes,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  up- 
right pieces  are  fastened  in  a  chair.  To  keep 
the  frame  from  falling  apart,  loops  of  cord 
are  passed  from  top  to  bottom,  and  from  side 
to  side,  and  twisted  with  a  stick.  The  rub- 
ber blanket  is  then  spread  upon  the  ground, 
the  frame  placed  up(m  it,  the  sides  and  eyes 
turned  up  and  lashed  to  the  top  rail  by  twine 
passed  through  the  eyelets.  Loops  of  cord 
are  passed  over  these  projecting  ends,  and 
twisted  with  a  stick,  which  binds  the  parts 
together.  One  of  these  boats  having  a  hori- 
7,ontal  area  of  11  square  feet,  would  require 
687  pounds  to  sink  it  1  foot,  and  the  aver- 
age weight  of  a  man  would  displace  less  than 
4  inches. 

In  using   these  blanket-boats   it  will   be 


convenient  to  lash  several  together,  side  by 
side,  upon  which  soldiers  can  be  transported. 
The  float  can  be  paddlec^,  or  a  rope  may  be 
stretched  across,  supported  by  floats,  and  the 
men  can  pull  themselves  across.  If  used  for 
cavalry,  some  of  the  men  can  hold  the  bri- 
dles of  the  horses,  while  the  others  can  pull, 
paddle,  or  pole  across  the  stream,  the  saddles 
being  placed  in  the  boats.  The  frames  are 
abandoned,  or  used  for  fuel,  when  the  army 
has  crossed  over. 

Several  of  these  boats  lashed  together,  and 
covered  with  poles,  would  form  a  raft  on 
which  wagons  could  be  carried  over;  but  for 
artillery,  rafts  of  wagon-bodies,  or  some- 
thing possessing  greater  powers  of  flotation, 
should  be  employed.  The  bill  of  materials 
for  the  frame  of  a  blanket-boat  is:  4  end- 
pieces,  lo-  inches  round  or  square,  2  feet  9 
inches  long;  4  side-pieces,  IJ  inches  round  or 
square,  3  feet  9  inches  long  ;  30  uprights,  1 
inch  round  or  square,  1  foot  long ;  10  pieces 
across  bottom,  1  inch  round  or  square,  2  feet 
9  inches  long  ;  8  double  pins,  i-inch  in  diam- 
eter, 3  inches  long  ;  4  pieces  of  cord  or  strong 
twine,  each  9  feet  long ;  6  pieces  of  cord  or 
strong  twine,  each  3  feet  long ;  1  india-rub- 
ber blanket,  6  feet  long,  4  feet  9  inches  wide, 
with  eyelet  holes  around  all  sides,  not  more 
than  6  inches  apart,  and  30  feet  of  twine  to 
lash  the  blanket  to  the  frame. 

Blanketeers.  A  number  of  operators 
who,  on  March  30,  1817,  met  in  St.  Peter's 
Field,  near  Manchester,  England,  many  of 
them  having  blankets,  rugs,  or  great-coats 
rolled  up  and  fastened  to  their  backs.  This 
was  termed  the  "blanket  meeting."  They 
proceeded  to  march  towards  London,  but 
were  dispersed  by  the  magistracy.  It  is 
stated  that  their  object  was  to  commence  a 
general  insurrection.  Eventually  the  ring- 
leaders had  an  interview  with  the  cabinet 
ministers,  and  a  better  understanding  be- 
tween the  working-classes  and  the  govern- 
ment ensued. 

Blasting.  The  displacement  of  earth  or 
rock  by  the  use  of  an  explosive.  One  of  the 
most  important  parts  of  the  art  of  mining 
in  its  various  branches  of  tunneling,  shaft- 
boring,  well-digging,  submarine  mining,  etc. 
The  explosive  is  ordinarily  placed  in  a  bore 
hole,  but  in  submarine  mining  this  is  some- 
times dispensed  with  when  a  high  explosive 
like  nitro-glycerine  is  used. 

Blasting  Powder.  An  explosive  in  the 
form  of  powder  used  for  blasting.  The  most 
powerful  blasting  powders  in  common  use  are 
made  by  adding  certain  substances  to  nitro- 
glycerine, which,  by  absorbing  it,  reduce  it 
to  the  form  of  powder,  and  thus  render  it 
comparatively  safe  against  the  shocks  and 
jars  of  use.  (See  Giant  Powder,  Dyna- 
mite.) The  term  blasting  powder  is  also 
specially  applied  to  a  powder  analogous  to 
gunpowder,  but  which  contains  sodium  ni- 
trate in  place  of  potassium  nitrate,  or  salt- 
petre. 

Blaubeuren.  A  town  of  Wurtemberg. 
on  the  Blau  ;  here  the  French  defeated  the 


BLATLE 


63 


BLOCKADE 


Austrians  in  1800;  the  fortress  was  razed  in 
1800. 

Blayle  (anc.  litavia).  A  fortified  sea- 
port of  Fran<e,  in  tliedo|)artincntof  Gironde, 
iJO  miles  north-northwest  of  Bordeaux.  The 
Duoliess  de  Berry  was  imprisoned  in  the  cit- 
adel in  1833.  This  city  was  captured  hy 
the  French,  from  the  English,  in  1339; 
the  Protestants  took  possession  of  it  in  1568, 
and  the  English  tried  in  vain  to  take  it  in 
1814. 

Blazonry  (from  the  German  Jiln/ien,  "  to 
Mow").  The  art  of  describing  in  technical 
language  the  objects  or  charges  borne  in  a 
coat  of  arms,  and  the  manner  of  arranging 
them  on  a  shield.  The  term  originated 
from  the  custom  of  blowing  a  trumpet  to 
announce  the  arrival  of  a  knight,  or  his  en- 
trance into  the  lists  at  a  joustor  tournament. 
The  blast  was  answered  by  the  heralds,  who 
described  aloud  and  explained  the  arms  borne 
by  the  knight. 

Blechstreifen,  or  Blechschienen  (Gcr.) 
{Les  laisches,  Fr.).  Thin  metal  plates  which 
the  ancient  Gauls  placed  upon  the  buff  coats 
of  infantry;  they  were  placed  between  the 
buff  sniil  the  lining. 

Bleneau.  A  village  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Yonne,  about  20  miles  west- 
southwest  of  Auxerre,  celebrated  as  the  place 
wliere  Turenne  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Prince  nf  Conde  in  KioS. 

Blenheim  ((Jer.  Blind hcim).  A  village  of 
Bavaria,  L'8  miles  north-northwest  of  Augs- 
burg, memorable  in  connection  with  Marl- 
borough's great  victory  over  the  French  and 
Bavarians,  August  13,  1704.  The  battle, 
though  known  in  English  history  by  the 
name  of  "  Blenheim,"  did  not  occur  here, 
but  at  the  neighboring  village  of  Hochstiidt, 
by  which  name  it  is  known  to  the  French 
and  Germans.  The  French  and  Bavarian 
army  consisted  of  50,000  men,  commanded 
by  Tallard,  Marsin,  and  the  Elector  of  Ba- 
varia, and  opposed  to  it  was  the  allied  army 
52,000  strong,  commanded  by  the  Duke  of 
Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene.  The  loss 
of  the  French  and  Bavarians  was  estimated 
at  from  30,000  to  40,000.  Near  here,  also, 
in  1800,  the  French  defeated  the  Austrians. 

Bleus,  Les  {i.e.  "The  Blues").  A  name 
given  to  the  soldiers  of  the  Republic,  by  the 
lioyalists,  during  the  wars  of  La  Vendee,  on 
account  of  their  uniform. 

Blidah.  A  considerable  town  of  Algeria, 
on  the  border  of  the  Metidjah  Plain  ;  taken 
by  the  French  in  1830,  and  permanently  oc- 
cupied by  them  since  1838. 

Blieskastel.  A  small  town  of  Rhenish 
Bavaria  ;  near  here,  on  November  19,  1793, 
TlXX)  Prussians  and  Saxons  under  Gen. 
Kalkreuth  fought  the  French,  about  20,000 
strong,  under  Gen.  Hoche,  neither  side  gain- 
ing the  victory.  The  Prussians  held  their 
ground  without  any  great  loss  until  dark, 
when,  deeming  their  position  untenable, 
they  evacuated  it  during  the  night. 

Blindage.  A  temporary  bomb-proof  or 
splinter-proof  roofing,  constructed  of  timber 


and  the  like,  to  give  cover  to  magazines,  bat- 
teries, hospitals,  etc.     See  Blind.s. 

Blinds.  In  military  affairs,  are  wooden 
frames,  compo.sed  of  four  pieces,  either  flat 
or  round,  two  of  which  are  6  feet  long,  and 
the  others  3  or  4  feet,  which  serve  as  spars  to 
fasten  the  two  first  together:  the  longest  are 
pointed  at  both  ends,  and  the  two  others 
are  fastened  towards  the  extremities  of  the 
former,  at  about  10  or  12  inches.  Their 
use  is  to  fix  them  cither  u|)right,  or  in  a 
vertical  position  against  the  sides  of  the 
trenches  or  sap,  to  sustain  the  edrth.  Their 
points  at  the  bottom  serve  to  fix  them  in  the 
earth,  and  tho.se  at  the  top  to  hold  the  fas- 
cines that  are  placed  upon  them  ;  so  that  the 
sa})  or  trench  is  formed  into  a  kind  of  cov- 
ered gallery,  to  secure  the  troops  from  stones 
and  grenades. 

Blind-shell.  A  shell,  the  bursting  charge 
of  which  is  exploded  by  the  heat  of  impact. 
Used  in  modern  ordnance  against  armor. 

Blistered  Steel.  See  Ordnanck,  Metals 

FOR. 

Block.     See  Implkments. 

Blockade.  In  military  art,  is  an  opera- 
tion for  capturing  an  enemy's  town  or  fort- 
ress without  a  bombardment  or  regular  siege. 
The  attacking  party  throws  up  works  on  the 
neighboring  heights  and  roads,  and  part  of 
the  besieging  force  remains  under  cover  in 
villages,  or  in  a  temporary  camp,  ready  to 
repel  any  sortie  attempted  by  the  besieged. 
The  whole  purpose  in  view  is  to  prevent 
the  besieged  from  receiving  supplies  of  any 
kind,  in  order  that,  when  food  or  ammuni- 
tion is  exhausted,  they  may  be  compelled  to 
surrender.  Fortresses  situated  on  steep  and 
rocky  eminences,  difficult  to  conquer  by 
bombardment  or  assault,  may  often  be  re- 
duced by  blockade,  because  the  roads  or 
paths  for  the  reception  of  supplies  are  few, 
and  can  be  guarded  by  a  small  number  of 
troops. 

Blockade.  In  international  law,  is  the 
means  in  time  of  war  of  rendering  intercourse 
with  an  enemy's  port  unlawful  on  the  part 
of  neutrals  ;  and  it  is  carried  into  eflect  by 
an  armed  force  (ships  of  war),  which  blocks 
up  and  bars  export  or  import  to  or  from  the 
place  blockaded.  To  be  valid,  a  blockade 
must  be  accompanied  by  actual  investment 
of  the  place,  and  it  may  be  more  or  less  rig- 
orous, either  for  the  purpose  of  watching  the 
operations  of  the  enemy,  or  to  cut  otl'  all 
excess  of  neutral  vessels  to  that  interdicted 
place.  To  be  binding  on  neutrals,  it  ought 
to  be  shown  that  they  have  knowledsre,  or 
may  bo  presumed  to  know  of  the  blot-kade, 
for  which  reason  a  formal  notification  of 
the  fact  is  usually  made  by  the  blockading 
power.  The  breach  of  blockade,  which  may 
be  eftected  by  coming  out  of  a  blockaded 
port,  or  going  in,  subjects  the  property  so  em- 
ployed to  confiscation.  On  the  proclamation 
of  peace,  or  from  any  political  or  belligerent 
cause,  the  continuance  of  the  investment 
may  cease  to  be  necessary,  and  the  blockade 
is  then  said  to  be  raised.     The  blockading 


BLOCKADER 


64 


BODY 


force  then  retires,  and  the  port  is  open  as 
before  to  all  other  nations.  In  the  present 
century  recourse  has  been  had  to  this  means 
of  cutting  off  supplies  from  the  enemy  on 
several  occasions.  The  Elbe  was  blockaded 
by  Great  Britain,  1803  ;  the  Baltic,  by  Den- 
mark, 1848  49  and  18fi4;  the  Gulf  of  Fin- 
land by  the  allies,  1854  ;  and  the  ports  of 
the  Southern  States  by  President  Lincoln, 
April  19,  1861. 

Blockader.     One  who  blockades. 

Block  Battery.  In  gunnery,  a  wooden 
battery  for  two  or  more  small  pieces,  mounted 
on  wheels,  and  movable  from  place  to  place  ; 
very  ready  to  fire  en  barbette,  in  the  gal- 
leries and  casements,  etc.,  where  room  is 
wanted. 

Block-house.  An  edifice  or  structure  of 
heavy  timber  or  logs  for  military  defense, 
having  its  sides  loop-holed  for  musketry,  and 
often  "an  upper  story  projecting  over  the 
lower,  or  placed  upon  it  diagonally,  with 
projecting  corners,  to  facilitate  a  firing  down- 
ward, and  in  all  directions ;  the  sides  and 
ends  are  sometimes  much  like  a  stockade,  and 
the  top  covered  with  earth  ;  there  may  also 
be  a  ditch  around  it.  Formerly  much  used 
in  Germany  and  America,  and  used  exten- 
sively in  the  United  States  as  a  defense 
against  Indians,  and  during  the  civil  war, 
1861-65,  for  the  protection  of  important 
places  on  railroads,  such  as  bridges,  etc.  If 
exposed  to  the  fire  of  artillery,  block-houses 
should  be  formed  of  double  rows  of  logs  3 
feet  apart,  with  well-rammed  earth  between 
thena. 

Bloodhound.  A  name  given  to  certain 
species  of  the  dog,  distinguished  for  their 
keenness  of  scent,  and  the  persistency  with 
which  they  follow  the  track  of  game.  They 
have  been  frequently  employed  during  wars 
to  track  partisans,  and  even  in  the  American 
civil  war,  1861-65,  were  employed  by  the 
Confederates  to  track  Union  prisoners  who 
escaped  from  their  prisons.  In  time  of 
peace  they  are  sometimes  employed  to  hunt 
felons,  fugitive  slaves,  etc.  When  they  are 
thus  employed  they  acquire  a  peculiarly 
bloodthirsty  and  ferocious  character. 

Bloreheath.  In  Staffordshire,  England  ; 
here  on  September  23,  1459,  the  Earl  of 
Salisbury  and  the  Yorkists  defeated  the 
Lancastrians,  whose  leader,  Lord  Audley, 
was  slaTn  with  many  Cheshire  gentlemen. 
A  cross  commemorates  this  conflict. 

Bludgeon.  A  short  stick,  with  one  end 
loaded,  or  thicker  and  heavier  than  the  other, 
used  as  an  offensive  weapon. 

Blue-light.  A  composition,  burning  with 
a  blue  flame,  used  as  a  night  signal  in 
ships,  or  for  military  purposes.    See  Pyro- 

TECHNY. 

Blunderbuss.  A  short  gun  or  fire-arm, 
with  a  large  bore,  capable  of  holding  a 
number  of  balls,  and  intended  to  do  execu- 
tion without  exact  aim. 

Blyde,  Bly,  or  Blude  (Ger.).  A  kind.of 
a  war  machine  which  was  used  in  ancient 
times  to  throw  stones ;  some  authors  com- 


pare it  to  the  catapult.  In  the  year  1585, 
at  the  siege  of  the  castle  of  Rucklingen, 
Albert,  duke  of  Saxony  and  Liineburg,  was 
killed  by  a  stone  thrown  by  a  blyde. 

Board  of  Officers.  A  number  of  ofiicers 
assembled  by  military  authority  for  the 
transaction  of  business. 

Board  of  Ordnance.  A  government  de- 
partment, which  formerly  had  the  manage- 
ment of  all  affairs  relating  to  the  artillery 
and  engineering  corps  of  the  British  army. 
This  board  was  abolished  after  the  Crimean 
war. 

Board,  Pointing.  In  gunnery,  this  is  a 
piece  of  wood  1  foot  long,  2  or  3  inches 
wide,  and  1  inch  thick,  having  a  nStch 
cut  in  the  middle  of  one  side  to  fit  on  the 
stake,  and  graduated  into  equal  divisions 
from  its  middle.  When  not  in  use  the 
pointing  cord  may  be  wound  on  it.  This 
board  is  used  for  directing  mortars. 

Boards  of  Examination.  In  the  army, 
are  instituted  to  determine  upon  appoint- 
ments in  regiments,  and  for  appointments 
and  promotion  in  the  medical  staff,  engineer 
corps,  and  ordnance  department.  They  are 
composed  of  army  olficers. 

Boards  of  Survey.  In  the  army,  are 
convened  for  the  purpose  of  fixing  the  re- 
sponsibility for  public  property  lost,  dam- 
aged, or  destroyed,  of  ascertaining  what 
articles  of  public  property  may  have  been 
lost  or  abstracted  whenever  a  soldier  deserts, 
and  of  taking  an  inventory  of  the  public 
property  in  charge  of  a  deceased  ofiicer. 

Boats,  Blanket-.     See  Blanket-boats. 

Bobruisk.  A  fortified  town  of  Russia,  in 
the  government  of  Minsk.  It  is  situated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Beresina,  and  is  a 
station  for  the  steam-packets  navigating  the 
Dnieper  and  Beresina.  It  was  besieged  in- 
eflectually  by  the  French  in  1812. 

Boccacci.  The  Italians  have  a  peculiar 
kind  of  fire-arm  which  they  call  by  this  name  ; 
it  is  enlarged  towards  the  muzzle  in  the 
shape  of  a  trumpet.  This  gun  is  principally 
used  by  the  Calabrians. 

Boc'chetta.  A  celebrated  pass  of  the  Ap- 
ennines, the  key  of  the  route  from  Novi  to 
Genoa.  Redoubts  were  constructed  here  by 
the  Imperialists  in  1746  for  the  defense  of 
the  pass.  The  French  traversed  this  pass 
when  they  entered  Italy  in  1796. 

Bodegraven.  A  fortified  town  of  Hol- 
land. On  November  28,  1672,  it  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Duke  of  Luxemburg,  who 
tarnished  his  victory  by  authorizing  the 
town  to  be  pillaged. 

Bodkin.  A  dirk  or  dagger  ;  a  word  still 
in  use,  though  Johnson  says  it  is  the  oldest 
acceptation  of  it. 

Body.  In  the  nomenclature  of  modern 
ordnance,  is  the  part  of  the  piece  in  rear  of 
the  trunnions. 

Body.  In  the  art  of  war,  is  a  number  of 
forces,  horse  or  foot,  united  and  marching 
under  one  commander.  Main  body  of  an 
armrj,  sometimes  means  the  troops  encamped 
in  the  centre  between  the  two  wings,  and 


BODY 


65 


BOLOGNA 


generftlly  consists  of  infantry.  The  main 
body  on  a  march,  signifies  the  wht)le  of  the 
army  exclusive  of  the  van-  and  rear-guards. 

Body  of  the  Place.  The  enceinte  of  a 
fortress,  or  main  line  of  bastions  and  cur- 
tains, as  distinguished  from  outworks. 

Body-guard.  A  guard  to  protect  or  de- 
fend tiie  person;  a  life-guard. 

Boeotia.  Oae  of  the  political  divisions  of 
nncicnt  Greece,  lying  between  Attica  and 
ilegaris  on  the  south,  and  Locris  and  Phocis 
on  the  north,  and  bounded  on  the  other  side 
l)y  the  Eubujan  Sea  and  the  Corinthian 
Gulf.  The  tribes  of  greatest  importance 
who  appear  as  rulers  of  Bceotia  in  the  heroic 
age  were  the  Minyaj  and  the  Cadmeans,  or 
Cadmeones, — the  former  dwelling  at  Or- 
chomenus,  and  the  latter  at  Thebes.'  About  GO 
years  after  the  Trojan  war  the  Bcootians,  an 
yEolian  people  who  had  hitherto  dwelt  in 
Thessaly,  having  been  expelled  from  that 
country,  took  possession  of  the  land  then 
called  Cadmeis,  to  which  they  gave  their 
own  name  of  Boeotia.  At  the  commence- 
ment of  the  historic  period  all  the  ancient 
tribes  had  disappeared,  and  all  the  cities 
were  inhabited  by  Boeotians,  the  most  im- 
portant forming  a  political  confederacy 
under  the  presidency  of  Thebes.  After  the 
battle  of  Chicronea  (338  n.c.)  and  the  de- 
struction of  Thebes  by  Alexander  three  years 
after,  Bd'otia  rapidly  declined,  and  so  low 
had  it  sunk  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  that 
of  all  its  great  cities  there  remained  only  two, 
which  had  dwindled  into  insignificant  towns ; 
of  the  other  great  cities  nothing  remained 
but  their  ruins  and  their  names.  The  people 
are  represented  as  a  dull  and  heavy  race, 
with  little  susceptibility  and  appreciation  of 
intellectual  pleasures. 

Bohain.  A  small  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Aisne,  which  fell  into  the 
bands  of  the  Imperialists  in  1537,  and  was 
rccajitured  a  short  time  afterwards. 

Bohemia.  A  political  and  administrative 
division  of  the  Austrian  empire,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Saxony  and  Prussian  Silesia, 
east  by  Prussia  and  Moravia,  south  by  Lower 
Austria,  and  west  by  Bavaria.  It  derives 
its  name  from  the  Boii,  a  Celtic  people  who 
settled  in  the  country  about  000  n.c.,  and 
who  were  expelled  by  the  Marcomanni  in 
the  time  of  Augustus.  About  the  middle 
of  the  Gth  century  a  numerous  army  of 
Czechs  entered  the  country  and  subdued 
it.  In  1310  the  crown  came  to  the  house 
of  Luxemburg,  when  Charles  IV.  united 
Bohemia  with  the  German  empire.  After 
nuiny  vicissitudes  it  fell  to  the  house  of 
Austria  in  the  person  of  the  Archduke  Fer- 
dinand, brother  of  Charles  V.,  and  brother- 
in-law  of  Loui^  II.,  king  of  Hungary  and 
Bohemia,  who  was  killed  in  battle  with 
the  Turks  near  Mohacs,  in  lo'ifJ.  In  I'ilO 
the  Bohemians  revolted  against  the  house  of 
Austria,  and  otlered  the  crown  to  Frederick 
v.,  elector  palatine,  but  Frederick  was  de- 
feated at  the  battle  of  White  Mountain  in 
November,  1G20,  and  the  country  has  ever 


since  remained  under  the  sway  of  the  em- 
j)crors  of  Austria. 

Bohmisch-Brod.  A  small  town  of  Bo- 
hemia. Here  the  emperor  Sigismund  de- 
feated the  Hussites  in  1434. 

Boii.  An  ancient  Celtic  people  who  emi- 
grated into  Italy,  where  the}'  waged  war  for 
several  centuries  against  the  Romans.  They 
were  defeated  at  the  Vadimonian  Ijiike,  283 
iJ.c.  They  were  finally  subdued  by  Scipio 
Nasica,  101  B.C.,  and  expelled  from  Italy. 
A  portion  of  them  founded  the  kingdom  of 
Boiohemum  (Bohemia),  from  which  they 
were  expelled  by  the  Marcomanni  in  the 
time  of  Augustus. 

Bois-le-Duc.  A  fortified  city  of  Holland, 
capital  of  North  Brabant;  besieged  and 
captured  by  the  Dutch  in  1G29,  and  by  the 
French  in  1794;  surrendered  to  the  Prussian 
army,  under  Bulow,  in  January,  1814. 

Bojano.  A  town  in  the  province  of  Mo- 
lise,  Naples.  The  site  of  Bojano  has  been 
identified  as  that  of  the  famous  Samnite  cit\' 
of  Borianum,  which  played  so  conspicuous  a 
part  in  the  Samnite,  Punic,  and  Social  wars. 
Unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the  Romans  in 
314  H.c,  it  was  taken  by  them  in  311  B.C., 
and  yielded  immense  sj)oils.  Passing  out  of 
their  hands,  it  was  retaken  by  them  in  305 
B.C.,  and  once  more  reverting  to  its  original 
owners,  was  a  third  time  captured  by  the 
Romans  in  298  b.c.  During  the  second  Pu- 
nic war  it  formed  the  headquarters  of  the 
Roman  army  on  more  than  one  occasion.  In 
the  great  Social  war  the  confederates  made 
it  their  capital.  It  was  surprised  by  Sulla, 
and  retaken  by  the  Marsic  general,  Pompie- 
dius  Silo.  Cicsar  established  a  military  col- 
ony, and  it  afterwards  throve  under  the  Ro- 
man empire. 

Bojeleschti.  A  village  of  Wallachia, 
where,  in  1828,  the  Russians  under  Gen. 
von  Geismar  defeated  the  Turks,  although 
the  latter  were  superior  in  force.  The  Rus- 
sians captured  7  guns,  24  ammunition-  and 
400  bread-wagons,  24  colors,  and  guns 
enough  to  arm  10,000  men.  The  Cossacks 
took  507  prisoners. 

Bokhara.  The  ancient  Sopdiana,  a  state 
of  Central  Asia  in  Independent  Toorkistan. 
It  was  conquered  by  the  Turks  in  the  Gth 
century,  by  the  Chinese  in  the  7th,  and  by 
the  Arabs  about  705.  After  many  changes 
of  masters  it  was  subdued  by  the  Uzbek 
Tartars,  1505.  The  British  "envoys.  Col. 
Stoddart  and  Capt.  Conolly,  were  murdered 
at  Bokhara,  the  capital,  by  the  khan  in  1843. 
In  the  war  with  Russia,  beginning  in  IStJG, 
the  emir's  army  was  defeated  several  times 
in  May  and  subsequent  months  during  that 
year.  Peace  was  made  .luly  11,  18G7.  The 
Russians  were  again  victors,  May  25,  18G8, 
and  occupied  Samarcand  the  next  day. 
Further  conquests  were  made  by  the  Rus- 
sians, and  Samarcand  was  secured  by  treaty 
November,  18G8. 

Bolade  (Fr.).  A  weapon  of  the  shape  of 
a  maco. 

Bologna.  The  ancient  Fdsina,  afterwards 


BOLSTEK 


66 


BOMB-CHEST 


Bononia.  A  distinguished  city  of  Italy, 
capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name; 
besieged  and  taken  by  Pope  Julius  II.,  1506  ; 
taken  by  the  French,  1796  ;  by  the  Austrians, 
1799  ;  again  by  the  French  after  the  battle 
of  Marengo,  in  1800;  restored  to  the  Pope 
in  1815  ;  a  revolt  suppressed  by  Austrian  in- 
terference, 1831 ;  rebellion  in  1848 ;  taken 
by  the  Austrians,  May,  1849;  provisional 
government  formed  June  15,  1859;  Victor 
Emmanuel  entered  Bologna  as  sovereign, 
May  2,  1860. 

Bolster.  A  block  of  wood  on  the  carriage 
of  a  siege-gun,  and  on  the  mortar-wagon 
upon  which  the  gun  rests  when  moving  it 
from  place  to  place.  The  first  is  a  breach-, 
the  second  a  muzzle-bolster. 

Bolster.  A  cushioned  or  padded  part  of 
a  saddle. 

Bolt.  A  pointed  shaft  or  missile  intended 
to  be  shot  from  a  cross-bow  or  catapult ;  an 
arrow  ;  a  dart. 

Bolt.  See  ORDNAifCE,  Carriages  for. 
Nomenclature  of  Artilxery  Car- 
riage. 

Bolt,  Palliser.  A  screw-bolt  for  securing 
armor  plates.  The  end  upon  which  the 
screw-thread  is  cut  is  larger  than  the  shank. 

Bomarsund.  A  strong  fortress  on  one  of 
the  Aland  isles  in  the  Baltic  Sea,  taken  by 
Sir  Charles  Napier,  commander  of  the  Baltic 
expedition,  aided  by  the  French  military 
contingent  under  Gen.  Baraguay  d'Hilliers, 
August  IG,  1854.  The  governor  Bodisco 
and  the  garrison,  about  2000  men,  became 
prisoners,  and  the  fortifications  were  de- 
stroyed. 

Bomb.  A  hollow  ball  or  shell  of  cast  iron 
filled  with  explosive  materials,  and  furnished 
with  a  fuze,  which  being  ignited  when  the 
missile  is  discharged  from  a  mortar  or  how- 
itzer, burns  during  its  flight,  and  causes  it 
to  explode  with  destructive  violence  when  it. 
falls.  They  are  now  commonly  called  shells. 

Bombard.  An  ancient  piece  of  ordnance, 
very  short,  thick,  and  wide  at  the  bore.  Some 
of  the  bombards  used  in  the  15th  century 
propelled  stones  weighing  from  200  to  500 
pounds  each. 

Bombard.  To  assault  a  town  or  fortress 
by  projecting  into  it  shells,  etc.,  from  mor- 
tars, in  order  to  set  fire  to  and  destroy  the 
houses,  magazines,  and  other  buildings. 

Bombardelle  {Fr.).  A  small  bombard 
which  was  used  in  ancient  times.  In  1830, 
one  was  disinterred  near  Laon,  France  ;  it  is 
the  opinion  of  some  that  this  bombardelle 
was  manufactured  during  the  reign  of  Charles 
VII.,  from  1436-40. 

Bombardier.  Is  an  artilleryman  versed 
in  that  department  of  arms  which  relates 
especially  to  bombs  and  shells,  mortars  and 
howitzers,  grenades  and  fuzes.  In  some 
foreign  armies,  the  bombardiers  form  a  sepa- 
rate corps.  In  the  British  service  a  bom- 
bardier is  a  non-commissioned  grade  in  the 
artillery  below  that  of  corporal. 

Bombardment.  Is  an  attack  upon  a  fort- 
ress or  fortified  town  by  means  of  shells,  red- 


hot  shot,  carcasses,  rockets,  etc.,  to  burn  and 
destroy  the  buildings,  and  kill  the  inhabit- 
ants, and  by  this  means  compel  its  surrender. 
A  bombardment  requires  little  engineering 
skill ;  whereas  a  regular  siege  requires  the 
aid  of  engineers  to  direct  the  attack  against 
fortifications,  guns,  and  soldier}',  leaving  the 
inhabitants  and  buildings  untouched.  It  is 
generally  regarded  by  military  engineers  as 
a  cruel  operation,  and  in  modern  times  is 
mostly  adopted  as  an  adjunct  to  a  siege.  The 
stores  required  for  a  vigorous  bombardment 
are  immense.  Thus,  in  1759,  Rodney  threw 
20,000  shells  and  carcasses  into  Havre ;  in 
1792,  the  Duke  of  Saxe  Teschen  threw  36,000 
shot  and  shell  into  Lille  in  140  hours ;  in 
1795,  Pichcgru  threw  8000  shells  into  Mann- 
heim in  1(5  hours;  and  in  1807,  the  Engli.sh 
threw  11,000  shot  and  shell  into  Copenhagen 
in  three  days.  Of  the  bombardments  re- 
corded in  history  may  be  mentioned  that  of 
Algiers  by  Duquesne  in  1682-83,  by  the  Ve- 
netians in  1784,  and  bv  the  English  in  1816; 
of  Genoa  in  1684;  of 'Tripoli  m  1685,  1728, 
and  1747;  of  Barcelona  in  1691;  of  Brus- 
sels in  1694;  of  Toulon  by  the  English  in 
1707;  of  Prague  in  1744,  1759,  and  1848; 
the  bombardment  of  Lille  by  the  Austrians 
in  1792  ;  of  Le  Quesnoy,  Breda,  Lille,  Lj'ons, 
Maestricht,  and  Mayence  in  1793  ;  of  Menin, 
Valenciennes,  and  Ostend  in  1794;  of  Co- 
penhagen by  the  English  in  1807  ;  of  Glogau, 
Breslau,  and  Schweidnitz  bj'  the  French  in 
1806-7 ;  of  Saragossa  by  'the  French  in 
1808;  of  Flushing  by  the  English  in  1809; 
of  Antwerp  in  1832;  of  St.  Jean  d'Ulloa 
by  the  French  in  1838;  of  Beyrout  and  St. 
Jean  d'Acre  by  the  English  in  1840;  of 
Barcelona  by  Espartero  in  1842 ;  of  Moga- 
dor  by  the  French  in  1844 ;  and  of  Odessa 
by  the  English  and  French  fleets  in  1854. 
Vera  Cruz  was  bombarded  by  Gen.  Scott  for 
three  days  before  its  surrender,  March  27, 
1847.  During  the  civil  war  recourse  was  had 
several  times  to  this  method  of  reducing 
fortified  places.  Among  the  most  noted  were 
the  bombardment  by  Admiral  Farragut  for 
six  days,  April  18,  1862,  of  Forts  Jackson 
and  St.  Philip  (after  which  they  surren- 
dered) ;  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Pulaski, 
Ga.,  bj^  Gen.  Gillmore,  in  April,  1862;  the 
first  bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter  in  Aug- 
ust, 1863,  which  eflTectually  disabled  the  fort 
for  immediate  defense  of  Charleston  harbor, 
although  the  works  remained  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Confederates ;  and  the  second 
bombardment,  which  took  place  in  October 
following,  leaving  the  place  in  ruins.  During 
the  Franco-German  war  Strasburg  was  bom- 
barded by  the  Prussians  on  August  18,  1870, 
and  after  an  immense  number  of  shells  were 
thrown  into  it  with  ruinous  effect  the  city 
surrendered  on  September  27.  During  the 
siege  of  Paris  it  was  estimated  that  for  two 
weeks  in  January,  1871,  about  500  shells  a 
day  were  thrown  into  the  city,  to  the  great 
destruction  of  life  and  property. 

Bomb-chest.     A  chest  filled  with  bombs, 
or    only    with     gunpowder,   placed    under 


BOMB-PROOF 


67 


BORMANN-FUZE 


pround,  to  cause  destruction  bj  its  explo- 
sion. 

Bomb-proof.  A  term  applied  to  military 
structures  of  such  iinincnst.'  tliickness  and 
streni^tli  that  bombs  cannot  penetrate  them. 

Bomb-shell.  A  hollow  globe  of  iron, 
filled  with  powder,  and  thrown  from  a  mor- 
tar ;   a  lioinl). 

Bone,  Bona,  or  Bonah.  A  fortified  sea- 
port town  of  Algeria,  85  miles  northwest  of 
Constantine;  it  is  surrounded  by  a  wall 
with  square  turrets  which  has  four  gates. 
Fort  Cigogne  is  its  chief  defense  ;  the  French 
occupieid  this  place  in  July,  1830. 

Bonn.  A  town  on  the  Rhine  (the  Roman 
Bonna)  was  in  the  electorate  of  Cologne;  it 
has  been  frequently  besieged,  and  was  as- 
signed to  Prussia  in  1814. 

Bonnet.  In  fortification,  is  a  small  de- 
fense work  constructed  at  salient  angles  of 
the  glacis  or  larger  works.  It  consists  of 
two  faces  only,  with  a  parapet  3  feet  high  by 
10  or  12  feet 'broad.  There  is  no  ditch.  A 
larger  kind,  with  3  salient  angles,  is  called  a 
jn-iesfa  bonnet,  or  bonnet  a  pretre.  The  use 
of  the  bonnet  is  to  check  the  besiegers  when 
thoy  arc  attempting  to  make  a  lodgment. 

Bonneval.  A  town  of  France,  formerly 
fortified  ;  it  was  partially  destroyed  by  the 
English  during  the  15th  century.' 

Bontchouk.  A  lance  ornamented  with 
a  horse's  tail.  When  the  kings  of  Poland 
led  their  armies,  boutchouks  were  carried 
before  them. 

Boomerang.  A  very  singular  missile 
wea|)on  used  by  the  natives  of  Australia. 
It  is  made  of  hard  wood,  usually  from  20  to 
30  inches  in  length,  from  2  to  3  inches  wide, 
and  A  or  J  of  an  inch  thick.  It  is  curved  or 
bent  in  tlie  middle  at  an  angle  of  from  100° 
to  140°.  When  thrown  from  the  hand  with 
a  quick  rotary  motion,  it  describes  very  re- 
markable curves,  according  to  the  shape  of 
the  instrument  and  the  manner  of  throwing 
it,  often  moving  nearly  horizontally  a  long 
distance,  then  curving  upward  to  a  consider- 
able height,  and  finally  taking  a  retrograde 
direction,  so  as  to  fall  near  the  place  from 
which  it  was  thrown,  or  even  very  far  in 
the  rear  of  it. 

Booneville.  A  river-port,  capital  of  Cooper 
Co.,  Mo.,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
!Mi.ssouri  River,  48  miles  northwest  of  Jef- 
ferson City.  During  the  civil  war  a  Con- 
federate force  of  about  2500  raw  troops  was 
here  attacked  by  the  Federals  under  Gen. 
Lyon,  June  17,  1801.  After  a  short  conflict 
the  Confederates  were  routed,  abandoning 
their  guns  and  camp  equipage,  which  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Union  forces. 

Boothauk.  A  fortified  pass  of  Afghanis- 
tan, 12  miles  to  the  east  of  Cabul.  It  runs 
for  5  miles  between  clift*s  500  feet  high,  and 
in  .some  places  only  50  yards  wide. 

Boots  and  Saddles.  In  cavalry  tactics, 
a  trumpet  call  which  is  the  first  signal  for 
mounted  drill,  and  for  all  other  formations 
mounted  ;  it  is  also  the  signal  for  the  trum- 
peters to  assemble. 


Booty.  Is  the  victors'  share  in  property 
captured  from  the  vanquished.  It  is  gener- 
ally a  military  term,  the  word  prize  being 
more  frequently  used  in  the  navy. 

Bordeaux,  or  Bourdeaux  (Southwest 
France).  Tliis  city  was  sacked  by  the  Visi- 
goths, who  were  driven  from  it  bv  Clovis ; 
it  was  ravaged  by  the  Saracens  and  Normans 
in  the  8th  and  'Jth  centuries.  It  came  into 
the  possession  of  the  Duke  of  Gascoyne  in 
911 ;  in  1653  the  city  rebelled,  but  was"  taken 
by  the  royal  troops;  Bordeaux  was  entered 
by  the  victorious  British  army  after  the 
battle  of  Orthes.  fought  February  27,  1814. 

Bordure,  or  Border.  In  heraldry,  coats 
of  arms  are  frequently  surrounded  with  a 
bordure,  the  object  of  which  is  to  show  that 
the  bearer  is  a  cadet  of  the  house  whose 
arms  he  carries.  Its  character  often  has 
reference  to  the  profession  of  the  bearer  ; 
thus  a  bordure  embattled  is  granted  to  a  sol- 
dier, and  a  bordure  ermine  to  a  lawyer. 

Bore.  Of  a  piece  of  ordiumce  includes 
all  the  part  bored  out,  viz.,  the  cylinder,  the 
chamber  (if  there  is  one),  and  the  conical 
or  spherical  surface  connecting  them. 

Borghetto.  A  town  of  Italy,  on  the  Min- 
cio,  15  miles  southwest  of  Verona;  it  has 
a  castle  and  a  vast  fortified  causeway.  The 
French  here  defeated  the  Austrians  in  1796. 

Borgo  Forte.  A  town  of  Italy,  in  Lom- 
bardy,  on  the  Po,  7  miles  south  of  Mantua. 
The  Austrians  were  here  defeated  by  the 
French  in  1796. 

Bori.  A  Turkish  term  for  military  trum- 
pets. 

Boring  Cannon.  See  Ordnance,  Con- 
struction OK. 

Borissov.  A  town  of  Russia,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Berezina.  A  conflict  took  place 
here  November  23,  1812,  between  the  French 
and  Russians;  near  this  town,  at  the  village 
of  Studienka,  the  disastrous  passage  of  Bere- 
zina was  eflected  bv  the  French  armv,  No- 
vember 26-27, 1812. 

Bormann-fuze.  A  fuze  which  is  used  for 
spherical  case-shot.  The  fuze-case  is  made 
of  metal  (a  composition  of  lead  and  tin),  and 
consists  of  a  short  cylinder,  having  at  one 
end  a  horseshoe-shaped  indentation,  one  end 
only  of  which  communicates  with  the  maga- 
zine of  the  fuze  placed  in  the  centre  by  a 
channel  filled  with  rifte  powder.  This  horse- 
shoe indentation  extends  nearly  to  the  other 
end  of  the  cylinder,  a  thin  layer  of  the  metal 
only  intervening.  This  is  graduated  on  the 
outside  into  equal  parts  representing  second.^ 
and  quarter-seconds.  In  the  bottom  of  this 
channel  a  smooth  layer  of  the  comp<«ition 
is  placed,  with  a  piece  of  wick  or  yarn  un- 
derneath it.  On  this  is  placed  a  piece  of 
metal,  the  cross-section  of  which  is  wedge- 
shaped,  and  this,  by  machinery,  is  pressed 
down'upon  the  composition,  sealing  it  her- 
metically. The  cylindrical  opening  is  filled 
with  musket  powder  and  coverea  with  a 
sheet  of  tin,  which  is  soldered,  closing  the 
magazine  from  the  external  air.  Before 
using   the   fuze   several  holes  are  punched 


BOENEO 


68 


BOSTON 


through  this  sheet  of  tin,  to  allow  the  flame 
to  enter  the  shell.  On  the  side  of  the  fuze 
the  thread  of  a  screw  is  cut  which  fits  into 
one  cut  on  the  inside  of  the  fuze-hole,  and 
the  fuze  is  screwed  into  the  shell  with  a 
wrench.  The  thin  layer  of  metal  over  the 
composition  is  cut  through  with  a  gouge  or 
chisel,  or  even  a  penknife,  at  the  interval 
marked  with  the  number  of  seconds  which 
we  wish  the  fuze  to  burn.  To  prevent  the 
metal  of  this  fuze,  which  is  soft,  from  being 
driven  into  the  shell  by  the  explosive  force 
of  the  charge,  a  circular  piece  of  iron,  with 
a  hole  through  its  centre,  and  the  thread  of 
a  screw  on  the  outside,  is  screwed  into  the 
fuze-hole  before  the  fuze  is  inserted.  The 
most  important  advantage  of  this  fuze  is, 
that  the  shells  can  be  loaded,  all  ready  for 
use,  and  remain  so  any  length  of  time,  per- 
fectly safe  from  explosion,  as  the  fuze  can  be 
screwed  into  its  place,  and  the  composition 
never  exposed  to  external  fire  until  the  metal 
is  cut  through. 

Borneo.  An  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean, 
the  largest  in  the  world  except  Australia ; 
discovered  by  the  Portuguese  about  1520; 
the  pirates  of  this  island  were  several  times 
chastised  by  the  British  government;  incor- 
porated with  the  British  empire,  December 
2,  1846. 

Bornhoevede.  A  village  of  Holstein, 
where  a  battle  was  fought  on  July  22,  1227, 
between  Woldemar  II.,  king  of  Denmark, 
and  Adolphus  IV.  of  Holstein ;  the  Danes 
were  totally  defeated. 

Borodino.  A  Kussian  village  on  the 
Moskwa,  near  which  a  sanguinary  battle 
was  fought,  September  7,  1812,  between  the 
French  under  Napoleon,  and  the  Russians 
under  Kootoosof,  240,000  men  being  en- 
gaged. Each  party  claimed  the  victory  ;  but 
the  Russians  retreated,  leaving  Moscow, 
which  the  French  entered  September  14. 
The  French  name  it  the  buttle  of  Moskwa, 
and  it  gave  Marshal  Ney  his  title  of  Prince 
of  Mc-rkwa. 

Boroughbridge.  A  town  in  Yorkshire, 
England,  the  site  of  a  battle  between  the 
Earls  of  Hereford  and  Lancaster  and  Edward 
II.,  March  16,  1322.  The  latter  at  the  head 
of  30,000  men  pressed  Lancaster  so  closely 
that  he  had  not  time  to  collect  his  troops  to- 
gether in  sufficient  force,  and  being  defeated 
and  made  prisoner,  was  led,  mounted  on  a 
lean  horse,  to  an  eminence  near  Pontefract, 
and  beheaded  by  a  Londoner. 

Boscobel.  Near  Donington,  Shropshire, 
England,  where  Charles  IL  concealed  him- 
self after  his  defeat  at  Worcester. 

Bosnia.  In  European  Turkey,  formerly 
part  of  Pannonia,  was  governed  by  chiefs 
till  a  brother-in-law  of  Louis,  king  of  Hun- 
gary, was  made  king,  1376.  He  was  de- 
feated by  the  Turks"  in  1389,  and  became 
their  vassal.  Bosnia  was  annexed  to  the 
Ottoman  empire  in  1522.  Many  eftbrts  have 
been  made  by  the  Bosnians  to  recover  their 
independence;  they  rebelled  in  1849,  and 
were  subdued  by  Omar  Pasha  in  1851. 


Bosniaken.  Formerly  light  cavalry  of 
the  Prussians,  resembling  the  present  Uh- 
lans. Frederick  I.  formed  this  cavalry  in 
1745. 

Bosphorus,  or  Bosporus,  Thracian  (now 
Strait  of  Constantinojile).  The  ancient  name 
of  the  strait  which  connects  the  Black  Sea 
with  the  Sea  of  Marmora.  Darius  Hystaspes 
threw  a  bridge  of  boats  over  this  strait  when 
about  to  invade  Greece,  493  B.C. 

Bosporus,  The  country  on  both  sides  of 
the  Bosporus  Cimmerius,  or  Strait  of  Yen- 
ikale,  formed  in  ancient  times  the  kingdom 
of  Bosporus.  The  Scythians  conquered  Bos- 
porus, 285  B.C. ;  conquered  by  Mithridates 
VI.,  80  B.C. ;  conquered  by  Caesar,  47  B.C. ; 
Polemon  conquered  Bosporus,  14  B.C.  A 
list  of  obscure  kings  given  by  some  writers 
ends  with  Sauromates  VII.,  344. 

Boss.     The  apex  of  a  shield. 

Bosse,  Bosse  a  Feu  {Fr.).  A  term  used 
in  the  French  artillery  to  express  a  glass 
bottle  which  is  very  thin,  contains  4  or  5 
pounds  of  powder,  and  round  the  neck  of 
which  4  or  5  matches  are  hung  after  it  has 
been  well  corked.  A  cord  2  or  3  feet  in 
length  is  tied  to  the  bottle,  which  serves  to 
throw  it.  The  instant  the  bottle  breaks  the 
powder  catches  fire,  and  everything  within 
the  immediate  effects  of  the  explosion  is  de- 
stroyed. 

Bostanji.  The  first  Turkish  foot-guards, 
about  12,000  strong ;  they  guard  the  imperial 
castles  and  accompany  the  sultans  to  the 
field.  They  Avere  originally  employed  as 
gardeners,  guards  for  the  seraglio,  etc.  Their 
number  is  now  greatly  reduced. 

Boston.  A  city  and  capital  of  Massa- 
chusetts, situated  on  the  west  side  of  Massa- 
chusetts Bay,  at  the  mouth  of  Charles 
Eiver.  It  was  built  about  1627.  Here 
originated  that  resistance  to  the  British  au- 
thorities which  led  to  American  independ- 
ence. The  act  of  Parliament  laying  duties 
on  tea,  papers,  colors,  etc.  (passed  June, 
1767),  so  excited  the  indignation  of  the  citi- 
zens of  Boston,  that  they  destroyed  several 
hundred  chests  of  tea,  December  16,  1773. 
Boston  seaport  was  shut  by  the  English 
Parliament,  until  restitution  should  be  made 
to  the  East  India  Company  for  the  tea  lost, 
March  25,  1774.  The  town  was  besieged  by 
the  British  next  year,  and  400  houses  were 
destroyed.  A  battle  between  the  royalist 
and  independent  troops,  in  which  the  "latter 
were  defeated,  took  place  June  17,  1775;  the 
city  was  evacuated  by  the  king's  troops, 
April,  1776.  The  inhabitants  were  very 
zealous  against  slavery  in  1861. 

Boston  Massacre.  A  name  popularly 
given  to  a  disturbance  which  occurred  in 
the  streets  of  Boston  on  the  evening  of 
March  5,  1770,  when  a  sergeant's  guard  be- 
longing to  the  British  garrison  fired  upon  a 
crowd  of  people  who  were  surrounding  them 
and  pelting  them  with  snowballs,  and  killed 
3  men  besides  wounding  several  others. 
The  leader  of  the  townspeople  was  a  black 
man  named  Crispus  Attucks.     The  aflair  is 


BOSTRA 


BOURGES 


of  liistorical  importance,  as  it  prepared  the 
minds  of  men  for  the  Revolutionary  struggle 
which  followed. 

Bostra,  or  Bozrah.  A  city  of  Arabia, 
in  iin  oasis  of  the  Syrian  Desert,  76  miles 
south  of  Damascus ;  it  was  besieged,  cap- 
tured, and  sacktd  by  the  Saracens,  who  were 
corimiaii<l('t.l  by  Khali'd. 

Bosworth  Field.  In  Leicestershire,  Eng- 
land, the  site  of  the  thirteenth  and  last  battle 
between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster, 
August  22,  1485,  when  Richard  III.  was 
defeated  and  slain  by  the  Earl  of  Richmond, 
afterwards  Henry  VIl.  Sir  William  Stan- 
ley at  a  critical  moment  changed  sides,  and 
thus  caused  the  loss  of  the  battle.  It  is  said 
that  Henry  was  crowned  on  the  spot  with 
the  crown  of  Richard  found  in  a  hawthorn 
bush  nt-ar  the  field. 

Bothwell  Bridge.  In  Lanarkshire,  Scot- 
land. Tlie  Scotch  Covenanters,  who  took  up 
arms  against  the  intolerant  government  of 
Charles  II.,  and  defeated  the  celebrated 
Claverhouse  at  Drumclog,  June  1,  1G79, 
were  totally  routed  at  Rothwell  Bridge, 
June  22,  1679,  by  the  Earl  of  Monmouth, 
and  many  persons  were  tortured  and  exe- 
cuted. 

Boton6,  or  Bottony.  In  heraldry,  a 
eroHs-btit(»ic  is  a  cross  of  which  the  ends  are 
in  the  form  of  buds  or  buttons. 

Bottle  Cartridge.  See  Cartridge,  Bot- 
tle. 

Bottoming.  The  foundation  of  a  road- 
bed. 

Botzen,  or  Bolzana  (anc.  Pons  Drusi). 
The  ca])ital  of  the  circle  of  Etsch  in  Tyrol. 
This  town  was  captured  by  the  French  in 
1809. 

Boucanier  [Fr.).  A  long,  heavy  musket, 
used  by  the  American  buccaneers,  and  with 
such  skill  as  to  give  the  weapon  a  high  de- 
gree of  celebrity. 

Bouchain.  A  small  strongly  fortified 
frontier  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  the  North ;  besieged  and  captured  bv 
Louis  XIV.  in  lG73;"by  the  Duke  of  Marf- 
borough  in  1711 ;  retaken  by  the  French  in' 
1712,  and  ceded  to  France  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht. 

Bouche  {Fr.).  Means  the  aperture  or 
mouth  of  a  piece  of  ordnance,  that  of  a  mor- 
tar, of  the  barrel  of  a  musket,  and  of  every 
species  of  lire-arms  from  which  a  ball  or 
bullet  is  discharged. 

Boufarik,  or  Boofareek.  A  place  in  Al- 
geria where  the  French  encountered  the 
Arabs,  October  2,  18:]2. 

Bouge,  or  Boulge  (  Fr.).  An  ancient  war- 
club,  tlio  head  of  wliich  was  loaded  with 
'lead,  also  called  ploinhie. 

Bougiah  (anc.  Salvcc).  A  seaport  town  of 
Algeria,  which  was  captured  by  the  French, 
October  19,  18.'l:?,  and  successfully  defended 
against  the  Arabs,  August  25,  1842. 

Bouillon  (Belgium).  Formerly  a  duchy, 
was  sold  bv  Godfrey,  its  ruler,  to  Albert, 
bishop  of  Liege,  to  obtain  funds  for  the 
crusade,  1095 ;  it  was  seized  by  the  French 


in  1072,  and  held  by  them  till  1815,  when 
it  was  given  to  the  king  of  the  Netherlands, 
as  duke  of  Lu.xemburg.  It  was  awarded 
to  Belgium  after  the  revolution  of  1830. 

Boulaf.  A  kind  of  baton  or  very  short 
mace,  formerly  used  by  the  Polish  generals. 

Boulak,  or  Boolak.  A  town  of  Lower 
Egypt,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile;  burned 
by  the  French  in  1799  ;  since  rebuilt  by  Mo- 
hammed Ali. 

Boulanger  Chronograph.     See  Ciirono- 

SCOPES. 

Boulanger  Telemeter.  See  Range  Find- 
ers. 

Boulevard  (Fr.).  An  ancient  bastion, 
bulwark,  or  rampart. 

Boulogne.  A  seaport  in  Picardy,  North- 
ern France ;  was  taken  by  the  British  under 
Henry  VIII.,  September  14,  1544,  but  re- 
stored at  the  peace,  1550.  Lord  Nelson  at- 
tacked this  city,  disabling  10  vessels  and 
sinking  5,  August  3,  1801  ;  in  another  at- 
tempt he  was  repulsed  with  great  loss.  In 
1804,  Bonaparte  assembled  100,000  men  and 
10,000  horses,  and  a  flotilla  of  1300  vessels 
and  17,000  sailors,  to  invade  England;  it  is 
supposed  that  this  French  armament  served 
merely  for  a  demonstration,  and  that  Bona- 
parte never  seriously  intended  the  invasion. 
Sir  Sidney  Smith  unsuccessfully  attempted 
to  burn  the  flotilla  with  tire-machines  called 
catamarans,  October  2,  1804.  Congreve 
rockets  were  used  in  another  attack,  and 
they  set  the  town  on  fire,  October  8,  180«i. 
The  army  was  removed  on  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war  with  Austria  in  1805.  Louis 
Napoleon,  afterwards  emperor,  made  a  de- 
scent here  with  about  50  followers,  August 
6,  1840,  without  success. 

Bounty.  A  premium  offered  or  given  tq 
induce  men  to  enlist  into  the  public  service. 

Bourbon,  Isle  of '(in  the  Indian  Ocean). 
Discovered  by  the  Portuguese  about  1545. 
The  French  here  formed  a  colonv  in  1653 
(according  to  others,  1642,  1646,  1649).  In 
1810,  after  a  gallant  resistance,  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  British,  who  retained  it 
till  the  general  peace,  1814.  In  1815,  before 
the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  it  was  once  more 
besieged  by  the  English,  and  along  with  the 
Mauritius  again  fell  into  their  hands.  After 
the  general  pacification  of  Europe,  Bourbon 
was  restored  to  France,  in  whose  possession 
it  now  is  ;  but  the  adjoining  island  has  since 
been  retained  by  its  English  conquerors. 

Bourdonnante  (/■'/•.).  A  name  formerly 
given  to  a  kind  of  bombard  of  a  heavy  cal- 
iber. 

Bourg-en-Bresse.  A  town  of  France, 
capital  of  the  department  of  Ain.  The  town 
was  ca])tured  by  the  allies  in  1814. 

Bourges.  The  capital  of  the  department 
of  the  Cher,  in  France;  captured  by  Csesar, 
52  B.C.  ;  destroyed  by  Chilperic,  583":  carried 
by  assault  by  Pepin,  762;  sustained  a  siege 
during  the  reign  of  Charles  VII.,  in  1415; 
captured  bv  the  Protestants,  1562;  by  Henry 
IV.,  1594  :  by  the  Protestants,  1615,  and  by 
Marshal  Matignon  in  1616. 


BOURGUIGNOTE 


70 


BRANDING 


Bourguignote,  or  Bourgignotte  (Fr.).  A 
helmet  worn  by  the  Burgundians,  from 
whom  it  was  named.  It  was  of  polished 
iron,  with  a  visor.  Under  Louis  XIV. 
their  head-dress  was  changed  to  a  kind  of 
bonnet. 

Bourlette  (Fr.).  In  antiquity,  a  mace 
which  was  garnished  with  iron  points. 

Bournous,  Burnoose,  or  Burnos.  A  kind 
of  cloak  or  overcoat,  used  by  the  Arabs,  and 
which  constitutes  a  part  of  the  military 
clothing  of  some  corps  of  the  French  army. 

Bouton,  or  Boutoou  (Fr.).  A  kind  of 
war-club,  formerly  used  by  the  Caribs  of  the 
Antilles. 

Bovianum  (now  Bojano).  A  town  of 
Italy,  10  miles  southwest  of  Campobasso. 
It  was  sacked  by  the  Romans  in  311,  305, 
and  298  b.c.  During  the  second  Punic  war 
it  was  several  times  the  headquarters  of  the 
Roman  army. 

Bouvines  (Northern  France).  The  site 
of  a  desperate  battle,  July  27,  1214,  in  which 
Philip  Augustus  of  France  was  victorious 
over  the  emperor  Otho  and  his  allies,  con- 
sisting of  more  than  150,000  men.  The 
Counts  of  Flanders  and  Boulogne  were 
taken  prisoners. 

Bow.  A  weapon  made  of  a  strip  of  wood, 
or  other  elastic  material,  with  a  cord  con- 
necting the  two  ends,  by  means  of  which, 
when  drawn  back  and  sufl'ered  to  return, 
an  arrow  is  propelled. 

Bow,  Cross.  An  ancient  weapon  of  of- 
fense of  the  11th  century.  Philip  II.,  sur- 
named  the  Conqueror,  introduced  cross-bows 
into  France.  In  this  reign  Richard  I.  of 
England  was  killed  by  a  cross-bow  at  the 
siege  of  Chains. 

«  Bowie-knife.  A  knife  from  10  to  15 
inches  long,  and  about  2  inches  broad,  worn 
as  a  weapon  in  the  Southern  and  South- 
western States  of  the  United  States, — so 
named  from  its  inventor.  Col.  James  Bowie. 

Bowman.  A  man  who  uses  a  bow;  an 
archer. 

Bow-shot.  The  space  which  an  arrow 
may  pass  when  shot  from  a  bow. 

Bowstring.  The  string  of  a  bow.  Also 
a  string  used  by  the  Turks  for  strangling 
offenders. 

Bowyer.  The  man  who  made  or  repaired 
the  military  bows  was  so  called. 

Boxer-cartridge.  The  metallic  cartridge 
used  in  the  service  rifle  of  England.  See 
Cartridge. 

Boxtel  (in  Dutch  Brabant).  Here  the 
British  and  allied  armies,  commanded  by 
the  Duke  of  York,  were  defeated  by  the 
French  republicans,  who  took  2000  prisoners 
and  8  pieces  of  cannon,  September  17,  1794. 

Box  Pontons.     See  Pontons. 

Boyaca.  A  villageof  the  republic  of  New 
Granada,  South  America,  celebrated  for  the 
victory  gained  by  Bolivar  over  the  Span- 
iards, August  7,  1819,  which  secured  the  in- 
dependence of  Colombia. 

Boyau.  In  military  engineering,  is  a 
winding  zigzag  or  trench,  made  by  besiegers 


to  enable  them  to  approach  a  town  or  forti- 
fied place  under  cover.  These  trenches  are 
also  called  zigzags,  or  approaches. 

Boyne.  A  river  in  Kildare,  Ireland,  near 
which  William  III.  defeated  his  father-in- 
law,  James  II.,  July  1,  1690.  The  latter 
lost  1500  (out  of  30,000)  men  ;  the  Protestant 
army  lost  about  a  third  of  that  number  (out 
of  30,000).  James  fled  to  Dublin,  thence  to 
Waterford,  and  escaped  to  France.  The 
Duke  of  Schomberg  was  killed,  shot  by  mis- 
take by  his  own  soldiers  as  he  was  crossing 
the  river. 

Braban9ons  {F)-.).  Soldiers  of  fortune, 
adventurers,  freebooters  of  Brabant,  who, 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  hired  their  services 
to  those  chiefs  who  paid  them  best. 

Bracelet.  In  ancient  times,  a  piece  of 
defensive  armor  for  the  arm;  a  part  of  a 
coat  of  mail. 

Bracket.  The  cheek  of  a  mortar-carriage, 
made  of  strong  plank. 

Braconniere,  or  Bragonniere  {Fr.).  In 
antiquity,  a  mail-armor,  of  the  shape  of  a 
petticoat,  which  was  attached  to  the  cuirass, 
and  reached  from  the  hips  to  the  middle  ot 
the  thigh,  and  sometimes  below  the  knee. 

Braga  (anc.  Br acar a  Augusta).  The  cap- 
ital of  the  province  of  Minho,  in  Portugal ; 
it  is  fortified  and  defended  by  a  citadel. 
The  Suevi  were  here  vanquished  by  the 
Goths  in  585. 

Brailoff,  Brahilow,  or  Ibraila.  A  forti- 
fied town  and  the  principal  port  of  Walla- 
chia,  European  Turkey.  In  1770  the  town 
was  taken  by  the  Russians,  and  almost  razed 
to  the  ground  ;  rebuilt,  and  again  taken  by 
the  Russians  in  1828,  after  a  brave  defense. 
It  was  restored  to  Turkey  by  the  treaty  of 
Adrianople  in  1829.  During  the  war  of  ■ 
1854-56,  it  was  occupied  by  Russian  troops.  i_ 

Brake.  That  part  of  the  carriage  of  a 
movable  battery  or  engine  which  enables 
it  to  turn. 

Brake.  An  ancient  engine  of  war  analo- 
gous to  the  cross-bow  and  balista. 

Bramham.  In  Yorkshii-e,  England;  near 
here  the  Earl  of  Northumberland  and  Lord 
Bardolf  were  defeated  and  slain  by  Sir 
Thomas  Rokeby,  the  general  of  Henry  IV., 
February  19,  1408 ;  and  Fairfax  was  de- 
feated by  the  royalists  under  the  Duke  of 
Newcastle,  March  29,  1643. 

Brand.  The  Anglo-Saxon  for  a  burnished 
sword. 

Brandenburg.  A  city  in  Prussia,  founded 
by  the  Slavonians.  Henry  I.,  surnamed  the 
Fowler,  after  defeating  the  Slavonians,  for- 
tified Brandenburg,  926,  as  a  rampart  against 
the  Huns,  and  bestowed  the  government  on 
Sigefroi,  count  of  Ringelheim,  with  the  title' 
of  Margrave,  or  protector  of  the  marches 
or  frontiers.  Occupied  by  the  French,  Oc- 
tober 25,  1806. 

Branding.  Was  a  mode  of  punishment, 
in  nearly  all  armies,  inflicted  on  soldiers 
who  were  convicted  of  the  crime  of  desertion, 
— the  branding  or  marking  being  with  ink, 
or  other  similar  preparation.     This  practice 


BRANDSCHWAERMER 


71 


BREECH-LOADING 


is  now  discontinued  in  the  American,  and 
sevcnil  European  armies. 

Brandschwaermer  (Ge7-.).  A  small  rocket 
whicli  contained  a  bullet ;  it  was  tired  out  of 
a  gun  and  used  for  the  purpose  of  setting 
fire  to  straw-thatched  buildings. 

Brandywine.  A  river  in  Pennsylvania 
and  Delaware,  near  which  a  battle  took 
place  between  the  British  and  Americans,  in 
which  the  latter  (after  a  day's  tight)  were 
defeated  with  great  loss,  and  riiiladelphia 
fell  into  the  possession  of  the  victors,  Sep- 
tember 11,  1777. 

Brass.     See  Bronze. 

Brassar.  A  piece  of  defensive  armor  for 
the  arm. 

Brassart.  In  plate-armor,  joined  plates 
of  steel  which  protected  the  uj)per  part  of 
the  arm,  from  the  elbow  to  the  shoulder. 
When  the  front  of  the  arm  only  was  shielded, 
the  pieces  were  called  demi-brassnrts. 

Brasset.  A  casque  or  head-piece  of 
armor. 

Braunau.  A  town  of  Bohemia,  Austria; 
cajiturcd  by  the  French,  October  28,  >80o. 

Bray.  A  snuiU  town  in  the  department 
of  8eine-et-Marne,  France  ;  it  was  occupied 
by  the  allies,  February  12,  1814. 

Brazil.  An  empire  in  South  America, 
was  discovered  by  Vincent  Pinzon  in  Feb- 
ruary, and  Pedro  Alvarez  de  Cabral,  a  Por- 
tuguese, driven  upon  its  coasts  by  a  tempest, 
in  luOO.  The  French  having  seized  Portu- 
gal in  1807,  the  n)yal  family'and  nobles  em- 
barked for  Brazil,  and  landed  March  7,  1808. 
Brazil  declared  war  against  Uruguay  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1805;  entered  into  a  treaty  with 
Uruguay  and  the  Argentine  Republic 
against  Paraguay,  governed  by  Lopez,  in 
May,  181(5,  and  war  was  waged  with  vary- 
ing results  up  to  1870. 

Breach.  Rupture  made  in  a  fortification 
to  facilitate  the  assault.  The  operation  by 
which  the  oj>ening  is  produced  is  called 
breachiufi,  and  the  guns  used  for  this  pur- 
pose are  brcachiug  batteries.  To  repair  a 
breach,  is  to  stop  or  fill  up  the  gap  with 
gabions,  fascines,  etc.,  and  prevent  the  as- 
sault. To  fortify  a  breach,  is  to  render  it 
inaccessible  by  means  of  chevaux-de-frise, 
crow's  feet,  etc.  To  make  a  lodgment  in  the 
breach.  After  the  besieged  are  driven 
away,  the  besiegers  secure  themselves  against 
any  future  attack  in  the  breach.  To  clear 
the  breach,  that  is,  to  remove  the  ruins, 
that  it  limy  be  better  defended. 

Breach" of  Arrest.  See  Appendix,  Ar- 
Tici.Ks  UK   War,  (15. 

Bread  and  Water.  A  diet  used  as  a  mil- 
itary puiiisliiiicnt. 

Break  Ground.  Is  to  commence  the  siege 
of  a  place  by  ojuMiing  trenches,  etc. 

Breast-height.  In  fortification,  the  in- 
terior slope  of  a  jiarapet. 

Breastplate.  A  plate  worn  upon  the  breast 
as  a  part  of  defensive  armor. 

Breastwork.  In  fortification,  a  defensive 
work  breast-high,  hastily  thrown  up,  of 
earth  or  other  material. 


Brechin.  A  place  in  Scotland  ;  sustained 
a  siege  against  the  armv  of  Edward  III., 
1333.  The  battle  of  Brechin  was  fought  be- 
tween the  Earls  of  Iluntly  and  Crawford; 
the  latter  was  defeated,  1452. 

Breech.  In  ordnance,  is  the  mass  of  solid 
metal  behind  the  bottom  of  the  bore,  extend- 
ing to  the  cascabel.  The  bane  of  the  breech 
is  its  rear  surface. 

Breech-block.  The  block  of  metal  which 
closes  the  Ijon-  in  breech-loading  arms. 

Breech-loader.  A  fire-arm  that  receives 
its  load  at  the  breech. 

Breech-loading.  Receiving  the  charge  at 
the  breech  instead  of  the  muzzle.  A  feature 
of  modern  small-arms.  The  principle,  how- 
ever, is  very  old,  as  some  of  the  earliest  guns 
were  breech-loaders.  A  gun  of  the  time  of 
Henry  VIII.  still  extant  is  substantially  the 
same  as  the  modern  Snider.  Puckle's  re- 
volver of  1718  was  mounted  on  a  tripod,  and 
was  very  much  like  the  Gatliruj  gun  in  its 
general  features.  The  first  American  patent 
was  to  Thornton  &  Hall,  of  Massachusetts, 
1811.  These  guns  were  extensively  issued 
to  U.  S.  troops.  There  is  a  specimen  in  the 
West  Point  Museum.  Prior  to  1801  the 
best  known  breech-loading  small-arms  were 
Sharps',  Buriiside's,  Magnard's,  Merrill's, 
and  Spencer's.     See  Small-akm.s. 

In  modern  times  the  breech-loading  prin- 
ciple for  heavy  ordnance  has  gained  and  lost 
favor  at  difierent  epochs.  On  the  continent 
of  Europe  it  is  generally  accepted.  Italy, 
however,  has  committed  itself  in  the  largest 
calibers  to  the  enormous  100-ton  muzzle- 
loaders  of  Sir  William  Armstrong.  The 
same  inventor  introduced  his  breech-loading 
field-piece  in  England  about  1850.  His  prin- 
ciple was  approved  and  adopted  for  various 
calibers  about  1858,  but  partial  failures  in 
his  system  led  to  an  investigation  by  a  com- 
mittee of  the  House  of  Commons,  1802-03, 
and  after  a  tedious  discussion,  the  breech- 
loading  principle  was  officially  discarded 
(1806),  though  many  of  the  guns  were  re- 
tained in  the  service.  The  successful  appli- 
cation of  hydraulic  machinery  in  handling 
and  loading  heavy  guns  (1870)  confirmed  the 
government  in  its  choice  of  muzzle-loaders. 
The  difficulty  of  muzzle-loading  in  a  turret 
and  the  impossibility  of  employing  the  great 
length  of  bore  necessary  to  obtain  the  best 
results  was,  up  to  this  time,  the  strong  argu- 
ment in  favor  of  breech-loaders.  Loading 
by  hydraulic  machinery  from  beneath  the 
deck  through  a  trap-door  outside  the  turret 
obviated  these  objections  to  muzzle-loaders, 
and  gave  the  gunners  ample  protection  by 
closing  the  port,  thus  placing  these  guns  for 
the  time  being  on  a  par  with  breech-loaders. 
The  bursting^  of  the  38-ton  gun  on  the 
"Thunderer''  (1878).  however,  which  has 
been  generally  attributed  to  double  loading, 
has  shaken  confidence  in  hydraulic  ram- 
j  ming,  and  now  there  is  a  strong  current  in 
I  favor  of  a  return  to  breech-loaders.  The 
I  splendid  performance  of  Kriipp  guns  on  the 
1  practice-ground  at   Meppen,  1879,  and  the 


BEEECH  MECHANISM 


72 


BREITENFELD 


numerous  misfortunes  which  have  recently 
befallen  the  Woolwich  and  Elswick  systems, 
have  doubtless  had  their  weight  in  this 
chanu;e  of  o]iinion. 

Breech  Mechanism.  The  mechanism 
used  for  openinjj;  and  closing  the  breech  of  a 
fire-arm  and  securing  it  against  the  escape  of 
the  gas.  In  small-arms  this  is  readily  ac- 
complished. The  use  of  the  metallic  car- 
tridge-case renders  any  spfecial  gas-check  un- 
necessary, as  the  case  itself  by  being  ex- 
panded against  the  walls  of  the  chamber 
serves  the  purpose.  The  various  mechan- 
isms used  in  small-arms  have  been  classified 
as  follows:  1st,  Fixed  chamber ;  2d,  Movable 
cliamher.  The  second  class  is  now  obsolete. 
^\\Q,  fixed  chamber  class  is  subdivided  into — 
1st,  Barrel  moves;  2d,  Breech-block  moves. 
The  first  class  comprises  many  of  the  shot- 
guns in  use,  the  second,  the  best  known  of 
military  arms.  Under  this  latter  class  are 
the  following  subdivisions :  1st,  Sliding  blockj 
2d,  Sliding  and  rotating ;  3d,  Rotating  about 
an  axis.  We  find  excellent  guns  under  each 
of  these  classes  which  are  further  subdivided 
as  to  the  direction  of  the  motions.  The 
Sharps'  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  first 
of  these  classes,  the  Hotchkiss  magazine  gun 
of  the  second,  and  the  Springfield  of  the 
third. 

A  similar  classification  may  be  made  for 
hreech-loading  devices  in  heavy  ordnance,  but 
the  problem  here  is  not  so  simple.  The  press- 
ure is  much  greater,  the  masses  of  metal 
much  larger,  and  the  cartridge  must  be  used 
without  a  case  to  check  the  gas.  Breech- 
loaders were  impossible  until  the  problem  of 
checking  the  gas  had  been  solved.  The  in- 
ventor of  the  first  successful  gas-check  was 
an  American,  L.  W.  Broadwell,  now  re- 
siding abroad.  The  term  Broadwell  ring  has 
been  applied  to  all  similar  devices.  This  is 
a  steel  ring  which  fits  in  a  recess  reamed  out 
in  the  rear  of  the  chamber  and  abutting  upon 
the  breech-block.  The  inside  of  the  ring  is 
so  shaped  as  to  be  pressed  by  the  gas  out- 
wards and  backwards,  thus  closing  both  the 
space  outside  of  the  ring  and  between  it  and 
the  block.  Broadwell  is  also  the  inventor  of 
a  breech  mechanism  which,  with  a  few  modi- 
fications, is  that  used  by  Ivrupp  for  all  of  his 
guns.  The  breech-block  slides  horizontally 
through  a  rectangular  slot  in  rear  of  the 
chamber.  In  the  Armstrong  breech-loader, 
the  block  called  the  vent-piece  is  taken  out 
and  put  in  through  a  rectangular  orifice  on 
the  top  of  the  gun.  It  is  locked  in  place  by 
a  hollow  breech-screw.  The  French  use  a 
breech-screw  with  the  threads  cut  away  in 
longitudinal  rows.  The  female-screw  being 
similarly  arranged,  a  very  small  rotation  en- 
ables it  to  be  entirely  withdrawn.  Among 
American  devices  are  Thompson's,  a  breech- 
block which  rolls  to  the  side  and  opens  or 
closes  the  bore.  Sutclifi-'e's,  a  cylindrical 
block,  with  its  axis  parallel  to  the  one  hang- 
ing on  a  pin  projecting  from  the  front  pe- 
riphery of  the  hollow  screw.  The  block  is 
raised  and  locked  by  turning  the  screw,  and 


falls  into  a  recess  below  when  the  screw  is 
half  turned  back.  Mann's,  in  which  the  gun 
rotates  upwards  about  the  trunnions  some- 
thing like  a  shot-gun,  and  many  others. 

Breech-pin.  A  strong  plug  firmly  screwed 
in  at  the  breech  of  a  musket  or  other  fire- 
arm. 

Breech-sight.  In  gunnery,  an  instru- 
ment having  a  graduated  scale  of  tangents 
by  means  of  which  any  elevation  may  be 
given  to  a  piece.  Correctly  speaking,  the 
breech-sight  gives  the  angle  made  by  the 
line  of  aim  or  sight  with  the  axis  of  the 
piece.  The  base  of  the  breech-sight  is  a 
plate  of  brass  curved  to  fit  the  base-ring  or 
line,  the  scale  and  slides  are  similar  to  those 
of  the  pendulum  hausse  except  that  a  hole  is 
made  in  the  plate,  instead  of  a  notch  to  sight 
through.  Breech-sights  are  graduated  for 
no  disparts,  &  front-sight  equal  in  height  to 
the  dispart  being  screwed  into  the  top  of  the 
muzzle;  in  the  Rodman  guns,  into  the  seat 
provided  for  the  purpose  between  the  trun- 
nions. Breech-sights  are  also  frequently  held 
in  sockets,  and  when  the  front-sight  is  placed 
on  the  trunnion,  the  socket  is  on  the  side 
of  the  breech.  The  pendulum  hausse  (see 
Hausse)  is  a  breech-sight  used  for  field-guns 
to  correct  the  error  arising  from  ditference 
of  level  in  the  wheels  of  the  carriage.  The 
Quina7i  breech-sight  (invented  by  Lieut.  AV. 
R.  Quinan,  4th  U.  S.  Artillery)  is  an  im- 
provement on  the  pendulum  hausse.  It  is 
fixed  in  a  socket  on  the  right  side  of  the 
breech.  The  scale  has  a  spirit-level,  by 
means  of  which  it  is  made  vertical.  The 
front  sight  is  a  short  tube  with  cross-hairs 
fixed  in  it.  The  advantages  claimed  over 
the  hausse  are  increased  steadiness  and  accu- 
racy. 

Bregenz,  or  Bregentz.    A  town  of  Tyrol,         a, 
Austria ;  it  was  occupied  by  the  French  in 
1799. 

Breisach,  Old.  A  very  old  town  of  the 
grand  duchy  of  Baden  ;  taken  by  Ariovistus 
when  he  invaded  Gaul.  Being  regarded  as 
the  key  to  the  west  of  Germany,  it  was  a 
prominent  scene  of  action  during  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  at  the  conclusion  of  which  it 
was  ceded  to  the  French.  During  the  next 
century  it  frequently  changed  masters,  now 
belonging  to  France  and  now  to  Austria  ;  its 
fortifications  were  destroyed  by  the  French 
in  1744,  and  during  the  war  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, in  1793,  part  of  the  town  was  burned  by 
them.  In  1806  the  French  handed  it  over  to 
the  house  of  Baden. 

Breitenfeld.  A  village  and  manor  of 
Saxony,  about  5  miles  north  of  Leipsic.  It 
is  historically  remarkable  for  three  battles, 
fought  on  a  plain  in  its  neighborhood. 
The  first  of  these,  between. the  Swedes  and 
the  Imperialists,  which  was  fought  Septem- 
ber 7,  1631,  was  of  the  highest  importance 
to  Europe,  as  it  secured  the  permanency  of 
Protestantism  and  the  freedom  of  Germany. 
Tilly's  pride  had  reached  its  highest  point 
after  the  fall  of  Magdeburg,  which  took 
place  on  May  20,   1631 ;   and  in  the  early 


BREMEN 


73 


BRICOLE 


jmrt  of  September  of  the  same  year  he  ad- 
vanced nj^ainst  the  Saxons  with  an  army  of 
about  40,000  men  for  the  purpose  of  forcing 
the  elector,  John  George  I.,  into  an  alliance 
with  the  emperor.  Gustavus  Adolphus,  king 
of  Sweden,  joined  by  the  Saxons,  advanced 
towards  Lei[)sic,  where  Tilly  lay,  the  latter 
advancing  into  the  plain  of  Hreitcnfeld. 
The  Imperial  forces  were  completely  de- 
feated, and  their  three  most  distinguished 
generals,  Tilly,  Pappenheim,  and  Fiirsten- 
berg,  wounded.  The  second  battle  which 
Breitcnfcld  witnessed  again,  resulted  in  the 
triumph  of  Swedish  valor  :  it  took  place  on 
October  215,  l»j42,  between  the  Swedes,  headed 
by  Torstenson,  one  of  the  j>upils  of  Gustavus, 
who  had  invested  Leipsic,  and  the  Archduke 
Leopold,  with  Gen.  Piccolomini,  who  were 
advancing  from  Dresden  to  its  relief.  The 
Swedes  gained  a  complete  victory  over  the 
Imperialists,  who  fled  into  Bohemia,  leaving 
behind  them  4(3  cannon,  121  flags,  (39  stand- 
ards, and  the  whole  of  their  baggage.  The 
third  battle  of  which  Breitenfeld  was  the 
scene  was  fought  on  October  1(3-18,  1813. 
See  Lkitsic. 

Bremen  (Northern  Germany).  Saidtohave 
been  founded  in  788;  in  1(348  it  was  erected 
into  a  duchy  and  held  by  Sweden  till  1712; 
it  was  taken  possession  of  by  Denmark  in 
1731,  by  whom  it  was  ceded  to  Hanover; 
it  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1757,  who 
were  expelled  by  the  Hanoverians  in  1758; 
annexed  by  Napoleon  to  the  French  empire 
in  1810;  its  independence  restored  in  1818; 
its  old  franchises  in  1815  It  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  North  German  Confederation  in 
18GG. 

Brenneville  (Northwest  France).  Hero 
Henry  1.  of  'England  defeated  Louis  VI. 
of  France,  who  had  embraced  the  cause  of 
"William  Clinton,  son  of  Robert,  duke  of 
Normandy,  August  20,  1119. 

Brenta.  A  river  which  rises  in  Tyrol  and 
flows,  after  a  course  of  90  miles,  into  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  at  Porto  di  Brondolo.  On  the 
banks  of  this  river  the  French  twice  de- 
feated the  Austrians  in  179(3. 

Brentford.  A  county  town  of  Middlesex, 
England.  Here  Edmund  Ironside  defeated 
the  Danes,  May,  1016.  It  was  taken  by 
Charles  I.,  alter  a  sharp  fiijht,  November 
12,1(142.  ^      ' 

Brescelia,  or  Bregelia  (anc.  BrlreAlum). 
A  town  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Po,  in 
North  Italy.  Here  the  emperor  ()th.>  put 
himself  to  'death  in  G9.  On  May  20,  1427, 
an  army  under  Duke  Philip  Maria  Visconti, 
of  .Milan,  was  here  defeated  by  an  army  sent 
against  him  by  the  republic  of  Venice,  under 
Francis  Carmagnola. 

Brescia.  A  town  in  Northern  Italy  (the 
aiuient  Hriria),  became  important  under  the 
Lombards,  and  sutterod  by  the  wars  of  the 
Il4ilian  republics,  being  attached  to  Venice. 
It  was  taken  by  the  Frcncli  under  (iaston  de 
Foix  in  1512,  when  it  is  said  40,000  of  the 
inhabitants  were  massacred.  It  surrendered 
to  the  Austrian  general  Haynau,  March  30, 


1849,  on  severe  terms;  annexed  to  Sardinia 
In  1859. 

Breslau.  Capital  of  the  province  of  Si- 
lesia, Prussia  ;  it  was  burnt  by  the  Mongols 
in  1241,  and  conquered  by  Frederick  II.  of 
Prussia  in  January,  1741.  A  fierce  battle 
took  place  here  between  the  Austrians  and 
Prussians,  the  latter  under  Prince  Bevern, 
who  was  defeated  November  22,  1757.  Bres- 
lau was  taken,  but  was  regained,  December 
21,  the  same  year;  besieged  by  the  French, 
and  surrendered  to  them  January,  1807,  and 
again  in  1813. 

Bressuire.  A  small  town  of  France,  de- 
partment of  Deux-Sevres  ;  it  was  fortified 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  was  captured 
from  the  English  by  the  celebrated  Du  Gu- 
esclin  in  1373;  it  was  nearly  destroyed  during 
the  wars  of  La  Vendee. 

Brest.  A  seaport  in  Northwestern  France; 
besieged  by  Julius  Ca?sar,  54  K.c. ;  possessed 
by  the  English  in  1378 ;  given  up  to  the 
Duke  of  Brittany  in  1390.  Lord  Berkeley 
and  a  British  fleet  and  army  were  repulsed 
here  with  dreadful  loss  in  1(394.  The  maga- 
zine burnt  to  the  value  of  some  millions  of 
pounds  sterling,  1744  ;  marine  hospital,  with 
50  galley-slaves,  burnt,  in  17G6;  the  maga- 
zine again  destroyed  by  fire,  July  10,  1784. 
England  maintained  a  large  blockading 
squadron  oft'  the  harbor  from  1793  to  1815, 
but  with  little  injury  to  France.  It  is  now 
a  chief  naval  station  of  France,  and  from 
the  fortifications  and  other  vast  works  of 
late  construction  it  is  considered  impreg- 
nable. 

Bretigny,  Peace  of.  Concluded  with 
France,  May  8,  1300,  by  which  England 
retained  Gascony  and  Guienno,  and  acquired 
other  provinces  ;  renounced  her  pretensions 
to  Maine,  Anjou,  Touraine,  and  Normandy; 
was  to  receive  3,000,000  crowns,  and  to  re- 
lease King  John,  long  a  prisoner.  Th& 
treaty  not  being  carried  out,  the  king  re- 
mained and  died  in  London. 

Breuci.  A  powerful  people  of  Pannonia^ 
near  the  confluence  of  the  Savus  and  the 
Danube,  took  an  active  part  in  the  insurrec- 
tion of  the  Pannonians  and  Dalmatians 
against  the  Romans,  6  a.d. 

Brevet.  An  honorary  rank  conferred 
upon  an  oflicer,  for  meritorious  services,, 
above  the  rank  he  holds  in  his  own  corps. 
In  the  U.  S.  army  rank  by  brevet  is  con- 
ferred, by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent 
of  the  Senate,  for  "gallant  actions  or  meri- 
torious services."  A  brevet  rank  gives  no 
right  of  command  in  tlie  particular  corps  t<> 
which  the  officer  brevctted  belongs,  and  can 
be  exercised  only  by  special  assignment  of 
the  President.  Officers  while  so  serving 
under  assignment  are  said  to  have  local 
rank  (which  see). 

Brevet.  To  confer  rank  or  title  upon  by 
brevet. 

Brevetcy.  The  rank  or  condition  of  a 
brevet. 

Bricole.  An  improved  kind  of  traces 
used  by  the  French  in  drawing  and  manoeu- 


BRIDGE 


74 


BRIGADE 


vring  artillery ;  analogous  to  the  old  drag- 
rope,  Lut  having  the  addition  of  a  leather 
strap  or  girdle  with  a  buckle,  to  which  the 
drag  is  affixed,  and  an  iron  ring  and  hook  at 
the  end  to  drag  by. 

Bridge,  A  structure  usually  of  wood, 
stone,  brick,  or  iron,  erected  over  a  river  or 
other  water-course,  or  over  a  ravine,  rail- 
road, etc.,  to  make  a  continuous  roadway 
from  one  bank  to  the  other. 

Bridge.  In  gunnery,  two  pieces  of  tim- 
ber which  go  between  the  two  transoms  of  a 
gun-carriage.    Not  used  in  the  U.  S.  service. 

Bridge,  Flying.     See  Pontons. 

Bridge,  Trail.     See  Pontons. 

Bridge,  Train.     See  Equipage. 

Bridge,  Trestle.     See  Trestle  Bridge. 

Bridges.  When  a  river  is  more  than  4 
feet  in  depth,  or  when  its  bottom  is  of  mud 
or  quicksand,  recourse  must  be  had  either  to 
ferrying  by  means  of  boats,  rafts,  etc.,  or  to 
military  bridges.  The  latter  are  always  to 
be  preferred  when  circumstances  will  permit 
their  establishment. 

Military  bridges  are  composed  of  a  road- 
way and  its  supports  ;  the  first  consists  of 
beams  or  balks  reaching  across  the  adjacent 
supports,  and  covered  with  plank  called 
chess. 

The  supports,  from  which  the  bridge  takes 
its  name,  may  be  either  fixed,  as  trestles, 
gabions,  carriages,  piles,  or  floating,  as  pon- 
tons, boats  of  commerce,  rafts,  etc. 

Ponton  bridges  are  preferable  to  all  others 
when  a  passage  by  main  force  or  surprise  is 
to  be  undertaken.  They  may  be  constructed 
on  any  stream  of  sufficient  depth;  they  may 
be  replaced  by  rafts  when  the  velocity  of  the 
stream  does  not  exceed  6  feet  per  second. 
In  swifter  currents  the  latter  are  unmanage- 
able, drag  their  anchors,  and  are  liable  to 
destruction  from  floating  bodies. 

Trestle  bridges  may  be  constructed  in 
rivers  whose  depth  does  not  exceed  9  feet, 
and  whose  velocity  is  not  more  than  6  feet. 
They  may  be  employed  with  advantage  in 
rivers  of  moderate  depth  and  gentle  current, 
with  hard,  even  bottoms.  AVhen  the  bed  of 
the  river  is  uneven  the  adjustment  of  the 
trestles  to  the  bottom  is  very  tedious,  and 
if  the  current  is  rapid,  almost  impossible. 
"When  the  bed  is  of  mud  or  fine  sand,  the 
settlement  of  the  legs  is  liable  to  be  irregular. 

Gabion  bridges  are  used  over  marshes  and 
shallow  streams.  They  consist  of  gabions 
constructed  in  the  ordinary  way,  and  of  a 
height  necessary  to  give  a  level  road  ;  these 
are  placed  in  rows  perpendicular  to  the  axis 
of  tli«  bridge,  are  filled  with  stones  or  gravel, 
■  and  are  capped  with  a  piece  of  timber  on 
which  the  balks  rest. 

Pile  bridges  are  superior  in  point  of  sta- 
bility to  all  other  military  bridges,  but  re- 
quiring much  labor  and  time  in  their  con- 
struction ;  they  are  usually  restricted  to 
securing  the  communications  in  rear  of  the 
army. 

Bridge-head.  A  fortification  covering 
the  extremity  of  a  bridge  nearest  the  enemy. 


The  French  term   for   the  same  is  Ute  du 
prmt. 

Bridle.  An  instrument  with  which  a 
horse  is  governed  and  restrained,  consisting 
of  a  head-stall,  a  bit  and  reins,  with  other 
appendages,  according  to  its  particular  form 
and  uses. 

Bridle.  In  gunnery,  the  piece  in  the 
interior  of  a  gun-lock,  which  covers  and 
holds  in  place  the  tumbler  and  sear,  being 
itself  held  by  the  screws  on  which  they  turn. 

Bridle,  Arm  Protect.  The  term  for  a 
guard  used  by  the  cavalry,  which  consists 
in  having  the  sword-hilt  above  the  hel- 
met, the  blade  crossing  the  back  of  the 
head,  with  the  point  of  the  left  shoulder, 
and  the  bridle-arm  ;  its  edge  directed  to  the 
left  and  turned  a  little  upwards,  in  order  to 
bring  the  mounting  in  a  proper  direction  to 
protect  the  hand. 

Bridoon.  The  snafile  rein  of  a  military 
bridle,  which  acts  independently  of  the  bit, 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  rider. 

Brieg.  A  town  of  Silesia,  Prussia,  about 
27  miles  from  Breslau ;  it  was  taken  by 
Frederick  II.,  April  4,  1741;  dismantled 
by  the  French  in  1807. 

Briel,  Brielle,  or  The  Brill.  A  fortified 
seaport  town  on  the  north  side  of  the  island 
of  Voorne,  Holland.  It  was  the  nucleus  of 
the  Dutch  republic,  having  been  taken  from 
the  Spaniards  by  William  de  la  Marck  in 
1572.  This  event  was  the  first  act  of  open 
hostility  to  Philip  II.,  and  paved  the  way 
to  the  complete  liberation  of  the  country 
from  a  foreign  yoke.  Briel  was  the  first 
town  of  Holland  which,  without  extraneous 
aid,  expelled  the  French  in  1813.  The  cele- 
brated admirals  De  Witt  and  Van  Tromp 
were  natives  of  this  place. 

Brienne,  or  Brienne  le  Chateau.  A  town 
of  France,  department  of  the  Aube.  It  has 
a  fine  castle,  but  it  is  chiefly  celebrated  as 
the  place  where  Napoleon  received  the  rudi- 
ments of  his  military  education,  and  where, 
in  1814,  a  bloody  battle  was  fought  between 
the  French  and  the  allied  forces  of  Russia 
and  Prussia. 

Brier  Creek.  In  Warren  Co.,  Ga.  An 
American  force  2000  strong,  under  Gen. 
Ashe,  was  defeated  on  this  creek  by  the 
English  under  Prevost,  March  4,  1779. 

Brigade.  A  body  of  troops,  whether 
cavalry,  artillery,  or  infantr}^,  or  a  mixed 
command,  consisting  of  two  or  more  regi- 
ments, under  the  command  of  a  brigadier- 
general.  Two  or  more  brigades  constitute 
a  division,  commanded  by  a  major-general ; 
two  or  more  divisions  constitute  an  army 
corps,  or  corps  d^a?-mee,  the  largest  body  of 
troops  in  the  organization  of  the  U.  S.  army. 

Brigade.  To  form  into  a  brigade,  or  into 
brigades. 

Brigade.  In  the  British  service  the  artil- 
lery is  divided  into  brigades,  which  consist 
of  seven  batteries  each,  under  the  command 
of  a  colonel.  The  Household  Brigade  is 
composed  of  the  Horse  Guards,  Life  Guards, 
and  Foot  Guards. 


BRIGADE-INSPECTOR 


75 


BRONDOLO 


Brigade-Inspector.  An  oflBcor  whoso 
duty  it  is  to  inspect  tro()j)S  in  companies 
bfl'on-  tlicy  are  mustered  into  the  service. 

Brigade-Major.  An  officer  appointed  to 
assist  tiie  <,'encral  commanding  a  brigade  in 
all  his  duties. 

Brigadier-General.  An  officer  in  rank 
next  ai)ovc  a  colond  and  below  a  major- 
general.  III.'  commands  a  brigade  ;  and  this 
officer  is  sometimes  called  simply  brigadier. 

Brigand.  A  species  of  irregular  foot 
soldiers,  frequently  mentioned  by  Froissart. 
From  their  plundering  propensities  comes 
the  modern  use  of  the  term. 

Brigandine,  or  Brigantine.  A  coat  of 
mail,  consisting  of  thin,  jointed  scales  of 
plate,  pliant  and  easy  to  the  body. 

Brigantes.  The 'most  powerful  of  the 
British  tribes,  inhabited  the  whole  of  the 
north  of  the  island  from  the  Abus  (now 
Hutnber)  to  the  Roman  wall,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  southeast  corner  of  Yorkshire. 
They  were  conquered  by  Petilius  Cerealis  in 
the  'reign  of  Vespasian.  There  was  also  a 
tribe  of  this  name  in  the  south  of  Ireland. 

Brignais  (anc.  Priscinniacum).  An  an- 
cient fortress  in  France,  department  of  the 
Rhone;  it  was  captured  in  1361  by  bodies 
of  adventurers,  called  Grandes  Compngnies. 
Prince  Jacques  de  Bourbon  made  an  etfort 
to  dislodge  them,  but' was  completely  de- 
feated, and  died  of  wounds  received  upon 
this  occasion. 

Brihuega.  A  town  of  New  Castile,  Spain  ; 
it  was  formerly  surrounded  by  walls,  of 
which  traces  still  exist.  Here,  in  1710, 
during  the  War  of  the  Succession,  the  Eng- 
lish general  Stanhope,  owing  to  the  dilatori- 
ness  of  his  allies  in  aflbrding  him  support, 
was  defeated  by  the  Duke  of  Vendome,  and 
compelled  to  surrender  with  all  his  force, 
amounting  to  about  5500  men. 

Brindisi  (anc.  Brumlisiiun).  A  fortified 
seaport  of  Italy,  on  a  small  bay  of  the  Adri- 
atic ;  it  was  the  usual  place  of  embarkation 
for  Greece  and  the  East;  taken  by  the  Ro- 
mans from  the  Sallentines  in  2(17  u  c,  and 
was  afterwards  the  principal  naval  station 
of  the  Romans  on  the  Adriatic.  During  the 
civil  war  between  Caesar  and  Pompey,  this 
place  was  invested  by  Ciesar  in  49  u.c. 

Brins  d'Est  (/•>.).  Large  sticks  or  poles 
rescmiiliiii^  small  pickets,  with  iron  at  each 
eiul.  They  were  used  to  cross  ditches,  par- 
ticularly in  Flanders. 

Brise-mur  (Fr.).  A  heavy  piece  of  ord- 
nance which  was  used  during  the  15th  cen- 
tury to  batter  down  walls,  etc. 

Brissarthe.  A  village  of  France,  depart- 
ment of  Maine-et-Loire.  Here  the  Nor- 
mans were  defeated  in  886  by  Robert  the 
Strong. 

Bristol  (West  England).  Built  by  B'on- 
nus.  a  British  prince,  ;i8U  n.c.  ;  is  mentioned 
in  430  as  a  fortitied  city  ;  taken  by  the  Earl 
of  Gloucester  in  his  defense  of  his  sister 
!Maud,  the  empress,  against  King  Stephen, 
11:^^;  taken  by  Prince  Rupert,  1043 ;  by 
Cromwell.  ll)4o. 


Brisure.  In  fortification,  any  part  of  a 
rampart  or  parapet  which  deviates  from  the 
general  directi<jn. 

Britain  (called  by  the  Romans  Britannia, 
from  the  Celtic  name  Prydhain).  The  Celts, 
the  ancestors  of  the  Britons  and  modern 
Welsh,  were  the  first  inhabitants  of  Britain  ; 
it  is  referred  to  by  Herodotus,  4')0  B.C.  ;  in- 
vaded by  Julius  Cicsar,  5.5-54  H.c.  ;  Aulus 
Plautus  and  Vespasian  reduced  South 
Britain,  47.  Romans  defeated  by  Boadi- 
cea  ;  70,000  slain,  and  London  burnt;  she 
is  defeated  by  Suetonius  ;  80,000  slain,  61. 
Agricola,  governor,  conquers  Anglesea,  and 
overruns  Britain  in  seven  campaigns,  and 
reforms  the  government,  78-84.  He  defeats 
the  Caledonians  under  Galgacus  ;  surrenders 
the  island,  84.  The  Romans  held  sway  in 
Britain  down  to  about  420,  soon  after  which 
time  the  Saxons  invaded  South  Britain,  and 
ultimately  subdued  it.  It  was  merged  into 
the  kingdom  of  England  about  829.  See 
England. 

Britain,  Great.  The  name  given  in  1004 
to  E/ifi/nnd,    Wdles,  and  Scotland. 

Briteste.  A  small  town  of  France,  in  the 
old  province  of  Guienne;  besieged  by  the 
Duke  of  Vendome  in  1622,  who  was  com- 
pelled to  retreat,  without  accomplishing  his 
object,  after  firing  2000  shots;  he  made  five 
assaults  and  lost  1500  men. 

British  Legion.  Raised  by  Lord  John 
Hay,  Colonel  De  Lacy  Evans,  and  others,  to 
assist  the  queen  of  Spain  against  the  Carlists 
in  1835;  defeated  them  at  Uernani,  May  5, 
183t),  and  at  St.  Sebastian's,  October  1. 

Brittany,  or  Bretagne  ( North  west  France). 
The  ancient  Arnwrica.  Conquered  by  Julius 
Cajsar,  56  B.C.  Brittany  was  formerly  united 
to  the  monarchy,  1532;  held  by  the  Span- 
iards, 1.591  ;  recovered  by  Henry  IV.,  1594. 
The  Bretons  took  part  in  the  Vendean  in- 
surrection in  1791. 

Brixham.  A  seaport  town  in  the  county 
of  Devon,  England.  Here  William  III. 
(of  Orange)  landed  in  England  on  Novem- 
ber 6,  ir..s8. 

Brizure,  Brize,  or  Bris6.  Terms  used  in 
heraldry  to  indicate  that  a  charge  is  bruised 
or  broken. 

Broad-axe.  A  military  weapon  used  in 
ancient  times. 

Broadsword.  Is  n  sword  with  a  broad 
blade,  for  cutting  only,  not  forstabbing,  and 
therefore  not  sharp  at  the  point  like  a  sabre. 

Broadwell  Ring.  A  gas-check  for  use  in 
heavy  breech-loading  guns,  invented  by  L. 
W.  Broadwell.     See  Brkech  Mkciiani.sm. 

Brod  (Slavonian).  A  military  frontier 
fortress  of  Austria,  on  the  Save,  defended 
by  a  fort.  Here  Ziska  defeated  the  emperor 
Sigismund  in  1422. 

Broke.  Sentence  of  a  court-martial  de- 
priving an  officer  of  his  commission,  or  a 
non-commissioned  officer  or  warrant-officer 
of  his  warrant.  Also  said  of  a  non-com- 
missioned officer  being  reduced  by  order. 

Brondolo.  A  fortified  village  of  North- 
ern   Italv,   on    the    Brenta-Nuova ;    it    was 


BKONI 


76 


BUCCELLAKII 


formerly  a  flourishing  town ;  destroyed  by 
the  Genoese  in  1880. 

Broni.  A  town  of  Redmont,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Alessandria,  about  11  miles  southeast 
of  Pavia.  In  its  vicinity  is  the  castle  of 
Broni,  celebrated  in  history  as  the  place 
where  Prince  Eugene  obtained  a  victory 
over  the  French  in  1703. 

Bronnitza.  A  town  of  Russia,  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Novgorod,  on  the  Masta.  Here 
the  Swedes  defeated  the  Russians  in  1614. 

Bronze.  See  Okdnance,  Metals  for, 
Bronze. 

Bronze.  Gun-barrels  are  bronzed  by  act- 
ing upon  them  with  the  chloride  or  butter  of 
antimony,  or  with  hydrochloric  or  nitric 
acids,  when  the  surface  of  the  iron  gets  par- 
tially eaten  into,  and  covered  with  a  thin 
film  of  oxide,  after  which  the  gun-barrel  is 
thoroughly  cleaned,  oiled,  and  burnished. 
A  brownish  shade  is  thus  communicated  to 
the  barrel,  which  protects  it  from  rust,  and 
at  the  same  time  renders  it  less  conspicuous 
to  an  enemy. 

Brooke  Gun.  See  Ordnance,  Construc- 
tion or. 

Brooklyn.  A  city  and  seaport  of  the 
United  States,  at  the  extremity  of  Long 
Island,  opposite  New  York  City.  In  177(3 
this  part  of  Long  Island  was  one  of  the 
principal  localities  of  the  war  of  independ- 
ence. Here  on  August  27,  1776,  was  fought 
the  first  great  battle  of  the  Revolutionary 
war  after  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
The  American  army  occupied  Manhattan, 
Governor's,  and  Long  Islands,  a  large  force 
being  placed  by  Washington  under  the  com- 
mand of  Gen.  Greene  in  a  fortified  camp 
extending  from  Wallabout  Bay  to  Gowanus 
Cove.  Unfortunately,  Gen.  Greene  was  taken 
sick,  and  four  days.before  the  battle  the  com- 
mand was  given  to  Gen.  Putnam.  On  Aug- 
ust 22  the  British  forces  under  Lord  Howe 
landed  and  encamped  at  the  western  point 
of  Long  Island.  About  midnight  on  the 
26th  the  British  attacked  the  American  left, 
and  about  daybreak  on  the  27th  the  Hes- 
sians under  Von  Heister  attacked  the  cen- 
tre, and  were  met  bravely  by  the  American 
forces  ;  but  an  important  pass  through  the 
hills  on  their  right,  called  the  Jamaica  Pass, 
being  left  unguarded,  a  select  body  of  Eng- 
lish troops  poured  through,  followed  by 
Percy  and  Cornwallis  with  the  main  army, 
and,  attacking  them  from  the  flank  and 
rear,  drove  the  patriots  in  confusion  with 
heavy  loss.  On  the  night  of  the  29th,  Wash- 
ington succeeded,  under  cover  of  a  dense 
fog,  in  withdrawing  all  his  troops  from 
Brooklyn  to  New  York,  and  finding  it  im- 
possible to  defend  that  city,  he  removed  his 
forces  to  the  heights  of  Harlem.  During 
the  civil  war  Brooklyn  was  not  surpassed 
by  any  city  in  her  zeal  for  the  cause  of  the 
Union. 

Brother  Officers.  Those  of  the  same  regi- 
ment. 

Brother  Soldier.     See  Soldier. 

Brownbill.     The  ancient  weapon  of  the 


English  foot  soldiers,  resembling  a  battle- 
axe. 

Browning.    See  Bronze. 

Bruges.  A  city  in  Belgium.  In  the  7th 
century  it  was  the  capital  of  Flanders,  and 
in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries  had  become 
almost  the  commercial  metropolis  of  the 
world.  It  suflered  much  through  an  insur- 
rection in  1488,  and  the  consequent  repres- 
sion. It  was  incorporated  with  France  in 
1794,  with  the  Netherlands  in  1814,  and 
with  Belgium  in  1830. 

Brumaire.  A  division  of  the  year  in  the 
calendar  of  the  French  Republic.  It  is  de- 
rived from  the  Latin  briuna,  "  winter,"  and 
included  the  time  from  October  23  to  No- 
vember 21.  The  celebrated  18th  Brumaire, 
which  witnessed  the  overthrow  of  the  Di- 
rectory and  the  establishment  of  the  sway  of 
Napoleon,  corresponds  with  November  9, 
1799,  of  the  Gregorian  calendar. 

Brunanburg  (supposed  by  some  to  be  near 
Ford,  Northumberland,  England).  Anlaf, 
with  an  army  of  Northmen  from  Ireland, 
and  Constantine  III.,  king  of  Scots,  landed 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Humber,  and  were  de- 
feated with  very  great  slaughter  at  Brunan- 
burg by  Athelstan  in  937. 

Brunette,  La.  An  ancient  fortress  of 
Piedmont ;  dismantled  by  the  French  in 
1798. 

Briinn.  Capital  of  Moravia.  Its  citadel 
was  blockaded  by  the  Hungarians  in  947 ; 
the  town  was  besieged  by  the  Swedes  in 
1645,  and  by  the  Prussians  in  1742;  entered 
by  the  French  under  Murat,  November  18, 
1805,  and  by  the  Prussians,  July  13,  1866.    • 

Brunswick.  A  city  of  Germany,  the 
capital  of  a  duchy  of  the  same  name.  It  was 
formerly  fortified;  besieged  in  1761,  and  a 
combat  took  place  under  its  walls  in  1813. 

Brunt.  The  troops  who  sustain  the  prin- 
cipal shock  of  the  enemy  in  action  are  said 
to  bear  the  brunt  of  the  battle. 

Bruttium  (now  C«7r/i)ria  Ultra).  In  South- 
ern Italy ;  the  Bruttians  and  Lucanians  de- 
feated and  slew  Alexander  of  Epirus  at  Pan- 
dosia,  326  B.C.  They  were  conquered  by 
Rome  277  B.C. 

Briix,  or  Brix.  A  town  of  Bohemia,  on 
the  river  Bila.  Here  the  Prussians  defeated 
the  Austrians  in  1759. 

Bruyeres-sous-Laon.  A  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  the  Aisne.  It  was  cap- 
tured and  pillaged  by  the  Normans  in  882  ; 
sacked  by  the  "English  in  1358  and  1373; 
Jean  de  Luxembourg  took  possession  of  it 
in  1433,  and  the  Calvinists  in  1567. 

Brzesc  Litewski.  A  fortified  town  of 
Russia,  in  the  government  of  Grodno.  Here 
the  Russians  defeated  the  Poles  in  1794. 
Tije  Poles  were  13,000  strong,  out  of  which 
500  were  taken  prisoners,  300  escaped,  and 
the  remainder  fell  on  the  field  of  battle. 

Buccellarii.  An  order  of  soldiery  under 
the  Greek  emperors,  appointed  to  guard  and 
distribute  the  ammunition  bread,  though 
authors  are  somewhat  divided  as  to  their 
oflice  and  quality. 


BUCEPHALUS 


BUFF  JEllKIX 


Bucephalus.  The  celebrated  horse  of 
Aloxaiulor  the  Great,  which  no  one  could 
ride  cxce))t  that  monarch,  and  which  is  said 
to  have  carried  Alexander  throuirh  all  his 
Indian  campaigns.  He  died  about  327  no., 
and  Alexander  built  the  cit\'  of  Bucephula, 
on  till!  Ilydaspes,  in  his  honor. 

Bucharest.  The  capital  of  AVallachia  ; 
preliminaries  of  peace  were  ratified  at  this 
place  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  May  28, 
1812.  The  subsequent  war  between  these  | 
powers  altered  many  of  the  provisions  of 
this  treaty.  Bucharest  was  occupied  by  the 
Kussians,  Turks,  and  Austrians  successively 
in  the  Crimean  war.  The  last  quitted  it  in 
l8.')i;. 

Buck  and  Ball.  A  cartridge  for  small- 
arms.     See  Cartridgk,  Bick-and-Ball. 

Buck-board.  A  simple  four-wheeled  ve- 
hicle, consisting  of  a  board  resting  on  the 
axle-trees,  forming  a  spring  seat  by  its  elas- 
ticity. 

Buckler.  A  kind  of  shield  or  piece  of  de- 
fensive armor,  anciently  used  in  war.  It  was 
oftfh  4  feet  long,  and  covered  the  whole  body. 

Buckshot.  A  small  leaden  bullet,  weigh- 
ing about  Iti")  to  the  pound. 

Buda,  or  Ofen.  A  free  city  of  the  Aus- 
trian empire,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Dan- 
ube, opposite  Pesth,  and  with  it  the  capital 
of  Hungary.  It  was  taken  by  Charlemagne 
in  79'.*;  and  sacked  bySolyman  II.  after  the 
battle  of  Mohatz,  when  the  Hungarian  king, 
Louis,  was  killed,  and  200,000  of  his  sub- 
jects carried  away  captives,  lo2(].  Buda  was 
sacked  a  second  time,  when  the  inhabitants 
were  put  to  the  sword,  and  Hungary  was  an- 
nexed to  the  Ottoman  empire,  1541.  Re- 
taken by  the  Imperialists,  under  the  Duke 
of  Lorraine,  and  the  Mohammedans  deliv- 
ered up  to  the  fury  of  the  soldiers,  1080.  It 
Butfered  much  in  1848,  and  was  entered  with- 
out resistance  by  the  Austrians,  January  5, 
1849.  Here  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph 
was  crowned  king  of  Hungary,  June  8, 1867. 
See  Rkstu. 

Buderich.  A  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia, 
on  the  lift  bank  of  the  Rhine,  opposite  We- 
sel.  Here  the  Duke  of  Lorraine  was  de- 
feated by  the  emperor  Utho  I.  It  was  taken 
bv  the  French  in  1072 ;  burned  bv  the  French 
in  1H1:{. 

Budge-barrel.  A  small  barrel  with  only- 
one  liead  ;  on  the  other  end  a  piece  of  leather 
is  nailed,  which  is  drawn  together  with  a 
etrint;,  like  a  purse.  It  is  used  for  carrying 
powder  from  the  magazine  to  the  battery,  in 
liioge  or  coast  service. 

Buena  Vista.  A  celebrated  battle-field  of 
Mexico,  situated  about  90  miles  southwest  of 
Monterey  and  7  miles  from  Saltillo,  famous 
for  the  victory  gained  there  by  an  American 
force  not  50(X)  strt>ng,  under  Gen.  Zachary 
Taylor,  over  a  Mexican  army  four  times 
their  number  under  Santa  Anna,  Februarv 
22-23,  1847.  Gen.  Taylor,  on  the  way  from 
Victoria  to  ^lonterey,  having  learned  that 
Santa  Anna  was  threatening  him  with  an 
overwheluiing  force,  decided   to   withdraw 


his  troops  from  their  camp  at  Agua  Nueva  to 
a  position  more  favorable  for  withstanding  a 
superior  force,  which  had  been  selected  a 
little  south  of  the  small  village  of  Buena 
Vista,  at  a  point  where  the  road  passed 
through  a  mountain  gorge  called  Angos- 
tura. Accordingly,  on  the  afternoon  of  Feb- 
ruary 21,  the  camp  at  Agua  Nueva  was 
broken  up,  and  Santa  Anna,  believing  the 
American  forces  were  retreating,  eagerly 
pursued  them  until  he  was  drawn  into  their 
chosen  position.  After  a  useless  summons 
to  siirrender,  on  the  afternoon  of  the  22d  the 
Mexicans  opened  the  attack  on  the  American 
left,  but  they  made  no  impression,  while  they 
suftered  severe  loss.  During  the  night  the 
Mexicans  occupied  a  position  on  the  heights 
to  the  east  of  the  American  lines  with  the 
intention  of  forcing  their  left  flank,  and  it 
was  here  that  the  fighting  commenced  on 
the  23d,  and  continued  during  the  day  with 
varying  success,  finally  resulting  in  the  re- 
pulse of  the  enemy.  Meanwhile  a  force  of 
Mexican  cavalry  had  been  detached  to  attack 
the  American  camp  at  Buena  Vista,  but  was 
gallantly  repulsed.  The  final  attack  was 
made  against  the  American  centre — where 
Gen.  Taylor  commanded  in  person — by 
Santa  Anna  himself,  with  his  entire  reserve, 
but  he  was  met  with  such  a  deadly  fire  from 
the  American  batteries  that  he  was  obliged 
to  draw  off  his  much-diminished  forces,  and 
during  the  night  he  fell  back  to  Agua 
Nueva.  The  American  loss  in  killed"  and 
wounded  was  about  700;  the  Mexicans  lost 
about  2000. 

Buenos  Ayres.  A  province  of  the  Ar- 
gentine Republic,  with  a  capital  of  the  same 
name.  A  British  fleet  and  army  took  the 
citv  with  slight  resistance,  June  27,  180<> ; 
retaken  August  12,  1800.  Gen.  "Whitelock 
and  8000  British  entered  Buenos  Ayres.  and 
were  severely  repulsed,  July  5,  1807;  inde- 
pendence of  the  province  declared  July  10, 
1810;  a  prey  to  civil  war  for  many  years. 
It  seceded  from  the  Argentine  Republic  in 
18')3,  and  was  reunited  to  it  in  June.  1800. 

Buffalo.  See  Pack  and  Draught  Ani- 
mals. 

Buffalora.  A  town  of  Italy,  on  the  river 
Ticino.  In  its  environs  in  1030,  the  French 
and  Spanish  armies  met  in  combat,  in  which 
the  former  were  victorious.  There  is  a 
bridge  at  this  place  crossing  the  Ticino,  over 
which  a  division  of  the  invading  army  of 
Austria  marched,  April-2!1,  18.V.).  This  was 
the  first  act  of  overt  hostility  in  the  war  be- 
tween Austria  and  Sardinia. 

Buff  Coat.  A  close  military  outer  gar- 
ment, with  short  sleeves,  and  laced  tightly 
over  the  chest,  made  of  buftahvskin,  or  other 
thick  and  elastic  material,  worn  by  soldiers 
in  the  17th  century  a.s  a  defensive  covering. 

Buffer,  Pneumatic.    See  AiR  CYL1NDKR8. 

Buffers.     .S'c  Hirter. 

Buff  Jerkin.  Originally  a  leathern  waist- 
coat ;  afterwards  one  of  a  bufl*  color,  worn 
as  an  article  of  dress  by  sergeants  and  catch- 
poles  ;  used  also  as  a  dress. 


BUFF   LEATHER 


78 


BULLETS 


Buff  Leather.  A  sort  of  leather  pre- 
pared from  the  butlalo,  which,  dressed  with 
oil,  makes  what  is  generally  called  buff-skin. 
In  European  armies,  troopers'  breeches, 
shoulder-belts,  and  sword-belts  are  made  of 
this  leather. 

Buff  Stick.  A  wooden  stick  covered  with 
buff  leather,  used  by  soldiers  in  cleaning 
their  equipments. 

Bugle-horn,  or  Bugle.  The  old  Saxon 
horn,  now  used  by  all  infantry  regiments. 
By  its  soundings  their  manoeuvres  are  di- 
rected, either  in  advancing,  skirmishing,  or 
retreating. 

Bugler.     One  who  plays  a  bugle. 

Built-up  Guns.     See  Ordnance. 

Bukors.  Kettle-drums  of  the  Swedish 
cavalry. 

Bulgaria.  Anciently  Mcesia,  now  part  of 
European  Turkey.  The  Bulgarians  were  a 
Slavonian  tribe,  who  harassed  the  Eastern 
empire  and  Italy  from  499  to  678,  when  they 
established  a  kingdom.  They  defeated  Jus- 
tinian II.,  687;  but  were  subdued,  after 
several  conflicts,  by  the  emperor  Basil  in 
1018.  After  defeating  them  in  1014,  having 
taken  15,000  Bulgarian  prisoners,  he  caused 
their  eyes  to  be  put  out,  leaving  one  eye 
only  to  every  hundredth  man,  to  enable  him 
to  conduct  his  countrymen  home.  The  king- 
dom was  re-established  in  1086 ;  but  after 
many  changes,  was  annexed  to  the  Ottoman 
empire,  1396. 

Bull.  A  fort  which  the  English  possessed 
in  Canada,  and  which  constituted  one  of 
their  military  depots  ;  it  was  captured  by  the 
French,  March  27,  1756. 

Bulletin.  A  brief  statement  of  facts  re- 
specting some  passing  events,  as  military 
operations,  etc. 

Bullet-mold.  An  implement  containing 
a. cavity  of  the  proper  shape  into  which  lead 
is  poured  to  fofin  a  bullet. 

Bullet-proof.  Capable  of  resisting  the 
force  of  a  bullet. 

Bullets.  Are  projectiles  of  lead  to,  be  dis- 
charged from  various  kinds  of  small-arms. 
The  first  bullets  used  were  round,  and  were 
designated  by  the  number  weighing  one 
pound.  The  sizes  employed  were  very  large. 
T^ntil  quite  recently  the  round  ball  still  held 
its  place  with  rifles  and  smooth-bores.  Va- 
riovis  devices  were  used  for  making  it  take 
the  grooves  of  the  rifle, — a  guard-patch  be- 
ing among  the  best.  (See  Small-arms.)  It 
was  with  this  that  the  early  settlers  of  Amer- 
ica won  their  reputation  as  marksmen. 
Robins,  in  1742,  showed  the  superiority  of 
the  conical  form,  but  it  was  not  till  about 
1840  that  round  balls  were  generally  dis- 
carded. The  conical  bullet  was  often  used 
in  grooves  with  an  increasing  twist,  and  gave 
wonderfully  accurate  results  at  short  range. 
For  long  ranges,  long  bullets  are  necessary, 
and  these  require  uniform  twists,  which  are 
now  generally  used  in  military  arms.  Va- 
rious forms  of  the  elongated  bullets  were 
used.  Most  of  these  bullets  had  an  expan- 
sive  base,  either    hollow  or  plugged  with 


wood  ;  the  design  being  to  force  the  soft  lead 
outward,  so  as  to  cause  it  to  fit  the  grooves 
of  the  rifle,  and  thus  give  the  bullet  a  rota- 
tion around  its  long  axis  during  the  motion 
forward.  (See  Small-arms.)  This  rotation, 
as  is  well  known,  increases  the  range  and 
precision.  Bullets  were  formerly  cast,  but 
now  they  are  more  frequently  stamped  in 
steel  dies,  and,  as  in  breech-loading  arms, 
the  bullet  takes  the  grooves  by  compression  ; 
the  exploding  base  is  omitted.  The  form  of 
bullet  now  used  in  military  arms  is  the  cyl- 
indrical conoidal.  The  tendency  recently 
has  been  to  reduce  the  caliber.  (See  Prcjec- 
tiles.)  Copper  bullets  are  used  by  the  Cir- 
cassians. Bullets  of  stone  were  used  in  1514 ; 
iron  ones  are  mentioned  in  the  Foalera, 
1550,  and  leaden  ones  were  made  before  the 
close  of  the  16th  century. 

Bullets,  Explosive.  Oblong  bullets  car- 
rying a  percussion-cap  on  the  front  end  and 
sometimes  containing  a  small  charge  of  pow- 
der in  a  cavity,  used  to  blow  up  caissons  and 
magazines.  There  is  a  strong  sentiment 
against  the  use  of  these  bullets  in  firing  at 
troops. 

Bullets,  Express-.  An  explosive  bullet 
of  great  killing  power,  used  in  hunting 
large  game.  It  is  of  large  caliber  but  quite 
light,  being  much  shorter  than  the  ordinary 
rifle-bullet.  A  cylindrical  cavity  bored  in 
at  the  point  carries  a  small  metallic  cartridge- 
case  filled  with  powder.  It  is  fired  with  a 
large  charge  of  powder,  which,  owing  to  its 
lack  of  weight,  gives  it  a  high  initial  ve- 
ocity  and  a  very  flat  trajectory  up  to  about 
200  yards,  obviating  the  necessity  for  an 
elevating  sight.  The  Winchester  E.vpress- 
bullet  (a  good  type  of  those  made  in  Amer- 
ica) has  a  caliber  of  .50,  weighs  300  grains, 
and  is  fired  with  95  grains  of  powder,  giving 
an  initial  velocity  of  1640  feet.  It  is  made 
of  pure  lead,  the  softness  of  which  increases 
its  deadliness.  The  shock  from  this  bullet 
will  bring  down  the  largest  game.  See 
Express-Rifle. 

Bullets,  Grooved.  Bullets  having  grooves, 
or  cannelures.  These  grooves  were  originally 
used  to  increase  the  relative  resistance  of  the 
air  on  the  7-ear  of  the  bullet,  thus  assisting 
the  rotation  in  keeping  the  point  to  the  front. 
In  muzzle-loading  arms  they  also  increased 
the  setting  up  of  the  bullet  to  take  the  grooves. 
They  are  now  used  to  hold  the  lubricant, 
and  to  facilitate  the  swaging  action  of  the 
grooves  and  lands  in  breech-loading  guns. 
For  the  other  form  of  modern  bullets,  see 
Bullets,  Patched. 

Bullets,  Patched.  One  of  the  forms  of 
modern  rifle-bullets.  The  bullet  has  wrapped 
around  its  cylindrical  portion  a  layer  of  thin 
paper  called  the  patch.  The  bullet  is  per- 
fectly smooth.  The  other  form  has  grooves, 
or  cannelures.  (See  Bullets,  Grooved.) 
The  lubricant  for  the  patched  bullet  is  a 
greased  wad  or  disk  of  wax,  placed  between 
powder  and  bullet.  The  grooved  buJIet.,  car- 
rying its  own  lubricant,  is  best  adapted  to 
shallow  lands  and   grooves.      The  piatched 


BULLETS 


79 


BURNING 


bullet  to  sharp  lands.  The  grooved  bullet 
would  seem  to  be  the  best  for  military  ser- 
vice, as  the  cartridge-case  can  be  tightly 
crimped  upon  it,  making  the  case  water- 
proof. For  very  long  range  the  best  shoot- 
ing has  been  done  with  patched  bullets. 
Bullets,    Percussion-.       See    Bullet.s, 

Exi-I.llSl  VK. 

Bullock.  Sec  Pack  and  Drauout  An- 
imals. 

Bull  Run  Battles.    See  Manassas. 

Bull's-eye.  In  gunnery  and  archery,  is 
the  centre  of  a  target. 

Bulwark.  In  fortification,  a  rampart  or 
bastion  ;  an  outwork  for  defense  ;  that  which 
secures  against  an  enemy;  a  shelter  or 
means  of  protection. 

Bunker  Hill.  A  hill  in  Charlcstown,  now 
part  ()f  Mdston,  Mass.,  whicli  gave  its  name 
to  the  first  im])ortant  battle  of  the  American 
Kevolution.  The  Americans  learning  that 
Gen.  Gage,  who  was  in  command  of  the 
British  forces  in  Boston,  intended  to  fortify 
Bunker  Hill,  determined  to  forestall  his 
design,  and  for  this  purpose  a  detachment 
of  1000  men  under  Col.  Prescott  was  ordered 
on  the  night  of  June  16,  1775,  to  tlirow  up 
a  breastwork  on  the  hill.  After  a  consulta- 
tion, however,  it  was  decided  to  fortify  in- 
stead another  eminence  which  was  nearer 
to  Boston,  known  as  Breed's  Hill.  During 
the  night  they  worked  with  such  activity  that 
by  daybreak  a  strong  redoubt  was  nearly 
completed.  Upon  its  discovery  by  the 
Britisli  on  the  morning  of  the  17th,  they 
opened  fire  on  it  from  the  ships  in  the  har- 
bor, and  Gen.  Gage  sent  about  3000  men 
under  Howe  and  Pigot  to  attack  it.  They 
landed  under  cover  of  tlie  fire  from  the 
guns,  and  setting  fire  to  Charlcstown,  ad- 
vanced to  the  attack.  The  Americans 
awaited  their  approach  in  silence  until  the 
whites  of  their  eyes  could  be  seen,  then 
poured  a  deadly  fire  into  their  ranks,  caus- 
ing them  to  retreat  in  disorder.  They 
were  rallied  by  Howe,  and  again  advanced 
over  the  same  ground  with  a  like  result  as 
on  the  first  attack.  Clinton  now  arrived 
with  reinforcements,  and  an  attack  was 
made  on  three  sides  of  the  redoubt  at  once. 
The  ammunition  of  the  Americans  being 
now  exhausted  they  met  their  assailants 
with  chililu'd  muskets,  but  the  superiority 
of  the  British  in  numbers  being  so  great, 
Col.  Prescott  ordered  a  retreat.  This  was 
effected  across  Charlcstown  Neck,  where 
they  were  e.\posed  to  a  galling  fire  from  the 
ships  in  the  harbor.  During  the  retreat 
Gen.  Warren  was  killed,  and  the  Bunker 
Hill  monument  erected  to  commemorate 
this  engagement  now  stands  near  the  spot 
whtre  iie'fell.  The  British  lo.ss  was  over 
1000  killed  and  wounded ;  the  Americans 
lost  less  than  half  that  number. 

Bureaux.  See  Militarv  Departments 
throughout  this  work  unier  appropriate 
headings. 

Buren.  A  town  of  Switzerland,  canton 
of  Berne.     It  was  the  scene  of  several  com- 


bats. The  S|)aniards  under  Gilles  de  Barlc- 
mont  took  possession  of  it  in  1575. 

Burford,  A  town  in  the  county  of  Ox- 
ford, England.  It  is  celebrated  for  a  battle 
fought  between  Cuthred,  king  of  the  West 
Saxons,  and  Ethelbald,  kingof  the  Mercians  ; 
and  for  a  victory  by  Fairfax  in  lf;49  over 
the  army  of  Charles  I.  at  Edgehill,  in  its 
vicinity. 

Burganet,  or  Burgonet.  A  kind  of  hel- 
met used  by  the  French. 

Burgos.  A  city  of  Spain,  capital  of  the 
new  province  of  the  same  name,  was  founded 
in  844;  sacked  by  the  French  in  1808;  in 
1812  the  castle  was  four  times  unsuccessfully 
besieged  by  AVellington,  who,  however,  took 
it  in  the  following  year,  when  the  French 
blew  it  up,  as  well  as  the  fortifications. 

Burguete.  A  town  of  Navarro,  .Spain. 
Here  the  army  of  Charlemagne  was  defeated 
in  778. 

Burgundy.  A  large  province  in  France, 
derives  its  name  from  the  Burgundians, 
a  Gothic  tribe  who  overran  Gaul  in  275,  but 
were  driven  out  by  the  Empemr  Probus ; 
they  returned  in  287,  and  were  defeated  by 
Maximin.  In  413  they  established  a  king- 
dom, comprising  the  ))resent  Burgundy, 
large  parts  of  Switzerland,  with  Alsace, 
Savoy,  Provence,  etc.,  Gondicaire,  their 
leader,  the  first  king.  It  was  concpiered  by 
the  Franks,  534.     Annexed  to  France,  1477. 

Burhampoor.  A  town  of  Hindostan,  in 
the  jirovince  of  Bengal.  It  is  one  of  the 
military  stations  of  the  British  government ; 
and  the  cantonments,  consisting  of  a  grand 
square  inclosing  a  fine  parade  ground,  com- 
mand the  notice  of  the  traveler.  It  was 
captured  by  the  English  troops  under  Col. 
Stevenson  in  1803. 

Burial  Honors.     See  Funeral  Honors. 

Burich.  A  small  town  in  the  circle  of 
Lower  Rhino;  its  fortifications  were  burned 
by  the  French  in  1G72. 

Burkersdorf.  A  village  of  Austria,  where 
a  combat  took  place  between  the  Prussians 
and  Austrians,  July  21,  1762,  in  which  the 
former  were  victorious. 

Burley.     The  butt  end  of  a  lance. 

Burlington  Heights,  Hero  a  fierce  con- 
test took  jilace  between  the  British  and  the 
U.  S.  forces,  Juno  6,  1813.  The  British 
carried  the  heights. 

Burmah,  Burma,  or  Birmah.  Also  called 
the  Burmese  omjiire,  or  kingdom  of  Ava, 
formerly  the  most  extensive  and  powerful 
state  in  Farther  India.  The  most  cele- 
brated ruler  of  the  country  was  Alompra, 
the  founder  of  tho  present  dynasty,  who 
reigned  about  the  middle  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury. The  Burmese  became  involved  in  a 
war  with  the  English  1824-26,  which  termi- 
nated in  tho  curtailment  of  their  power  and 
the  loss  of  several  provinces. 

Burning,  Quickness  of.  The  relative 
quickness  of  two  ditlbrent  powders  may  be 
aetermined  by  burning  a  train  laid  in  a  cir- 
cular or  other  groove  which  returns  into 
itself,  one-half  of  the  groove  being  filled  with 


BURNISH 


80 


BYZANTIUM 


each  kind  of  powder,  and  fire  communicated 
at  one  of  the  points  of  meeting  of  the  two 
trains ;  the  rehitive  quickness  is  readily 
deduced  from  observation  of  the  point  at 
which  the  flames  meet. 

Burnish.  In  a  military  sense,  is  to  give 
a  peculiar  lustre  to  a  gun-barrel  or  other 
part  of  a  rifle  by  rubbing  it  with  a  piece  of 
steel.  It  is  generally  forbidden  as  injurious 
to  the  gun. 

Burque  (F?-.).  A  kind  of  cuirass  which 
was  worn  with  the  brigantine. 

Burr.  In  gunnery,  a  round  iron  ring, 
which  serves  to  rivet  the  end  of  the  bolt,  so 
as  to  form  a  round  head. 

Burrel-shot.  Small  shot,  nails,  stones, 
pieces  of  old  iron,  etc.,  put  into  cases  to  be 
discharged  from  any  piece  of  ordnance. 
Very  seldom  used. 

Bursting.  The  simplest  method  of  burst- 
ing open  strong  gates  is,  to  explode  a  bag  of 
gunpowder  containing  50  or  60  pounds  sus- 
pended near  the  middle  of  the  gate  upon  a 
nail  or  gimlet,  by  means  of  a  small  piece  of 
port-fire  inserted  at  the  bottom,  and  well 
secured  with  twine. 

Busaco.  A  hamlet  in  the  province  of 
Beira,  Portugal.  Here  the  British  under 
Wellington  repulsed  an  attack  of  the 
French  under  Massena,  September  27,  1810. 
The  French  lost  about  4000  killed  and 
wounded ;  the  English  loss  did  not  exceed 
1300. 

Busby.  A  military  coiffure,  or  cap,  or 
bear-skin  ;  the  French  colbach. 

Bushiere  (on  the  Persian  Gulf ).  Attacked 
bv  sea  by  Sir  H.  Leeke,  and  by  land  by  Gen. 
Stalker,  was  taken  December  10, 1856.  The 
place  proved  stronger  than  was  expected, 
and  was  bravely  defended. 

Bushing  a  Gun.  Inserting  a  piece  of 
metal  about  an  inch  in  diameter  (near  the 
bottom  of  the  bore)  through  the  centre  of 
which  the  vent  has  been  previously  drilled. 
It  is  screwed  in.  The  object  of  bushing  a 
piece  is  to  prevent  deterioration  of  the  vent, 
or  provide  a  new  one,  when  this  has  already 
occurred.  In  bronze  pieces  pure  copper  is 
always  used  in  bushing,  as  it  is  not  so  liable 
to  run  from  heat  as  gun-metal.  Only  rifled 
and  bronze  pieces  are  bushed. 

Bushwhackers.  This  term  was  used  dur- 
ing the  civil  war  to  designate  a  class  of  men 
who  claimed  to  be  non-combatants  in  the 
presence  of  a  superior  force,  and  who,  to 
outward  appearance,  pursued  their  peaceful 
avocations,  but  who  did  not  hesitate,  when 


an  opportunity  off'ered,  to  slay  stragglers, 
and  pick  off"  soldiers  from  ambush.  When 
caught  in  the  commission  of  such  acts  they 
were  treated  with  merciless  severity. 

Buskins.  A  kind  of  shoe,  or  half-boot, 
adapted  to  either  foot,  formerly  part  of  the 
Roman  dress.  They  are  now  worn  by  some 
European  armies. 

Butin  [Fr.).  Booty  or  pillage.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  French  monarchy,  and  for 
a  long  time  after  its  establishment,  a  partic- 
ular spot  was  marked  out  by  the  prince  or 
general,  to  which  all  persons  belonging  to 
the  victorious  army  were  directed  to  bring 
every  species  of  booty  that  might  have 
fallen  into  their  hands.  This  booty  was  not 
divided,  or  appropriated  according  to  the 
will  and  pleasure  of  the  prince  or  general, 
but  was  thrown  into  dilferent  lots,  and 
drawn  for  in  common.  The  soldiers  who 
distributed  these  spoils  were  called  Bu- 
tiniers. 

Butler  Projectile.    See  Projectile. 

Butrinto.  A  fortified  maritime  town  of 
European  Turkey,  opposite  Corfu.  The 
town  and  fortress  are  of  Venetian  construc- 
tion ;  taken  by  the  French  from  the  Vene- 
tians in  1797. 

Butt.  In  gunnery,  is  a  solid  earthen  par- 
apet, to  fire  against  in  the  proving  of  guns, 
or  in  practice. 

Butt,  or  Butt-end.  That  extremity  of  a 
musket  which  rests  against  the  shoulder 
when  the  piece  is  brought  up  to  a  position 
of  firing. 

Button.  In  gunnery,  is  a  part  of  the 
cascabel,  in  either  a  gun  or  howitzer,  and 
is  the  hind  part  of  the  piece,  made  round  in 
the  form  of  a  ball. 

Buttress.  A  sustaining  wall  at  right 
angles  to  the  main  wall,  which  it  is  intended 
to  strengthen. 

Buxar.  A  town  in  Bengal  near  which, 
on  October  23,  1764,  Major,  afterwards  Sir 
Hector,  Munro  (with  857  Europeans  and 
6215  Sepoys)  gained  a  great  victory  over  the 
troops  of  the  nabob  of  Oude,  40,000  in 
number;  6000  of  these  were  killed,  and  130 
pieces  of  cannon  taken. 

Byblos.  An  ancient  town  of  Egypt,  on 
the  Delta  of  the  Nile.  Here  the  Athenians 
sustained  a  memorable  siege  against  the 
Persians,  456  B.C. 

Byrnie.     Early  English  for  body-armor. 

Byssa.  An  ancienl;  cannon  for  throwing 
stones. 

Byzantium.    See  Constantinople. 


CABAS 


81 


CAFFA 


O. 


Cabas  (Fr.).  A  basket  made  of  ruslics, 
used  in  ancient  Languedoc  and  Rousillon, 
for  tlio  jnirpose  of  conveying  stores  and  am- 
niiinitioii. 

Cabasset,  Cabacet,  or  Capacite.  A  kind 
of  helmet,  lighter  than  the  morion,  termi- 
nating in  a  rounded  top.  It  was  also 
called  Cerveliere,  because  it  only  covered 
the  upper  part  of  the  head. 

Cabeira  (Asia  Minor).  Here  Mithridates, 
king  of  Tontus,  was  defeated  by  Lucullus, 
71  ».c. 

Cabell   Court  -  house.      See   Baruours- 

VII.LK. 

Cabezon  de  la  Sal.  A  town  of  Spain,  in 
the  province  of  "S'alladolid.  It  is  celebrated 
as  the  scene  of  one  of  the  tirst  battles  of  the 
Peninsular  campaign,  in  which  the  Span- 
iards were  signally  defeated  by  the  French. 

Cabocbed,  or  Cabossed.  A  heraldic 
term  from  the  old  French  word  cahoche, 
"head."  "When  the  head  of  an  animal  is 
borne  without  any  part  of  the  neck,  and  ex- 
hibited full  in  face,  it  is  said  to  be  cnboched. 

Cabrera.  One  of  the  Balearic  Islands,  10 
miles  south  of  ^lajorca.  Celebrated  in  the 
annals  of  war  for  the  number  of  French 
prisoners  who  were  there  decimated  by  hun- 
ger, disease,  and  other  physical  and  mental 
tortures. 

Cabul,  or  Cabool.  A  city  of  Afghanistan, 
taken  by  Subuctajeen,  grandfather  of  Mo- 
hammed, founder  of  the  Gaznevide  dynasty, 
and  by  Nadir  Shah  in  1738.  In  1809,  the 
sovereign  Shah  Soojah  was  expelled  by 
Futleh^Khan  ;  and  in  1818,  Cabul  came  into 
the  hands  of  Dost  Mohammed,  a  clever  and 
ambitious  chieftain.  In  1839,  the  British 
restored  Shah  Soojah ;  but  in  November, 
1841,  a  dreadful  outbreak  took  place.  The 
British  civil  otiicer,  Sir  "William  McNaugh- 
ten,  was  massacred,  and  the  British  com- 
menced a  most  disastrous  retreat.  Of  about 
3849  soldiers,  and  about  12,000  camp-follow- 
ers, only  one  European,  Dr.  Dryden,  and 
four  or  live  natives  escaped.  In  the  same 
year  (September  lij),  General,  afterwards  Sir 
George,  Pollock  retook  the  town,  and  res- 
cued Lady  Sale  and  many  of  the  prisoners. 
After  destroying  many  public  buildings  he 
left  Cabul,  October  1'/,  1842. 

Cabule  {Fr.).  A  machine  of  war,  used 
during  the  12th  century  to  throw  stones, 
etc. 

Cache.  A  hidden  reservoir  of  provision 
(to  secure  it  from  bears)  in  Arctic  travel. 
Also,  a  deposit  of  dispatches,  etc. 

Cadence.  A  uniform  time  and  pace  in 
marching,  indispensable  to  the  correct  move- 
ments of  bodies  of  troops. 


Cadency,   Marks   of.     In   heraldry,   are 

marks  on  the  shields  of  younger  members 
of  families,  by  which  they  are  distinguished 
from  the  elder  and  from  each  other. 

Cadet,  Military  (Fr.  cadet,  "younger," 
"junior').  Is  a  youth  studying  for  the 
military  service  in  a  school  established  for 
military  training,  such  as  the  Military 
Academy  at  AV'est  Point,  N.  Y.,  the  Koyal 
Military  Academy  at  Woolwich,  England, 
the  Polytechnic  School  at  Paris,  etc.  (See 
Military  Academie.s.)  There  are  also 
medical  and  engineer  cadets,  who  are  youths 
undergoing  special  instruction  ff)r  the  public 
service  in  the  several  professions  implied  by 
their  names. 

Cadetship.  The  rank  or  commission  of  a 
cadet ;  as,  to  get  a  cadetship. 

Cadiz  (anc.  Gades).  A  fortified  mar- 
itime city  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  the 
same  name.  The  Carthaginians  became 
masters  of  Cadiz  during  the  first  Punic  war, 
but  the  Romans  obtained  possession  of  it  in 
20G  B.C.  It  was  taken  and  pillaged  by  the 
Earl  of  Essex  in  1506,  and  was  blockaded  in 
1G56  by  Admiral  Blake,  who  captured  two 
rich  galleons.  It  was  l)esicged  bv  the  French 
from  February,  1810,  until  August,  1812. 
Captured  by  the  Due  d'Angouleme,  October 
3,  1823,  and  held  till  1828;  declared  a  free 
port  in  1829. 

Cadore.  A  town  of  "\"enice,  22  miles 
northeast  from  Belluno.  This  j)lace  stands 
on  the  Piave,  and  is  distinguished  as  the 
birthplace  of  Titian.  In  1797  the  French 
obtained  a  victory  over  the  Austrians  near 
this  town. 

Caen.  A  city  of  France,  in  Normandy. 
A  place  of  importance  before  912,  when  it 
became  the  capital  of  the  possessions  of  the 
Normans,  under  whom  it  fl(jurished.  It  was 
taken  by  the  English  in  1340  and  1417;  but 
was  finally  recovered  by  the  French,  July  1, 
1450.  Here  were  buried  William  the  Con- 
queror (1087)  and  his  queen  (1083). 

Caernarvon.  A  town  in  North  Wales. 
In  the  custle  (founded  in  1283  or  1284)  Ed- 
ward II.  was  bi«rn,  April  25,  1284;  and  the 
town  was  chartered  by  Edward  I.  in  the 
same  year.  The  town  sutlered  by  the  civil 
war  of  Charles,  but  was  finally  retained  for 
the  Parliament. 

Caffa,  Kaffa,  or  Theodosia.  A  town  in 
Euri>pean  liussia,  in  the  Crimea,  at  the 
end  of  a  large  bay  on  the  northern  shore 
of  the  Black  Sea."  In  1770  the  Russians 
took  this  place  by  assault,  and  in  1774  it 
was  ceded  with  the  rest  of  the  Crimea  to 
the  khan  of  Tartary,  who  made  it  his  resi- 
dence. 


CAFFRAKIA 


CALCUTTA 


Caffraria,  and   Caffre   War.     See   Kaf- 

FRARIA. 

Cahors.  A  town  of  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Lot.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  capital  of  the  Cadurca,  before  the 
conquest  of  Gaul.  It  was  captured  by  as- 
sault in  1580,  by  Henry  IV. 

Caic.     See  Caique. 

Caiffa.     See  Kaiffa. 

Cai-fong.  In  China,  capital  of  Honan, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Hoang-ho.  It  was 
besieged  by  100,000  rebels  in  1G42.  The  com- 
mander of  the  relieving  forces,  in  order  to 
drown  the  enemy,  broke  down  the  embank- 
ments of  the  river.  It  is  said  all  the  be- 
siegers and  300,000  of  the  citizens  perished. 

Cairo,  or  Grand  Cairo.  The  modern 
capital  of  Egypt,  partially  built  by  the  Sara- 
cens in  969  ;  it  is  surrounded  by  stone  walls 
which  are  surmounted  with  antique  battle- 
ments ;  taken  by  the  Turks  from  the  Egyp- 
tian sultans,  1517 ;  taken  by  the  French 
under  Napoleon  Bonaparte;  they  entered 
the  city  July  23,  1798 ;  captured  by  the 
British  and  Turks,  when  6000  French  capitu- 
lated, June  27,  1801 ;  massacre  of  the  Mame- 
lukes, March  1,  1811. 

Caisson.  In  gunnery,  is  a  carriage  used 
for  conveying  ammunition  for  a  field  bat- 
tery. It  is  a  four-wheeled  carriage,  consist- 
ing of  two  parts,  one  of  which  is  a  limber 
similar  to  that  of  a  gun-carriage,  and  con- 
nected in  a  similar  way  by  a  wooden  stock 
and  lunette.  On  the  axle-body  of  the  rear 
part,  and  parallel  to  the  stock,  are  placed 
three  rails  upon  which  are  fastened  two  am- 
munition-boxes, one  behind  the  other,  and 
similar  to  the  one  on  the  limber  ;  so  that  the 
caisson  has  three  ammunition-boxes,  which 
will  seat  nine  cannoneers.  The  interior 
compartments  of  the  ammunition-boxes  vary 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  ammunition 
with  which  they  are  loaded.  In  the  rear  of 
the  last  box  is  placed  a  spare  wheel-axle  of 
iron,  with  a  chain  and  toggle  at  tlie  end  of 
it.  On  the  rear  end  of  the  middle  rail  is 
placed  a  carriage-hook  similar  to  a  pintle- 
hook,  to  which  the  lunette  of  a  gun-carriage 
whose  limber  has  become  disabled  may  be 
attached,  and  the  gun  carried  off  the  field. 
The  caisson  has  the  same  turning  capacity 
and  mobility  as  the  gun-carriage,  so  that  it 
can  follow  the  piece  in  all  its  manoeuvres,  if 
necessary.  It  also  carries  a  spare  wheel, 
spare  pole,  etc.  See  Ordnance,  Carriages 
FOR,  The  Caisson. 

Cake-powder.     See  Gunpowder. 

Caking.  To  prevent  powder  caking,  the 
barrels  should  be  taken  outside  the  magazine 
and  rolled  on  boards. 

Calabozo.  A  town  of  Venezuela,  South 
America;  it  was  captured  by  Bolivar,  1820. 

Calabria  (anc.  Messapia).  A  region  of 
Southern  Italy ;  it  was  conquered  by  the 
Romans  266  B.C.  It  formed  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  the  Ostrogoths  under  Theo- 
doric,  493  ;  was  reconquered  (for  the  Eastern 
empire)  by  Belisarius,  536 ;  subdued  by  the 
Lombards  and  joined  the  duchy  of  Bene- 


vento,  572.  After  various  changes,  it  was 
conquered  by  liobert  Guiscard,  the  Nor- 
man, 1058. 

Calabuss.  An  early  kind  of  light  mus- 
ket with  a  wheel-lock.  Bourne  mentions  it 
in  1578. 

Calagurris  (now  Calahorra,  Spain).  A 
town  of  the  Vascones  and  a  Roman  munici- 
pium  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  near  the 
Iberus  (Ebro),  memorable  for  its  adherence 
to  Sertorius  and  for  its  siege  by  Pompey  and 
his  generals  (78  B.C.),  in  the  course  of  which 
mothers  killed  and  salted  their  children. 

Calais.  A  fortified  seaport  town  of  France, 
department  of  Pas-de-Calais,  on  the  Strait 
of  Dover.  The  town  and  harbor  are  defended 
by  a  castle  and  several  forts,  and  can  be  ren- 
dered inaccessible  by  land  by  flooding  the 
adjacent  ground,  which  is  low  and  marshy. 
It  was  taken  by  Edward  III.  after  a  year's 
siege  in  August,  1347 ;  retaken  by  the  Duke 
of  Guise,  January,  1558.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Spaniards,  April,  1596;  restored,  1598. 
Louis  XVIII.  landed  here  in  1814,  after  his 
exile. 

Calasiries,  or  Calosires.  One  of  the  two 
divisions  (the  other  being  the  Hermotybii) 
of  the  warrior-caste  of  Egypt.  Their  great- 
est strength  was  250,000  men,  and  their  chief 
abode  in  the  western  part  of  the  Delta.  They 
formed  the  king's  body-guard. 

Calatafimi.  A  town  of  Sicily,  province 
of  Trapani.  Here,  in  May,  1860,  Garibaldi 
defeated  the  royalist  troops  under  Gen. 
Landi. 

Calatanazor.  A  small  town  of  Spain  in 
Old  Castile.  Here  Al-Mansoor  gained  a 
great  victory  over  the  Christians  in  1001. 

Calatayud.  A  town  of  Spain,  province 
of  Saragossa.  It  was  captured  frojn  the 
Moors  by  Alfonso  of  Aragon  in  1118  ;  taken 
from  the  descendants  of  Alfonso  by  the  king 
of  Castile  in  1362. 

Calatrava,  The  Order  of.  Was  founded 
in  1158  by  Sancho  III.  of  Castile.  For  a 
long  period  the  war  against  the  Moors  was 
carried  on  almost  entirely  by  the  knights  of 
Calatrava.  The  knights  bear  a  cross  gules, 
fleur-de-lised  with  green,  etc. 

Calcans.  The  bucklers  of  the  Turks  were 
so  called  during  the  Middle  Ages. 

Calcinato.  A  town  of  Italy,  on  the  river 
Chiese.  The  Duke  of  Vendome  here  defeated 
the  Austrians  under  Count  de  Reventlau  in 
1706. 

Calcium-light.  A  brilliant  light  produced 
by  projecting  the  oxyhydrogen  flame  upon  a 
surface  of  lime.  Called  also  the  Drummond- 
light. 

Calcutta.  Capital  of  Bengal  and  British 
India ;  the  flrst  settlement  of  the  English 
here  was  made  in  1689.  The  town  was  at- 
tacked and  taken  by  an  army  of  70,000 
horse  and  foot  and  400  elephants  (146  of  the 
British  were  crammed  into  the  "  Black-Hole 
prison,"  a  dungeon  about  16  feet  square, 
from  whence  23  only  came  forth  alive  next 
day),  June  20,  1756;  it  was  retaken  byClive, 
January  2, 1757. 


CALDIERO 


83 


CAMBRAI 


Caldiero.  A  village  of  Northern  Italy. 
Here,  just  before  t lie  battle  of  Areola,  the 
French  under  JJapoleon  I.  were  repulsed  by 
the  Austrians  under  Alvinzl  in  1790,  and  in 
1805  were  beaten  under  Massena  by  the 
Archduke  Charles. 

Caledonia.  The  name  given  by  the  Romans 
to  that  j)art  of  Britain  north  of  the  Wall  of 
Antoninus,  and  afterwards  applied  to  the 
whole  of  the  country  now  known  as  Scotland. 
The  inhabitants  were  called  Caledonii  until 
about  the  beginning  of  the  4th  century,  when 
they  began  to  be  spoken  of  as  Picts  and 
Scots.  In  84  they  were  defeated  under  their 
chief  Galgacus  by  the  Roman  general  Agri- 
cola,  and  a  great  part  of  the  country  was 
overrun  by  the  Romans,  who  formed  many 
encampments  there;  but  the  country  was 
never  reduced  to  a  Roman  province. 

Caliano.  A  town  of  the  Tyrol,  Austria, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Adige.  Here  the 
Venetians  were  defeated  by  the  Austrians  in 
1487. 

Caliber,  or  Calibre.  From  the  Latin  qua 
libra,  '-what  pound,"  applied  tirst  to  the 
weight  of  a  bullet,  then  to  the  diameter, 
which  determined  the  diameter  of  the  gun, 
now  signifies  the  diameter  of  the  bore  of  a 
cannon  or  any  fire-arm,  and  is  expressed  in 
inches  or  fractional  parts  of  an  inch,  as  a 
15-inch  gun  ;  a  Springfield  rifle,  caliber  .45. 
Cannon  are  sometimes  also  designated  by 
the  weight  of  metal  which  they  throw,  as  a 
24-pounder. 

Caliber-rule.  A  gunner's  calipers  ;  hav- 
ing two  scales,  to  determine  the  weight  of  a 
ball  from  its  diameter,  and  conversely. 

Calicut  (now  Kollkod).  A  town  in  South- 
western India;  the  first  Indian  port  visited 
by  Vasco  de  Gama,  May  20,  1498.  It  was 
seized  bv  Hyder  Ali,  1766,  and  taken  by  the 
English,  1790. 

California  (from  the  Spanish  Caliente  For- 
nalla,  "  hot  furnace,"  in  allusion  to  the  cli- 
mate). Was  discovered  by  Cortez  in  1537; 
others  say  Cabrillo  in  1542;  and  visited  by 
Sir  Francis  Drake,  who  named  it  New  Al- 
bion in  1579.  The  Spaniards  established 
missionary  and  military  stations  in  Califor- 
nia, 1698 ;  it  became  subject  to  Mexico  in 
1823  ;  bi'came  independent  in  1836  ;  occupied 
by  the  army  of  the  United  States  in  1846; 
ceded  to  the  United  States,  1848;  admitted 
into  the  Union  as  a  sovereign  State,  1850. 

Caligae.  A  kind  of  half-boots  worn  by 
the  I'koman  soldiers.  These  soldiers  were 
somotiini's  called  Calignil. 

Caliper-compass.  An  instrument  by 
which  the  bore  of  cannon,  small-arms,  etc., 
is  measured  ;  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
an  artificer  of  Nuremberg,  1540. 

Caliver.  A  hand-gun  or  arquebuse ;  prob- 
ably the  old  name  for  the  match-lock  or 
carabine. 

Call.  A  military  musical  term,  signifies 
a  signal  given  by  a  trumpet,  bugle,  or  drum. 

Callao.  A  fortified  seaport  of  Peru.  Lord 
Cochrane  gallantly  cut  out  the  "  Esme- 
ralda," a  Spanish  ship-of-war,  from  under 


the  guns  of  the  fort  in  1821.  Its  roadstead 
(the  best  on  the  Peruvian  coast)  was  the 
scene  of  a  combat  between  the  Spaniards  and 
the  Independents;  the  Colombians  took  it 
in  1826.  The  attempt  of  the  Spanish  admi- 
ral Nunez  to  bombard  Callao  on  May  2, 
1866,  was  defeated  by  the  Peruvians. 

Calle,  La.  A  seaport  on  the  coast  of  Al- 
geria. The  French,  who  possessed  it  before 
the  revolution  of  1789,  lost  it  during  that 
epoch  ;  again  occupied  it  in  1815,  but  lost  it 
in  1827.  It  has  been  in  the  possession  of  the 
French  since  the  conquest  of  Algeria. 

Callinger.  One  of  the  hill-forts  of  Bun- 
delcund.  From  its  position  and  size,  Cal- 
linger must  at  one  time  have  been  a  place 
of  great  strength.  It  was  stormed  by  the 
British  in  1812. 

Calmar.     See  Kalmar. 

Calones.  A  term  applied  to  menials  of 
the  Roman  armies ;  also  slaves  belonging  to 
the  Roman  soldiers,  who  followed  their  mas- 
ters to  the  wars. 

Calore.  A  river  in  Italy;  on  its  banks 
the  Romans  (composed  of  slaves),  com- 
manded by  Tiberius  (Gracchus),  defeated 
the  Carthaginian  general  Hanno  in  215. 
After  the  battle  each  Roman  (slave)  who 
could  present  the  head  of  an  enemy  slain  by 
him  was  granted  his  freedom. 

Calpee,  or  Kalpee.  A  city  of  India,  in 
Bwfidelcund,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river 
Jumna.  It  wa-s  conquered  by  the  British  in 
1803,  and  in  May,  1858,  was  captured  by 
Gen.  Rose  from  the  mutinous  >Sepoys,  it 
being  the  headquarters  of  the  Gwalior  con- 
tingent. 

Caltrop,  or  Crow's-foot.  An  instrument 
with  4  iron  points,  so  disposed  that,  three  of 
them  being  on  the  ground,  the  other  pro- 
jects upward.  They  are  scattered  on  the 
ground  where  an  enemy's  cavalry  are  to 
pass,  to  impede  their  progress  by  endanger- 
ing the  horses'  feet. 

Calumet.  A  kind  of  pipe  used  by  the 
North  American  Indians  for  smoking  to- 
bacco, having  the  bowl  usually  of  soft  red 
stone,  and  the  tube  a  long  reed  ornamented 
with  feathers.  The  calumet  is  used  as  a  sym- 
bol or  instrument  of  peace.  To  accept  the 
calumet  is  to  agree  to  the  terms  of  peace, 
and  to  refuse  it  is  to  reject  them.  The  calu- 
met is  used  to  seal  or  ratify  contracts  and 
alliances,  and  to  receive  strangers  kindly. 

Calvi.  A  seaport  on  the  island  of  Cor- 
sica, situated  on  a  peninsula  in  the  (Julf  of 
Calvi.  It  is  strongly  fortified  and  has  a 
good  port.  It  was  captured  by  the  English 
in  1794,  after  a  siege  of  51  days. 

Calvi.  A  decayed  town  of  Naples.  Here 
the  French  gained  a  victory  over  the  Nea- 
politans, December  9,  1798. 

Cam.  A  river  in  England.  On  its  banks 
was  fought  a  battle  between  the  Saxons  and 
Danes  during  the  reign  of  Edward  I. 

Camail.  Ancient  armor,  consisting  of  a 
guard  for  the  throat  made  of  chain-mail 
ci>ming  down  from  the  helmet. 

Cambrai,  or  Cambray.     A  fortified  city 


CAMBRIA 


84 


CAMP-GUARD 


of  France,  department  of  the  North.  It  was 
fortified  by  the  Romans  ;  besieged  and  cap- 
tured bv  Childebert  in  535;  taken  bv  Ed- 
ward III.,  king  of  England,  in  1337;  in 
1544  by  Charles  V. ;  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1595  ;  captured  by  the  French  and  annexed, 
1667  ;  taken  by  Clairfait,  the  Austrian  gen- 
eral, on  September  10,  1798.  The  French 
were  defeated  at  Caesar's  camp,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, by  the  allied  army  under  the  Duke  of 
York,  April  24,  1794.  Cambray  was  seized 
by  the  British  under  Sir  Charles  Colville, 
June  24,  1815.  Several  important  treaties 
were  entered  into  at  this  place. 

Cambria.     See  Wales. 

Cambridge.  The  Roman  Camboricum  and 
the  Saxon  Granta ;  a  town  of  England,  in 
Cambridgeshire.  It  was  burned  by  the 
Danes  in  870  and  1010.  Roger  de  Mont- 
gomery destroyed  it  with  fire  and  sword,  to 
be  revenged  of  King  William  Rufus.  Dur- 
ing Wat  Tyler's  and  Jack  Straw's  rebellion, 
the  rebels  entered  the  town,  seized  the  Uni- 
versity records  and  burned  them  in  the  mar- 
ket-place, 1381. 

Cambuskenneth  (Central  Scotland).  Here 
Wallace  defeated  the  English  under  War- 
renne  and  Cressingham,  September  10,  1297. 

Camden.  A  village  in  Kershaw  Co.,  S  C. 
Gen.   Gates  was  defeated   here  August  16, 

1780,  by   Lord    Cornwallis,    and  April  25, 

1781,  Gen  Greene  was  here  defeated  by 
Lord  Rawdon.  During  the  civil  war  this 
place  was  captured,  February  24,  1865,  by 
the  Federal  forces  under  Gen.  Sherman,  and 
the  bridge  over  the  Wateree,  the  railroad 
depot,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  stores, 
etc.,  burned  by  the  15th  Corps. 

Camel.  See  Pack  and  Draught  Ani- 
mals. 

Camelford.  A  town  of  England,  in  Corn- 
wall. It  was  the  scene  of  a  famous  battle 
between  King  Arthur  and  his  nephew  Mo- 
dred  in  543,  in  which  the  former  was  vic- 
torious. The  West  Saxons,  under  Egbert, 
had  a  battle  with  the  Britons  here  in  823. 

Cameron  Highlanders.  The  designation 
given  to  the  79th  Regiment  of  Infantry  in 
the  British  service,  in  consequence  of  the 
corps  having  been  raised  by  Allan  Cameron 
of  Errooh  in  1793.  This  gallant  regiment, 
which  wears  the  Highland  garb,  performed 
distinguished  services  in  the  Peninsula  and 
at  Waterloo,  and  has  been  engaged  in  the 
principal  warlike  struggles  of  more  recent 
times. 

Camisado.  A  shirt  formerly  worn  by 
soldiers  over  their  uniform,  in  order  to  be 
able  to  recognize  one  another  in  the  dark- 
ness, in  a  night  attack. 

Camisado.  An  attack  by  surprise  at 
night,  or  at  break  of  day,  when  the  enemy 
is  supposed  to  be  in  bed,  by  soldiers  wearing 
the  camisado. 

Camouflet  (Fr.).  A  small  mine  contain- 
ing about  10  pounds  of  powder,  sufficient  to 
compress  the  earth  all  around  it  without  dis- 
turbing the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is 
sometimes  formed  in  the  wall  or  side  of  an 


enemy's  gallery,  to  blow  in  the  earth  and 
cut  off  the  retreat  of  the  miner. 

Camp.  From  the  Latin  word  campus,  a 
"  plain"  ;  is  the  whole  extent  of  ground  cov- 
ered by  an  army  when  under  canvas.  Its 
breadth  should  not  exceed  the  line  occupied 
by  the  troops  when  drawn  out  in  order  of 
battle.  As  a  general  rule,  camps  should  be 
located  in  a  position  convenient  to  wood  and 
water,  with  the  front  close  and  well  covered, 
and  the  rear  perfectly  open. 

Campaign.  A  connected  series  of  mili- 
tary operations,  forming  a  distinct  stage  or 
step  in  a  war.  Formerly,  when  troops  kept 
the  field  only  during  the  summer  months, 
the  term  was  used  to  include  all  that  was 
done  from  the  time  an  army  took  the  field 
until  it  went  again  into  winter  quarters.  In 
modern  times,  when  no  ordinary  degree  of 
cold  is  allowed  to  arrest  military  operations, 
the  term  is  frequently  used  to  include  all 
steps  taken  to  accomplish  one  immediate 
object. 

Campaigner.  One  who  has  served  in  an 
army  several  campaigns  ;  an  old  soldier  ;  a 
veteran. 

Camp  and  Garrison  Equipage.  All  the 
tents,  fittings,  utensils,  etc.,  carried  with 
an  army,  applicable  to  the  domestic  rather 
than  to  the  warlike  wants  of  the  soldier. 
The  allowance  of  camp  and  garrison  equi- 
page to  U.  S.  troops  is  prescribed  in  general 
orders  from  the  War  Department. 

Campania  (Southern  Italy).  Was  occu- 
pied by  Hannibal  and  various  cities  declared 
in  his  favor,  216  B.C.  ;  conquered  by  the 
Romans,  213.  Its  capital  was  Capua  (which 
see). 

Camp-bedstead.  A  bedstead  made  to 
fold  up  within  a  narrow  space,  as  used  in 
war  ;  a  trestle  bedstead. 

Campbell's  Station.  A  post-village  of 
Knox  Co.,  Tenn.  Here  on  November  16, 
1863,  Gen.  Burnside,  marching  from  Knox- 
vjlle  to  meet  the  Confederate  forces  under 
Gen.  Longstreet,  was  attacked  by  them,  and 
after  several  hours'  fighting  succeeded  in  re- 
pulsing them.  Burnside  then  withdrew  to 
the  neighborhood  of  Knoxville  and  fortified 
his  position. 

Camp-boy.     A  boy  that  serves  in  camp. 

Campeachy.  A  city  of  Central  America, 
and  the  principal  seaport  of  Yucatan.  The 
country  was  discovered  about  1517,  and  set- 
tled in  1540.  This  city  was  taken  by  the 
English  in  1659  ;  by  the  buccaneers  in  1678, 
and  \)Y  the  freebooters  of  St.  Domingo  in 
1685.  These  last  burnt  the  town  and  blew 
up  the  citadel. 

Campestre.  A  kind  of  girdle  or  apron 
worn  by  Roman  soldiers  around  their  waists 
at  certain  exercises,  where  the  rest  of  their 
bodies  remained  naked. 

Camp-followers.  The  sutlers,  traders, 
and  dealers  generally  ;  also  civilian  em- 
ployes, servants,  and  women  who  follow 
troops,  and  are  amenable  to  the  regulations 
and  restrictions  of  the  service. 

Camp-guard.     A  camp-guard  consists  of 


J 


CAMPIDOCTORES 


85 


CANISTER 


one  or  two  rows  of  sentinels  placed  around  a 
camp,  and  relieved  at  rei^ular  intervals.  The 
number  of  rows  of  sentinels,  and  the  dis- 
tance between  each  man,  will  depend  upon 
the  character  of  the  ijjround  and  the  degree 
of  dant^er  apprehended. 

Campidoctores.  Officers  who  drilled  the 
Koniaii  sdldit-ry. 

Camp,  Intrenched.  Is  a  position  fortified 
by  field-works,  which  may  be  selected  by  an 
army  in  the  field,  for  important  operations 
during  a  campaign  or  a  war, — such  as  to 
secure  itself  while  covering  a  siege,  or  in 
winter  quarters  to  accommodate  a  corps  of 
observation,  while  the  active  army  is  en- 
gaged elsewhere,  or  to  defend  a  position  near 
a  fortified  j)lace. 

Camp  of  Instruction.  Is  an  encampment 
of  troops  ill  the  field  to  habituate  them 
to  the  duties  and  f'litigues  of  war.  They 
may  be  either  temporary  or  permanent.  Of 
the  latter  description  are  thecamps  at  Alder- 
shott,  England,  and  the  Curragh  of  Kildare, 
Ireland. 

Campo  Formio.  A  town  of  Northern 
Italy  ;  here  a  treaty  was  concluded  between 
France  and  Austria,  the  latter  yielding  the 
Low  Countries  and  the  Ionian  Islands  to 
France,  and  Milan,  Mantua,  and  Modcna 
to  the  Cisalpine  Republic,  October  17,  1797. 
By  a  secret  article  the  emperor  gained  the 
Venetian  dominions. 

Campo  Mayor.  A  stronghold  which 
covers  the  district  between  the  Guadiana 
and  the  Tagus,  where  the  French,  retreat- 
ing from  this  place  in  March,  1811,  were 
suddenly  confronted  by  a  large  British  force 
under  .Marshal  l^eresford,  and  a  combat  en- 
sued which  was  disastrous  to  the  French. 

Campoos.  Kegiments  of  infantry  in  the 
service  of  tlie  Mahratta  confederates. 

Campo  Santo.  A  town  of  Northern 
Italy,  situated  on  the  Panaro.  In  1743  a 
sanguinary  battle  was  fought  here  between 
the  Spanish  and  Austrian  forces. 

Camp  Out,  To.  To  rest  for  the  night 
without  a  standing  roof;  whether  under  a 
light  tent,  a  screen  of  boughs,  or  any  make- 
shift that  the  neighborhood  nuiy  at^"ord. 

Camprodon.  A  fortified  town  of  Cata- 
lonia, Spain.  This  town  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  IUSO,  and  again  in  171)4. 

Camp-stool.  A  portable  seat  used  on 
campaigns.  It  is  usually  made  with  crossed 
legs,  so  as  to  fold  up,  and  with  a  full-sized 
seat  of  leather  or  canvas,  or  else  of  strips  of 
dressed  hide. 

Canada,  Dominion  of.  A  country  of 
Nortii  America  which  embraces  all  of  the 
American  possessions  of  Creat  l^ritain  lying 
north  of  the  United  States.  It  was 'dis- 
covered bv  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot,  June 
24, 14D7  ;  the  French  founded  Quebec  in  ir.()8. 
The  English  general  Wolfe  caj)turcd  Quebec 
in  1751»,  and  the  conquest  of  Canada  was 
completed  in  17<'iO.  The  Americans  under 
Montgomery  invaded  Camula,  and  surprised 
ilontreal,  November,  177i'>;  expelled  by 
Carleton,  March,  1770;  the  Americans  under 


Gen.  Hull  again  invaded  Canada;  de- 
feated at  Brownstown,  August  8,  and  sur- 
rendered August  10,  1812.  The  Amer- 
icans took  York  April  27,  Fort  George  May 
27,  1814  ;  they  were  defeated  at  Chippewa 
July  25,  and  peace  was  signed  at  Ghent, 
December  24,  1814.  Several  rebellions  took 
place  in  Canada,  but  were  speedily  sup- 
pressed. Invasions  of  Camida  by  armed  Fe- 
nians from  the  United  States  were  attempted 
in  1806  and  1870,  but  were  repelled  without 
difficulty. 

Cananore.  A  seaport  town  of  Briti.sh 
India,  in  the  presidency  of  Madras  ;  it  is  the 
chief  military  station  of  the  British  in  Mal- 
abar. In  1501  a  small  fort  was  built  here 
by  the  Portuguese,  which  was  taken  by  the 
Dutch  in  1004.  These  were  subsequently 
driven  out  by  Tippoo  Saib,  and  in  17'J0  the 
British  took  possession. 

Candahar,  or  Kandahar.  A  fortified 
city  of  Afghanistan  ;  stands  in  a  fertile 
plain,  200  miles  southwest  from  Cabiwl. 
This  city  is  suj)posed  to  have  been  founded 
by  Alexander  the  Great.  Candahar  was 
held  by  Tartary,  India,  and  Persia  in  turn. 
During  all  the  disasters  of  the  Afghan  war, 
the  British  succeeded  in  holding  possession 
of  the  city,  1839-42. 

Candia  (anc.  Crete).  An  island  in  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  It  was  conijuered  by 
the  Komans,  08  B.C. ;  seized  by  the  Sara- 
cens, 823  ;  retaken  by  the  Greek's,  900  ;  sold 
to  the  Venetians,  1204  ;  gained  by  the  Turks 
after  a  24  years'  siege,  during  which  more 
than  200,000  men  perished,  1009;  ceded  to 
the  Egyptian  pasha,  1830;  restored  to  Tur- 
key, 1840;  in  1800  the  Christian  inhabitants 
revolted  against  the  Turks,  and  demanded 
an  annexation  to  the  kingdom  of  Greece. 
This  war  excited  much  sympathy  among 
Christian  nations,  but  the  Cretans  were  sub- 
dued in  1809. 

Candle  Bombs.  Pasteboard  shells  filled 
with  pyrotechnic  compositions  which  make 
a  brilliant  display  upon  explosion.  They 
are  used  for  signaling,  and  are  nuide  up 
with  a  powder  charge  attached  to  one  side;  a 
strand  of  quick-match  leads  to  the  charge 
when  placed  in  the  mortar.  The  mortars 
used  are  very  light,  being  simply  hollow 
cylinders  of  stout  paper,  sole-Jeather,  or 
wood.  They  are  made  very  light  for  case  of 
transportation. 

Candy.  A  kingdom  of  Ceylon  ;  it  was 
taken  by  a  British  detachment,  February  20, 
1803,  who  capitulated  June  23,  following, 
anxious  to  evacuate  the  place  on  account  of 
its  unhealthiness ;  on  the  third  day  many 
were  treacherously  massacred  at  Columbo. 
The  war  was  renewed  in  October,  1814  ;  the 
king  made  prisoner  by  Gen.  Brownrigg, 
February  19,  1815,  and  the  sovereignly 
vested  in  Great  Britain,  March  2,  1815. 

Canister.  In  the  U.  S.  service,  a  round 
of  canister  consists  of  a  hollow  tin  cylinder 
filled  with  cast  iron  or  lead  balls,  which  vary- 
in  size  and  number  with  the  caliber  and 
i  kind  of  piece;  the  cylinder  is  closed  at  the 


CANISTEK-SHOT 


86 


CANTABRUM 


Lottom  by  a  thick  cast-iron  plate,  and  at  the 
top  by  one  of  sheet-iron.  The  interstices 
between  the  balls  are  filled  with  dry  saw- 
dust, the  object  of  which  is  to  give  more 
solidity  to  the  mass,  and  to  prevent  the 
balls  from  crowding  on  one  another  when 
the  piece  is  fired.  In  the  English  service 
this  is  called  case-shot. 

Canister-shot.  One  of  the  lead  or  iron 
balls  in  a  round  of  canister. 

Cannae.  A  town  of  Naples,  province  of 
Terra  di  Bari.  It  is  celebrated  for  the 
great  victory  gained  there  by  Hannibal  over 
the  Romans,  in  the  summer  of  216  B.C. 
The  loss  of  the  Romans  is  stated  by  Livy 
at  45,000  infantry  and  3000  cavalry. 

Cannon.  A  military  engine  of  which 
the  general  form  is  that  of  a  hollow  cylinder 
closed  at  "one  end,  and  variously  mounted, 
used  for  throwing  balls  and  other  instru- 
ments of  death  'by  force  of  gunpowder. 
Cannons  are  made  of  iron,  brass,  bronze, 
and  sometimes  of  steel  rods  welded  together, 
and  are  of  different  sizes.  They  are  classi- 
fied, from  their  nature,  guns,  howitzers,  and 
mortars ;  also  from  their  use,  as  field,  moun- 
tain, prairie,  sea-coast,  and  siege';  also  as 
rified  and  smooth-bore.     See  Ordnance. 

The  following  are  the  most  famous  cannon 
of  all  ages,  arranged  according  to  the  diam- 
eter of  the  bore : 

1.  The  Tsar  Poosehka,  the  great  bronze 
gun  of  Moscow,  cast  in  1580  ;  bore  36  inches, 
"weight  86,240  pounds;  threw  a  stone  ball 
weighing  2000  pounds. 

2.  Mallet's  Mortar,  English,  1857-58; 
built  up  of  cast  and  wrought  iron  ;  bore  36 
inches ;  cast-iron  shell  weighing  2986  pounds. 

3.  The  Mali k-I-My dan,  "Master  of  the 
Field,"  the  great  bronze  gun  of  Bejapoor, 
India ;  cast  1538 ;  bore  28.5  inches  ;  basalt 
ball,  1000  pounds. 

4.  The  Bronze  Ghm  of  Mahomet  11.,  A.D. 
1464 ;  bore  25  inches ;  granite  ball,  672 
pounds. 

5.  The  Dulle-Griete  of  Ghent,  wrought 
iron,  A.D.  1430;  bore  25  inches  ;  stone  ball, 
700  pounds. 

6.  The  Dhool-Dhanee,  bronze  gun  of  Agra, 
India;  bore  23.2  inches;  stone  balls,  520 
pounds. 

7.  Mons  Meg  of  Edinburgh  ;  wrought 
iron,  A.D.  1455;  bore  20  inches;  stone  ball, 
400  pounds. 

8.  Rodman  Oun,  American,  1863  ;  cast 
iron  ;  bore  20  inches,  weight  117,000  pounds  ; 
cast-iron  solid  shot  weighing  1080  pounds. 

The  most  powerful  cannon  the  world  has 
ever  seen  have  been  made  within  the  present 
decade  (1870-80).     They  are  rifles. 

The  100-ton  Armstrong  guns  sold  to  Italy 
to  arm  the  "  Duilio"  and  "  Dandolo"  ;  bore 
17  inches,  weight  of  oblong  shot  of  chilled 
iron  2000  pounds,  charge  of  Fossano  2^owder 
552  pounds.     Muzzle-loading. 

The  ^0-ton  Woolwich  guns  made  to  arm 
the  "  Inflexible"  ;  bore  16  inches,  weight  of 
shot  1700  pounds,  charge  of  cubical  2iOwder 
440  pounds.     Muzzle-loadirig . 


The  72-to7i  Kruppgims;  bore  15.75  inches, 
weight  of  steel  shot  1700  pounds,  charge  of 
jyrismatle  powder  452  pounds.  Guns  all 
steel.     Breech-loading. 

Cannonade.  The  act  of  discharging  shot 
or  shells  from  cannon  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
stroying an  army,  or  battering  a  town,  ship, 
or  fort ;  usually  applied  to  an  attack  of  some 
continuance. 

Cannon-ball.  A  ball  usually  made  of 
cast  iron,  to  be  thrown  from  cannon. 

Cannon  Baskets.  The  old  English  phrase  ' 
for  gabions. 

Cannon-bullet.     A  cannon-ball. 

Cannoneer.   A  man  who  manages  cannon. 

Cannoneering.     The  use  of  cannon. 

Cannoneers'  Seats.  See  Ordnance, 
Carriages  for,  Nomenclature  of  Ar- 
tillery Carriages. 

Cannon-lock.  A  contrivance,  like  the 
lock  of  a  gun,  placed  over  the  vent  of  a  can- 
non to  explode  the  charge. 

Cannon-metal.  An  alloy  of  copper  with 
about  9  per  cent,  of  tin  ; — called  also  gim- 
metal. 

Cannon-perer,  An  ancient  piece  of  ord- 
nance throwing  stone  shot. 

Cannon-proof.     Proof  against  cannon. 

Cannon  Royal.  A  60-pounder  of  8^ 
inches  bore. 

Cannonry.  Cannon  collectively  ;  artil- 
lery. 

Cannon-shot.     A  ball  for  cannon. 

Canonniere  {Fr.).  This  name  was  given 
formerly  to  a  tent  which  served  to  shelter 
four  canonniers,  but  later  the  term  was  ap- 
plied to  all  infantry  tents  which  contained 
seven  or  eight  men. 

Canonniere  (Fr.).  An  appellation  for- 
merly given  to  a  gun-proof  tower  ;  it  also 
designated  an  opening  in  the  walls  of  cities, 
forts,  etc.,  through  which  the  defenders  of 
these  places  could  fire  on  an  enemy  without 
being  exposed. 

Canonniers  (Fr.).  Artillerymen,  gunners. 
In  1671,  during  the  administration  of  Lou- 
vois  in  France,  the  name  of  canonniers  was 
given  to  the  first  companj^  of  the  regiment 
of  the  king's  fusileers  ;  in  April,  1693,  this 
regiment  was  named  artiUerie  royal,  but 
the  first  company  retained  the  name  of  can- 
onniers. 

Canonniers  Gardes-cotes  {Fr.).  "Were 
instituted  in  1702,  by  Louis  XIV.  of  France, 
for  the  service  of  coast  batteries.  They  are 
similar  to  the  Artillery  Coast  Brigade  in  the 
British  service. 

Canstadt,  or  Cannstadt.  A  town  of  Wiir- 
temberg,  on  the  river  Neckar.  In  the  vi- 
cinity a  battle  was  fought  in  1796,  between 
Gen.  Moreau  and  the  Archduke  Charles  of 
Austria. 

Cantabri.  A  rude  race  of  ancient  moun- 
taineers who  lived  in  Cantabria,  the  northern 
part  of  Spain,  near  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  They 
made  a  brave  resistance  to  the  Romans  in 
the  Cantabrian  war,  25-19  B.C.  They  are 
said  to  have  been  of  Iberian  origin. 

Cantabrum.   A  large  banner  used  during 


CANTEEN 


87 


CAPPADOCIA 


the  time  of  the  Roman  emperors,  and  borne 
on  ft'stive  occasions. 

Canteen.  A  tin  vessel  used  by  soldiers  to 
carry  water  on  the  march,  or  in  the  field.  It  ' 
is  usually  su.«pended  by  a  strap  from  the 
shoulder.  In  the  British  service  the  can- 
teen is  made  of  wood.  The  name  is  also  ap- 
plied to  the  store  authorized  within  the  pre- 
cincts of  British  barracks  for  the  sale  of 
liquors,  small  stores,  etc.  (See  Post  Trader.) 
A  leather  or  wooden  chest  divided  into  com- 
partments, and  containing  the  table  equipage 
of  an  otlicer  when  on  active  service,  is  also 
called  a  canteen. 

Canterbury  (the  Dnrovernum  of  the  Ro- 
mans). A  town  in  Kent,  England.  Its  ca- 
thedral was  sacked  by  the  Danes,  1011,  and 
burnt  down,  10(17;  rebuilt,  1130;  again  burnt 
down,  1174,  and  again  rebuilt.  During  the 
civil  war  in  England,  CromwelTs  dragoons 
used  Canterbury  Cathedral  as  a  stable. 

Cantiniere  (i-V.).  Women  who  are  au- 
thorized to  establish  themselves  in  the  bar- 
racks or  follow  the  troops  in  time  of  war, 
selling  them  Wquors  and  provisions.  The 
enntinieres,  whether  attached  to  regiments  or 
barracks,  are  selected  from  the  wives  of  non- 
commissioned officers  or  privates,  and  wear 
a  uniform.     See  VivANDii:RE. 

Cantle.  The  hind-bow  or  protuberance 
of  a  saddle ;  also  written  cantel. 

Canton.  The  only  city  in  China  with 
which  Europeans  were  allowed  to  trade  till 
the  treaty  of  August  29,  1842.  In  1850  a  se- 
rious misunderstanding  arose  between  Great 
Britain  and  China,  on  account  of  the  Chi- 
nese having  boarded  the  "  Arrow,"  a  small 
vessel,  lying  in  the  Canton  River,  with  a 
British  colonial  register.  The  Canton  forts 
were  taken,  and  Canton  was  bombarded  by 
Sir  Michael  Seymour  in  185G,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  the  Chinese  fleet  was  entirely 
destroyed.  In  1858  Canton  was  taken,  and 
the  forts  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pei-ho  River 
were  taken  by  the  allied  French  and  English 
forces. 

Canton.  One  of  the  nine  honorable  or- 
dinaries in  heraldry.  It  occupies  a  corner 
of  the  shield  either  dexter  or  sinister,  and  is 
a  third  of  t lie  chief. 

Cantonments.  In  the  general  operations 
of  European  armies  are  temporary  resting- 
places.  In  cantonments  the  men  are  not 
under  canvas,  as  in  camps,  but  occupy  during 
an  armistice,  or  in  intervals  between  active 
operations,  adjacent  towns  and  villages.  In 
India  cantonments  are  permanent  places, 
being  regular  military  towns,  distinct  and 
at  some  little  distances  from  the  principal 
cities. 

Cantonni.  In  heraldry,  when  a  cross  is 
placed  between  four  other  objects  it  is  said 
to  be  raiittiiuic. 

Canusium  (now  Canosa).  An  important 
and  very  ancient  city  of  Apulia,  in  Italy. 
It  was  probably  founded  by  the  Greeks. 
Here  a  battle  took  place  between  the  Car- 
thaginians under  Hannibal,  and  the  Romans 
under   Marcellus,   209  B.C.  ;    it   lasted   two 


days;  the  first  day  the  Carthaginians  were 
victorious,  but  on  the  second  day  the  Ronjans 
gained  the  victory  after  committing  great 
havoc  among  their  adversaries.  It  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Romans,  318  B.r. 

Canvas.  A  coarse  hempen  or  linen  cloth 
which  is  extensively  used  in  the  form  of 
tents,  etc. 

Cap-a-pie  (Fr.).  "  Head  to  foot. "  In  mil- 
itary language  of  the  Middle  Ages,  this  term 
was  applied  to  a  knight  or  s<jldier  armed  at 
all  points,  with  armor  for  defense  and  wea- 
pons for  attack. 

Caparison.  The  bridle,  saddle,  and  hous- 
ing of  a  military  horse. 

Cape  Breton.  A  large  island  of  British 
North  America,  separated  from  Nova  Scotia 
by  the  Gut  of  Canso.  Said  to  have  been 
discovered  by  Cabot,  1407  ;  by  the  English 
in  1584 ;  taken  by  the  French  in  1032,  but 
was  afterwards  restored,  and  again  taken  in 
1745,  and  retaken  in  1748.  The  fortress  r.f 
Louisburg  was  captured  by  the  English, 
July  20,  1758,  when  the  garrison  were  made 
prisoners,  and  11  French  ships  were  cap- 
tured or  destroved.  The  island  was  ceded  to 
England,  February  10,  1763. 

Cape  Coast  Castle.  In  Southwest  Africa  ; 
it  was  settled  by  the  Portuguese  in  1010,  but 
it  soon  fell  to  the  Dutch  ;  it  was  demolished 
by  Admiral  Holmes  in  1001.  All  the  British 
factories  and  shipping  along  the  coast  were 
destroyed  by  the  Dutch  admiral,  Ruyter, 
in  1005.  It  was  cf>ntirmed  to  the  English 
by  the  treaty  of  Breda,  in  1007.   See  Asuan- 

TEES. 

Cape  Colony.    See  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Capeline(/V.).  A  helmet  without  a  visor, 
nearly  in  the  form  of  a  round  head;  it  was 
formerly  worn  by  infantry. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope.  In  Southern  Africa  ; 
long  held  by  the  Dutch;  was  captured  by 
the  British,  Septcinber  10,  1795;  restored  to 
the  Dutch  at  the  general  peace,  but  was 
again  taken  by  the  British,  January  9, 1806 ; 
it  still  belongs  to  the  British,  though  a  se- 
vere desultory  warfare  has  often  been  car- 
ried on  with  the  native  tribes. 

Capital.  In  technical  fortification,  is  an 
imaginary  line  bisecting  the  salient  angle  of 
a  work. 

Capitulation.  The  surrender  of  a  fortress 
or  iiniiy  on  ,-tipulated  conditions. 

Caponiere.  A  covered  passage  across  the 
ditch  of  a  fortified  place,  for  the  purjx>se 
either  of  sheltering  communication  with 
outworks  or  of  atfording  a  flanking  fire  to 
the  ditch  in  which  it  stands.  If  the  capon- 
iere is  protected  only  on  one  side,  it  is  single  ; 
if  on  both  sides,  and  covered,  it  is  double. 

Capote.  A  heavy  coat  with  a  hood,  worn 
by  soldiers,  sailors,  and  others. 

Cappadocia.  An  ancient  province  of  Asia 
Minor,  now  included  in  Asiatic  Turkey.  It 
was  conquered  by  Cyrus  the  Great  of  Persia, 
and  was  ruled  by  independent  kings  after 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  until  17, 
when  Tiberius  reduced  it  to  a  Roman  prov- 


CAPPEL 


CAPTAIN-GENERAL 


Cappel.  A  village  of  Switzerland.  Here 
the  reformer  LTlrie  Zwinglius  was  slain  in  a 
conflict  between  the  Catholics  and  the  men 
of  Zurich,  in  October,  1531. 

Capri  (anc.  Caprece).  An  island  near  Na- 
ples, the  sumptuous  residence  of  Tiberius, 
memorable  for  the  debaucheries  he  com- 
mitted during  the  last  seven  years  of  his  life. 
Capri  was  taken  by  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  April 
22,  1806  ;  taken  from  the  British,  October  4, 
1808,  by  a  French  force  under  Gen.  La- 
marque. 

Caps.  The  head-dress  or  shako  of  such 
troops  as  are  not  supplied  with  helmets. 

Forage  Caps  are  the  cloth  undress  head- 
covering  of  the  officer  or  soldier. 

Caps.  In  gunnery,  are  the  leathern  plugs, 
or  bungs,  used  to  prevent  rain  or  rubbish 
from  collecting  in  the  bore  of  the  guns  and 
howitzers.  There  are  also  cannon  caps  for 
similar  purposes,  used  for  mortars. 

Caps,  Percussion-.  Are  small  metal 
covers,  inlaid  with  detonating  powder,  and 
placed  on  the  nipple  of  a  rifle  or  revolver. 
The  hammer,  striking  on  the  outer  surface 
of  the  cap,  causes  the  powder  to  explode  and 
ignite  the  charge. 

Cap-square.  A  strong  plate  of  iron 
■which  comes  over  the  trunnion  of  a  cannon, 
and  keeps  it  to  its  place. 

Capstan.  A  strong,  massy  column  of 
timber,  formed  somewhat  like  a  truncated 
cone,  and  having  its  upper  extremity  pierced 
to  receive  bars,  or  levers,  for  winding  a  rope 
round  it,  to  move  great  weights,  or  to  exert 
great  power;  used  in  moving  heavy  guns 
considerable  distances  ;  called  also  a  o-ab. 

Capsules.  Copper  caps  for  percussion- 
locks. 

Captain.  In  a  limited  and  technical 
sense,  is  the  title  of  an  officer  who  commands 
a  troop  of  cavalry,  a  company  of  infantry, 
or  a  battery  of  artillery.  He  is  the  next  in 
rank  below  a  major,  and  in  the  U.  S.  army 
is  responsible  for  the  camp  and  garrison 
equipage,  the  arms,  ammunition,  and  cloth- 
ing of  his  company. 

There  is  no  position  in  the  army  that  will 
give  as  much  satisfaction  in  return  for  an 
honest,  capable,  and  conscientious  discharge 
of  his  duty  as  that  of  captain  or  command- 
ing officer  of  a  company.  There  is  a  reward 
inhaving  done  his  full  duty  to  his  company, 
that  no  disappointment  of  distinction,  no 
failure  can  deprive  him  of;  his  seniors  may 
overlook  him  in  giving  credits,  unfortunate 
circumstances  may  defeat  his  fondest  hopes, 
and  the  crown  of  laurel  may  never  rest  upon 
his  brow,  but  the  reward  that  follows  upon 
the  faithful  discharge  of  his  dutj'  to  his  com- 
pany he  cannot  be  deprived  of  by  any  dis- 
aster, neglect,  or  injustice. 

He  receives  it  whenever  he  looks  upon  his 
little  command,  and  sees  the  harmony,  com- 
fort, and  discipline  that  prevail ;  he  feels  it 
when  he  comes  to  part  with  his  men  in  the 
due  course  of  promotion,  or  as  they  individ- 
ually take  their  discharge  after  a  faithful 
service;   he  remembers   it   when,  in    after- 


years,  no  matter  if  rank  and  honors  have  in 
the  mean  time  fallen  upon  him,  he  meets  an 
old  soldier  who,  with  respect  and  aflection, 
still  calls  him  his  captain. 

He  is  a  small  sovereign,  powerful  and 
great  within  his  little  domain,  but  no  im- 
becile monarch  ever  suffered  more  from  in- 
trigues, factions,  and  encroachments  than 
an  incapable  company  commander ;  no  ty- 
rant king  must  contend  more  with  rebel- 
lions, insurrections,  and  defections  than  an 
arbitrary  and  unjust  captain,  and  no  wise 
and  beneficent  ruler  ever  derived  more  heart- 
felt homage,  more  faithful  services,  or  more 
patriotic  devotion  than  a  just,  competent, 
and  faithful  commander  receives  from  his 
company.  They  will  love  him  truly,  they 
will  obey  him  faithfully,  and  whilst  there  is 
life  they  will  stand  by  him  in  the  hour  of 
battle. 

The  command  of  a  company  divides  itself 
into  two  kinds  of  duty,  requiring  very  dif- 
ferent capacity,  viz.,  Government  and  Ad- 
ministration. The  former  requires  force  of 
character,  judgment,  and  discretion,  and  has 
often  been  well  performed  without  much 
capacity  for  the  latter.  Administration  re- 
quires a  certain  amount  of  knowledge  ab- 
solutely indispensable  to  a  discharge  of  a 
duty. 

Government. — Under  this  head  may  be  in- 
cluded instruction  in  tactics  and  discipline, 
the  preservation  of  order  and  subordination, 
and  the  cultivation  of  a  military  spirit  and. 
pride  in  the  profession  among  the  men.  It 
involves  the  appointing  and  reduction  of 
non-commissioned  officers,  and  the  subject 
of  rewards  and  punishments. 

Administration. — Providing  the  clothing 
and  subsistence,  and  keeping  the  accounts  of 
soldiers  in  order,  that  they  may  be  paid,  and 
attending  to  the  transportation  of  the  men 
and  their  supplies,  belong  under  this  head. 
They  involve  the  keeping  of  the  records  of 
the  company,  and  the  pay  and  clothing  ac- 
counts of  the  men  ;  the  drawing  and  dis- 
tributing of  supplies,  and  the  care  and  ac- 
countability of  public  and  company  prop- 
erty. The  efficient  administration  of  the 
affairs  of  a  company  greatly  facilitates  the 
discipline  and  government  of  the  company, 
makes  the  men  content  and  cheerful  in  the 
performance  of  their  duties,  and  attaches 
them  to  their  commander. 

Captaincy.  The  rank,  post,  or  commis- 
sion of  a  captain. 

Captaincy-general.  The  office,  power, 
territory,  or  jurisdiction  of  a  captain-gen- 
eral. 

Captain-General.  This  was  the  proper 
appellation  of  a  commander-in-chief  till 
Marlborough's  time,  if  not  later.  The  rank 
is  sometimes  still  given  on  extraordinary 
occasions.  It  was  born  by  the  Marquis  of 
Wellesley  during  his  government  in  India, 
and  is  applied  to  the  governor-genei-al  of 
the  Canadas.  In  the  United  States,  the  gov- 
ernor of  a  State  is  captain-general  of  the 
militia.     Captain-lieutena7it,  an  officer,  who 


CAPTAINRY 


8y 


CARBINEERS 


with  the  rank  of  a  captain,  and  pay  of  lieu- 
tenant, commands  a  company  or  troop. 

Captainry.  The  power,  or  command, 
over  a  certain  district;  chieftainship;  cap- 
tainsliip. 

Captainship.  The  condition,  rank,  post, 
or  autliority  of  a  captain  or  chief  commander. 
Also  skill  in  military  atfairs ;  as,  to  show 
good  captainship. 

Captive.  A  prisoner  taken  by  force  or 
Btrataj^em  in  war,  by  an  enemy  ;  made  pris- 
oner, espcciall}'  in  war;  kept  in  bondage  or 
contineinont. 

Captivity.  The  state  of  being  a  prisoner, 
or  of  being  in  the  power  of  the  enemy,  by 
force  or  the  fate  of  war. 

Captor.  One  who  takes,  as  a  prisoner  or 
a  prize. 

Capture.  The  act  of  taking  or  seizing  by 
force;  seizure;  arrest;  as,  the  capture  of  an 
enemy.  The  thing  taken;  a  prize;  prey 
tiiken  by  force,  surprise,  or  stratagem. 

Captured  Property.  As  civilization  has 
advanced  during  the  last  centuries,  so  has 
likewise  steadily  advanced,  especially  in  war 
on  land,  the  distinction  between  the  private 
individual  belonging  to  a  hostile  country 
and  the  Jjostile  country  itself,  with  its  men 
in  arms.  The  principle  has  been  more  and 
more  acknowledged  that  the  unarmed  citizen 
is  to  be  spared  in  person,  propertj',  and 
honor,  as  much  as  the  exigencies  of  war  will 
admit.  A  victorious  army  appropriates  all 
public  money,  seizes  all  public  movable 
property  until  further  direction  by  its  gov- 
ernment, and  sequesters  for  its  own  benefit 
or  that  of  its  government  all  the  revenues  of 
real  property  belonging  to  the  hostile  gov- 
ernment or  nation.  The  title  to  such  real 
property  remains  in  abeyance  during  mili- 
tary occupation,  and  until  the  conquest  is 
made  compU'te.  As  a  general  rule,  the  prop- 
erty beUmging  to  churches,  to  hospitals,  or 
other  establishments  of  an  exclusively  chari- 
table nature,  to  establishments  of  education, 
or  foundations  for  the  promotion  of  knowl- 
edge, whether  pviblic  schools,  universities, 
academies  of  learning,  or  observatories,  mu- 
seums of  the  fine  arts,  or  of  a  scientific  char- 
acter,— such  property  is  not  to  be  considered 
public  property  ;  but  it  may  be  taxed  or  used 
when  the  public  service  may  require  it. 
C'lassiial  works  of  art,  libraries,  scientific 
collectit)ns,  or  precious  instruments,  such  as 
astronomical  telescopes,  as  well  as  hospitals, 
must  be  secured  against  all  avoidable  injury, 
even  when  they  are  contained  in  fortified 
places  whilst  besieged  or  bombarded.  And 
if  they  can  be  removed  without  injury,  the 
ruler  of  the  con(|uering  state  or  nation  may 
order  them  to  be  seized  and  removed  for  the 
benefit  of  the  said  nation.  The  ultimate 
ownership  is  to  bo  settled  by  the  ensuing 
treaty  of  peace. 

The  United  States  acknowledge  and  pro- 
tect, in  hostile  countries  occupied  by  them, 
religion  and  morality  ;  strictly  private  prop- 
erty ;  the  persons  of  the  inhabitants,  espe- 
cially those  of  women  ;  and  the  sacredness 
7 


of  domestic  relations.  Offenses  to  the  con- 
trary are  rigorously  punished.  This  does 
not  interfere  with  the  right  of  the  victorious 
invader  to  tax  the  people  or  their  property, 
to  levy  forced  loans,  to  billet  soldiers,  or  to 
appropriate  property,  especially  houses,  land, 
boats  or  ships,  and  churches  for  temporary 
and  military  uses.  Private  property  can  be 
seized  only  by  way  of  military  necessity,  ex- 
cept the  owner  forfeits  his  right  to  it  by  com- 
mitting a  crime  or  offense  against  the  victori- 
ous power.  All  captures  and  booty  belong, 
accordingtothemodernlawof  war,  primarily 
to  the  government  of  the  captor.  See 
Stores,  Military. 

Capua.  A  town  of  Naples,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Terra  di  Lavoro ;  took  the  part  of 
Hannibal  when  his  army  wintered  here 
after  the  battle  of  Canna?,  21G  B.C.,  and,  it  is 
said,  became  enervated  through  luxury.  In 
211,  when  the  Romans  retook  the  city,  they 
scourged  and  beheaded  all  the  surviving 
senators  ;  many  of  them  having  poisoned 
themselves  after  a  banquet  previous  to  the 
surrender  of  the  city.  During  the  Middle 
Ages,  Capua  was  successively  subjugated  by 
the  Greeks,  Saracens,  Normans,  and  Ger- 
mans. It  was  restored  to  Naples  in  1424, 
and  was  taken,  November  2,  18G0,  by  Gari- 
baldi. 

Capuchons  (Fr.).  A  society  formed  in 
France  from  1181  to  1183,  for  the  suppression 
of  the  brigandage  of  the  Rnutiers ;  they  ex- 
terminated 7000  brigands  in  an  engagement 
near  Verdun. 

Caracas  (South  America).  Part  of  Ven- 
ezuela, discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498.  It 
was  reduced  by  arms,  and  assigned  as  prop- 
erty to  the  Welsers,  German  merchants,  by 
Charles  V.  ;  but  for  their  tyranny  they  were 
dispossessed  in  1550,  and  a  crown  governor 
appointed.  The  province  declared  its  inde- 
pendence. May  9,  1810. 

Caracole  (Sp.  caracal).  A  French  term 
used  in  horsemanship  or  the  manege  to  de- 
note a  semi-round  or  half-turn.  "When 
cavalry  advance  to  charge  in  battle  they 
sometimes  perform  caracoles  in  order  to  per- 
plex the  enemy,  and  excite  a  doubt  whether 
they  will  attack  the  flank  or  the  front. 

Caravaggio.  A  walled  town  of  Italy,  in 
the  province  of  Bergamo.  Uere  a  battle 
was  fought,  September  15,  1448,  between 
the  Milanese  and  Venetians,  in  which  the 
latter  were  defeated. 

Carberry  Hill.  In  Southern  Scotland; 
here  on  June  15,  1507,  Lord  Hume  and  the 
confederate  barons  dispersed  the  royal  army 
under  Bothwell,  and  took  Mary,  queen  of 
Scots,  prisoner.     Bothwell  fled. 

Carbine.  A  short  light  musket,  used  by 
cavalry.  It  is  so  called  from  a  kind  of  light 
horse  (Carabins),  whose  weapon  it  was. 
Thev  were  employed  by  Henry  II.  of  France 
in  1559. 

Carbineers,  or  Carabineers.  Dragoons 
armed  with  carbines,  who  iKcasionally  acted 
as  infantry.  All  regiments  of  light-arnied 
horse  were  formerly  called  carbineers  ;  but 


CARBON 


90 


CAENATIC 


since  the  establishment  of  hussars  and  lan- 
cers, they  have,  for  the  most  part,  lost  that 
denomination. 

Carbon.     See  Charcoal. 

Carcass.  In  gunnery,  is  a  spherical  shell 
having  three  additional  holes,  of  the  same 
dimensions  as  the  fuze-hole,  pierced  at  equal 
distances  apart  in  the  upper  hemisphere  of 
the  shell,  and  filled  with  a  composition 
which  burns  with  intense  power  from  8  to 
10  minutes,  and  the  flame  issuing  from  the 
holes  sets  fire  to  everything  combustible 
within  its  reach ;  it  is  used  in  bombard- 
ments, setting  fire  to  shipping,  etc.,  and  is 
projected  from  cannon  like  a  cannon-shell. 

Carcassonne  (anc.  Carcaso).  A  city  in 
the  south  of  France,  capital  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Aude.  It  was  taken  from  the  Visi- 
goths by  the  Saracens  in  724. 

Carchera.  A  name  given  by  the  Corsi- 
cans  to  their  cartridge-belts. 

Cardiff.  A  seaport  and  county  town  of 
"Wales,  in  Glamorganshire.  Cardiff"  is  an 
ancient  place,  and  is  surrounded  by  walls, 
in  which  were  four  gates.  Its  castle,  once 
large  and  strongly  fortified,  was  erected 
about  the  year  1079.  Robert,  duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, was  confined  in  it  for  28  j^ears  after 
the  battle  of  Tinchebria.  This  fortress  was 
afterwards  taken  and  partially  destroyed  by 
Cromwell. 

Cardigan.  A  town  in  Cardiganshire, 
"Wales.  It  was  an  important  town  about 
the  Norman  conquest,  and  the  Normans 
were  frequently  defeated  before  mastering 
it.  The  town  suffered  much  in  the  struggles 
between  the  Welsh  and  the  Normans. 

Cardinal  Points.  The  four  intersections 
of  the  horizon  with  the  meridian,  and  the 
prime  vertical  circle,  or  north  and  south, 
east  and  west.  In  astrology,  the  cardinal 
points  are  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun, 
the  zenith  and  nadir. 

Caria.  An  ancient  province  in  the  ex- 
treme southwest  of  Asia  Minor.  It  was  con- 
quered by  Cyrus,  546  B.C. ;  by  Dercyllidas,  a 
Lacedsemonian,  397.  Caria  was  absorbed 
in  the  Turkish  empire. 

Carignan.  A  small  town  about  12  miles 
from  Sedan,  department  of  Ardennes,  North- 
east France.  At  the  plain  Douzy,  near  this 
place  and  the  encampment  of  Vaux,  a  part 
of  MacMahon's  army,  retreating  before  the 
Germans,  turned  round  and  made  a  stand, 
August  81,  1870.  After  a  long  and  severe  en- 
gagement, in  which  the  positions  were  taken 
and  retaken  several  times,  the  Germans 
turned  the  flank  of  their  enemies,  who  were 
compelled  to  fall  back  upon  Sedan,  where 
they  were  finally  overcome,  September  1. 

Caripi.  A  kind  of  cavalry  in  the  Turkish 
army,  which,  to  the  number  of  1000,  are  not 
slaves,  nor  bred  up  in  the  seraglio,  like  the 
rest,  but  are  generally  Moors,  or  renegade 
Chi-istians,  who  have  obtained  the  rank  of 
horse-guards  to  the  Grand  Seignior. 

Carisbrooke  Castle.  In  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  England ;  it  is  said  to  have  been  a 
British  and  Roman  fortress  ;  was  taken  in 


530,  by  Cerdic,  founder  of  the  kingdom  of 
the  West  Saxons.  Here  Charles  I.  was  im- 
prisoned in  1647. 

Carizmians.  Were  fierce  shepherds  liv- 
ing near  the  Caspian  Sea  ;  having  been  ex- 
pelled by  the  Tartars,  they  invaded  Syria  in 
1243.  The  union  of  the  sultans  of  Aleppo, 
Hems,  and  Damascus  was  insufiicient  to 
stem  the  torrent,  and  the  Christian  military 
orders  were  nearly  exterminated  in  a  single 
battle  in  1244.  In  October  they  took  Jeru- 
salem.    They  were  totally  defeated  in  1247. 

Carlaverock  Castle.  In  Southern  Scot- 
land ;  it  was  taken  by  Edward  I.  in  July, 
1300. 

Carlisle.  A  frontier  town  of  England,  in 
the  county  of  Cumberland,  wherein  for  many 
ages  a  strong  garrison  was  kept.  Just  below 
this  town  the  famous  Picts'  wall  began, 
which  crossed  the  whole  island  to  Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne,  and  here  also  ended  the  great 
Roman  highway.  The  castle  was  destroyed 
by  the  Danes,  875,  restored  in  1092  by  Wil- 
liam II.  ;  was  the  prison  of  Mary,  queen  of 
Scots,  in  1568.  Taken  by  the  Parliamentary 
forces,  in  1645,  and  by  the  young  Pretender, 
November  15, 1745;  retaken  by  the  Duke  of 
Cumberland,  December  30,  same  year.  The 
cathedral  was  almost  ruined  by  Cromwell  in 
1648. 

Carlisle.  Capital  of  Cumberland  Co.,  Pa. 
This  town  was  shelled  by  the  Confederates, 
July,  1863. 

Carlow.  A  town  in  Southeastern  Ireland  ; 
the  castle,  erected  by  King  John,  surrendered 
after  a  desperate  siege  to  Rory  Oge  O' Moore, 
in  1577 ;  again  to  the  Parliamentary  forces 
in  1650.  Here  the  royal  troops  routed  the 
insurgents.  May,  1798. 

Carlowitz,  or  Karlowitz.  A  town  of  the 
Austrian  empire,  on  the  Danube.  Here,  in 
1699,  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  Tur- 
key and  Austria ;  and  here  Prince  Eugene 
defeated  the  Turks  in  1716. 

Carlsruhe,  or  Karlsruhe.  Capital  of  the 
grand  duchy  of  Baden  ;  built  by  the  Mar- 
grave Charles  William,  1715.  It  was  occu- 
pied by  the  Prussians,  June  25,  1849,  who 
aided  to  suppress  the  revolution,  and  enabled 
the  grand  duke  to  return,  August  18,  1849. 

Carmagnola.  A  town  of  Piedmont,  on 
the  river  Po.  It  was  captured  by  Catinat 
troops  in  1691 ;  taken  by  the  French  Repub- 
lican troops  in  1795. 

Carmel,  Knights  of  the  Order  of  Our 
Lady  of  Mount.  A  semi-religious  order  of 
knighthood  instituted  by  Henry  IV.  of 
France,  and  incorporated  with  the  order  of 
the  Knights  of  St.  Lazarus  of  Jerusalem. 
The  order  consisted  of  100  gentlemen,  all 
French,  who  were  to  attend  the  king  in  his 
wars,  and  had  considerable  revenues  as- 
signed them. 

Carnatic.  A  district  of  Southern  Hindos- 
tan,  extending  along  the  whole  coast  of  Coro- 
mandel.  Hyder  AH.  entered  the  Carnatic 
with  80,000  troops  in  1780,  and  was  defeated 
by  the  British  under  Sir  Eyre  Coote,  July 
1  and  August  27,  1781,  and  decisively  over- 


CARNIFEX 


91 


CARTAGENA 


•thrown,  June  2,  1782.  The  Carnatic  was 
overrun  by  Tippoo  in  1790.  The  British 
have  pos.se!s.sed  entire  authority  over  tlie  Car- 
natic .since  1801. 

Carnifex  Ferry.  Over  the  Gauley  River, 
West  Virginia.  A  force  of  about  5000  Con- 
federates under  Gen.  Floyd,  who  occupied 
a  strong  position  here,  became  engaged  with 
a  Federal  brigade  of  the  troops  under  Gen. 
Ro.secrans  on  the  afternoon  of  September  10, 
1861,  when  some  severe  fighting  occurred 
until  night  put  an  end  to  the  contest.  The 
Federals  intended  to  renew  the  attack  in  the 
morning  with  a  stronger  force,  but  during 
the  night  Gen.  Floyd  withdrew  his  troops 
across  the  river,  burned  the  ferry-boats  and 
the  bridge  which  he  had  constructed,  thus 
cutting  oft"  pursuit,  but  leaving  his  camp, 
baggage,  small-arms,  and  munitions  of  war 
in  the  hands  of  the  Federals. 

Carolina,  North.    See  North  Carolina. 

Carolina,  South.     See  South  Carolina. 

Caroling.  A  custom  of  the  ancients  be- 
fore going  to  war,  which  consisted  of  sing- 
ing, etc. 

Carpet  Knight.  A  man  who  obtains 
knighthood  on  a  pretense  for  services  in 
which  he  never  participated. 

Carpi.  In  Northern  Italy;  here  Prince 
Eugene  and  the  Imperialists  defeated  the 
French,  July  9,  1701. 

Carquois  (/'>.).  A  quiver  of  iron,  wood, 
leather,  etc.,  which  was  worn  slung  over 
the  right  shoulder. 

Carrago.  A  kind  of  fortification,  consist- 
ing uf  a  great  number  of  wagons  placed 
round  an  arin\\  It  was  employed  by  bar- 
barous nations,  as,  for  instance,  the  Scyth- 
ians and  Goths. 

Carreau,  Quarreau,  or  Carre  (Fr.).  A 
bolt  or  dart,  with  a  large  steel  head,  for  a 
cross-bow. 

Carriage.  A  gun-carriage  is  designed  to 
support  its  piece  when  fired,  and  also  to 
transport  cannon  from  one  point  to  another. 
It  consists  of  two  cheeks,  connected  together 
and  with  a  stock  by  assembling  bolts.  The 
frtmt  part  su]iports  the  piece,  and  rests  upon 
an  axle-tree  furnished  with  wheels,  the  rear 
end  of  the  stock  or  trail  resting  on  the 
ground.     See  Urdxanck,  Carriac.es  for. 

Carriage,  Casemate.  See  Ordnance, 
C.\iM{iA(.Ks  Ki)K,  Ska-Coast  Carriages. 

Carriage,  Field-.    See  Field-Carriage. 

Carnage,    Mountain.      See    Ordnance, 

CAIUUAliKS     KilR. 

Carriage,  Prairie.     See  Ordnance,  Car- 

RIAIIKS    KOR. 

Carriage,    Sea-coast.      See  Ordnance, 

CaKKIAUK>    Ki)R. 

Carriage,  Siege.     See  Ordnance,  Car- 

RIAdKS    KOR. 

Carrical,  or  Karical.  A  seaport  town  of 
Hindostan,  on  the  coast  of  Coromandel.  It 
was  formerly  strongly  fortified,  but  is  now 
thoroughly  dismantled.  It  came  into  pos- 
session of  the  French  in  1759;  was  taken  by 
the  English  in  1803;  and  restored  to  the 
French  in  1814. 


Carrick.  An  old  Gaelic  term  for  a  castle 
or  fortress,  as  well  as  for  a  rock  in  the  .sea. 

Carrickfergus.  A  seaport  town  in  the 
county  of  Antrim,  Ireland.  Its  castle  is 
supposed  to  have  been  built  by  Hugh  de 
Lacy  in  1178.  The  town  surrendered  to  the 
Duke  of  Schomberg,  August  28,  1089.  The 
castle  surrendered  to  Thurot,  a  French  naval 
oflRcer,  in  17tj0. 

Carrick's  Ford.  Over  the  Cheat  River, 
Virginia.  On  July  13,  18G1,  a  force  of  Con- 
federates under  Gen.  Garnett,  retreating 
frt)m  Laurel  Hill,  were  pursued  and  here 
attacked  by  Union  troops  under  Gen.  Mor- 
ris, and  after  a  few  attempts  to  make  a  stand, 
were  completely  routed,  and  Gen.  Garnett 
killed. 

Carroccio  (Hal.).  A  very  large  four- 
wheeled  carriage,  which  was  used  by  the 
Crusaders  during  the  Middle  Ages.  (3n  its 
platform,  which  was  large  enough  to  hold 
50  persons,  was  erected  a  tower  surmounted 
with  a  cross  and  a  standard,  and  to  it  was 
attached  a  bell,  which  indicated  the  passing 
of  the  carroccio.  Before  engaging  in  battle, 
an  effigy  of  Christ  of  life  size  was  placed  on 
the  platform  and  at  its  feet  an  altar;  then 
a  mass  was  held.  A  number  of  knights 
guarded  it,  and  it  was  drawn  by  oxen  richly 
caparisoned.  Its  invention  is  attributed  to 
the  people  of  Lombardy. 

Carton.  A  village  in  Stirlingshire,  Scot- 
land, on  a  stream  of  the  same  name,  falling 
into  the  river  Forth.  It  is  noted  for  its  ex- 
tensive iron-works.  The  carronade,  a  pecu- 
liar kind  of  gun,  derives  its  name  from  this 
place. 

Carrousel.  A  species  of  knightly  exer- 
cise in  imitation  of  the  tournament,  common 
in  the  courts  of  Europe  till  the  beginning  of 
the  IStlvcentury.  It  usually  consisted  in 
tests  of  skill  in  horsemanship,' and  in  the  use 
of  the  lance,  sword,  and  pistol,  the  competi- 
tors being  mostly  dressed  as  were  the  knights 
of  former  times. 

Cart.  In  a  military  sense,  is  a  vehicle 
mounted  on  two  wheels,  and  drawn  by  hand 
or  by  horses  or  oxen.  See  Hand-cart, 
Hand  Sling-cart. 

Cartagena.  A  .city  and  fortified  seaport 
of  Spain,  is  in  the  province  of  Murcia,  and 
on  a  bay  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  was 
built  byHasdrubal,  the  Carthaginian  gen- 
eral, 242  B.C.  ;  taken  by  Scipio,  210.  It 
was  subsequently  taken  by  the  Goths,  and 
did  not  begin  to  rise  into  importance  again 
till  the  time  of  Philip  II.  It  was  taken  by 
a  British  force  under  Sir  John  Leake  in 
170C;  retaken  bv  the  Duke  of  Berwick, 
1707. 

Cartagena,  or  Carthagena.  A  fortified 
city  of  New  (iranada.  South  America.  It 
was  taken  by  the  French  in  1")44,  and  sub- 
sequently by' the  English  under  Sir  Francis 
Drake,  in  1585,  who  plundered  it  and  set  it 
on  fire;  pillaged  by  the  French  in  1(597; 
bombarded  by  Admiral  Vernon  in  March, 
1740;  and  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the 
English  in    1741.     In  the  contest  with  the 


CAETE 


92 


CARTKIDGE-BELT 


mother-country,  Cartagena  was  first  besieged 
by  Bolivar,  and  afterwards  by  Morillo,  to 
whom  it  surrendered.  It  was  subsequently 
reduced  by  the  independent  troops. 

Carte,  or  Quarte.  A  movement  of  the 
sword  in  fencing,  as  tierce  and  carle.  Also 
a  movement  of  the  rifle  bayonet  drill. 

Carte-blanche.  In  a  military  sense, 
means  a  full  and  absolute  power  which  is 
lodged  in  the  hands  of  a  general  of  an  army, 
to  act  according  to  the  best  of  his  judgment, 
without  waiting  for  superior  instructions  or 
orders.  It  likewise  strictly  means  a  blank 
paper,  to  be  filled  up  with  such  conditions 
as  the  person  to  whom  it  is  sent  thinks 
proper. 

Cartel.  As  a  military  term  it  is  used  to 
denote  an  agreement  between  two  belliger- 
ents for  the  exchange  of  prisoners. 

Cartel-ship.  A  vessel  used  in  exchang- 
ing prisoners  or  carrying  proposals  to  an 
enemy. 

Carthage.  An  ancient  and  celebrated 
city  in  Africa,  the  renowned  rival  of  Rome. 
It  was  founded  by  the  Phoenicians,  and  was 
one  of  the  latest  settlements  made  by  them 
on  the  African  coast  of  the  Mediterranean, 
about  the  middle  of  the  9th  century  b.c. 
No  record  of  the  early  history  of  Carthage 
has  been  preserved.  First  alliance  of  Car- 
thaginians and  Romans,  509  B.C. ;  the  Car- 
thaginians in  Sicily  were  defeated  at  Himera 
by  Gelo,  480  B.C.;  they  took  Agrigentum, 
406  B.C.,  and  were  defeated  by  Agathocles, 
310  B.C.  The  first  Punic  war  began  (which 
lasted  twenty-three  years)  in  264  b.c,  and 
ended  in  241  B.C.  Hamilcar  Barcas  was 
sent  into  Spain,  and  took  with  him  his  son, 
the  famous  Hannibal,  237  B.C.  Hannibal 
conquered  Spain  as  far  as  the  Iberus,  219  B.C. 
The  second  Punic  war  began  (which  lasted 
seventeen  years)  in  218  B.C.,  and  ended  in 
201  B.C.  The  third  Punic  war  commenced 
149  or  150  B.C.  ;  Carthage  taken  and  burned 
by  order  of  the  senate,  146  B.C.  A  colony 
settled  at  Carthage  by  C.  Gracchus,  122  B.C. ; 
its  rebuilding  planned  by  Julius  Caesar,  46 
B.C.,  and  executed  by  his  successors  ;  it  was 
taken  by  Genseric  the  Vandal  in  439 ;  re- 
taken by  Beli-sarius,  533  ;  taken  and  de- 
stroyed by  Hassan,  the  Saracenic  governor 
of  Egypt,  698. 

Carthage.  The  capital  of  Jasper  Co  , 
Mo.,  on  Spring  River.  Near  here,  on  July 
5,  1861,  an  engagement  took  place  between 
some  of  Gen.  Lyon's  troops  under  Col. 
Sigel,  and  a  superior  force  of  Confederates 
under  Gen.  Rains  and  Col  Parsons.  The 
Union  loss  was  18  killed  and  21  wounded. 

Carthoun.  The  ancient  cannon  royal, 
carrying  a  66-pound  ball,  with  a  point-blank 
range  of  185  paces,  and  an  extreme  one  of 
about  2000.  It  was  12  feet  long  and  of  8| 
inches  diameter  of  bore. 

Cartouch.  A  roll  or  case  of  paper,  etc., 
holding  a  charge  for  a  fire-arm. 

Cartouch,  In  gunnery,  a  case  of  wood, 
about  3  inches  thick  at  the  bottom,  bound 
about    with    marline,    holding    about    400 


musket-balls,  besides  8  or  10  iron  balls  of  < 
a  pound  each,  to  be  discharged  from  a  how- 
itzer, for  the  defense  of  a  pass,  etc.  It  also 
implies  an  article  made^of  leather,  to  sling 
over  the  shoulder  of  the  gunner,  who  therein 
carries  the  ammunition  from  the  tumbril 
for  the  service  of  the  artillery,  when  at  ex- 
ercise in  the  field. 

Cart-piece.  An  early  battering  cannon 
mounted  on  a  peculiar  cart. 

Cartridge.  For  cannon,  is  the  powder 
charge  and  its  case.  The  case  is  a  cylindri- 
cal bag  of  fiannel,  wildbore,  or  serge,  in 
which  the  charge  is  placed.  The  mouth  is 
closed  by  tying  with  twine,  forming  the 
choke,  which  is  always  turned  towards  the 
muzzle  when  the  gun  is  charged.  For 
chambered  pieces  the  mouth  of  the  cartridge- 
bag  is  closed  with  a  cartridge-block  to  give 
it  a  proper  form.  For  some  services  the 
cartridge  is  attached  to  the  projectile,  in 
others  it  is  carried  separately.  See  Ord- 
nance, Ammunition  for. 

For  small-arms,  is  the  complete  charge 
when  the  powder  and  lead  are  in  the  same 
case;  if  separate,  it  applies  only  to  the 
powder  and  its  case.  A  case  containing 
powder  only  is  called  a  blank  cartridge. 
Cartridge-cases  for  military  small-arms  were 
formerly  made  of  paper.  In  loading  the 
gun  the  case  was  torn  and  the  powder  and 
ball  put  in  separately.  By  using  an  in- 
flammable paper  the  cartridge  was  after- 
wards used  entire,  especially  in  pistols  and 
breech-loaders.  Paper  cases  made  very 
strong  and  reinforced  by  metallic  heads  are 
still  much  used  in  breech-loading  shot-guns. 
Linen  or  cloth  cases  were  also  used  at  one 
period. 

The  introduction  of  breech-loaders  into 
the  military  service  has  led  to  the  universal 
adoption  of  7netallic  cartridges.  The  cases 
are  cylinders  of  copper  or  brass,  closed  at 
the  breech  end,  and  holding  both  powder 
and  bullet,  the  latter  being  retained  in  the 
case  by  a  slight  crimp.  A  small  quantity 
of  fulminate  in  the  base  inflames  the  powder 
upon  being  struck  by  the  firing-pin.  Eng- 
land is  behind  all  other  nations  in  the  use 
of  the  Boxer  cartridge,  the  case  of  which  is 
made  by  a  wrapping  of  thin  sheet-brass.  In 
the  manufacture  of  metallic  cartridges  the 
United  States  leads  the  world.  Millions 
were  supplied  the  Turks  in  their  late  war 
with  Russia  by  the  Winchester  Arms  Com- 
pany, of  New  Haven,  Conn.  Metallic  car- 
tridge are  reloading  and  single  fire.  Reload- 
ing cartridges  have  an  external  primer, 
which  can  bo  renewed  for  successive  load- 
ings. The  single  fire  have  the  fulminate 
inside  the  base,  and  cannot  readily  be  re- 
loaded. The  copper  cartridges  for  the  U.  S. 
service  rifle,  made  at  Frankford  Arsenal, 
Pa.,  are  of  this  latter  class. 

Cartridge-bag.     See  Cartridge. 

Cartridge-bags.  See  Ordnance,  Am- 
munition FOR,  Ammunition  for  Field 
Service. 

Cartridge-belt.   A  belt  for  carrying  small- 


CARTKIDGE-BLOCK 


93 


CASE-SUOT 


arm  cartridges.  A  form  extensively  used 
in  the  Western  United  States,  called  the 
prairie-bcif,  has  a  number  of  leather  or 
canvas  loops  sewed  on  the  outside  in  which 
the  oartridi^es  are  stuck. 

Cartridge-block.  Sec  Ordnance,  Am- 
munition FOR,  Strapi'ed  Ammunition. 

Cartridge,  Bottle.  A  metallic  cartridge, 
so  called  from  its  shape.  It  contains  a  larger 
charge  than  the  ordinary  cylindrical  car- 
tridge for  the  same  caliber.  The  cartridge 
used  in  the  Martini-Henry  is  of  this  shape. 

Cartridge-box.  A  leathern  case,  with 
cells  for  cartridges,  which  are  protected  by 
a  flap  of  leather.  This  box  is  suspended  by 
a  leathern  strap,  which  passes  over  the  left 
shoulder  and  under  the  right  arm  of  the 
wearer,  or  is  suspended  from  the  waist-belt, 
as  in  th(!  11.  8.  service. 

Cartridge,  Buck-and-ball.  A  cartridge 
containing  a  round  musket-ball  and  3  buck- 
shot, formerly  much  used  in  smooth-bore 
muskets. 

Cartridge,  Buckshot.  Containing  a 
charge  of  buckshot.  Formerly  used  in 
muskets,  but  now  obsolete  for  military  pur- 
poses. 

Cartridge,  Centre  Primed.  A  metallic 
cartridge  in  which  the  fulminate  is  placed 
in  the  centre  of  the  cartridge  head  or  base. 

Cartridge,  Multi-ball.  A  metallic  car- 
tridge recently  proposed  by  Capt.  E.  M. 
Wright,  U.  y.  Ordnance  Corps,  in  which 
two  or  more  bullets  or  pieces  of  lead  are 
substituted  for  the  ordinary  bullet,  with  the 
idea  of  doing  more  execution  at  short  ranges. 

Cartridge-paper.  A  stout  i)aper  formerly 
used  in  making  military  cartridges. 

Cartridge,  Reloading.     See  Cartridge. 

Cartridge,  Rim-fire.  A  metallic  car- 
tridge in  which  the  fulminate  is  placed  in 
the  rim  surrounding  the  head.  This  rim 
being  struck  at  any  point,  explodes  the 
powder.  Formerlj'  much  used  in  pistols 
and  magazine  guns.  These  cartridges  are 
not  reUinilinci. 

Cartridge,  Single-fire.    See  Cartridge. 

Casale,  or  Casal.  A  town  of  Piedmont, 
the  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name, 
on  the  river  Po.  Here  the  French  defeated 
the  Spaniards  in  1G40.  In  May,  1859,  an 
Austrian  reconnoitring  party,  who  had  ad- 
vanced from  Vercelli,  were  here  repulsed 
by  the  Sardinian  Bersaglieri  (riflemen). 

Casal  Nova.  A  village  in  Spain,  where 
a  corps  of  Lord  "Wellington's  army  liad  an 
atfjiir  with  the  French  troops  under  Marshal 
Massi-na,  during  tiieir  retreat  from  Portu- 
gal on  March  14,  1811. 

Cascabel.  In  gunnery,  is  the  projection 
in  rear  of  the  breech,  and  is  composed  of 
the  knob,  the  neck,  and  the  fillet.  It  is  used 
to  facilitate  the  handling  of  the  piece  in 
mounting  and  dismounting  it,  and  moving 
it  when  otF  its  carriage. 

Cascans.  In  fortification,  are  holes  in 
the  form  of  wells,  serving  as  entrances  to 
galleries,  or  giving  vent  to  the  enemy's 
mines. 


Case-hardening.  The  process  of  con- 
verting the  >urface  of  iron  into  steel.  For- 
merly much  used  in  making  small-arms. 
The  parts  to  be  hardened,  such  as  the  /tam- 
tner,  tumbler,  etc.,  were  inclosed  in  an  air- 
tight iron  box,  filled  with  charcoal,  bones, 
particles  of  horn,  or  other  carbonizing  sub- 
stance. The  box  and  its  contents  were  then 
submitted  to  prolonged  heat.  The  process 
is  that  of  incomplete  cementation  (which 
see). 

Casemate.  "Was  originally  a  loop-holed 
gallery  excavated  in  a  bastion,  from  which 
the  garrison  could  fire  on  an  enemy  who 
had  obtained  possession  of  the  ditch'  with- 
out risk  of  loss  to  themselves.  The  term 
was  afterwards  applied  to  a  bomb-proof 
vault  in  a  fortress,  which  is  designed  for 
the  protection  of  the  garrison,  without 
direct  reference  to  the  annoyance  of  the 
enemy.  A  casemated  battery  consists  of 
such  a  vault  or  vaults,  with  openings  for 
the  guns. 

Casemate  Carriage.  A  gun-carriage  used 
in  cuicmates.     See  Ordnance,  Carriages 

FOR. 

Casemate  Gun.  A  gun  mounted  in  a 
casemate. 

Casemates  Nouvelles  (Fr.).  Arched 
batteries  which  are  constructed  under  all 
the  openings  of  revetments  or  ramparts. 
The  different  forts  of  Cherbourg  are  de- 
fended by  these  casemates ;  the  works 
erected  around  Dover  Castle  come  like- 
wise under  this  description;  the  works  at 
Fort  Columbus,  N.  Y.,  are  erected  on  the 
same  principle. 

Casemate  Truck.  Consists  of  a  stout 
frame  of  wood  mounted  upon  three  barbette 
traverse  wheels.  The  front  wheel  is  piv- 
oted so  as  to  change  direction.  It  is  used  to 
move  cannon  and  heavy  weights  through 
posterns  and  along  casennite  galleries. 

Casernes.  In  fortification,  are  buildings 
for  the  soldiers  of  the  garrison  to  live  in; 
generally  erected  between  the  houses  of  forti- 
fied towns  and  the  rampart.  In  a  general 
acceptation,  casernes  signify  barracks. 

Case-shot.  In  the  IT.  S.  service,  a  case- 
shot  is  a  hollow  cast-iron  projectile  filled  with 
musket-balls.  The  jirojectile  has  thinner 
walls  than  the  ordinary  shell.  To  fill  it  a 
tube  is  inserted  in  the  fuze-hole,  the  balls  are 
introduced,  and  melted  sulphur  or  rosin  is 
poured  in  to  fill  up  the  interstices  and  keep 
the  balls  in  position.  When  this  has  solidi- 
fied the  tube  is  withdrawn,  leaving  a  vacant 
space  for  a  small  bursting  charge.  This 
description  answers  for  the  two  kinds  used, — 
the  spherical  case  for  the  12-pounder  smooth- 
bore and  the  oblong  case  for  rifle  guns.  Case- 
shot  should  be  burst  in  the  air  a  short  dis- 
tance in  front  of  the  troops  fired  upon. 
Time-fuzes  are,  therefore,  used  with  both  ; 
the  Borraann-fuze  for  the  former,  and  the 
paper  fuze  for  the  latter.  In  Eun»pe  this 
ammunition  is  called  shrapnel,  from  the  in- 
ventor. There  the  term  case-shot  is  applied 
to  what  is  called  in  the  United  Stales  cants- 


CASHIER 


94 


CASTLE-GTJARD 


ter^ — that  is,  a  thin  case  filled  with  bullets, 
used  for  short  range  without  fuzes,  the  case 
being  disrupted  in  the  gun. 

Cashier.  To  dismiss  from  the  service 
with  ignominy.  An  officer  thus  dismissed  is 
understood  to  be  excluded  from  the  service 
thereafter.  A  dismissed  officer  may  be  re- 
stored ;  a  cashiered  officer  is  deemed  unwor- 
thy of  the  indulgence. 

Cashmere.  A  province  of  Northern  In- 
dia; was  subdued  by  the  Mohammedans  in 
the  16th  century;  by  the  Afghans  in  1752; 
by  the  Sikhs  in  1819;  and  ceded  to  the 
British  in  1846,  who  gave  it  to  the  Mahara- 
jah Gholab-Singh,  with  a  nominal  sover- 
eignty. 

Casing.  The  cast-iron  case  of  converted 
guns  (which  see). 

Casks,  Raft  of.     See  Raft  of  Casks. 

Casque,  or  Cask.  A  piece  of  defensive 
armor,  to  cover  and  protect  the  head  and 
neck  in  battle  ;  a  helmet. 

Cassano.  A  town  of  Lombardy,  16  miles 
from  Milan,  on  the  river  Adda.  In  1259, 
Eccelino  Romana,  chief  of  the  Ghibelines, 
was  here  defeated  and  killed.  In  1705  the 
French  under  the  Duke  of  Vendome  gained 
a  victory  over  the  Imperialists,  commanded 
by  Prince  Eugene;  and  in  1799,  Suwarrow 
inflicted  a  defeat  on  the  French  under 
Moreau. 

Cassel.  A  city  of  Germany,  90  miles 
northeast  from  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  It 
was  the  capital  of  Westphalia  under  Napo- 
leon I. ;  besieged  by  the  allies  in  1761 ;  taken 
by  the  allies  November  1,  1762;  captured 
by  the  Russians  in  September,  1813. 

Cassel.  A  town  of  France,  department 
of  the  North.  On  April  11,  1677,  the  Mar- 
shal de  Luxemburg  near  here  defeated  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  who  lost  4000  dead  and 
8000  prisoners.  The  French  occupied  Cas- 
sel, June  19,  1707. 

Casse-tete  [Fr.).  A  mace  or  war-club, 
made  of  very  hard  wood,  used  formerly  in 
savage  warfare. 

Cassine.  A  small  house,  especially  in  the 
open  country  ;  applied  also  to  a  house  stand- 
ing alone,  where  soldiers  may  lie  hid,  or  may 
take  a  position. 

Cas,  St.  A  village  on  the  coast  of  France, 
in  the  department  Cote  du  Nord.  Here,  in 
1758,  a  landing  of  the  British  under  Lord 
Cavendish  was  repulsed,  and  100  years  after- 
wards a  column  was  inaugurated  to  com- 
memorate the  event. 

Castalla.  A  town  of  Spain,  24  miles 
northwest  of  Alicante.  The  Spaniards  un- 
der O'Donnell  were  here  defeated  by  the 
French  under  Delort,  August  21,  1812. 

Casteggio.  A  town  of  Northern  Italy, 
in  the  division  of  Alessandria.  On  June  9, 
1800,  the  battle  of  Montebello  was  gained 
by  the  French  under  Lannes  over  the  Aus- 
trians  in  the  neighborhood  of  this  place. 
On  May  20,  1859,  another  engagement  was 
fought  here  between  the  Austrians  under 
Count  Stadion  and  the  French  and  Sardinian 
troops,  in  which  the  latter  were  victorious. 


Castel-a-Mare.  A  seaport  town  of  Sicily. 
Richelieu  defeated  the  Spanish  fleet  here  in 
1648;  and  in  1799  a  battle  was  fought  be- 
tween the  French  under  Marshal  Macdonald 
and  the  allied  English  and  Neapolitans. 

Castel  Fidardo.  Near  Ancona,  Central 
Italy.  Near  here  Gen.  Lamoriciere  and 
the  papal  army  of  11,000  men  were  totally 
defeated  by  the  Sardinian  general  Cialdini, 
September  18,  1860.  Lamoriciere  with  a 
few  horsemen  fled  to  Ancona,  then  besieged ; 
on  September  29  he  and  the  garrison  sur- 
rendered. 

Castellan.  A  governor  or  constable  of  a 
castle. 

Castellated.  Adorned  with  turrets  and 
battlements,  like  a  castle. 

Castellation.  The  act  of  fortifying  a 
house  and  rendering  it  a  castle.  Now  obso- 
lete. 

Castelnaud^ry.  A  town  of  France,  de- 
partment of  Aude.  It  suffered  greatly  in 
the  wars  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  under  its 
walls  the  Duke  of  Montmorency  was  made 
prisoner  by  the  royal  troops  in  1632. 

Castiglione.  A  fortified  town  of  Lom- 
bardy, 22  miles  northwest  from  Mantua. 
Here,  in  1796,  the  French  under  Augereau 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Austrians. 
The  French  commander  was  afterwards 
made,  on  account  of  this  battle.  Due  de 
Castiglione.  In  1859  the  battle  of  Solferino 
also  occurred  in  its  neighborhood. 

Castillejos.  In  Northern  Africa  ;  here, 
in  January,  1860,  was  fought  the  first  deci- 
sive action  of  the  war  between  Spain  and 
Morocco.  Gen.  Prim,  after  a  vigorous  re- 
sistance, repulsed  the  Moors  under  Muley 
Abbas,  and  advanced  towards  Tetuan. 

Castillon.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Gironde.  It  is  celebrated  as 
the  scene  of  the  battle  between  the  forces  of 
Henry  VI.  of  England  and  Charles  VII.  of 
France,  in  July,  1453,  in  which  the  English 
met  with  a  signal  defeat,  their  leader,  the 
Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  and  his  son  being  slain. 

Casting.  The  rejection  of  horses  deemed 
unfit  for  further  cavalry  use. 

Casting  Cannon.  See  Ordnance,  Con- 
struction OF. 

Cast  Iron.    See  Ordnance,  Metals  for. 

Castle.  A  name  given  to  a  building  con- 
structed as  a  dwelling,  as  well  as  for  the 
purpose  of  repelling  attack.  The  name  is 
especially  given  to  buildings  of  this  kind 
constructed  in  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  which  were  generally  surrounded  by  a 
moat,  foss,  or  ditch. 

Castlebar.  A  town  of  Ireland.  French 
troops  under  Humbert  landed  at  Killala, 
and,  assisted  by  Irish  insurgents  here,  com- 
pelled the  king's  troops  under  Lake  to  re- 
treat, August  27,  1798;  but  were  compelled 
to  surrender  at  Ballinamuck. 

Castlecomer.  A  town  of  Ireland  ;  in  the 
rebellion  of  1798  this  town  was  attacked  by 
the  rebels,  and  nearly  destroyed  by  fire. 

Castle-guard.  The  guard  which  defends 
a  castle. 


CASTLES 


95 


CAVALIER 


Castles.  In  heraldry,  castles  are  often 
given  as  charges  in  the  shields  of  persons 
who  liiive  reduced  them,  or  heen  the  tirst  to 
mount  their  walls  in  an  assault. 

Cast-metal  Gun.  See  Okdnance,  Cast- 
MKTAi.  Cannon. 

Castrametation.  Is  the  art  of  laying 
out  canips,  and  of  placing  the  troops  so  that 
the  ditltTCMt  arms  of  the  service  shall  aft'ord 
support  to  each  other  in  the  best  manner. 

Cast  Steel.   See  Okdxan'ce,  Metal.s  for. 

Casualties.  In  the  military  service,  is  a 
word  which  includes  all  losses  in  numerical 
strength  of  officers  by  death,  dismissal,  or 
resignation,  and  of  enlisted  men  by  death, 
desertion,  or  discharge;  also  all  losses  in 
fighting  strength  caused  by  wounds. 

Casus  Belli.  A  Latin  phrase  used  with 
reference  to  any  event,  or  complication  be- 
tween sovereign  powers,  which  gives  rise  to 
a  declaration  of  war. 

Catafalco.  In  ancient  military  architec- 
ture, a  scaffold  of  timber,  decorated  with 
sculpture,  paintings,  etc.,  for  supporting  the 
coffin  of  a  deceased  hero  during  the  funeral 
solemnity. 

Catalans.  The  inhabitants  of  Catalonia, 
Spain.  Their  language,  costume,  and  habits 
arc  quite  distinct  from  those  of  the  rest  of 
their  countrymen.  In  energy,  industry,  and 
intelligence  they  greatly  surpass  the  rest  of 
the  Spaniards.  They  were  considered  brave 
warrior>i. 

Catalaunian  Plain.  The  ancient  name 
of  the  wide  plain  surrounding  Chalons-sur- 
Marne,  in  the  old  province  of  Campagne, 
France,  celebrated  as  the  field  of  battle 
where  the  AVest  Goths,  and  the  forces  under 
the  Roman  general  Aetius,  gained  a  great 
victory  over  Attila  in  4ol.  A  wild  tradition 
tells  that  three  days  after  the  great  fight,  the 
ghosts  of  the  fallen  myriads  appeared  on  the 
plain,  and  renewed  the  conflict. 

Catalonia.  An  old  province  of  Western 
Spain,  was  settled  by  the  Goths  and  Alani 
about  4(»'.t;  conquered  by  the  Saracens,  712; 
recovered  by  Pepin  and  Charlemagne ;  united 
with  Arago'n  in  1137.  It  formed  part  of  the 
Spanish  marches  and  the  territory  of  the 
Count  of  Barcelona. 

Catania  (anc.  Cutana).  A  town  near 
Mount  Etna,  Sicily.  The  ancient  city  was 
founded  by  the  Phtcnicians  or  Greeks,  and 
was  nearly  as  old  as  Home.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Athenian  general  Nicias  about  413 
B.C.,  and  was  an  important  city  under  the 
Komans.  In  August,  18t>2,  the  town  was 
held  by  Garibaldi  and  his  volunteers,  in 
opposition  to  the  Italian  government.  Ho 
was  captured  on  August  29. 

Cataphract.  The  old  Roman  term  for  a 
horseman  in  complete  armor. 

Cataphracta.  I  n  the  ancient  military  art, 
a  jtii'co  of  heavy  defensive  armor,  formed  of 
cloth  or  leather,  fortified  with  iron  scales  or 
links,  wherewith  sometimes  only  the  breast, 
sometimes  the  whole  boily,  and  sometimes 
the  horse  too,  was  covered. 

Catapult  (Lat.  catapulta).     An  engine  of 


war  used  by  the  ancients,  somewhat  resem- 
bling a  cro.«s-bow.  In  the  catapult  a  string 
or  rope,  suddenly  freed  from  great  tension, 
gave  a  powerful  impulse  to  an  arrow  placed 
in  a  groove.  There  were  great  catapults, 
fl.\ed  upon  a  scaflold  with  wheels,  which  were 
used  in  sieges,  and  small  ones,  carried  in  the 
hand,  which  were  employed  in  the  field. 

Cataract.     A  portcullis. 

Catawrba  Indians.  A  tribe  of  aborigines 
who  formerly  inhabited  the  Carolinas.  A 
remnant  still  exists  on  a  reservation  on  the 
Catawba  River.     See  Indians  and  thkib 

AOENCIES. 

Cateau  Cambresis.  In  Northern  France, 
where  f)n  April  2  and  3,  1").59,  peace  was 
concluded  between  ilenry  II.  of  France, 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  Elizabeth  of  Eng- 
land France  ceded  Savoy,  Corsica,  and 
nearly  200  forts  in  Italy  and  the  Low  Coun- 
tries to  Philip. 

Caterva.  In  ancient  military  writings, 
a  term  used  in  speaking  of  the  Gaulish  or 
Celtiberian  armies,  denoting  a  body  of  GOOD 
armed  men.  The  word  is  also  used  to  denote 
a  party  of  soldiers  in  disarray  ;  in  opposition 
to  cohort  or  turma,  which  signify  in  good 
order. 

Cat-o'-nine-tails.  An  instrument  of  pun- 
ishment formerly  used  to  flog  offenders  in 
the  army,  consisting  of  nine  pieces  of  line 
or  cord  fastened  to  a  piece  of  thick  rope,  and 
having  three  knots  at  intervals. 

Cattaro.  A  fortified  town  of  Dalmatia, 
Austria,  at  the  bottom  of  the  Gulf  of  Cat- 
taro. This  town  was  captured  by  the  British 
in  1813,  and  till  1814  belonged  successively 
to  Austria  and  France. 

Catti.  An  ancient  German  tribe,  attacked 
but  not  subdued  by  the  Romans ;  absorbed 
by  the  Franks  in  the  3d  century. 

Caudine  Forks.  Two  narrow  mountain- 
gorges  or  defiles  near  the  town  of  Caudium, 
in  ancient  Samnium.  They  are  celebrated 
in  connection  with  a  humiliating  disaster 
which  the  Roman  army  suffered  in  321  n.c. 

Caution.  An  explanation  given  previous 
to  the  word  of  command,  by  which  soldiers 
are  called  to  attention,  that  they  may  exe- 
cute any  given  movement  with  unanimity 
and  correctness. 

Cavalcade.  In  military  history,  implies 
a  pompous  procession  of  horsemen,  equi- 
pages, etc.,  by  way  of  parade,  to  grace  a 
triumph,  public  entry,  or  the  like. 

Cavalier.  Originally  meant  any  horse- 
soldier,  but  in  English  history  is  the  name 
given  to  the  party  which  adhered  to  King 
Charles  I.,  in  opposition  to  the  Roundheads, 
or  friends  of  the  Parliament. 

Cavalier.  In  fortification,  is  a  defense- 
work  constructed  on  the  terre-plein,  or  level 
ground  of  a  bastion.  It  rises  to  a  height 
varying  from  8  to  12  feet  alxive  the  ram- 
part, and  has  a  parapet  about  t>  feet  high. 
Its  uses  are  to  command  any  rising  ground 
held  by  the  enemy  within  cannon-shot,  and 
to  guard  the  curtain,  or  plain  wall  between 
two  bastions,  from  being  enfiladed.     A  cav- 


CAVALOT 


CEMENTATION 


alier  battery — used  in  siege  operations— is  a 
battery  of  which  the  terre-plein,  or  platform 
of  earth  on  which  the  gun  stands,  is  above 
the  ordinary  level  of  the  ground. 

Cavalot.  An  obsolete  cannon  carrrying  a 
ball  weighing  one  pound. 

Cavalry.  That  part  of  a  military  force 
■which  consists  of  troops  that  serve  on  horse- 
back. In  European  armies  cavalry  are  gen- 
erally classed  as  heavy,  medium,  and  light, 
— cuirassiers  and  dragoons,  lancers,  hussars, 
etc.  In  the  U.  S.  service  all  mounted  sol- 
diers are  simply  called  cavalry. 

Caveating.  In  fencing,  iinplies  a  motion 
whereby  a  person  in  an  instant  brings  his 
sword,  which  was  presented  to  one' side  of 
his  adversary,  to  the  opposite  side. 

Cavesson.  A  sort  of  nose-band  of  leather 
or  iron,  which  is  put  on  the  nose  of  a  horse, 
to  assist  in  breaking  or  training  him. 

Cavin.  In  military  affairs,  implies  a  nat- 
ural hollow,  sufficiently  capacious  to  lodge  a 
body  of  troops,  and  facilitate  their  approach 
to  a  place.  If  it  be  within  musket-shot,  it 
is  a  place  of  arms  ready  made,  and  serves 
for  opening  the  trenches,  free  from  the 
enemy's  shot. 

Cavriana.  A  village  of  Northern  Italy. 
The  tower  of  this  place  formed  one  of  the 
principal  positions  of  the  centre  of  the  Aus- 
trian army,  from  which  it  was  driven  by  the 
Franco-Sardinian  forces,  under  Napoleon 
III.  and  Victor  Emmanuel,  at  the  battle  of 
Solferino,  June  24,  1859. 

Cawnpoor,  or  Cawnpore.  A  town  of  Hin- 
dostan,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges. 
It  IS  an  important  British  military  station. 
It  was  garrisoned  during  the  mutiny  in  June, 
1857,  by  native  troops  under  Sir  Hugh 
Wheeler  ;  these  troops  broke  out  into  revolt. 
Nana  Sahib,  who  had  long  lived  on  friendly 
terms  with  the  British,  joined  the  rebels  ;  he 
took  Cawnpoor,  June  26,  after  a  three  weeks' 
siege,  and  in  spite  of  a  treaty,  massacred 
great  numbers  of  the  British,  without  re- 
spect to  age  or  sex,  in  the  most  cruel  manner. 
Gen.  Havelock  defeated  Nana  Sahib  July 
16,  at  Futtehpore,  and  retook  Cawnpoor, 
July  17.  Sir  Colin  Campbell  defeated  the 
rebels  here  on  December  6,  following. 

Cayenne.  French  Guiana,  South  Amer- 
ica ;  settled  by  the  French,  1604-35.  It 
afterwards  came  successively  into  the  hands 
of  the  English  (1654),  French,  and  Dutch. 
The  last  were  expelled  by  the  French  in 
1677.  Cayenne  was  taken  by  the  British, 
January  12,  1809,  but  was  restored  to  the 
French  in  1814. 

Cedar  Creek.  In  Northern  Virginia. 
"While  encamped  on  this  creek  on  the  morn- 
ing of  October  19,  1864,  the  army  of  Gen. 
Sheridan  was  suddenly  attacked  before  day- 
light by  the  Confederate  troops  under  Gen. 
Early,  its  left  ilank  turned,  and  the  whole 
line  driven  back  in  confusion  about  4  miles, 
with  the  loss  of  24  pieces  of  artillery.  Gen. 
Sheridan,  who  was  at  Winchester  on  his 
return  from  Washington,  on  hearing  of  this 
disaster,  hastened  to  the  scene  of  action,  re- 


formed his  corps,  and  awaited  the  attack  of 
the  enemy,  which  was  made  and  handsomely 
repulsed  about  1  p.m.  About  3  p.m.  Sheri- 
dan attacked  the  eneniy  and  completely 
routed  him,  recovering  his  own  artillery  and 
capturing  30  pieces  besides,  thus  converting 
into  a  brilliant  victory  what  threatened  to 
be  a  great  disaster.  About  2000  prisoners 
and  300  wagons  and  ambulances  fell  into 
Sheridan's  hands,  and  many  of  his  own  men 
who  had  been  taken  prisoners  in  the  morn- 
ing were  recovered. 

Cedar  Mountain.  A  sugar-loaf  eminence 
about  2  miles  west  of  Mitchell's  Station, 
Culpeper  Co.,  Va.  On  August  9,  1862,  a 
sanguinary  conflict  took  place  here  between 
the  Confederate  forces  under  Gens.  Jackson 
and  Ewell,  and  part  of  Gen.  Pope's  army 
under  Gen.  Banks,  night  putting  an  end  to 
the  contest.  The  Federals  being  largely 
outnumbered,  suffered  severely,  and  fell 
back  about  a  mile,  but  without  disorder. 
Their  loss  was  about  1500,  300  of  whom 
were  taken  prisoners.  A  considerable  quan- 
tity of  ammunition,  stores,  etc.,  also  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Confederates. 

Celeres.  The  life-guards  which  attended 
Romulus  in  the  infancy  of  Rome,  were  so 
called.  They  were  laid  aside  by  Numa 
Pompilius.  Celeres  were  properly  distin- 
guished from  other  troops,  by  being  lightly 
armed  and  acting  always  on  foot. 

Cells.  Places  of  solitary  confinement  in 
which  soldiers  are  placed,  as  punishment  for 
serious  crimes. 

Celtiberi,  or  Celtiberians.  An  ancient 
and  warlike  people  of  Spain,  who  are  re- 
nowned in  history  for  their  long  and  obsti- 
nate resistance  to  the  Romans.  In  the  sec- 
ond Punic  war,  after  giving  important  aid 
to  the  Carthaginians,  they  were  induced  by 
the  generosity  of  Scipio  to  accept  the  alli- 
ance of  Rome.  They  revolted  against  Rome 
in  181  B.C.,  but  were  appeased  by  Gracchus 
in  179.  War  was  renewed  in  153,  and  con- 
tinued with  varying  success  until  after  the 
capture  of  Numantia,  134  B.C.  In  spite  of 
this  great  blow  the  Celtiberi  again  renewed 
the  war  under  Sertorius,  and  it  was  only 
after  his  fall  that  they  began  to  adopt  the 
Roman  language,  dress,  and  manners. 

Cement.  Hydraulic  cements  are  much 
used  in  building  permanent  fortifications. 
The  cement  used  by  the  Romans  in  their 
great  sea-walls,  aqueducts,  etc.,  which  are 
still  standing  as  monuments  of  their  civil 
engineering,  w&spozzuola7ia,  a  volcanic  earth 
from  near  BaicB,  Italy.  It  is  still  an  article 
of  export  from  Italy.  The  most  noted  mod- 
ern cement  is  Portland,  made  artificially  in 
England  by  burning  a  mixture  of  the  chalk 
and  clay  from  the  valley  of  the  Medway. 

Cementation.  In  metallurgy,  is  the  pro- 
cess of  converting  metals  by  absorption  under 
great  heat.  Specially  applied  to  the  conver- 
sion of  iron  into  steel  by  causing  it  to  absorb 
carbon.  The  iron  bars  are  imbedded  in  char- 
coal and  exposed  to  prolonged  heat  in  a 
closed  furnace.     The  qualities  of  the  result- 


CENOTAPH 


97 


CEUTA 


ing  steel  vary  with  the  degree  and  duration  of 
the  heating.  The  bars,  when  removed,  are 
called  blistered  steel  from  their  appearance. 
See  Okdnance,  Metals  for,  Blistered 
Steel. 

Cenotaph.  The  empty  tomb  of  a  hero, 
or  monument  erected  in  honor  of  a  person, 
without  the  body  of  the  deceased  being  in- 
terred in  or  near  it. 

Centesimation.  In  ancient  military  his- 
tory, a  mild  ivind  of  military  punishment, 
in  cases  of  desertion,  mutiny,  and  the  like, 
when  only  every  one  hundredth  man  was 
executed. 

Central  America.  Includes  the  republics 
of  GuateiiKila.San  Salvador,  Honduras,  Nic- 
aragua, and  Costa  liica  (which  see).  They 
declared  their  independence  September  21, 
18*21,  and  separated  from  the  Mexican  Con- 
federation July  21,  1823.  The  states  made  a 
treaty  of  union  between  themselves  March 
21,  1847.  There  has  been  among  them  since 
much  anarchy  and  bloodshed. 

Centre.  A  point  equally  distant  from  the 
e.xtremities  of  a  line,  figure,  or  body ;  the 
middle  point  or  place  of  anything. 

Centre  of  an  Army.  The  body  of  troops 
occujjying  the  place  in  the  line  between  the 
wings.     See  T.vkoet. 

Centre  of  Gravity.  The  point  of  a  body 
about  which  all  its  parts  are  balanced.  This 
is  a  matter  of  great  importance  in  cannon, 
both  for  mechanical  manoeuvres  and  for  ordi- 
nary handling.  In  all  large  guns  in  the 
United  States,  and  in  many  in  Europe,  the 
axis  of  the  trunnions  passes  through  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  gun.  Such  guns 
have  no  preponderance,  and  need  no  support 
in  firing  except  the  trunnions.  This  inno- 
vation was  introduced  by  the  genius  of  Rod- 
man, and  brought  many  advantages  in  the 
handling  of  heavy  guns.  In  projectiles,  the 
centre  of  gravity,  or  inertia,  is  also  a  thing 
of  moment.  Spherical  projectiles  in  which 
this  point  does  not  coincide  with  the  centre 
of  fif/iire  are  said  to  be  eccentric,  and  are 
subject  to  certain  deviations  (see  Pro.iec- 
TILK.S) ;  ilevintion  of  the  relative  position  of 
these  jioints  inlluences  the  flight  also  of  rifle 
projectiles. 

Centre  of  the  Bastion.  In  fortification, 
is  the  intersection  made  by  the  two  dcmi- 
gorges. 

Centrifugal  Gun.  A  form  of  machine 
gun  in  which  balls  are  thrown  from  a  cham- 
bered disk  rotating  with  great  speed. 

Centrobaric  Method.  The  method  or- 
dinarily used  to  determine  by  calculation 
the  centre  of  gravity  of  a  j^rojected  gun. 
The  principle  used  is  that  the'volume  gen- 
erated by  any  surface  in  revolving  about  a 
fixed  axis  is  measured  by  the  product  of 
the  surface  into  the  path  described  by  its 
centre  of  gravity.  The  moments  of  the  j 
weights  of  the  several  parts  are  referred  to 
an  axis  usually  taken  tangent  to  the  knob  of 
the  cascabel.  The  sum  of  these  moments, 
divided  by  the  weight  of  the  piece,  gives  the 
distance  of  the  centre  of  gravitv  from  the 


assumed  axis.  In  homogeneous  guns,  the 
volumes  of  the  several  parts  can  be  used 
instead  of  the  weights. 

Centurion.  A  military  oflScer  among  the 
ancient  Romans,  who  commanded  a  [centxim) 
hundred  men. 

Century.  In  an  ancient  military  sense, 
meant  a  hundred  soldiers,  who  were  em- 
ployed in  working  the  battering-ram. 

Cephalonia.  One  of  the  Ionian  Islands  ; 
was  taken  from  the  ..Etolians  by  the  Ro- 
mans 189  B.C.,  and  given  to  the  Athenians 
by  Hadrian  in  135.  It  was  conquered  by 
the  Normans  in  11 4f),  afterwards  passed  into 
the  possession  of  the  Venetians,  and  was 
taken  by  the  English  in  1810. 

Cephisus.  A  river  in  Attica,  near  which 
Walter  de  Brieniie,  duke  of  Athens,  was 
defeated  and  slain  by  the  Catalans  in  1311. 

Cercelee,  or  Recercelee.  In  heraldry,  is 
a  cross  circling  or  curling  at  the  ends,  like 
a  ram's  horn. 

Cercle  (Grnnd-cercle),  Fr.  A  form  ob- 
served under  the  old  government  of  France, 
by  which  it  was  directed  that  every  evening 
at  a  specific  hour  the  sergeants  and  corpo- 
rals of  brigade  should  assemble  to  receive 
orders,  the  former  standing  in  front  of  the 
latter.  Subsequent  to  the  grand  cercle,  a 
smaller  one  was  made  in  each  regiment, 
when  general  or  regimental  orders  were 
again  repeated  to  the  sergeants  of  each  regi- 
ment, and  from  them  communicated  to  the 
officers  of  the  several  companies. 

Ceremonies,  Stated  Military.  Exercises, 
such  as  parades,  reviews,  inspections,  escorts 
of  the  color,  escorts  of  honor,  funeral  hon- 
ors, guard-mounting,  etc. 

Cerignola.  A  town  of  South  Italy,  in 
the  province  of  Capitanata.  Here,  in  1503, 
the  French  were  defeated  by  the  Spaniards, 
and  the  Duke  of  Nemours,  who  commanded 
the  former,  was  slain. 

Cerro  Gordo.  A  celebrated  mountain- 
pass  in  Mexico,  about  00  miles  northwest  of 
Vera  Cruz.  Here  an  army  of  about  12,000 
Mexicans  under  Santa  Anna  was  totally 
defeated  by  about  8000  U.  S.  troops  under 
Gen.  Scott^  April  18,  1847.  The  Mexicans 
lost  about  1000  killed  and  wounded,  besides 
3000  prisoners ;  the  American  loss  was  431 
killed  and  wounded. 

Certificate  of  Disability.  See  Disabil- 
ity. 

Certificate  of  Merit.  See  Merit,  Cer- 
tificate OF. 

Cessation  of  Arms.  An  armistice  or 
truce,  agreed  to  by  the  commanders  of 
armies,  to  give  them  time  for  a  capitulation, 
or  for  other  purposes. 

Ceuta.  A  fortified  seaport  of  Morocco, 
opposite  Gibraltar.  The  castle  stands  on 
the  highest  point  of  the  ancient  Ahyla,  ono 
of  the  pillars  of  Hercules,  terminating  a 
peninsula.  This  was  a  .Mauritanian  town 
under  the  Romans,  and  in  1415  was  taken 
from  the  Moors  by  the  Portuguese.  In  1580 
it  passed  int<i  the  possession  of  the  Spanish, 
in  whose  hands  it  afterwards  remained. 


CEYLON" 


98 


CHAMPIGNY 


Ceylon  (anc.  Taprohane).  An  island  in 
the  Indian  Ocean.  It  was  invaded  by  the 
Portuguese  Almeyda,  1505,  but  it  was  known 
to  the  Ilomans  in  the  time  of  Claudius,  41. 
The  Dutch  landed  in  Ceylon  in  1602;  they 
captured  the  capital,  Colombo,  in  1503.  In- 
tercourse with  the  British  began  in  1713. 
A  large  portion  of  the  country  Avas  taken 
by  them  in  1782,  but  was  restored  in  1783. 
The  Dutch  settlements  were  seized  by  the 
British,  1795.  Ceylon  was  ceded  to  the 
British  by  the  peace  of  Amiens  in  1802. 
The  British  troops  were  treacherously  mas- 
sacred or  imprisoned  by  the  Adigar  of  Candy, 
at  Colombo,  June  26,  1803.  The  complete 
sovereignty  of  the  island  was  assumed  by 
England  in  1815. 

Chaeronea  (Bceotia).  Here  Greece  was 
ruined  by  Philip,  32,000  Macedonians  de- 
feating 30,000  Thebans,  Athenians,  etc., 
August  6  or  7,  338  B.C.  Here  Archelaus, 
lieutenant  of  Mithridates,  was  defeated  by 
Sylla,  and  110,000  Cappadocians  were  slain, 
86  B.C. 

Chain.  A  chain  made  of  a  kind  of  wire, 
divided  into  links  of  an  equal  length,  is 
made  use  of  by  military  engineers  for  set- 
ting out  works  on  the  ground,  because  cord 
lines  are  apt  to  shrink  and  give  way. 

Chain-ball.     See  Projectile. 

Chain-mail.  A  kind  of  armor  made  of 
interlaced  rings,  both  flexible  and  strong ; 
much  used  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries. 

Chain-shot.     See  Projectile. 

Chair.  See  Ordnance,  Carriages  for, 
Nomenclature  of  Artillery  Carriage. 

Chalcedon.  In  Asia  Minor,  opposite  By- 
zantium, colonized  by  Magarians  about  68-1 
B.C.  It  was  taken  by  Darius,  505  B.C. ;  by 
the  Eomans,  74 ;  plundered  by  the  Goths, 
259  A.D.;  taken  by  Chosroes  the  Persian, 
609 ;  by  Orchan  the  Turk  in  1338. 

Chalcis.  An  ancient  Greek  city,  of  great 
antiquity,  the  capital  of  the  island  of  Euboea. 
It  rose  to  great  eminence,  but  finally  became 
a  tributary  of  Athens,  from  whose  sway  it 
revolted  several  times,  being  as  often,  how- 
ever, subdued,  and  held  until  the  down- 
fall of  the  Athenian  empire  at  the  close  of  the 
Peloponnesian  war.  In  later  times  it  was  suc- 
cessively occupied  by  the  Macedonians,  An- 
tiochus,  Mithridates,  and  the  Eomans.  It 
joined  the  Acha^ans  in  the  last  war  against 
the  Ilomans,  and  the  town  was  in  conse- 
quence destroyed  by  Mummius.  The  mod- 
ern city  of  Egripo,  or  Negropont,  built  on 
its  site,  for  a  time  in  possession  of  the  Vene- 
tians, was  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1470. 

Chalgrove.  In  Oxfordshire,  England. 
At  a  skirmish  here  with  Prince  Kupert, 
June  18,  1G43,  John  Hampden,  of  the  Par- 
liament party,  was  mortally  wounded.  A 
column  was  erected  to  his  memory,  June 
18,  1843. 

Challenge.  The  act  of  a  sentinel  in  ques- 
tioning or  demanding  the  countersign  from 
those  who  appear  at  his  post. 

Challenge.  See  Appendix,  Articles  of 
War,  26,  27,  and  28. 


Challenge  of  Members  of  Courts-mar- 
tial. When  a  member  shall  be  challenged 
by  a  prisoner,  he  must  state  his  cause  of 
challenge,  of  which  the  court  shall,  after 
due  deliberation,  determine  the  relevancy  or 
validity,  and  decide  accordingly ;  and  no 
challenge  to  more  than  one  member  at  a 
time  shall  be  received  by  the  court. 

Chalons-sur-Marne.  A  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  Marne.  Here  the  em- 
peror Aurelian  defeated  Tetricus,  the  last 
of  the  pretenders  to  the  throne  termed  the 
Thirty  Tyrants,  274;  and  here  in  451  Aetius 
defeated  Attila  the  Hun,  compelling  him  to 
retire  into  Pannonia. 

Chamade.  A  signal  made  for  parley  by 
beat  of  drum. 

Chamber.  Of  a  mine,  that  place  where 
the  powder  is  deposited. 

Chamber.  In  howitzers,  and  mortars  of 
the  old  model,  was  the  smallest  part  of  the 
bore,  and  contained  the  charge  of  powder. 
In  the  howitzers  the  chamber  was  cylindri- 
cal, and  was  united  with  the  large  cylinder 
of  the  bore  by  a  conical  surface  ;  the  angles 
of  intersection  of  the  conical  surface  with 
the  cylinders  of  the  bore  and  chamber  were 
rounded  (in  profile)  by  arcs  of  circles.  In 
the  8-inch  howitzer,  the  chamber  was  united 
with  the  cylinder  of  the  bore  by  spherical 
surface,  in  order  that  the  shell  might,  when 
necessary,  be  inserted  without  a  sabot.  The 
chamber  is  omitted  in  all  cannon  of  the 
late  models,  the  cylinder  of  the  bore  ter- 
minating at  the  bottom  in  a  semi-ellipsoid. 
The  old  chambers  were  subcaliber.  The  first 
use  of  a  chamber  larger  than  the  bore  oc- 
curred, it  is  believed,  in  a  gun  invented  by 
an  American  named  Ferris.  The  gun  had 
a  great  range.  One  of  the  most  important 
improvements  in  recent  ordnance  consists  in 
the  use  of  this  chamber.  The  English,  who 
deserve  the  credit  of  first  appreciating  it, 
now  use  it  in  all  their  largest  guns.  See 
Ordnance,  History  of. 

Chambersburg.  The  capital  of  Franklin 
Co.,  Pa.  This  place  was  the  scene  of  several 
exciting  incidents  during  the  civil  war.  It 
was  occupied  by  a  party  of  Confederate  cav- 
alry under  Gen.  Stuart  in  1862,  by  a  part  of 
Gen.  Ewell's  forces  in  June,  1863,  and  next 
month  almost  totally  destroyed  by  fire  by  a 
party  of  Confederate  cavalry  under  Gen. 
McCausland. 

Chamfron,  or  Chamfrain.  The  frontlet 
of  a  barbed  or  armed  horse,  usually  having 
a  spike  between  the  eyes. 

Champ  de  Mars.  An  open  square  in 
front  of  the  Military  School,  Paris,  which 
was  used  for  The  great  meetings  of  the  French 
people,  reviews,  etc. 

Champigny.  A  town  of  France,  depart- 
ment of  the  Seine,  8  miles  east-southeast  of 
Paris.  On  November  30,  1870,  a  force  of 
120,000  French  under  Gens.  Trochu  and 
Ducrot,  who  made  a  sortie  from  Paris,  were 
met  near  here  by  the  Germans,  and  some 
severe  fighting  ensued,  with  great  loss  on 
both  sides,   the  French   holding  the  taken 


CHAMPION 


99 


CHARCOAL 


Jossessions  until  the  contest  was  renewed, 
)ecember  2,  wlien  the  French  were  com- 
pelled to  retreat. 

Champion  Hills.  In  Hinds  Co.,  Miss., 
west  of  Jacicsun.  Here  the  Confederate 
forces  under  Gen.  Peniberton  were  dffeated 
bv  the  Union  troops  under  Gen.  Grant, 
May  Ki,  18(i3. 

Champlain,  Lake.  An  extensive  body  of 
water  forminj;  part  of  the  boundary  between 
the  States  of  Vermont  and  New  York,  and 
extending  northward  a  few  miles  beyond  the 
Caiuida  line.  It  was  the  scene  of  engage- 
ments between  the  Americans  and  British 
during  the  war  of  independence.  On  its 
waters  also,  in  1814,  Commodore  Macdon- 
ough  gained  a  victory  over  the  British  fleet. 

Chancellorsville.  A  small  village  of 
Spottsylvania  Co.,  Va.,  near  the  Rappahan- 
nock kiver,  about  65  miles  north  oy  west 
from  Richmond.  This  place  was  the  scene 
of  several  sanguinary  conflicts  between  the 
Federal  army  of  the  Potomac  under  Gen. 
Hooker  and  the  Confederates  under  Gen. 
Lee.  On  April  '28,  18*3.3,  the  Federal  army 
crossed  the  Rappahannock ;  on  May  2,  Gen. 
•'  Stonewall"  Jackson  furiously  attacked  and 
routed  the  right  wing,  but  was  mortally 
wounded  by  his  own  party  tiring  on  him  by 
mistake.  Gen.  Stuart  took  his  command, 
and  after  a  severe  conflict  on  May  3  and  4, 
with  great  loss  to  both  parties,  the  Federals 
were  comjiolled  to  recross  the  Rappahannock. 
The  strugsjle  was  comf)ared  to  that  at  Hou- 
goumont  during  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 

Chandelier.  In  military  engineering,  a 
wooden  frame,  which  was  tilled  with  fas- 
cines, to  form  a  traverse  in  sapping. 

Chanderee,  or  Chandhaire.  A  town  of 
India  in  the  province  of  Malwa.  Its  fortress, 
formerly  deemed  impregnable,  consists  of  a 
strong  rampart  of  sandstone  flanked  by  cir- 
cular towers,  and  is  situated  on  a  high  hill. 
During  the  native  wars,  being  a  place  of  im- 
portance, it  was  frequently  besieged. 

Chandernagore.  The  principal  settle- 
ment of  the  French  in  Bengal,  which  is  en- 
compassed by  the  British  district  of  llooghly. 
In  IT;')?  this  settlement  was  taken  by  the 
British,  but  restored  in  17*53.  In  lt93  it 
was  again  taken  by  the  British,  but  restored 
to  the  French  a  second  time  in  1810. 

Chandore.  A  fortified  town  of  British 
India.  130  miles  northwest  from  Bombay. 
In  1804  and  1818  this  place  capitulated  to 
the  British. 

Chantier  (Fr.).  A  square  piece  of  wood, 
which  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  raising  any- 
thing. It  serves  to  place  barrels  of  gun- 
powder in  a  proper  manner,  and  frequently 
to  try  j.ifccs  of  ordnance  instead  of  frames. 

Chantilly.  A  post-village  of  Fairfax  Co., 
Va.  Here,  on  September  1,  18'J2,  the  Con- 
federate troops  of  Gen.  Loc  attacked  a  part 
of  Gen.  Pope's  army,  under  Gens.  Reno, 
Stevens,  and  Kearney,  and  a  severe  conflict 
ensued,  lasting  into  the  night,  and  resulting 
in  the  death  of  Gens.  Stevens  and  Kearney. 

Chape.     The  metallic  part  put  on  the  end 


of  a  scabbard,  to  prevent  the  point  of  the 
sword  or  bayonet  from  piercing  through  it. 

Chapeau.  In  a  military  sense,  a  hat,  cap, 
or  otlicr  head-covering. 

Chapeau  Bras.  A  milit^iry  hat  which  can 
be  flattened  and  put  under  the  arm. 

Chaperon.  A  hood  or  cape  worn  by 
Knights  of  the  Garter. 

Chaplain.  A  clergyman  with  a  military 
commission,  giving  him  the  spiritual  charge 
of  .soldiers.^  There  are  30  jjost  and  4  regi- 
mental chaplains  in  fhe  U.  S.  army. 

Chaplain-General.  In  the  British  service, 
the  oflict;r  at  the  head  of  the  chaplain's  de- 
partment. 

Chaplet.      In   heraldry,   is  always   com- 

f)osed  of  four  roses,  the  other  parts  being 
eaves. 

Chappe  (F>\).  A  barrel  containing  an- 
other barrel,  which  holds  gunpowder.  It 
likewise  means  a  composition  of  earth,  horse- 
dung,  and  wad,  that  covers  the  mouth  of  a 
cannon  or  mortar. 

Chapultepec.  A  strong  fortress  of  Mex- 
ico, situated  about  2  miles  southwest  of  the 
metropolis.  It  consists  of  an  eminence  ris- 
ing to  the  height  of  about  loO  feet,  with  a 
strong  castle  on  top.  During  the  Mexican 
war  it  was  deemed  necessary  by  Gen.  Scott, 
for  strategic  reasons,  to  capture  this  last  out- 
ward defense  of  the  capital  prior  to  the  at- 
tack on  the  city  itself.  This  was  gallantly 
effected  on  September  13,  1847,  and  next  day 
the  city  was  entered  by  the  American  forces, 
thus  virtually  ending  the  war.  Prepara- 
tions for  the  assault  were  commenced  on  the 
night  of  September  11,  and  before  the  even- 
ing of  the  12th,  owing  to  the  skillful  arrange- 
ment of  Gen.  Scott's  artillery,  the  exterior 
defenses  began  to  give  way.  Next  day  was 
determined  on  for  the  attack.  The  Ameri- 
can forces  were  so  placed  that  the  assault 
could  be  made  simultaneously  from  different 
sides  at  a  preconcerted  signal,  which  would 
be  the  temporary  cessation  of  the  cannonade 
from  their  batteries.  It  was  jjiven,  and  the 
attacking  forces  advanced,  Gen.  (^uitnuin's 
j  division  from  the  south,  and  Gen.  Pillow 
I  from  the  wooded  slope  on  the  west,  Gen. 
;  Smith's  brigade  supporting  Quitman,  Pillow 
]  supported  by  the  division  of  Gen.  Worth, 
and  the  batteries  throwing  shells  into  the 
j  fort  over  the  heads  of  their  friends.  Under 
a  heavy  tire  of  musketry  the  attacking  forces 
advance,  and  step  by  step  they  gain  every 
disputed  point,  scaling-ladders  are  brought 
into  requisition,  an  entrance  effected,  and 
the  defeated  Mexicans,  dislodged  and  retreat- 
ing, are  pursued  to  the  very  gates  of  their 
capital.  The  American  loss  during  the  three 
days  was  833  killed  and  wounded. 

Charcoal.  One  of  the  ingredients  of  gun- 
powder. It  is  made  by  distilling  small  sticks 
of  wood  in  closed  retorts.  Willow,  alder, 
poplar,  and  dogwood  are  some  of  the  woods 
used.  In  distilling  the  heat  should  be  kept 
below  redness.  Charcoal  should  be  light  in 
weight,  and  have  a  velvety  fracture.  It  in- 
flames at  about  4(30^  Fahr.     Its  composition 


CHARD 


100 


CHAELEROI 


and  properties  vary  with  the  nature  of  the 
wood  and  mode  of  distillation  employed. 

Charcoal  obtained  from  light  wood  is  the 
best  for  gunpowder,  as  it  is  more  combusti- 
ble and  easy  to  pulverize,  and  contains  less 
earthy  matters.  Willow  and  poplar  are 
used  for  this  purpose  in  the  United  States 
and  black  elder  in  Europe.  The  wood  must 
be  sound  and  should  not  be  more  than  3  or  4 
years  old,  and  about  1  inch  in  diameter; 
branches  larger  than  this  should,  be  split  up. 
It  is  cut  in  the  spring  when  the  sap  runs 
freely,  and  is  immediately  stripped  of  its 
bark.  The  smaller  branches  are  used  for 
fine  sporting  powder. 

The  operation  of  charring  may  be  per- 
formed in  pits,  but  the  method  now  almost 
universally  used  in  making  charcoal  for 
gunpowder  is  that  of  distillation.  For  this 
purpose  the  wood  is  placed  in  an  iron  vessel, 
generally  of  a  cylindrical  form,  to  which  a 
cover  is  luted ;  an  opening  with  a  pipe  is 
made  to  conduct  otF  the  gaseous  products, 
and  the  wood  is  thus  exposed  to  the  heat  of 
a  furnace.  The  progress  of  distillation  is 
judged  of  by  the  color  of  the  flame  and 
smoke,  and  sometimes  by  test-sticks,  which 
are  introduced  through  tubes  prepared  for 
the  purpose. 

Properties. — The  charcoal  thus  obtained 
should  retain  a  certain  degree  of  elasticity, 
and  should  have  a  brown  color,  the  wood 
not  being  entirely  decomposed.  As  it  readily 
absorbs  one-twentieth  of  its  weight  of  moist- 
ure, which  diminishes  its  inflammability,  it 
should  be  made  only  in  proportion  as  it  is 
required  for  use.  Wood  generally  contains 
52  per  cent,  of  carbon,  but  distillation  fur- 
nishes not  more  than  30  to  40  per  cent,  of 
charcoal. 

As  it  is  desirable  to  have  charcoal  for  gun- 
powder very  combustible,  it  must  be  pre- 
pared at  a  low  temperature,  and  must  be  light. 

Accidents. — When  recently  prepared  char- 
coal is  pulverized  and  laid  in  heaps,  it  is 
liable  to  absor,b  oxygen  with  such  rapidity  as 
to  cause  spontaneous  combustion.  This  has 
been  the  cause  of  serious  accidents  at  pow- 
der-mills, and  hence  it  is  important  not  to 
pulverize  charcoal  until  it  has  been  exposed 
to  the  air  for  several  days.  When  charcoal 
has  not  absorbed  moisture,  and  is  mixed 
with  oxidizing  substances,  it  may  be  in- 
flamed by  violent  shocks  or  by  friction. 
This  is  the  principal  cause  of  the  accidents 
which  occur  in  the  preparation  of  explosive 
mixtures  which  contain  charcoal.  See  Gun- 
powder. 

Chard.  A  town  of  England,  in  Somer- 
setshire. Here  the  royalists  were  defeated 
in  the  civil  wars  between  Charles  I.  and  the 
Parliament. 

Charenton.  A  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  Seine.  It  stands  on  the 
Marne,  over  which  there  is  a  bridge,  which 
was  frequently  the  scene  of  bloody  conflicts 
between  the  citizens  and  the  soldiers  during 
the  French  revolutions.  It  now  forms  a 
portion  of  the  fortifications  of  Paris. 


Charge.  The  act  of  rushing  on  the  enemy 
with  a  view  to  come  to  close  fighting.  It  is 
also  sometimes  applied  to  the  temporary 
command  of  a  detachment,  troop,  company, 
or  battery.  A  charge  likewise  means  the 
statement  of  the  crime  for  which  an  ofl5cer 
or  soldier  is  brought  before  a  court-martial. 

Charge.  The  quantity  of  powder  with 
which  a  piece  of  artillery  is  loaded.  The 
charge  corresponding  to  the  maximum  ve- 
locity in  the  projectile  is  called  the  maximum 
charge.  The  longer  the  gun  the  greater  the 
maximum  charge.  In  the  early  days  of  ar- 
tillery, when  powder  was  used  in  the  form 
of  dust,  a  very  large  charge  was  necessary. 
After  the  introduction  of  grained  powder  it 
was  reduced  gradually  to  about  one-fourth 
the  weight  of  the  shot.  At  the  time  of  the 
recent  departures  in  ordnance,  the  charge  for 
smooth-bore  guns  was  from  one-fifth  to  one- 
eighth  the  weight  of  the  projectile  ;  for  how- 
itzers, from  one-eighth  to  one-twentieth  ;  for 
mortars  the  chai-ge  varied  with  the  range, 
the  largest  being  about  one-ninth.  For  rifle 
guns  the  disproportion  was  greater  than  for 
smooth-bores,  the  average  being  about  one- 
tenth.  In  small-arms,  the  charge  for  the  old 
smooth-bore  musket  was  about  one-third  the 
weight  of  the  ball.  When  the  rifle  was  in- 
troduced, this  proportion  was  retained  till 
the  oblong  bullet  began  to  be  used,  when  the 
charge  was  relatively  much  diminished,  till 
it  fell  to  about  one-tenth.  The  tendency 
lately  has  been  to  increase  it.  In  some  of 
the  best-known  rifles  of  the  present  day  the 
charge  is  about  one-fifth, — a  majority  use 
more  than  one-sixth.  The  same  tendency  is 
still  more  observable  in  heavy  ordnance. 
The  largest  KrwpTp,  Woolwich,  and  Arm- 
strong guns  use  a  charge  greater  than  one- 
fourth  the  weight  of  the  projectile. 

Charge.  The  position  of  a  weapon  fitted 
for  attack ;  as,  to  bring  a  weapon  to  the 
charge. 

Charge.  In  heraldry,  the  figures  repre- 
sented on  a  shield  are  called  charges,  and  a 
shield  with  figures  upon  it  is  said  to  be 
charged.  The  charges  in  a  shield  ought  to 
be  few  in  number,  and  strongly  marked,  both 
as  regards  their  character  and  the  mode  of 
their  representation.  The  family  shield  be- 
longing to  the  head  of  the  house  almost 
alwaj'S  is  simpler, — i.e.,  has  fewer  charges 
than  the  shields  of  collaterals,  or  even  of 
junior  members. 

Charger  (Fr.  cheval  de  bataille).  A  horse 
kept  by  an  oflicer  for  military  purposes. 

Chariot.  In  antiquity,  a  war  car  or  ve- 
hicle. 

Charleroi,  A  strongly  fortified  town  of 
Belgium,  in  Hainaut.  This  place  was  forti- 
fied by  Vauban.  Several  great  battles  have 
been  fought  near  this  town,  especially  in 
1690  and  1794.  Charleroi  was  besieged  by 
the  Prince  of  Orange,  1672  and  1677 ;  but 
he  was  soon  obliged  to  retire.  Near  here,  at 
Ligny,  Napoleon  attacked  the  Prussian  line, 
making  it  fall  back  upon  Wavres,  June  16, 
1815. 


CHARLESTON 


101 


CHEEKS 


Charleston.  A  port  of  entry  and  the  chief 
city  of  South  Caroluia,  founded  in  1672.  On 
Sullivan's  Island,  about  7  miles  below,  com- 
municating with  the  harbor,  a  garrison  of 
about  400  Americans  under  C<d.  Moultrie 
sustained  an  assault  from  9  British  ships  of 
war,  and  gallantly  repulsed  them,  on  June 
28,  177(j.  The  city  was  afterwards  besieged, 
and  after  a  gallant  resistance  of  nearly  si.v 
weeks  surrendered  to  the  British,  May  12, 
1780,  being  held  by  them  till  1782.  In  the 
civil  war  (18fJl-05)  it  was  here  the  first  gun 
was  fired,  which  resulted  in  the  reduction  of 
the  famous  P^ort  Sumter.  In  the  latter  part 
of  the  war  it  was  bombarded  and  besieged  by 
the  Federal  troops.  Its  evacuation  by  the 
Confederates  and  its  occupation  by  the  Fed- 
erals followed,  February  18,  1865. 

Chase.  In  gunnery,  is  the  conical  part 
of  the  gun  in  front  of  the  reinforce. 

Chase-ring.  In  gunnery,  is  a  band  at  the 
front  end  of  the  chase. 

Chassepot.  A  species  of  rifle.  See  Small- 
arms. 

Chasseurs.  A  French  word  signifying 
"  hunters,"  applied  in  various  forms  to  light 
troops  in  the  French  service,  organized  at 
difierent  times,  either  as  infantry  or  cavalry, 
as  chasseurs  a  pied,  de  Montague,  de  Vincen- 
nes,  for  infantry,  and  chasseurs  d  chcvnl, 
d' Afrique,  Alfferie7is,  etc.,  for  cavalry.  They 
have  organizations  in  other  armies  also  cor- 
responding to  these,  such  as  thejdgers  in  the 
Austrian  army,  and  the  cacciatore  dei  Alpi 
of  the  Garibaldian  troops  in  the  Italian  war 
of  18.59-60. 

Chassis.  A  traversing  frame  or  movable 
railway,  along  which  the  carriage  of  a  heavy 
gun  in  barbette,  or  casemate,  moves  back- 
ward and  forward  in  action.  See  Ord- 
nance, Carriages  for,  Sea-coast  Car- 
riages. 

Chastleton.  A  parish  of  England,  in 
Oxfordshire,  5  miles  from  Chipping  Norton. 
Here,  in  1016,  Canute  defeated  Edmund 
Inmsido. 

ChAteaudun.     An  old  city  in  Northwest 
France,  tlie  residence  of  the  heroic  Dunois, 
who  died    in    1468.     Here    were   massacred 
July  20,  1183,  about  7000  Braban(,-ons,  fan- 
atic mercenaries  who  had  been  hired  to  e.x- 
torminate  the  Albigenses  bv   the  Cardinal 
Hunry,  abbot  of  Clairvaux,  "in  1181.     They 
liad  become  the  scourge  of  the  country,  and 
the  "Capuchons"  were  organized  for  their 
destruction.     Chateaudun  was  captured  by 
the  Germans  after  a  severe  conflict  of  about  I 
9  hours,   October   18,    1870.     Barracks   had  j 
been    erected    in    the  town,  and    the  Garde  I 
Mobile  fought  bravely.     The  town  was  re- 
occupied  by  the  French,  November  6. 

Chateau  Thierry.  A  town  of  France,  in 
the  departiiuiit  of  Aisne.  It  is  built  on  the 
slope  of  a  hill,  capped  by  the  ruins  of  a  cas- 
tle, which  is  said  to  have  been  erected  by 
Charles  Martel  in  730.  In  1814  this  place 
was  the  scene  of  several  conflicts  between 
the  allied  army  and  the  French  troops. 

Chatham.     A  town  of  England,  in  the 


county  of  Kent,  on  the  Medway.  It  is  a 
principal  station  of  the  royal  navy.  There 
is  a  fine  station  and  military  arsenal  close  to 
Chatham,  containing  vast  magazines  and 
warehouses,  in  which  there  are  all  kinds  of 
stores,  and  where  all  the  operations  neces- 
sary for  building  and  fitting  out  ships  of  war 
are  carried  on.  There  are  also  extensive  bar- 
racks for  infantry,  royal  marines,  artillery, 
and  engineers.  Chatham  is  defended  by  forts 
on  the  heights,  by  which  it  is  jjartlV  sur- 
rounded. There  are  also  very  extensive 
fortifications  about  Chatham,  called  the 
Lines,  which  are  defended  by  ramparts, 
palisades,  and  a  broad,  deep  ditch.  On  June 
10,  1^67,  the  Dutch  fleet  under  Admiral 
Ruyter  sailed  up  to  Chatham  and  burnt 
several  men-of-war.  The  entrance  into  the 
Medway  is  now  defended  by  Sheerness  and 
other  forts. 

Chatillon-sur-Seine.  A  town  of  France, 
department  of  Cote-d'Or,  43  miles  north- 
northwest  of  Dijon,  on  the  Seine.  Here  a 
congress  was  held  by  the  four  great  powers 
allied  against  France,  at  which  (jaulaincourt 
attended  for  Napoleon,  February  5,  1814; 
the  ncgotiaticms  for  peace  were  broken  oft" 
on  ^larch  19,  following. 

Chattanooga.  A  village  of  Hamilton 
Co.,  Tenn.  During  the  civil  war  it  was 
the  scene  of  many  exciting  incidents  be- 
tween the  contending  forces.  It  was  at- 
tacked by  Gen.  Negley  in  June,  1862;  occu- 
pied by  Gen.  Rosecrans,  July,  1863,  and  in 
the  same  year  were  fought  in  its  vicinity  a 
succession  of  the  most  momentous  battles  of 
that  eventful  epoch,  commencing  September 
23,  1863,  with  Gen.  Grant's  attack  on  Gen. 
Bragg.  The  movements  were  under  direc- 
tion of  Gens.  Sherman  and  Thomas,  and 
resulted,  after  three  days'  severe  fighting 
around  Chattanooga,  Missionary  Ridge,  and 
Lookout  Mountain,  in  the  total  defeat  of 
the  Confederates,  and  their  pursuit  back  into 
Georgia. 

Chaumont,  Treaty  of.  Entered  into  be- 
tween Great  Britain,  Austria,  Russia,  and 
Prussia,  and  signed  by  these  powers  respect- 
ively March  1,  1814.  This  treaty  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  celebrated  treaty  of  Paris, 
April  11,  following,  by  which  Napoleon  re- 
nounced his  sovereignty  over  France. 

Chausses.  In  tlie  armor  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  were  defense-pieces  for  the  legs.  Some 
were  made  of  padded  and  quilted  cloth,  with 
metal  studs;  st)me  of  chain-metal,  sotne  of 
riveted  plates,  and  some  of  banded  mail.  It 
was  not  unusual  to  fasten  them  by  lacing 
behind  the  leg. 

Chauvinisme  (Fr.).  An  exaggerated  idea 
of  the  qualities  of  a  leader,  tvs  Chauvin,  a 
character  in  a  French  play  (from  whom  the 
name  is  derived),  is  represented  to  have  bad 
of  his  leader,  Bonaparte. 

Cheeky.  In  heraldry,  when  the  field  of 
any  charge  is  composed  of  small  squares  of 
diti'erent  tinctures,  it  is  said  to  be  check;/. 

Cheeks.  In  the  construction  of  artillery- 
carriages,  are  the  parts  between  which  the 


CHELONE 


102 


CHEVEETTE 


piece  is  placed  and  upon  which  the  trun- 
nions are  supported.  See  Ordnance,  Car- 
riages FOR,  Nomenclature  of  Artil- 
lery Carriage. 

Chelone,  or  Tortoise.  In  military  an- 
tiquity, the  form  of  battle  adopted  by  the 
Greeks  in  besieging  fortified  towns.  It 
served  to  protect  the  besiegers  in  their  ap- 
proach to  the  walls.  This  invention  was 
formed  by  the  soldiers  placing  their  shields 
over  their  heads,  in  a  sloping  position,  simi- 
lar to  the  tiles  of  a  house.  The  first  rank 
stood  erect,  the  second  stooped  a  little,  the 
third  still  more,  and  the  last  rank  knelt. 
They  were  thus  protected  from  the  missile 
weapons  of  the  foe,  as  they  advanced  or 
stood  under  the  walls  of  an  enemy.  The 
chelone  was  similar  to  the  testudo  of  the  Ko- 
mans.     See  Testudo. 

Chelsea.  A  parish  of  England,  in  Mid- 
dlesex, on  the  Thames.  Chelsea  Hospital  is 
the  great  national  asylum  for  decayed  and 
maimed  soldiers,  and  one  of  the  noblest  insti- 
tutions of  the  kind  in  Europe.  The  institu- 
tion was  founded  by  Charles  II.  in  1682. 
Connected  with  the  hospital  is  the  Military 
Asylum,  a  noble  establishment,  founded  in 
1801,  for  the  education  and  maintenance  of 
the  children  of  soldiers.     See  Asylum. 

Chemin-des-Rondes  {Fr.).  A  beam 
from  4  to  12  feet  wide,  at  the  foot  of  the  ex- 
terior slope  in  a  permanent  fortification.  It 
is  sometimes  covered  in  front  by  a  hedge,  or 
low  wall,  or  small  parapet  of  earth. 

Chemise.  In  mediaeval  fortification,  an 
additional  escarp  or  counter-guard  wall, 
covering  the  lower  part  of  the  escarp. 

Cherasco.  A  town  of  Piedmont,  situated 
on  the  Tanaro.  A  peace  was  concluded  here 
between  Louis  XIII.  of  France  and  the 
Duke  of  Savoy,  in  1631.  On  April  26,  1796, 
the  place  was  taken  by  the  French,  and  here, 
three  days  after,  the  "Armistice  of  Cherasco" 
was  concluded  between  the  Sardinian  com- 
missioners and  Napoleon,  by  which  the  lat- 
ter obtained  the  right  of  free  passage  for  his 
troops  through  the  Sardinian  states  ;  and  the 
treaty  that  followed  gave  to  the  French  re- 
public Savoy,  Nice,  and  the  possessions  of 
Piedmont  to  the  westward  of  the  highest 
ridge  of  the  Alps. 

Cheraw.  A  village  of  Chesterfield  Co., 
S.  C.  It  was  a  Confederate  depot  of  sup- 
plies during  the  civil  war,  and  was  captured 
with  all  its  stores  by  Gen.  Sherman,  March 
3,  1865. 

Cherbourg.  A  fortified  seaport  town  and 
important  naval  station  of  France,  depart- 
ment of  Manche,  on  the  English  Channel. 
Edward  111.  of  England  unsuccessfully  laid 
siege  to  Cherbourg"  in  1346,  but  in  1418  it 
was  given  up  to  the  British.  The  French 
regained  it  in  1450,  but  the  English  again 
took  it  in  1758. 

Cheriton  Down.  In  the  county  of  Hants, 
England.  Here  Sir  William  Waller  defeated 
the  royalists  under  Lord  Hopton,  May  29, 
1644. 

Cherokee  Indians.     A  tribe  of  aborigines 


who  formerly  occupied  the  southern  portion 
of  the  Appalachian  Moi^ntains,  and  a  large 
tract  of  country  on  both  sides  of  the  range. 
In  1838  they  were  removed  by  the  U.  S. 
government  to  the  west  of  the  Mississippi, 
into  what  is  now  Indian  Territory,  and  the 
portion  of  the  tribe  that  now  remains  have 
a  civilized  government  and  a  written  lan- 
guage. For  numbers,  etc.,  see  Indians  and 
THEIR  Agencies. 

Cherusci.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  of 
all  the  German  tribes  at  the  time  of  Ca3sar. 
Being  excited  to  hostilities  by  the  tyranny 
and  rapacity  of  the  Eomans,  they  entered 
into  a  confederation  with  the  neighboring 
tribes,  and,  under  their  leader  Arminius, 
defeated  a  Pvoman  army  at  Teutoburg  Forest, 
in  A.D.  9.  Germanicus,  a  Roman  general, 
afterwards  tried  to  avenge  this  disgrace  to 
their  honor  by  subduing  them,  but  was  un- 
successful. Owing  to  their  own  internal 
dissensions  they  were  subsequently  subdued 
by  the  Chatti,  another  German  tribe. 

Chesses.  Are  the  platforms  which  form 
the  flooring  of  military  bridges.  They  con- 
sist of  twoor  more  planks,  ledged  together 
at  the  edges  by  dowels  or  pegs. 

Chest,  Ammunition-.  See  Ordnance, 
Carriages  for.  The  Caisson. 

Chest,  Military.  Is  a  technical  name  for 
money  and  negotiable  securities  carried  by 
an  army,  and  intended  to  defray  its  current 
expenses.  In  the  British  military  system 
this  department  is  managed  by  the  commis- 
sariat ;  in  the  United  States,  by  the  pay- 
master-general and  commissary -general. 

Chester.  A  city  of  England,  in  the 
county  of  Cheshire.  The  British  Caerleon 
and  the  Roman  Deva,  the  station  of  the 
Twentieth  Legion,  Valeria  Victrix,  quitted 
by  them  about  477.  The  city  was  first  built 
by  Edelfleda  about  908.  Chester  was  rav- 
aged by  the  Danes  in  980 ;  taken  after  three 
months'  siege  for  the  Parliament  in  1645. 
A  projected  attack  of  Fenians  on  Chester 
Castle  was  defeated  by  the  vigilance  of  the 
authorities  and  the  arrival  of  the  military, 
February  11-12,  1867. 

Cheval-de-frise.  A  piece  of  timber  tra- 
versed with  wooden  spikes,  pointed  with  iron, 
5  or  6  feet  long,  used  to  defend  a  passage, 
stop  a  breach,  or  make  a  retrenchment  to 
stop  cavalry. 

Chevalet  (Fr.).  A  sort  of  bell-tent,  for- 
merly used  in  the  French  service,  when  an 
army  encamped.  It  resembled  in  some  de- 
grees the  wigwam  of  an  Indian. 

Chevalier  {Fr.).  A  horseman  ;  a  knight. 
A  member  of  certain  orders  of  knighthood. 
In  heraldry,  a  horseman  armed  at  all  points. 

Chevet  (Fr.).  A  small  wedge  which  is 
used  in  raising  a  mortar.  It  is  placed  be- 
tween the  frame  and  swell  of  the  mortar. 

Cheviot  Hills.  A  mountain-range  ex- 
tending along  the  border  between  Scotland 
and  England  ;  the  scene  of  many  conflicts 
between  the  Scotch  and  English. 

Chevrette.  An  engine  for  raising  guns 
or  mortars  into  their  carriages. 


CHEVRON 


103 


CHINOOK 


Chevron.  The  arrow-headed  stripes  on 
the  arm,  by  which  the  ranit  of  a  non-com- 
missioned otHcer  is  indicated. 

Chevron.  In  heraldry,  is  an  ordinary  rep- 
resentintj  the  rafters  of  a  house,  and  sup- 
posed to  betoken  the  accomf)lislirnent  of 
some  memorable  work,  or  the  completion  of 
some  business  of  importance,  generally  the 
foundation  of  his  own  family  by  the  bearer. 
Cheyenne  Indians.  A  tribe  of  aborigi- 
nes dwelling  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  divided  into  three  bands.  For  numbers, 
etc.,  see  Indians  and  thkir  Agencies. 

Chiari.  A  town  of  Northern  Italy,  near 
the  Oglio.  In  1701,  Marshal  Villeroi  was 
near  this  town  defeated  by  Prince  Eugene. 

Chicane.  To  dispute  every  foot  of  ground, 
by  taking  advantage  of  natural  inequalities, 
etc. 

Chickahominy.  A  river  in  Eastern  Vir- 
ginia, which,  rising  about  IG  miles  north- 
west of  Richmond,  flows  southeastwardly 
into  the  James.  Along  the  margins  of  the 
river  was  the  scene  of  Gen.  McClellan's 
operations  in  1802. 

Chickamauga.  A  village  of  Hamilton 
Co.,  Tenn.  During  the  civil  war  a  contin- 
uous series  of  combats  were  fought  here,  be- 
tween the  forces  of  Gehs.  Rosecrans  and 
Bragg,  but  without  decisive  results,  Sep- 
tember 19-20,  18(J3. 

Chickasawr  Indians.  A  warlike  tribe  of 
aborigines  which  formerly  occupied  Ala- 
bama and  a  portion  of  Mississippi.  They 
removed  into  the  Indian  Territory  in  1837. 
See  Indians  and  their  Aoencies. 

Chief.  The  head  or  leader  of  any  band 
or  community  ;  a  commander. 

Chief.  In  heraldry,  an  ordinary  formed 
by  a  horizontal  line' occupying  the  upper 
part  of  the  escutcheon.  Any  object  borne 
in  the  upper  or  chief  part  of  the  shield  is 
said  to  be  in  chief,  though  the  chief  be  not 
divided  oft"  from  the  rest  of  the  field  as  a 
separate  portion. 

Chief  of  Staff.  In  the  U.  S.  service  a 
chief  of  stall'  with  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general  was  provided  by  law  for  the  lieu- 
tenant-general commanding  the  army.  The 
senior  staff-officer  of  a  general  is  sometimes 
designated  as  the  chief  of  staff.  See  Uffi- 
CKKs,  Stakk-,  and  .Staff. 

Chieftain.  A  captain,  leader,  or  com- 
mander ;  a  chief;  the  head  of  a  troop,  army, 
or  clan. 

Chieftaincy.  Chieftainship.  The  rank, 
otficc,  or  quality  of  a  chieftain. 

Chili.  An  independent  republic  of  South 
America,  bordering  on  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It 
was  invaded  by  Almagro  in  153.5,  he  being 
sent  by  Pizarro  to  subdue  the  country.  In 
the  10th  and  17th  centuries  violent  contests 
raged  between  the  Spaniards  and  Indians, 
both  parties  suffering  severely.  The  coun- 
try continued  a  vice-royalty  of  Spain  till 
1810,  when  a  revolution  commenced  which 
terminated  in  its  independence  in  1817. 

Chilled  Iron.  Cast  iron  hardened  by 
pouring  it  into  iron  molds.     Much  used  in 


manufacturing  armor-piercing  projectiles. 
The  celebrated  Paliiser  shot  is  of  this  kind. 
Chilled  Shot.  See  Prciectilks. 
Chillianwallah,  Battle  of.  In  India, 
between  the  Sikh  fi>rces  in  considerable 
strength  and  the  British  commanded  by 
Lord  (afterwards  Viscount)  Gough,  fought 
January  13,  1840.  The  Sikhs  were  com- 
pletely routed,  but  the  loss  of  the  British 
was  very  severe.  On  February  21,  Lord 
Gough  attacked  the  Sikh  army  under  Shere 
Singh  in  its  position  at  Goujcrat,  with  com- 
plete success,  and  the  whole  of  the  enemy's 
camp  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British. 

China.  The  "  Celestial  Empire,"  in  Ea.st- 
ern  Asia,  for  which  the  Chinese  annals 
claim  an  antiquity  of  from  80,000  to  100,000 
years  n.c,  is  allowed  to  have  commenced 
about  2500  B.C. ;  by  others  to  have  been 
founded  bv  Fohi,  supposed  to  be  the  Noah 
of  the  Bible,  2240  B.C.  We  are  told  that 
the  Chinese  were  acute  astronomers  in  the 
reign  of  Yao,  2357  B.C.  Towards  the  clo.se 
of  the  7th  century  B.C.  the  history  of  China 
becomes  more  distinct.  Thirty-two  dynas- 
ties have  reigned,  including  the  present. 
See  important  cities  of  China  throughout 
this  work. 

China,  Great  Wall  of.  One  of  the  most 
remarkable  structures  known  in  history, 
supposed  to  have  been  erected  about  220  B.C. 
by  the  first  emperor  of  the  Tsin  dynasty  as 
a'  protection  against  the  invasions  of  the 
Tartars.  It  traverses  the  northern  boundary 
of  China,  and  extends  about  1250  miles. 
Including  a  parapet  of  5  feet,  the  total 
height  is  20  feet,  thickness  of  base  25  feet, 
and  at  the  top  15  feet.  Towers  or  bastions 
occur  at  intervals  of  about  100  yards.  Earth 
inclosed  in  brick-work  forms  the  mass  of  the 
wall,  but  for  more  than  one-half  its  length 
it  is  little  else  than  a  heap  of  gravel  and 
rubbish. 

Chinese  Fire.  A  pyrotechnic  composition, 
consisting  of  IG  parts  of  gunpowder,  8  of 
nitre,  3  of  charcoal,  3  of  sulphur,  and  3  of 
iron-borings. 

Ching-Hai.  A  fortified  seaport  town  of 
China.  At  this  place,  in  October,  1841,  the 
Chinese  were  signally  defeated  by  the 
British. 

Ching-Kiang-Foo.     A    fortified   city    of 
China,  on  the    Yan<r-tsc-Kiang    River.     It 
was  taken  by  the  British,  after  a  determined 
resistance  on  the  part  of  the  Mantchoo  gar- 
rison, July  21,1842. 
j       Chinook.   An  artificial  language  or  jargon 
1  originated  by   the   Hudson    Bay  Comj)any 
for  communicating  with  different  tribes  of 
'  Indians.     It   consists   of  about    a   hundred 
I  words,  some  coined,  some  French,  and  some 
of    Indian   origin.     It    is    still    extensively 
used  as  a  sort  of  court  language  by  the  dif- 
;  ferent  tribes  along  the   Pacific  coa.st,  from 
:  California  to  Behrings  Strait. 
I       Chinook  Indians.     A  collection  of  races 
I  of  Indian  tribes  inhabiting  the  Lower  Co- 
i  lumbia  in  Washington  Territory  and  Ore- 
1  gon. 


CHIPPEWA 


104 


CHRONOSCOPE 


Chippewa.  A  village  of  Canada  West, 
memorable  for  the  victory  gained  by  the 
Americans,  1900  strong,  under  Gen.  Brown, 
over  2100  British  troops  under  Gens.  Rial 
and  Drummond,  July  4,  1814. 

Chippewa  Indians,  or  Ojibways.  A  tribe 
of  aborigines  who  inhabit  portions  of  Mich- 
igan, Wisconsin,  and  the  basin  of  Lake  Su- 
perior. In  the  early  settlement  of  the  coun- 
try they  were  allies  of  the  French,  and 
waged  inveterate  warfare  against  the  Sioux. 
In  1855  they  ceded  their  lands  to  the  United 
States,  and  are  now  placed  on  reservations. 
See  Indians  and  their  Agencies. 

Chivalry  (Fr.  Chevalerie,  from  chevalier, 
"  knight,"  or  "  horseman").  The  system  of 
knighthood,  together  with  the  privileges, 
duties,  and  manners  of  knights.  The  quali- 
fications or  character  of  knights,  as  valor, 
dexterity  in  arms,  courtesy,  etc. 

Chlorate  of  Potassa.  Chlorate  of  potassa 
is  formed  by  passing  a  current  of  chlorine, 
in  excess,  through  lime-water,  and  then 
treating  the  mixture  with  the  chloride  of 
potassium  or  by  the  carbonate  or  sulphate 
of  potassa.  The  chlorate  of  potassa  and 
chloride  of  calcium  are  formed, — the  former 
crystallizes.,  the  latter  remains  in  solution. 
It  is  soluble  in  water,  but  not  sensibly  so  in 
alcohol.  It  is  a  more  powerful  oxidizing 
agent  than  nitre,  and,  when  mixed  with  a 
combustible  body,  easily  explodes  by  shock 
or  friction.  It  is  inflamed  by  simple  contact 
with  sulphuric  acid,  and  thus  aflbrds  a  sim- 
ple means  of  exploding  mines. 

Chlorates.  Oxidizing  agents  used  in  ex- 
plosives (which  seej.  Chlorate  of  potassa  is 
the  salt  ordinarily  used. 

Chocks.     See  Implements. 

Choctaw  Indians.  A  tribe  of  aborigines 
which  formerly  lived  in  Mississippi,  along 
the  Yazoo  River.  They  are  now  settled  in 
Indian  Territory,  and  are  partially  civilized. 
See  Indians  and  their  Agencies. 

Choczim,  or  Chotyn.  A  fortified  town 
of  Bessarabia,  Southern  Russia,  on  the 
Dniester.  Here  the  Turks  were  defeated  by 
the  Poles  in  1621,  and  again  in  1678;  the 
Turks  were  again  defeated  at  this  place  by 
the  Russians  in  1739. 

Choke.  The  tied  end  of  a  cartridge  ;  also 
the  constriction  of  a  rocket-case,  etc. 

Choker.  An  implement  used  by  engineers 
to  compress  and  test  the  circumference  of  a 
fascine.  It  consists  of  two  strong  pieces  of 
wood  about  4  feet  long  joined  by  a  chain. 
Two  rings  inserted  in  the  chain  mark  the 
length  of  the  circumference  required. 

Chokey.  An  East  Indian  guard-house 
and  prison. 

Cholet.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Maine-et-Loire.  Here,  during  the 
Vendean  war,  two  actions  were  fought  in 
1793,  in  both  of  which  the  royalists  were 
defeated.  In  the  first  they  lost  their  brave 
general,  Bonchamps  ;  and  the  second  drove 
them  across  the  Loire,  thus  virtually  decid- 
ing the  war  against  them. 

Chosroes.     See  Khosroo. 


Chotyn.     See  Choczim. 

Chouans.  The  name  which  a  band  of 
peasants  received  who  fought  for  the  mon- 
archy against  the  convention  in  Maine  and 
Normandy  in  1793.  They  received  their 
name  from  their  leader,  Jean  Cattereau, 
nicknamed  "Chouan,"  and  were  with  great 
difficulty  subdued,  their  final  submission 
not  taking  place  till  1803 

Christian  Charity,  Knights  of  the  Order 
of.  Was  the  name  of  an  order  instituted  by 
King  Henry  III.  of  France  for  the  support 
of  maimed  officers  and  soldiers  who  had  done 
good  service  in  the  wars.  Henry  IV.  placed 
it  under  the  charge  of  the  marshals  and 
colonels  of  France,  and  by  means  of  it  many 
of  those  who  had  served  their  country  faith- 
fully were  enabled  to  spend  the  latter  por- 
tion of  their  lives  in  peace  and  above  want. 
The  order  formed  the  germ  of  that  noble 
hospital,  the  hivalides,  which  was  founded 
by  Louis  XIV.,  and  which  served  as  a  model 
for  the  English  hospitals  of  Greenwich  and 
Chelsea.  On  the  founding  of  the  hospital 
the  order  was  superseded. 

Christiansand.  A  fortified  seaport  of 
Norway,  and  capital  of  a  government  of  the 
same  name.  This  place  was  founded  in  1641 
by  Christian  IV.,  and  was  taken  by  the 
British  in  1807, 

Christ,  Order  of.  When  the  Templars 
were  expelled  from  France,  and  their  prop- 
erty confiscated  by  Philippe  le  Bel,  they 
were  received  into  Portugal,  and  their  order 
revived  there  in  1317  under  this  title.  Noble 
descent  and  three  years'  military  service 
against  the  infidel  were  required  for  admis- 
sion. 

Chrome  Steel.     See  Ordnance,  Metals 

FOR. 

Chronograph.     See  Chronoscope. 

Chronoscope.  An  instrument  for  meas- 
uring minute  intervals  of  time.  The  term 
is  specially  applied  by  military  men  to  in- 
struments for  obtaining  initial  velocities. 
The  gicn-pendulum  and  ballistic-pendulum 
were  formerly  used  for  this  purpose,  but  are 
now  nearly  obsolete.  All  modern  chrono- 
scopes  use  electricity  as  a  transmitting  agent. 
The  general  method  of  applying  it  is  to  have 
the  current-bearing  wires  pass  through  two 
targets  placed  in  the  path  of  the  projectile. 
These  wires  are  cut  by  the  projectile,  and  the 
interval  between  the  successive  ruptures  is 
recorded  by  a  delicate  time-keeper.  Know- 
ing the  distance  between  the  targets,  the  ve- 
locity is  obtained  by  dividing  this  space,  ex- 
pressed in  feet,  by  the  number  of  seconds  in 
the  interval.  Chronoscopes  differ  in  the  kind 
of  time-keeper  employed.  One  of  the  largest 
classes  of  chronoscopes  use  the  pendulum. 

The  electro-ballistic  machine  of  Col.  Ben- 
ton (U.  S.  Ordnance  Department)  may  be 
taken  as  a  type  of  this  class.  It  consists  of 
two  pendulums  having  equal  times  of  vibra- 
tion suspended  from  the  same  horizontal  axis. 
When  the  pendulums  are  deflected,  one  to 
the  right  the  other  to  the  left,  through  angles 
of  90°,  pieces  of  soft  iron  attached  to  them 


CHRYSTLER'S  FIELD 


105 


CINTRA 


come  in  contact  with  electro-magnets,  which 
serve  to  hold  them  up.  Each  of  these  mag- 
nets is  excited  by  a  current  passing  through 
one  of  the  targets.  When  the  targets  are 
ruptured  the  pendulums  fall,  and  in  passing 
each  other  record  the  i)oint  of  meeting  by 
operating  a  delicate  bent  lever  attached  to 
oneof  them,  which  leaves  a  dot  of  ink  on  the 
arc  in  front  of  which  the  pendulums  vibrate. 
The  interval  of  time  between  the  rupture  of 
the  two  targets  is  obtained  from  a  table  of 
arcs  and  corresponding  times.  Col.  Benton 
has  also  invented  an  instrument  called  re- 
lociweter,  in  which  he  uses  threads  instead 
of  electro-magnets  to  hold  up  the  pendu- 
lums. The  threads  pass  through  the  targets, 
and  when  they  are  cut  the  pendulums  fall  as 
before.  This  method  has  found  considerable 
favor  where  great  accuracy  is  not  required. 

Sc/iultz's  clironoHcope  uses  as  a  time-keeper 
a  tuning-fork,  which,  in  its  vibrations,  traces 
a  waved  line  ujjon  a  revolving  cylinder. 
The  rupture  of  each  of  the  targets  is  re- 
corded by  an  electric  spark  deposited  on  the 
cylinder  near  the  waved  line.  The  number 
of  waves  between  the  spark  spots  gives  the 
interval  of  time  wlien  the  period  of  vibration 
or  tamrjc  of  the  fork  is  known.  The  vibra- 
tion of  the  fork  is  sustained  by  electro-mug- 
nets,  which  alternately  attract  and  release 
the  branches,  an  interrupter  being  placed  in 
the  circuit.  "When  the  current  passing 
through  the  targets  is  broken  an  induced 
current  is  generated,  which  deposits  the 
spark  on  the  cylinder  in  leaping  a  short 
break  in  the  circuit.  When  the  first  target 
is  broken,  by  an  ingenious  contrivance  the 
current  is  made  through  the  second  target 
before  the  shot  reaches  it.  The  tarar/r  of  the 
fork  is  obtained  by  placing  a  second's  pen- 
dulum in  the  target  current,  which  ruptures 
the  current  in  each  vibration,  and  produces 
a  series  of  spark  spots  on  the  cylinder.  The 
number  of  waves  between  successive  spots 
gives  the  number  of  vibrations  to  the  sec- 
ond. 

Boulanper's  chronograph  is  the  simplest  of 
all  chronoscopes.  It  uses  a  rod  held  up  ver- 
tically by  a  magnet,  which  is  excited  by  a 
current  through  the  first  target.  The  cur- 
rent through  the  second  target,  when  broken, 
releases  a  spring  knife-blade,  which,  moving 
sideways,  marks  the  rod  in  its  fall  The  in- 
terval of  time  is  obtained  from  the  distance 
through  which  the  rod  has  fallen,  as  s.iiown 
by  the  position  of  the  mark.  The  end  of  the 
scale  is  marked  when  both  currents  are 
siinultaiieously  broken. 

Chrystler's,  or  Chrysler's  Field,  Battle 
of.  The  name  of  an  engagement  which  took 
place  at  Chrystler's  farm,  on  the  St.  Law- 
rence River,  November  11,  1813,  between 
the  American  forces  under  (Jen.  Boyd  and 
the  British  troops  under  Lieut. -Col.  Mor- 
rison, in  which  neither  party  gained  a  vic- 
tory, but  the  advantage  was"  with  the  Brit- 
ish. 

Chunar,  Treaty  of.  Concluded  between 
the  nabob  of  Oude  and  Governor  Hastings, 


by  which  the  nabob  was  relieved  of  his  debts 
to  the  East  India  Company,  on  condition  of 
his  seizing  the  property  of  the  begums,  his 
mother  and  grandmother,  and  delivering  it 
uji  to  the  English,  September  19,  1781. 

ChurubuscQ.  A  village  or  hamlet  of 
Mexico,  on  the  Rio  de  Churubu.sco,  about  6 
miles  south  of  the  city  of  Mexico.  This 
place  was  the  scene  of  a  battle  between  the 
American  forces  under  Gen.  AVinfield  Scott, 
marching  on  the  city  of  Mexico,  and  the 
Mexicans,  defending  "the  approaches  to  their 
capital,  under  President  Santa  Anna.  The 
battle  of  Contreras  was  fought  on  the  same 
day.  The  Americans  were  victorious  in  both 
battles,  taking  3000  prisoners,  and  capturing 
37  pieces  of  ordnance.  The  entire  Mexican 
army  was  dispersed,  their  ancient  capital 
captured,  and  an  honorable  peace  ensued. 

Chusan.  One  of  a  group  of  islands  off 
the  east  coast  of  China.  This  island,  called 
the  "  key  of  China,"  was  taken  by  the  ]}rit- 
ish  in  1840  and  1841,  and  held  by  them  until 
the  terms  of  their  treaty  with  China  were 
fulfilled  by  the  latter  power. 

Cimbres.  A  chain  of  mountains  in  ilex- 
ico.  On  April  28,  1802,  the  advance-guard 
of  the  French,  commanded  by  Gen.  Count 
de  Lorencez,  encountered  and  defeated  in  a 
defile  of  this  chain  a  Mexican  force  GOOO 
strong  under  Gen.  Saragosa,  who  had  forti- 
fied themselves  and  placed  18  pieces  of  artil- 
lery in  position. 

Cimbri.  A  warlike  tribe  of  ancient 
Europe,  which,  in  conjunction  with  the 
Teutones  and  others,  invaded  the  south  of 
Europe,  and  successively  defeated  six  Ko- 
man  armies,  until  in  the  end  they  were  con- 
quered by  Caius  Marius,  101  n.r.  They  had 
previously  devastated  Gaul  and  Spain,  and 
are  said  to  have  lost  from  100,000  to  140,000 
men  in  the  battle  with  ^larius. 

Cimeter.  A  short  sword  with  a  convex 
edge  or  recurvated  point,  used  by  the  Per- 
sians and  Turks. 

Cimier  (Fr.).  A  heavy  ornament  which 
the  ancient  knights  or  chevaliers  in  France 
and  in  other  countries  were  accustomed  to 
wear  upon  their  holmets  ;  small  figures  were 
afterwards  substituted  in  their  stead. 

Cincinnati,  Order  of.  A  society  which 
was  founded  in  the  United  States  by  officers 
of  the  Revolutionary  army  in  1783."  Its  nb- 
ject  was  to  keep  alive  the  feelings  of  friend- 
ship and  patriotism  engendered  by  common 
toils  and  perils,  and  to  assist  those  who  were 
in  need  through  the  vicissitudes  of  the  war. 
In  1787,  AVashington  was  elected  president 
of  the  order. 

Cinquain.  In  ancient  military  history, 
was  an  order  of  battle,  to  draw  up  .'j  battal- 
ions, so  that  they  might  make  3  lines,  that 
is,  a  van,  main  body,  and  reserve. 

Cintra.  In  Portugal.  Here  was  signed 
an  agreement  on  August  22,  1808,  between 
the  French  and  English,  the  day  after  the 
battle  of  Vimeim.  As  it  contained  the 
basis  of  the  convention  signed  on  August 
30,  following,  it  has  been  termed  the  con- 


CIPHER 


106 


CLAYONAGES 


vention  of  Cintra.  By  it  Junot  and  his 
army  were  permitted  to  evacuate  Portugal 
free,  in  British  ships.  The  convention  was 
publicly  condemned,  and  in  consequence  a 
court  of  inquiry  was  held  at  Chelsea,  which 
exonerated  the  British  commanders.  Wel- 
lington and  Napoleon  both  justified  Sir  Hew 
Dalrymple. 

Cipher.  A  preconcerted  enigmatical  sys- 
tem of  communication.  Much  used  in  war 
when  dispatches  are  liable  to  interception  by 
the  enemy, — both  for  written  communication 
and  for  signaling. 

Circassia.  A  country  in  Asia  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Caucasus.  The  Circassians 
are  said  to  be  descended  from  the  Albanians. 
They  were  unsubdued,  even  by  Timour. 
Circassia  was  surrendered  to  Russia  by  Tur- 
key by  the  treaty  of  Adrianople,  1830.  The 
Circassians  under  their  great  leader  Schamyl 
resisted  the  authority'  of  Russia.  They  were 
defeated  by  Orbelliani  in  June,  Novem- 
ber, and  December,  1857.  Orbelliani  sub- 
dued much  of  the  country,  and  expelled  the 
inhabitants,  April,  1858.  Schamyl,  their 
leader,  was  captured  and  treated  with  much 
respect,  September  7,  1859.  The  last  of  the 
Circassian  strongholds  captured  and  the  war 
declared  at  an  end,  June  8,  1864. 

Circitores.  So  were  named,  in  the  Roman 
armies,  the  men  who  inspected  the  sentinels. 

Circuit-closer.  A  device  for  closing  an 
electrical  circuit.  In  torpedo  warfare  the 
term  is  applied  to  an  apparatus  used  to  ex- 
plode submarine  mines. 

Circumferenter.  An  instrument  used  by 
engineers  for  measuring  angles. 

Circumvallation.  Works  made  by  be- 
siegers around  a  besieged  place  facing  out- 
wards, to  protect  their  camp  against  attacks 
from  a  hostile  army  operating  in  the  rear. 
It  usually  consists  of  a  chain  of  redoubts, 
either  isolated  or  connected  by  a  parapet. 

Cisalpine.  This — that  is,  the  south — side 
of  the  Alps. 

Citadel.  A  fort  of  4  or  5  bastions  in  or 
near  a  town.  It  serves  two  purposes,  en- 
abling the  garrison  of  a  town  to  keep  the 
inhabitants  in  subjection,  and  in  case  of 
siege  forming  a  place  of  retreat  for  the  de- 
fenders, thus  enabling  them  to  hold  out  after 
the  rest  of  the  town  has  been  captured.  It 
must  fully  command  the  fortifications  of  the 
city,  and  have  a  large  space  around  it  clear 
of  buildings. 

Citate.  A  place  close  to  the  Danube, 
where  the  Russian  general  GortschakofF,  in- 
tending to  storm  Kalafat,  threw  up  redoubts, 
which  were  stormed  by  the  Turks  under 
Omar  Pasha,  January  6,  1854.  The  fight- 
ing continued  on  the  7th,  8th,  and  9th,  wlien 
the  Russians  were  compelled  to  retire  to  their 
former  position  at  Krajowa,  having  lost  1500 
killed  and  2U00  wounded. 

City  Point.  A  village  of  Prince  George 
Co.,  Va.,  on  the  James  River,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Appomattox.  During  the  civil  war, 
Gen.  Grant  fixed  his  headquarters  at  this 
point  in  1864,  and   during   his   subsequent 


operations  against  Richmond  it  was  the  base 
of  supplies  for  his  army. 

Ciudad  Real.  A  town  of  Spain,  capital 
of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  about  100 
miles  south  of  Madrid.  The  French  under 
Sebastian  here  defeated  the  Spaniards  in 
March,  1809. 

Ciudad  Rodrigo.  A  fortified  town  of 
Spain,  in  the  province  of  Salamanca.  It 
was  occupied  by  the  Portuguese  in  1706,  and 
during  the  Peninsular  war  was  the  object  of 
frequent  contention  between  the  French  and 
the  allies.  In  June,  1810,  the  French  un- 
der Massena  invested  the  town,  and,  after  a 
gallant  defense  by  the  Spaniards,  it  was 
forced  to  surrender,  July  10.  In  January, 
1812,  after  a  siege  of  11  days,  the  place  was 
assaulted,  and  after  a  bloody  struggle  the 
British  succeeded  in  capturing  the  town. 
This  storming  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
events  in  English  military  annals. 

Civic  Crown.  Among  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans, was  a  crown  given  to  any  soldier  who 
had  saved  the  life  of  a  citizen.  It  was  com- 
posed only  of  oaken  boughs,  but  accounted 
more  honorable  than  any  other. 

Civiere  (Fr.).  A  small  hand-barrow, 
which  is  carried  by  two  men,  and  is  much 
used  by  the  artillery. 

Civil  Authority.  See  Appendix,  Ar- 
ticles OF  War,  59. 

Civil  War.     See  War,  Civil. 

Civilized  Warfare.  See  War,  also  Hon- 
ors OF  War. 

Civita  Castellana.  A  town  of  Italj',  24 
miles  north  from  Rome.  In  its  neighbor- 
hood an  engagement  took  place  betwt-en  the 
Neapolitans  under  Mack  and  the  French 
under  Macdonald,  on  December  4,  1798. 

Civita  Vecchia.  The  principal  seaport  of 
the  Papal  States,  in  Italy,  built  on  a  bay  of 
the  Mediterranean.  It  was  frequently  sacked 
in  the  diflTerent  wars.  In  April,  1849,  a 
French  force  of  6000  men,  under  Gen.  Oudi- 
not,  landed  here  on  its  way  to  Rome,  where 
the  republic  had  been  proclaimed,  and  a  tri- 
umvirate appointed.  The  French  troops 
overthrew  the  republic  and  restored  the  pope 
to  Rome,  from  which  he  had  fled  in  1848. 

Civitella  del  Tronto.  A  fortified  town 
of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Abruzzo  Ultra. 
Here  the  Neapolitan  garrison  surrendered 
to  the  Piedmontese  general  Mezzacapo  on 
March  20,  1861. 

Clarigation.  In  Roman  antiquity,  a  cer- 
emony which  always  preceded  a  formal  dec- 
laration of  war.  The  chief  of  the  heralds 
went  to  the  territory  of  the  enemy,  where, 
after  some  solemn  prefatory  indication,  he, 
with  a  loud  voice,  intimated  that  he  declared 
war  againstthem  for  certain  reasons  specified, 
such  as  injury  done  to  the  Roman  allies,  or 
the  like. 

Claymore  (Gaelic,  signifying  great  glaive, 
or  sword).  Properly  a  great  two-handed 
sword,  used  by  the  Highlanders  only. 

Clayonages  (F?-.).  A  species  of  Inirdle, 
with  which  the  timber-work  of  a  gallery  is 
covered.     It  is  likewise  used  in  saps. 


CLERMONT 


107 


COEHORN 


Clermont,  A  town  of  France,  depart- 
ment of  Oise,  16  miles  by  rail  south-south- 
east of  Beuuvais.  It  was  burned  by  the 
English  in  1359;  besieged  by  Marshal  de 
Boussac  in  1-130;  captured  by  the  English 
in  1-134;  taken  by  Henry  IV.  in  lo!);j,  and 
occupied  by  the  Prince  de  Conde  in  Kilo. 

Clermont-Ferrand.  A  city  of  France, 
capital  of  the  department  Puy-de-D6nie.  It 
was  captured  by  the  Vandals  in  408;  be- 
sieged without  success  by  the  Visigoths  in 
473.  It  was  taken  by  Thierry  in  500  ;  sacked 
by  Pepin  in  7(il  ;  captured  by  the  Nor- 
mans in  853.  The  great  council  in  which 
the  crusades  originated  was  held  here  in 
1096. 

Clice  (Fr.).  A  long  and  curved  Turkish 
sabre. 

elide  (Fr.).  A  machine  of  war,  used 
during  the  Middle  Ages  to  throw  rocks  on 
besieging  parties. 

Clifton  Moor  (England).  Here  the  Scotch 
insurgents  were  defeated  by  the  royal  troops 
in  1745. 

Clipeus.  A  large  shield  worn  by  the  an- 
cient Greeks  and  Romans,  which  was  orig- 
inally of  a  circular  form,  made  of  wicker- 
work  or  wood  covered  over  with  ox-hides 
several  folds  deep,  and  bound  round  the  edge 
with  metal. 

Clontarf.  A  place  near  Dublin,  Ireland, 
the  site  of  a  battle  fought  on  Good  Friday, 
April  23, 1014,  between  the  Irish  and  Dunes, 
the  former  headed  by  Brian  Boroihme,  mon- 
arch of  Ireland,  who  defeated  the  invaders, 
after  a  long  and  bloody  engagement.  Brian 
was  wounded,  and  soon  afterwards  died. 
His  son  Murchard  also  fell,  with  many  of 
the  nobility  ;  UjOOCT Danes  are  said  to  have 
perished  in  the  battle. 

Close  Column.  A  column  of  troops  in 
which  the  subdivisions  are  at  less  than  full 
distance, — that  is,  less  than  the  length  of 
one  of  the  subdivisions. 

Clostercamp.  A  village  of  Rhenish  Prus- 
sia. Here  the  French  gained  a  victory  on 
October  1.">-1(J,  1700. 

Closterseven  (Hanover),  Convention  of. 
"Was  entered  into  September  8,  1757,  between 
the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  third  son  of 
George  II.,  and  the  Duke  of  Richelieu,  com- 
mander of  the  French  armies.  By  its  hu- 
miliating stipulations,  38,000  Hanoverians 
laid  down  their  arms,  and  were  dispersed. 
The  duke  immediately  afterwards  resigned 
all  his  military  commands,  and  the  conven- 
tion was  soon  broken  bv  both  parties. 

Clothing.  The  Pres'ident  of  the  United 
States  is  authorized  to  prescribe  the  kind  and 

auality  of  clothing  to  be  issued  annually  to 
le  troops  of  the  United  States.  The  nian- 
ner  of  issuing  and  accounting  for  clothing 
shall  be  established  by  general  regulations  of 
the  War  Department.  The  clothing  of  the 
British  army  is  determined  by  a  permanent 
board,  composed  of  the  commander-in-chief 
and  a  certain  number  of  general  officers, 
who  act  under  the  authority  of  the  sover- 
eign. 


Club,  To.  To  throw  into  confusion,  to 
deform  through  ignorance  or  inadvertence. 
To  club  a  f)uttalio7t,  to  throw  it  into  confu- 
sion. This  happens  through  a  temporary 
inability  in  the  conmianding  officer  to  re- 
store any  given  body  of  men  to  their  natu- 
ral front  in  line  or  column,  after  some  ma- 
nceuvre  has  been  performed. 

Coa.  A  river  in  Portugal,  province  of 
Beira.  The  spur  which  separates  the  Coa 
from  the  Agueda  incloses  the  plateau  of  Fu- 
entcs  d'Onore,  famous  for  the  battle  of  1811, 
which  was  fought  by  Msissena  with  the  Eng- 
lish.    See  FuENTKS  d'Onork. 

Coat-armor.  Coats  of  arms  ;  armorial  en- 
signs. 

Coat  of  Arms.  A  habit  formerly  worn 
by  knights  over  their  armor.  It  was  a  short- 
sleeved  coat  or  tunic  reaching  to  the  waist, 
and  embroidered  with  their  armorial  en- 
signs and  various  devices.  Any  representa- 
tion of  the  armorial  devices  upon  such  a 
habit ;  an  armorial  device. 

Coat  of  Mail.  A  piece  of  armor  cover- 
ing the  upper  portion  of  the  body,  consist- 
ing of  a  net-work  of  iron  rings. 

Coblentz.  A  fortified  town  of  Rhenish 
Prussia,  situated  at  the  conflux  of  the  Rhine 
and  Moselle,  opposite  the  great  Prussian 
fortress  of  Ehrenbreitstein.  In  1794  this 
place  was  taken  by  Napoleon  I.,  and  made 
the  capital  of  the  department  of  the  Rhine 
and  ^losclle. 

Cocherel.  Near  Evreux,  Northwest 
France.  Here  Bertrand  and  Du  Guesclin 
defeated  the  king  of  Navarre,  and  took  pris- 
oner the  Captal  de  Buch,  May  10,  13t;4. 

Cochin.  A  city  of  Hindostan,  presidency 
of  Madras.  It  was  held  by  the  Portuguese 
in  1503;  by  the  Dutch  in  16(J3 ;  was  taken 
by  the  British  in  1796,  and  ceded  to  them  in 
1814. 

Cockade  (Fr.  cocarde).  The  word  signi- 
fied originally  a  cocked-hat,  or  a  hat  with 
the  broad  flap  looped  up  on  one  side,  and 
then  applied  to  the  knot  of  ribbon  with 
which  the  loop  is  ornamented.  The  word  is 
now,  however,  restricted  to  signify  an  ap- 
pendage worn  on  the  hat  of  military  and 
naval  officers. 

Cock-feather.  In  archery,  the  feather 
which  stood  up  on  the  arrow,  when  it  was 
rightly  placed  upon  the  string,  perpendicu- 
larly upon  the  cock  or  notch. 

Code.  A  compilation  or  collection  of  laws 
made  by  public  authority,  as  the  Code  Xapu- 
U-on. 

Code.  A  list  of  signal  .symbols.    Sec  Sio- 

NALI\0. 

Codogno.  A  town  of  Italy,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Milan,  between  the  Adda  and  the 
Po.  Here  the  Austrians  were  defeated  by 
the  Spaniards  in  1746,  and  by  the  French  in 
179(5. 

Coehorn.  So  named  from  the  military 
engineer,  Baron  Van  Coehorn,  who  invented 
it.  It  is  a  small  howitzer,  or  mortar,  gen- 
erally 4|  inches  caliber.  These  implements 
of  w'ar,  being  easily  moved  and  adjusted, 


COEHORN 


108 


COLONIA 


and  taking  little  powder,  are  found  very ' 
useful  in  sieges,  if  grouped  ih  great  num- 
bers. 

Coehorn   Beds.     See  Ordnance,   Car- 

RIAGKS  FOR  MORTAR  BeDS. 

Coeverden,  Coevorden,  or  Koevorde.    A 

fortified  town  of  Holland;  it  was  captured 
by  the  French  in  1795. 

Coffer.  In  fortification,  a  hollow  lodg- 
ment, sunk  in  the  bottom  of  a  dry  ditch, 
from  6  to  7  feet  deep,  and  from  16  to  18  feet 
broad.  Its  length  corresponds  with  the 
whole  breadth  of  the  said  ditch,  from  side 
to  side.  The  besieged  generally  make  use 
of  these  ootfers  to  repulse  the  besiegers 
when  they  attempt  to  pass  the  ditch  ;  tliey 
are  distinguished  only  by  their  length  from 
capo7inieres.  They  are  covered  with  joists, 
hurdles,  and  earth,  raised  2  feet  above  the 
bottom  of  the  ditch,  so  as  to  serve  the  pur- 
poses of  a  loop-holed  parapet. 

Cohort.  A  division  of  the  ancient  Roman 
armies,  consisting  of  about  600  men,  divided 
into  centuries.  It  was  the  tenth  part  of  a 
legion,  and  its  number,  consequently,  was 
under  the  same  fluctuation  as  that  of  the 
legions.  In  the  time  of  the  empire  the  co- 
hort often  amounted  to  1000  men. 

Coif.  Was  originally  an  iron  skull-cap, 
worn  by  knights  under  their  helmets ;  it 
was  introduced  before  1259.  It  is  now  es- 
pecially applied  in  Great  Britain  to  a  cap 
worn  by  sergeants-at-law. 

Coimbra.  An  ancient  city  of  Portugal, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Beira.  It  appears 
to  have  been  originally  built  by  the  Goths  ; 
from  them  it  passed  to  the  Moors,  from 
whom  it  was  finally  conquered  in  10G4  by 
Fernando  the  Great,  aided  by  the  gallant 
Cid.  It  was  taken  by  the  troops  under  the 
British  colonel  Kent,  October  7,  1810. 

Coin  (Fr.  coin  d'artilleur).  In  gunnery, 
a  kind  of  wedge  to  lay  under  the  breech  of 
a  gun,  in  order  to  raise  or  depress  the  metal. 
"Written  also  quoin. 

Colberg,  or  Kolberg.  A  strongly  fortified 
seaport  of  Prussian  Pomerania.  It  stands 
on  a  hill,  surrounded  with  swamps  which 
can  be  laid  under  water,  and  is  chiefly  re- 
markable for  the  protracted  sieges  it  has 
undergone.  In  1102,  Duke  Boleslaus,  of 
Poland,  besieged  it  m  vain.  It  endured  long 
sieges  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  in  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  and  again  in  1807,  when 
it  was  most  gallantly  defended  against  the 
French. 

Colchester.  The  chief  town  in  the  county 
of  Essex,  England.  It  was  taken  from  the 
Danes  in  921  by  Edward  the  Elder,  who 
founded  the  castle.  It  was  ravaged  by  the 
plague  in  1348,  in  1360,  and  again  in  1665. 
In  1648  it  was  taken  by  Lord  Goring  for 
Charles  I.,  but  was  retaken  by  Fairfax  after 
a  siege  of  11  weeks,  when  the  castle  was  dis- 
mantled. 

Cold  Harbor.  A  village  of  Hanover  Co., 
Va.,  about  10  miles  northeast  of  Richmond. 
During  the  civil  war  a  series  of  desperate 
struggles   took   place   in   and    around    this 


place  (May  28-June  3,  1864)  between  the 
forces  of  Gens.  Grant  and  Lee,  resulting  in 
a  loss  of  probably  13,000  men  on  the  Fed- 
eral side. 

Coldstream.  A  border-town  of  Scotland, 
in  Berwickshire,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Tweed.  Near  this  place  is  the  famous  ford 
where  the  English  and  Scottish  armies  for- 
merly crossed  the  Tweed.  Here  Gen.  Monk 
raised  the  regiment  still  known  as  the  Cold- 
stream Guards. 

Coldstream  Guards.  A  regiment  in  the 
Foot  Guards,  or  Household  Brigade,  is  the 
oldest  corps  in  the  British  army  except  the 
First  Foot.  It  was  raised  at  Coldstream  in 
1660,  by  Gen.  Monk,  and  was  first  called 
Monk's  regiment,  but  when  Parliament  con- 
sented to  give  a  brigade  of  guards  to  Charles 
II.,  this  corps,  under  its  present  name,  was 
included  in  it. 

College  of  Arms.  See  Herald's  Col- 
lege. 

Collet  {Fr.).  In  gunnery,  that  part  of  a 
cannon  which  is  between  the  astragal  and 
the  muzzle. 

Colmar.  A  city  of  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Haut-Rhin.  This  city  had 
an  active  share  in  the  civil  wars  under  Ro- 
dolph  of  Hapsburg  and  Adolphe  of  Nassau  ; 
it  was  captured  by  the  Swedes  in  1632;  by 
the  French  in  1635  and  1673.  It  was  ceded 
to  France  by  the  peace  of  Ryswick  in  1697. 
Occupied  by  the  Bavarians  on  January  3, 
1814. 

Colocotroni.     See  Kolocotroni. 

Cologne.  A  fortified  city  of  Prussia,  the 
capital  of  the  province  of  Rhenish  Prussia, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  It  is  a  fort- 
ress of  the  first  rank.  "It  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  1795,  and  assigned  to  Prussia  in 
1814. 

Colombia,  United  States  of.  A  republic 
of  South  America,  known  by  this  name  since 
1861,  but  formerly  called  New  Granada.  It 
united  with  Venezuela  in  1819,  and  estab- 
lished one  central  government  for  the  pur- 
pose of  resisting  Spain,  but  in  1829  was  sep- 
arated from  it,  and  soon  after  another  re- 
public— that  of  Ecuador — was  formed  from 
it,  three  republics  being  thus  formed  out  of 
what  was  formerly  but  one. 

Colombo.  A  fortified  seaport  town  and 
capital  of  Ceylon  ;  it  was  fortified  in  1638 
by  the  Portuguese,  who  were  expelled  by 
the  Dutch  in  1666;  the  latter  surrendered 
it  to  the  British,  February  15,  1796.  The 
British  troops  were  murdered  here  in  cold 
blood  by  the  Adigar  of  Candy,  June  6,  1803. 

Colonel.  The'title  of  the  highest  officer 
of  a  regiment,  ranking  next  below  a  briga- 
dier-general, and  above  a  lieutenant-colonel. 
The  rank  of  captain  in  the  navy  corresponds 
with  this  title. 

Colonel,  Lieutenant-.  The  rank  next  be- 
low that  of  colonel. 

Colonia  do  Santissimo  Sacramento  {i.e., 
Colony  of  the  Most  Holy  Sacrament).  A 
fortified  maritime  town  of  South  America, 
in   Uruguay,   opposite  Buenos  Ayres.     On 


COLONIAL 


109 


COMBUSTION 


Aii^Mist  31,  1845,  it  was  taken  by  the  English 
and  Fronoh  fleets.  ' 

Colonial  Corps.  Are  certain  regiments 
formin;:^  part  of  the  regular  army  of  the 
British  empire,  and  paid  for  out  of  the  im- 
perial revenues.  The  native  troops  of  India 
are  paid  from  the  Indian  revenues. 

Colorado.  One  of  the  United  States, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Dakota  and  Ne- 
braska, on  the  east  by  Nebraska  and  Kansas, 
on  the  south  by  New  Mexico,  and  on  the 
west  by  Utah.  In  1857  an  exploring  party 
startedthrough  its  territory,  but  were  driven 
back  by  hostile  Indians.'  The  country  is 
now,  however,  being  rapidly  settled,  owing 
to  its  great  fertility  and  the  presence  of 
auriferous  deposits. 

Color-bearer.     The  bearer  of  the  colors. 

Color-Guard,  The.  In  the  U.  S.  infan- 
try, consi-sts  of  the  color-bearer  and  a  guard 
of  7  corporals  in  each  regiment.  They  must 
all  be  good  soldiers  The  color-guard  is  at- 
tached to  the  right  centre  company  in  the 
line,  and  its  post  on  the  field  is  one  of  honor 
as  well  as  danger. 

Colorno.  A  fortified  castle  in  Italy,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Po  ;  it  was  captured  by  the 
Marquis  de  Maillebois,  from  the  Austrians 
under  the  Prince  of  Wiirtemberg,  in  1784. 

Colors.  A  military  term  applied  to  ban- 
ners or  flags  carried  by  each  regiment  of 
infantry.  The  banners  of  the  cavalry  are 
called  standards.  Each  U.  S.  regiment  has 
two  colors,  one  national  and  one  regimental. 

Colors.  In  heraldry,  the  colors  generally 
used  are  red,  blue,  black,  green,  and  purple, 
which  are  called  gules,  azure,  sable,  vert  or 
sinople,  and  purpure.  Colors  and  metals, 
when  engraved,  are  generally  indicated  by 
dots  and  lines :  or,  gold,  by  dots ;  argent, 
silver,  is  left  plain  ;  gules,  red,  is  indicated 
by  perpendicular  lines  from  top  to  bottom  ; 
azure,  blue,  by  horizontal  lines  from  side  to 
Bide;  snhle,  black,  by  horizontal  and  per- 
pendicular lines  crossing  each  other;  veri, 
green,  by  diagonal  lines  from  right  to  left; 
and  purpure,  purple,  by  diagonal  lines  from 
left  to  right. 

Color-Sergeant.  Is  the  sergeant  detailed 
to  carry  the  regimental  colors,  lie  is  usually 
selected  for  military  deportment  and  sol- 
dierly bearing,  and  when  carrying  the  colors 
is  escorted  by  a  guard  of  7  corporals.  In 
the  British  service  he  has  a  distinct  rank, 
but  in  the  U.  S.  service  he  ranks  no  higher 
than  other  sergeants. 

Colt's  Pistol.  The  most  celebrated  of 
modern  revolvers.  Invented  by  an  Amer- 
ieiui,  Col.  Samuel  Colt;  first  patented  in 
18;?5,  and  perfected  about  1845.     It  has  kept 

Saee  with  the  times,  and  is  still  one  of  the 
rst  of  its  kind. 

Columbia.  The  capital  of  South  Caro- 
lina, situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Con- 
garee  River.  It  was  taken  by  Gen.  Sher- 
man's army,  February  17,  18G5,  and  was 
then  niueh  injured  by  fire. 

Columbiad  Gun.  "  See  Ordnance,  Con- 
struction OF. 


Column.  Signifies,  in  military  evolu- 
tions, a  mass  of  soldiers  several  ranks  in 
depth  as  opj)osed  to  line.  There  may  be 
columns  of  brigades,  of  regiments,  of  di- 
visions, or  of  companies,  presenting  a  front 
of  limited  width,  but  a  depth  depending  on 
the  number  of  elements  in  the  column.  In 
a  battalion  the  formation  is  called  open 
column  when  the  distance  between  the  ele- 
ments of  the  column  is  such  as  to  admit  of 
their  wheeling  into  line  ;  when  the  distance 
is  only  a  few  yards  it  is  termed  close  column  ; 
when  intermediate  between  these  two,  it  is 
"column  at  half  distance."  Battalions  are 
drawn  up  in  column  with  either  the  right 
or  left  in  front,  or  the  battalions  may  be 
doubled  upon  their  centres.  To  pjiss  from 
column  into  line  is  to  "deploy";  to  pass 
from  line  to  column  is  to  "ploy."  Some- 
times the  name  column  is  given  to  a  small 
army,  especially  when  engaged  in  active 
operations.  In  drawing  uji  troops  for  action, 
as  a  general  rule,  the  French  prefer  the 
column,  the  Americans  and  English  the 
formation  in  line. 

Column,  Military.  Among  the  Romans, 
a  column  on  which  was  engraven  a  list  of 
the  forces  in  the  Koman  army,  ranged  by 
legions  in  their  proj)er  order.  They  had 
another  kind  of  military  column  called  col- 
umna  bellica,  standing  before  the  temple  of 
Janus,  at  the  foot  of  which  the  consul  de- 
clared war  by  throwing  a  javelin  towards 
the  enemy's  country. 

Column,  Triumphal.  A  column  erected 
amoni;  the  aiuients  in  honor  of  a  hero,  and 
decorated  with  various  kinds  of  crowns, 
corresponding  to  the  number  of  his  achieve- 
ments in  battle.  Each  crown  had  its  par- 
ticular name,  as  rallaris,  which  was  filled 
with  spikes,  in  memory  of  his  having  faced 
a  palisade;  muralis,  adorned  with  little  tur- 
rets or  battlements,  for  having  mounted  an 
a.ssault;  7iavalis,  of  prows  and  beaks  of  ves- 
sels, for  having  vanquished  at  sea  ;  obsidion 
alis,  or  graminalis,  ofgrass,  for  having  raised 
a  siege;  ova7is,  of  myrtle,  which  expressed 
an  ovation,  or  minor  triumph ;  and  tri- 
iimphalix,  of  laurel,  for  a  grand  triumph. 

Comanche  Indians,  or  Comanches.  An 
extremely  warlike  and  predator}-  tribe  of 
Mexico  and  Texas.  They  have  a  reserva- 
tion in  Indian  Territory  with  some  Kiowas 
and  Apaches.  See  Indians  and  their 
Aqkncies. 

Combat.  An  engagement  of  no  great 
magnitude,  or  one  in  which  the  parties  en- 
gaged are  not  armies. 

Combustion.  The  phenomena  attending 
intense  chemical  actions  which  are  accom- 
panied by  heat  and  light.  Usually  restricted 
to  the  burning  of  bodies  by  their  union  with 
oxygen.  It  is  ditficult  io  draw  the  line 
wlicre  combustion  ends  and  explosion  be- 
gins. 

Combustion,  "Velocity  of.  Is  the  space 
passed  over  bv  the  surface  of  combustion  in 
a  second  of  time,  mea.<ured  in  a  direction 
perpendicular  to  its   surface.     It  has  been 


COMES 


110 


COMMAND 


determined  that  the  velocity  of  comhustion 
of  dry  French  war-powder  is  0.48  inch,  and 
of  English  powder,  which  American  powder 
closely  resembles,  is  0.4  inch. 

Comes.  Was  with  the  llomans  an  oiBcer 
with  territorial  jurisdiction  in  the  provinces, 
and  especially  on  the  frontiers. 

Comigne  {Fr.).  A  shell  of  extreme  mag- 
nitude, which  takes  its  name  from  the  per- 
son who  originally  invented  it. 

Comines,  or  Commines.  A  town  of 
France,  situated  on  the  Lys,  opposite  the 
Belgian  town  of  the  same  name.  Near 
here  Oliver  de  Clisson  defeated  the  Flem- 
ings in  1382. 

Command.  In  fortification,  the  height 
of  the  top  of  a  parapet  above  the  ground  or 
another  work. 

Command.  A  body  of  troops,  or  any 
naval  or  military  force  or  post,  under  the 
command  of  a  particular  officer.  The  word 
command,  when  applied  to  ground  is  sy- 
nonymous with  overlook ;  and  any  place 
thus  commanded  by  heights  within  range 
of  cannon  is  difficult  to  defend,  if  the 
enemy  have  been  able  to  seize  the  heights. 

Command.  The  62d  Article  of  War 
(new,  122)  states  who  shall  command  when 
different  corps  of  the  army  happen  to  join 
or  do  duty  together,  but  as  the  wording  of 
this  article  has  been  interpreted  difi'erently 
by  difterent  officers,  it  is  thought  best  to 
give  a  decision  rendered  by  President  Fill- 
more on  October  25,  1851,  in  General  Orders 
from  the  War  Department.  The  62d  Arti- 
cle of  War  provides  that  "  If  upon  marches, 
guards,  or  in  quarters,  different  corps  of 
the  army  shall  happen  to  join,  or  to  do  duty 
together,  the  officer  highest  in  rank  of  the 
li7ie  of  the  army,  marine  corps,  or  militia, 
by  commission  there,  on  duty,  or  in  quar- 
ters, shall  command  the  whole  and  give 
orders  for  what  is  needful  to  the  service, 
unless  otherwise  specially  directed  by  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  case."  The  interpreta- 
tion of  this  act  has  long  been  a  subject  of 
controversy.  The  difficulty  arises  from  the 
vague  and  uncertain  meaning  of  the  words 
"line  of  the  army,"  which  neither  in  the 
English  service  nor  in  our  own  have  a 
well-defined  and  invariable  meaning.  By 
some  they  are  understood  to  designate  the 
regular  army  as  distinguished  from  the 
militia;  by  others  as  meant  to  discriminate 
between  officers  by  ordinary  commissions 
and  those  by  brevet ;  and  finally,  by  others, 
to  designate  an  officer  not  belonging  to  the 
staff". 

The  President  states  that  "He  has  ma- 
turely considered  the  question,  and  finds 
himself  compelled  to  differ  from  some  for 
whose  opinions  he  entertains  a  very  high 
respect.  His  opinion  is,  that  although  these 
words  may  sometimes  be  used  in  a  different 
sense  (to  be  determined  by  the  context  and 
subject-matter),  in  the  62d  Article  of  War 
they  are  used  to  designate  those  officers  of 
the  army  who  do  not  belong  to  the  staff",  in 


contradistinction  to  those  who  do,  and  that 
the  article  intended,  in  the  case  contem- 
plated by  it,  to  confer  the  command  exclu- 
sively on  the  former."  In  the  discussion 
which  took  place  in  1828  relating  to  ordi- 
nary rank  and  rank  by  brevet,  the  then  Sec- 
retary of  War  (Gen.  Porter)  says,  "Rank 
in  the  line  of  the  army  or  lineal  rank,  as 
understood  by  the  President,  is  applicable 
to  the  existing  organization  of  that  portion 
only  of  the  army  which  is  intended  for  field 
opei'ations  or  the  exertion  of  physical  force 
against  an  enemy.  It  is  commonly  used  in 
contradistinction  to  the  staff,"  etc.  He  then 
goes  on  to  show  that  in  the  62d  Article  it 
has  another  meaning,  —  House  Document 
58,  20th  Congress,  2d  session,  page  13.  In 
the  same  discussion,  Mr.  Drayton,  as  chair- 
man of  the  Committee  on  Military  Aff"airs 
of  the  House  of  Representatives,  expresses 
the  same  opinion.  He  says,  "  Rank  in  the 
line  of  the  army  is  conceived  to  be  rank  in 
a  military  body  specially  organized  for  the 
exertion  of  physical  force,  or  in  other  words, 
for  combating  an  enemy ;  and  an  officer  in 
such  a  body  has  a  direct  and  paramount 
command  over  the  troops  which  compose  it. 
The  expressions  'rank  in  the  line  of  the 
army,'  'rank  in  the  line,'  'lineal  rank,'  a?'e 
generally  used  in  contradistinction  to  staff 
appointments."  He  adds,  "  and  to  rank 
which  confers  upon  officers  only  an  occa- 
sional right  to  command,  including  brevet 
officers,"  etc.  Thus  we  see  that  these  gen- 
tlemen admit  that  these  words,  in  their 
proper  and  usual  signification,  are  employed 
to  distinguish  the  combatant  from  the  staff" 
or  non-combatant  portions  of  the  army. 

If  we  look  at  the  policy  of  the  law,  we 
can  discover  no  reasons  of  expediency  which 
compel  us  to  depart  from  the  plain  and  or- 
dinary import  of  the  terms ;  on  the  con- 
trary, we  may  suppose  strong  reasons  why 
it  may  have  been  deemed  proper,  in  the 
case  referred  to  by  the  article,  to  exclude 
officers  of  the  staff  from  command.  In  the 
first  place,  the  command  of  troops  might 
frequently  interfere  with  their  appropriate 
duties,  and  thereby  occasion  serious  em- 
barrassment to  the  service.  In  the  next 
place,  the  officers  of  some  of  the  staff"  corps 
are  not  qualified  by  their  habits  of  educa- 
tion for  the  command  of  troops,  and 
although  others  are  so  qualified,  it  arises 
from  the  fact  that  (by  laws  passed  long  sub- 
sequently to  the  article  in  question)  the 
officers  of  the  corps  to  which  they  belong 
are  required  to  be  appointed  from  the  "  line 
of  the  army."  Lastly,  officers  of  the  staff 
corps  seldom  have  troops  of  their  own  corps 
serving  under  their  command,  and  if  the 
words  "officers  of  the  line"  are  understood 
to  apply  to  them,  the  eft'ect  would  often  be 
to  give  them  command  over  the  officers  and 
men  of  all  the  other  corps  when  not  a  man 
of  their  own  was  present,  an  anomaly 
always  to  be  avoided,  where  it  is  possible 
to  do  so.  Whatever  doubts  may  be  enter- 
tained on  this  subject  in  regard  to  the  offi- 


COMMANDANT 


111 


COMPANY 


cers  of  other  staff  corps,  none  cun  exist  in 
regard  to  those  of  the  Medical  Deiiartnieiit 
and  the  Pay  Department.  The  law  of  1847 
expressly  excludes  them  from  command. 
Now  the  officers  of  these  corps  are  not  a 
distinct  and  independent  body,  but  are  a 
part  of  the  army,  and  as  they  cannot  com- 
mand, it  follows  that  when  on  duty  they 
must  be  cominunded. 

Commandant.  An  officer  who  has  the 
cominaiul  of  a  garrison,  fort,  castle,  regi- 
ment, company,  etc. ;  called  also  com- 
mander. 

Commander-in-Chief.  The  title  given 
to  the  officer  who  has  supreme  command 
of  the  land  or  naval  forces  of  a  nation. 
The  President  is  e.v  officio  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  and  navy  of  the  United 
« tat  OS. 

Commands.  In  the  military  service 
there  arc  two  kinds,  the  pi-eparatonj  com- 
mand, such  as  forward,  which  indicates  the 
movement  that  is  to  be  executed,  and  the 
command  of  e.reaition,  such  as  march,  or 
HALT,  or  in  the  manual  of  arms,  the  part 
of  the  command  which  causes  the  execution. 
The  tone  of  command  is  animated,  distinct, 
and  of  a  loudness  proportioned  to  the  num- 
ber of  men  under  instruction. 

£ach  preparatory  command  is  pronounced 
in  an  ascending  tone  of  voice,  but  always 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  command  of  exe- 
cution may  be  more  energetic  and  elevated. 

The  command  of  execution  is  pronounced 
in  a  tone  lirm  and  brief.  The  trumpet 
ought  to  be  used  for  giving  commands 
whenever  it  can  be  done  to  advantage. 

Commilitones.  This  word  had  with  the 
Romans  the  same  significance  as  the  Eng- 
lish words  comrade  soldiers. 

Commissariat.  A  name  given  to  the  or- 
ganized systt-m  whereby  armies  arc  provided 
with  food  and  daily  necessaries.  In  the  old 
Koman  armies  the  duty  of  supplying  troops 
was  performed  by  the  qua:.storfi,  who  filled 
the  place  of  the  commissary  officers  of  our 
own  times.  In  the  U.  S.  service  this  de- 
])artment  is  under  charge  of  an  officer  of  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general,  called  the  com- 
missary-general of  subsistence. 

Commissary.  In  general  means  any  one 
to  wiiom  the  power  or  authority  of  another 
is  committed ;  used  in  military  atlairs  in 
relation  to  officers  who  have  charge  of  the 
subsistence  of  troops,  musters,  etc. 

Commissary  of  Muster.     See  Muster. 

Commissary  Sergeants.  In  the  U.  S. 
service,  are  sergeants  who  are  selected  from 
the  line  of  the  army,  by  the  Secretary  of 
War  ;  they  must  be  steady  and  reliable  men, 
and  their  duties  are  to  assist  the  commissary 
officer  in  receiving,  storing,  preserving, 
issuing,  selling,  and  accounting  for  the  sub- 
sistence supplies  at  their  p«ists,  acct>rding  to 
the  regulations  for  the  subsistence  depart- 
ments. 

Commission.  A  writing,  generally  in 
the  form  of  a  warrant  or  letters-patent,  au- 
thorizing the  perfornumco  of  duties,  or  exer- 


cise of  powers  belonging  to  another.  Instru- 
ments bearing  this  title  are  issued  by  the 
Executive  to  officers  in  the  army  or  navy, 
who,  on  confirmation  of  their  appointment, 
are  known  as  commissicmed  officers.  The 
practice  of  buying  and  selling  all  commis- 
sions under  the  rank  of  colonel,  which  for- 
merly prevailed  in  the  British  army,  was 
abolished  in  1871. 

Commissioned.  One  having  a  commis- 
sion ;  funiishcil  with  a  commission  ;  empow- 
ered or  authorized  to  act ;  as,  a  commissioned 
officer. 

Common  Time.  In  marching,  the  length 
of  the  direct  step  in  common  time  is  28 
inches,  and  the  cadence  is  at  the  rate  of  90 
steps  per  minute. 

Communication,  Line  of.  A  fantastical 
name  ap|)]icd  by  Helidor  to  mines  with  im- 
mense charges,  which  he  proposed  to  use  for 
the  destruction  of  countermines,  and  which 
were  used  successfully  in  the  attack  of 
Schweidnitz,  under  Frederick  II. 

Commutation.  Is  the  conversion  of  allow- 
ances, such  as  fuel,  forage,  and  quarters, 
into  their  money  value. 

Comorn.  A  royal  free  town  of  Hungary, 
48  miles  from  Buda.  Its  citadel  is  consid- 
ered one  of  the  strongest  in  Europe.  Its 
works  and  intrenchments  extend  about  7 
miles  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers  (Waag 
and  Danube),  and  it  requires  for  its  defense 
at  least  15,000  men  and  400  pieces  of  artil- 
lery. It  has  the  reputation  of  being  impreg- 
nable, and  justified  it  in  the  Hungarian  war, 
for  the  Austrians  besieged  it  from  October, 
1848,  to  September,  1849,  and  only  became 
masters  of  it  at  last  in  virtue  of  a  capitula- 
tion. 

Compagnies  de  Discipline  {Fr.).  "Com- 
panies of  discipline."  These  companies  were 
created  by  Napoleon  I.  in  1802;  the  basis  of 
their  actual  organization  was  laid  by  a  royal 
order,  dated  April  1,  1818.  This  order  fixes 
the  number  of  companies  at  10,  6  of  fusileers 
and  4  of  pioneers,  the  former  to  be  composed 
of  soldiers  of  the  army  who  were  guilty  of 
indiscipline,  and  the  latter  to  be  formed  of 
men  of  the  former  who  were  deemed  incor- 
rigible. The  number  of  companies  is  now 
reduced  to  7,  who  are  stationed  in  Algeria. 
There  are  also  4  companies  similarly  or- 
ganized which  are  stationed  in  the  French 
colonies. 

Compagnies  d'Ordonnance  (Fr.).  The 
name  of  a  corps  of  cavalry,  which  was  or- 
ganized in  France  by  Charles  VII.  in  1439; 
it  numbered  1(>  companies,  and  the  entire 
strength  was  9000  men.  This  was  the  first 
regular  cavalry  organized  in  France. 

Company  (Fr.  compaqnie).  In  military 
organization,  is  a  body  of  men  comnumded 
by  a  captain,  and  forming  an  aliquot  part  of 
a  regiment  or  battalion.  In  the  British  ser- 
vice a  full  company  consists  of  about  100 
men,  and  a  regiment  of  infantry  generally 
comprises.  10  or  12  companies,  or  if  there  is 
more  than  1  battalion,  each  has  this  number 
of  companies.     The  captain   of  each  com- 


COMPANY 


112 


COMPLIMENT 


pany  is  assisted  by  2  subalterns.  In  the 
U.  S.  army  each  regiment  of  infantry  is 
divided  into  10  companies,  and  each  com- 
pany has  a  captain  and  2  lieutenants.  The 
artillery  and  cavalry  regiments  are  divided 
into  12' companies  each,  and  the  former  has 
a  captain  and  4  lieutenants  to  each  com- 
pany.    See  Organization. 

Company  Column.  The  successive  im- 
provements that  have  been  made  in  fire-arms 
during  the  last  hundred  years  have  been  fol- 
lowed by  a  gradual  diminution  of  the  depth 
of  tactical  formations,  until  to-day  the 
"  open  order,"  or  the  formation  as  skirmish- 
ers, is  the  only  one  adopted  under  the  fire  of 
the  enemy.  In  the  most  recent  development 
of  the  "  open  order"  the  company,  composed 
of  250  men,  is  recognized  as  the  "  fighting 
unit,"  while  the  battalion,  composed  of  4 
companies,  is  regarded  as  the  "  tactical 
unit," — that  is,  the  smallest  body  of  men 
that  can  be  safely  employed  independently. 

The  adoption  of  breech-loaders  has  not 
changed  the  principles  of  strategy  and  grand 
tactics,  nor  has  it  diminished  the  number  of 
lines  in  which  armies  are  drawn  up  to  give 
and  receive  battle.  It  has  simply  demon- 
strated the  impossibility  of  attacking  posi- 
tions in  battalion  columns,  and,  as  a  conse- 
quence, has  necessitated  a  division  of  the 
troops  into  smaller  fractions,  which,  under 
fire,  can  be  moved  with  the  greatest  rapidity 
and  least  exposure,  thereby  insuring  the 
least  loss  of  life.  Hence  the  formation  of 
troops  in  "  company  column"  in  the  German 
and  other  European  armies. 

In  the  German  army,  the  company  is 
formed  in  three  ranks ;  the  tallest  men  are 
in  the  front  rank  ;  the  most  adroit  and  best 
shots  are  selected  for  the  third  rank,  because 
the  special  duties  of  this  rank  require  these 
qualities ;  the  distance  between  ranks  is  2 
feet.  The  company  is  divided  into  divisions 
(or  platoons).  If  the  divisions  consist  of 
20  or  more  files,  they  are-  divided  into  sub- 
divisions (or  half  platoons) ;  the  subdivisions 
are  again  divided  into  sections  of  not  less 
than  4,  nor  more  than  6  files.  If  the  com- 
pany be  of  full  strength,  it  will  have  a 
front  of  72  files  ;  each  division  will  contain 
36  files;  each  subdivision  18  files;  and  each 
section  6  files.  The  battalion  consists  of  4 
companies. 

The  "company  column"  is  formed  in  the 
following  manner:  The  battalion  being  in 
line,  at  the  command  to  "form  company 
column,"  the  third  rank  of  each  even  divis- 
ion of  the  right  wing  faces  about,  marches 
12  paces  to  the  rear,  halts,  and  faces  to  the 
front;  the  first  and  second  ranks  of  the 
uneven  divisions  face  to  the  left,  and  place 
themselves  6  paces  in  rear  of  the  first  and 
second  ranks  of  the  even  divisions  ;  the  third 
rank  of  the  uneven  subdivisions  faces  to  the 
left,  and,  filing  in  front  of  the  third  rank  of 
the  even  division,  forms  with  it  a  third  di- 
vision in  double  rank.  The  movement  is 
executed  in  the  uucadenced  step.  The  col- 
umn when  formed  consists  practically  of  3 


platoons  in  double  rank.  In  the  left  wing 
the  movement  is  similarly  executed ;  the 
even  subdivisions  ploying  in  rear  of  the 
uneven  subdivisions.  The  third  division  of 
each  column  is  called  the  "shooting  divis- 
ion." 

In  the  French  army  the  company  is  formed 
in  2  ranks,  and  is  normally  divided  into  4 
sections,  the  first  two  of  which  constitute 
the  first  platoon,  the  last  two  the  second 
platoon.  The  "  company  column"  is  always 
formed  on  the  second  section  from  the  right, 
which  stands  fast ;  the  distance  between  sec- 
tions is  6  paces. 

The  "  company  column"  in  Italy,  Austria, 
and  Kussia,  as  in  France,  varies  very  slightly 
from  tlie  German. 

With  a  battalion  of  8  or  10  companies, 
subdivisions  may  be  dispensed  with,  and,  so 
long  as  this  organization  is  retained  in  Eng- 
land and  America,  the  "company  column" 
will  not  therefore  become  a  necessity. 
Should  the  regimental  system  of  3  battal- 
ions, of  4  companies  each,  be  adopted,  all  of 
the  advantages  claimed  for  the  "  company 
column"  can  be  secured  by  adopting  the 
double  column  of  fours  for  each  company. 
— Armies  of  Asia  and  Etirope,  Upton. 

Compass,  Prismatic.  A  pocket  instru- 
ment for  measuring  horizontal  angles  by 
means  of  the  magnetic  meridian.  It  is  much 
employed  in  the  military  service  for  sketch- 
ing the  general  features  of  a  country,  and  in 
reconnoissances.  It  consists  of  a  small  glass- 
covered  box  containing  a  magnetized  needle 
attached  to  a  graduated  card.  A  sight-vane 
with  a  fine  wire  stretched  longitudinally  in 
the  slot  is  hinged  to  one  side  of  the  box.  On 
the  opposite  side  is  a  prism.  To  use  it  the 
sight-vane  is  turned  up  to  the  perpendicular. 
The  eye  is  applied  to  the  prism,  and  the  wire 
directef  on  the  object.  The  division  in  the 
card  coinciding  with  the  reflection  of  the 
wire  gives  the  angle  with  the  meridian. 

Compassionate  Allowances.  In  the 
British  service,  are  grants  of  allowances 
which  are  made  to  the  legitimate  children 
of  deceased  officers  of  the  land  forces  in  all 
cases  in  which  the  widow  of  the  officer  would 
be  entitled  to  be  placed  on  the  pension-list, 
provided  it  be  shown  that  they  are  deserving 
objects  of  the  sovereign's  bounty,  and  are  in 
distressed  circumstances. 

Compiegne.  A  town  of  France,  depart- 
ment of  Oise.  It  was  besieged  by  the  Eng- 
lish in  1430,  who  failed  to  capture  it  owing 
to  the  brave  defense  made  by  its  governor, 
Flavia.  Joan  of  Arc,  who  came  to  the  as- 
sistance of  this  town,  was  taken  prisoner  by 
the  English  besiegers.  The  emperor  Napo- 
leon III.  and  the  king  of  Prussia  met  here 
on  October  6,  1861. 

Complement  of  the  Curtain.  That  part 
in  the  interior  side  of  a  fortification  which 
makes  the  demi-gorge. 

Complement  of  the  Line  of  Defense. 
The  remainder  of  the  line  of  defense  after 
the  angle  of  the  flank  is  taken  away. 

Compliment.     The  military  mark  of  re- 


COMPOSITIONS 


113 


CONI 


spect  shown  by  a  body  of  troops  to  oflicial 
personsif^es,  to  an  officer,  or  to  another  body 
of  troops. 

Compositions,  Pyrotechnic.     See  Pyro- 

TKCIIN  Y. 

Compound  Armor.   See  Armor  Plates. 

Compression  Strain.  See  Ordnaxck, 
Strains  uroN. 

Compulsion,  or  Inevitable  Necessity. 
Is  a  constraint  upon  the  will  whereby  an 
officer  is  urged  to  that  which  his  judgment 
disapproves,  and  which,  it  is  to  be  presumed, 
his  will  (if  left  to  itself)  would  rejoct.  As 
punishments  are,  therefore,  only  intlicted  for 
the  abuse  of  that  free  will  whicli  God  has 
given  to  num,  it  is  liighly  just  and  equita- 
ble that  an  olKcer  should  be  excused  for 
those  act.«  whicli  are  done  through  unavoid- 
able force  atid  compulsion. 

Comrade.  A  soldier  who  acts  as  the 
friend  of  another  soldier,  rendering  him 
friendly  services,  etc.  Each  soldier  gener- 
ally has  one  special  friend  who  is  recognized 
as  his  comrade.  The  term  comrade  is  also 
extended  so  as  to  include  all  the  members  of 
a  particular  corps,  branch  of  the  service,  or 
the  army  generally. 

Concarneau.  A  maritime  town  of  France, 
department  of  P'inistere;  it  was  taken  by 
Du  Guesclin  in  1373,  and  by  tlie  Leaguers 
in  157().  The  town  is  defended  by  a  fort  and 
surrounded  by  ancient  walls. 

Concave  Order  of  Battle.  See  Order 
OF  Hatti.k,  Concave. 

Concepcion.  A  port  of  Chili,  capital  of 
a  province  of  the  same  name.  In  1554, 1555, 
and  lt)03,  it  was  taken  and  burnt  by  the 
Araucanians.  A  portion  of  it  was  again 
devastated  by  the  Araucanians  in  18'23. 

Concord.  A  town  of  Middlesex  Co.,  Mass., 
11  miles  from  Boston.  Here,  on  April  19, 
1775,  one  of  the  first  conflicts  took  place  be- 
tween the  Americans  and  the  British  troops. 
A  monument  is  erected  at  this  place  to  com- 
memorate the  event. 

Concrete.  A  coarse  building  mortar, 
containing  broken  stone,  gravel,  etc.,  used 
nuu'li  in  fortifications. 

Conde.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  North.  It  is  strongly  fortified 
and  has  a  military  arsenal.  In  1793  this 
town  was  taken  by  the  Austrians. 

Condemned  Property.  In  the  military 
service,  property  uuist  bt;  condemned  by  an 
inspector  before  it  can  rightfully  be  de- 
stroyed. 

Condottieri.  A  name  given  in  the  14th 
century  to  the  leaders  of  certain  bands  of 
military  adventurers  in  Italy,  who,  for  booty, 
offered  their  services  to  any  party  in  any 
contest,  and  often  practiced  warfare  on  their 
own  account  purely  for  the  sake  of  plunder. 
The  Compn/jtiii.i  Gmixfrs  in  France  at  about 
the  same  period  were  somewhat  similar  to 
the  condottieri,  and  were  so  powerful  at  one 
time  that  in  LSfJl  they  routed  the  king's 
forces  at  Brignais.and  slew  Jacques  de  Bour- 
bon, constable  of  France. 

Conduct  Unbecoming  an  Officer  and  a 


Gentleman.  See  Uncjenti.emanlikk  or 
Unokkkeki.ike,  and  Appendix,  Articles 
OF  War,  (jOandVn. 

Confederate  Projectiles.  See  Projec- 
tile. 

Confederate  States  of  America,  or  South- 
ern Confederacy.  The  etlbrts  of  the  South- 
ern Slates  for  the  extension  of  slavery,  and 
the  zeal  of  the  Northern  States  fr)r  its  aboli- 
tion, with  the  consequent  political  dissen- 
sions, led  to  the  great  secession  of  18<jO-(il. 
On  November  4,  18(J0,  Abraham  Lincoln, 
the  Republican  candidate,  was  elected  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.  Hitherto,  a 
President  in  the  interest  of  the  South  had 
been  elected.  On  December  20,  South  Caro- 
lina .seceded  from  the  Union  ;  and  Alabama, 
Florida,  Mississippi,  Georgia,  Louisiaiui, 
Texas,  Virginia  (ex'cept  West  Virginia), 
Arkansas,  Tennessee,  and  North  Carolina 
seceded  early  in  18(il.  Jefferson  Davis  was 
inaugurated  President  of  the  Southern  Con- 
federacy at  Montgomery,  Ala.,  February 
18,  18<"il.  For  important  events  of  the  civil 
war  which  ensued,  see  the  different  States 
of  America  throughout  this  work,  and  the 
names  of  battles,  etc.,  which  were  fought 
during  this  war.  On  the  20th  day  of  Au- 
gust, 1806,  the  President  (Andrew  Johnson) 
proclaimed  the  insurrection  at  an  end,  and 
that  peace,  order,  tranquillity,  and  civil 
authority  existed  throughout  the  whole  of 
the  United  States.. 

Confederation  of  the  Rhine.  The  league 
of  the  German  states,  formed  by  Najtoloon 
Bonaparte,  July  12,  1800,  when  he  aboli-lied 
the  iloly  Roman  Empire,  and  the  emperor 
of  Germany  became  emperor  of  Austria. 
In  December  it  consisted  of  France,  Bavaria, 
Wiirteniberg,  Saxony,  and  Westphalia  ;  7 
grand  duchies,  6  duchies,  and  20  principali- 
ties. The  princes  collectively  engaged  to 
raise  258,000  troops  to  serve  in  case  of  war, 
and  established  a  diet  at  Frankfort.  This 
league  terminated  with  the  career  of  Bona- 
parte in  1814.  It  was  replaced  by  the  GVr- 
manic  Cuiifederatiim,  and  it,  in  its  turn,  was 
replaced  by  the  North  German  Cunfcdera- 
iion. 

Confiscation.  The  appropriation  to  tho 
public  use  of  private  property.  A  right 
which  is  conferred  under  certain  circum- 
stances by  the  laws  of  war.  See  Contra- 
hand  OF  War. 

Conflans  (near  Paris),  Treaty  of.  Be- 
tween Louis  XI.  of  France  and  the  Dukes 
of  Bourbon,  Brittany,  and  Burgundy,  Octo- 
ber 5,  14t)5.  By  its  provisions  Nt>rmandy 
was  ceded  to  the  Duke  of  Berry,  and  an  end 
was  put  to  the  "  War  of  the  Public  Good." 
It  was  confirmed  by  tho  treaty  of  Peronne, 
1408. 

Congreve  Rocket.     See  Rocket. 

Coni,  or  Cuneo.  The  capital  of  a  prov- 
ince of  tlio  same  name  in  Piedmont.  It  was 
once  a  fortified  place,  and  had  to  undergo 
several  sieges.  After  being  taken  and  re- 
taken, the  victory  of  Marengo  gave  it  into 
the  hands  of  the  French,  who   demolished 


CONNECTICUT 


114 


CONTRAVALLATION 


the  fortifications  and  turned  them  into 
promenades. 

Connecticut.  One  of  the  original  States 
of  the  American  Confederation,  and  the  most 
southwestern  of  the  New  England  States. 
The  country  was  early  explored  by  the 
Dutch,  but  the  first  permanent  settlements 
were  made  by  English  emigrants  in  1634. 
In  1G37  the  settlers  were  much  annoyed  by 
Indians,  who  were  shortly  afterwards  sub- 
dued, however,  in  engagements  at  Mystic 
and  Fairfield,  and  never  after  gave  any 
serious  trouble.  The  State  took  an  active 
part  in  the  cause  of  American  independence, 
and  also  in  the  late  war  for  the  Union,  and 
throughout  both  these  eventful  contests  she 
sustained  eminent  distinction  as  well  for  the 
wisdom  of  her  statesmen  as  for  the  bravery 
and  patriotism  of  her  soldiers. 

Conquer.  To  gain  or  acquire  by  force ; 
to  take  possession  of  by  violent  means ;  to 
gain  dominion  over ;  to  subdue;  to  reduce, 
etc.     To  gain  the  victory  ;  to  overcome. 

Conqueror.  One  who  conquers  ;  one  who 
subdues  and  brings  into  subjection  or  pos- 
session by  force  or  by  influence. 

Conquest.  The  act  of  conquering  or  ac- 
quiring by  force;  the  act  of  overcoming  or 
subduing  opposition  by  force  ;  subjugation; 
victory. 

Conquisitores.  So  were  called  the  re- 
cruiting officers  of  the  Romans. 

Consarbruck.  A  village  of  Rhenish 
Prussia  where  the  French  were  defeated 
by  the  Due  de  Lorraine,  August  11,  1675. 

Conscription.  A  system  of  enrolling 
men  for  military  service,  which  is  in  vogue 
in  France  and  some  other  foreign  countries. 
Voluntary  enlistments  being  so  very  few, 
the  compulsory  system  of  keeping  up  the 
armies  is  deemed  indispensable.  An  account 
is  kept  of  all  the  youths  who  reach  the  age 
of  20  in  one  year,  and  out  of  these  the  num- 
ber required  for  the  army  is  drawn  by  lot. 

Cosigne  (Fr.).     Parole  or  countersign. 

Constable.  The  title  in  the  Middle  Ages 
of  the  highest  military  officer  in  France 
under  the  king.  The  term  comes  from  the 
low  Latin  phrase  conies  stabuli,  count  of  the 
stables. 

Constable  of  the  Tower.  In  England, 
is  a  general  officer  who  has  the  chief  super- 
intendence of  the  Tower,  and  is  lord-lieu- 
tenant of  the  Tower  Hamlets.  He  holds 
his  appointment  by  letters-patent  from  the 
sovereign,  and  is  not  removable  at  pleasure. 

Constantine,  or  Constantina.  A  forti- 
fied city  of  Algeria,  capital  of  a  province 
of  its  own  name.  It  stands  on  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Cirta,  celebrated  as  the  bulwark 
of  Numidia.  It  is  built  upon  a  high  rock, 
formed  into  a  species  of  peninsula  by  the 
Rummel.  It  was  besieged  by  the  French 
in  1836,  but  held  out  till  October,  1837, 
when  it  was  taken  by  assault. 

Constantinople.  A  celebrated  city  of 
Turkey  in  Europe,  the  capital  of  the  Otto- 
man empire.  It  was  formerly  called  By- 
zantium,  but  having  been  rebuilt  by  the  em- 


peror Constantine  in  328,  it  received  his 
name.  No  city  in  the  world  has  been  sub- 
jected to  as  many  numerous  and  celebrated 
sieges,  yet  it  was  only  taken  twice, — by  the 
Crusaders  in  1204  (held  by  them  till  1261), 
and  by  the  Turks  under  Mohammed  II., 
May  29,  1453, — an  event  which  completed 
the  extinction  of  the  Roman  empire  in  the 
East. 

Contest.  In  a  military  sense,  to  struggle 
to  defend ;  as,  the  troops  contested  every  inch 
of  ground.  Earnest  struggle  for  superiority, 
defense,  or  the  like ;  strife  in  arms. 

Continental.  A  term  adopted  by  the 
Americans  in  the  Revolutionary  war  in 
contradistinction  to  British. 

Contingent.  This  term  is  applied  to  the 
quota  of  troops  furnished  to  the  common 
army  by  each  member  of  a  confederation  of 
states  ;  the  proportion  of  troops  or  money 
furnished  by  each  party  to  an  alliance. 

Contingent.  In  the  British  service,  the 
sum  paid  monthly  to  each  captain  of  a  troop, 
company,  or  battery,  to  defray  the  expense 
of  stationery,  the  care  of  arms,  and  other 
minor  demands.  A  contingent  account  is 
also  the  account,  sent  in  by  a  stafl-officer,  of 
money  expended  for  miscellaneous  purposes. 

Contours.  Are  the  lines  in  which  a  site 
or  ground  surface  is  cut  by  horizontal  planes, 
usually  taken  at  equidistances. 

Contraband  of  War.  Are  such  articles 
as  a  belligerent  has  by  the  law  of  nations 
the  right  of  preventing  a  neutral  from  fur- 
nishing to  his  enemy.  Articles  contraband 
of  war  are,  in  general,  arms  and  munitions 
of  war  and  those  out  of  which  munitions  of 
war  are  made.  Contraband  articles  are  sub- 
ject to  confiscation  ;  but  very  arbitrary  in- 
terpretations have  been  affixed  to  the  term 
by  powerful  states,  when  able  to  enforce 
them  by  arms.  Thus,  provisions  are  held 
contraband  of  war  when  it  is  the  object  to 
reduce  the  enemy  by  famine.  But  with  re- 
spect to  these  and  other  articles  not  in  tlieir 
nature  contraband,  it  seems  to  be  the  prac- 
tice that  the  belligerent  should  purchase 
them  from  the  neutral  for  a  reasonable 
equivalent,  instead  of  confiscating. 

Contramure.  In  fortification,  is  a  wall 
built  before  another  partition-wall  to 
strengthen  it,  so  that  it  may  receive  no 
damage  from  the  adjacent  buildings. 

Contravallation.  In  fortification,  is  an 
intrenchment  formed  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  line  of  circumvallation,  to  defend 
the  besiegers  against  the  enterprises  of  the 
garrison.  An  army  forming  a  siege  lies 
between  the  line  of  circumvallation  and 
contravallation.  The  trench  of  this  line  is 
towards  the  town,  at  the  foot  of  the  parapet, 
and  is  never  made  but  when  the  garrison  is 
numerous  enough  to  harass  and  interrupt 
the  besiegers  by  sallies.  This  line  is  con- 
structed in  the  rear  of  the  camp,  and  by  the 
same  rule  as  the  line  of  circumvallation, 
with  this  diff'erence,  that,  as  it  is  only  in- 
tended to  resist  a  body  of  troops  much  in- 
ferior  to  a  force  which   might   attack   the 


CONTRE-FORTS 


115 


COREA 


circumvallation,  its  parapet  is  not  made  so 
thick,  nor  the  ditoh  so  wide  and  deep. 

Contre-forts  (Fr.).  Brick-work  which  is 
added  to  the  revetment  of  a  rampart  on  the 
side  of  the  terre-plein,  and  which  is  equal  to 
its  height.  Contre-forts  are  used  to  support 
the  body  of  earth  with  which  the  rampart  is 
formed.  They  are  likewise  used  in  the  re- 
vetments of  counterscarps,  in  gortjes  and 
demi-gorges,  etc.  Contre-forts  likewise  form 
a  part  of  the  construction  of  powder-maga- 
zines, which  are  bomb-proof. 
j  Contreras.     A  celebrated    battle-field    of 

Mexico,  about  14  miles  south  of  the  capital. 
I  Here,  on  August  19  and  20,  1847,  the  Amer- 

I  ican  forces  under  Gen.  Scott   defeated  and 

!  totally  routed,  with  loss  of  all  his  artillery, 

the  Mexican  general  Valencia. 

Contribution.  In  a  military  sense,  is  an 
imposition  or  tax  levied  on  the  people  of  a 
conquered  town  or  country. 

Control  Department.  In  the  British 
service,  is  the  department  which  performs 
all  the  administrative  duties  of  the  army,  in 
fact,  all  duties  neither  combatant,  educa- 
tional, nor  scientific.  It  has  a  sub-depart- 
ment which  performs  all  work  connected 
with  supply  and  transport,  and  to  which  is 
attached  the  "  Army  Service  Corps,  "a  body 
of  men  officered  by  the  control  department, 
and  employed  as  butchers,  bakers,  military 
train,  dispensers,  hospital  attendants,  and 
those  engaged  in  non-combatant  duties  gen- 
erally. 

Controller.  In  the  British  service,  the 
highest  grade  in  the  control  department. 
The  officers  holding  it — three  in  number — 
rank  with  major-generals.  A  depiiii/  co)i- 
troller  Ix^longs  to  the  second  grade  in  the 
control  department.  Otficers  holding  it  rank 
witii  lieutenant-colonels. 

Convalescent.  A  soldier  who  though 
discharged  from  hospital  is  not  sufficiently 
recovered  to  do  duty. 

Convention.  In  a  military  sense,  is  an 
agreement  made  between  hostile  armies  for 
some  well-defined  purpose,  such  as  the  evac- 
uation of  a  fort,  territory,  etc.  One  of 
the  most  celebrated  conventions  of  modern 
times  was  that  of  Cintra  (1808),  between  the 
French  and  the  English  generals. 

Conversion.  A  change  of  front,  as  of  a 
body  of  troops  attacked  in  the  flank. 

Conversion,  Bridge  by.     See  Pontons. 

Converted  Guns.  A  term  applied  to  cast- 
iron  guns  lined  with  wrought  iron  or  steel 
tube.  See  Oudnanck,  Palliser  and  Par- 
sons (JlNS. 

Convex  Order  of  Battle.  See  Order  of 
Battlk,  Convk.x. 

Convoy.  In  the  military  service,  is  a  train 
of  wagons  la<len  with  provisions  or  warlike 
stores,  or  a  detachment  of  troops  appointed 
to  guard  such  a  train. 

Cooling  of  Cannon.  See  Ordnance, 
Const  K  LIT  ION  ok. 

Coptic  Legion.  In  1799  the  French  army 
in  Kgypt  not  receiving  any  reinforcements, 
grew  weaker  every  day  through  loss  in  com- 


bat and  disease,  when  Gen.  Kleber,  who 
commanded  after  the  departure  of  Napoleon, 
formed  a  corps  (jf  Copts,  or  native  Christians, 
about  GOO  strong,  which  was  known  by  this 
name.  They  were  armed  the  same  as  the 
French  troops. 

Cordon.  In  military  operations,  is  a  line 
of  sentries  inclosing  (jr  guarding  any  par- 
ticular space  of  ground,  to  prevent  the  pass- 
age of  persons  other  than  those  belonging  to 
the  army.  The  word  also  applies  in  fortifi- 
cations to  a  row  of  stones  made  round  on  the 
outside,  and  placed  between  the  termination 
of  the  slope  of  the  wall,  so  as  not  to  be  of- 
fensive to  the  eye. 

Cordova.  A  city  of  Spain,  capital  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name,  founded  about 
152  B.C.;  taken 'by  the  Goths  in  r>72,  and 
made  the  capital  of  an  Arab  kingdom  in 
750.  It  was  rescued  from  the  Arabs  by 
Ferdinand  III.  of  Castile  in  123(3;  was 
taken  by  the  French  under  Dupont  and 
disgracefully  ravaged,  June  8,  1808;  sur- 
rendered to  Joseph  Bonajjarte,  January, 
1810,  and  abandoned  by  the  French  in  1813. 

Corduroy  Road.  A  roadway  formed  of 
I  logs  laid  side  by  side  across  it,  as  in  marshy 
places ;  so  called  from  its  rough  or  ribbed 
surface,  resembling  corduroy.  See  Cord- 
way. 

Cordway.  This  way  or  road  is  made  over 
extensive  marsh  tracks,  and  is  constructed 
as  follows,  from  the  description  of  material 
usually  abounding  in  such  places:  Trees 
and  poles  of  almost  any  description  will 
be  found  to  answer.  Cut  as  many  as  is 
thought  requisite.  Divide  them  into  three 
classes, — ground -poles,  cross- poles,  and 
stringers.  The  ground-poles  should  be  the 
largest  and  heaviest.  The  cross-poles  are 
comparatively  short  lengths,  and  lie  across 
the  ground-poles  with  their  ends  projecting 
some  distance  beyond.  They  are  laid  closely 
together,  and  then  secured  and  bound  down 
by  the  stringers  which  lie  on  them.  A 
tree-nail  driven  in  here  and  there  serves  to 
keep  all  in  place  by  nipping  the  cross-poles 
tightly.  The  ends  of  the  ground-poles  and 
stringers  may  be  either  scarfed  and  tree- 
nailed,  or  laid  side  by  side  and  tied  with 
withers  or  strips  of  suitable  bark.  This  road 
is  quickly  made  and  found  very  useful  in 
transporting  the  supplies  of  an  army  over 
a  wet,  marshy  country. 

Core.  "When  cannon  are  cast  hollow, 
after  the  plan  of  Rodman,  a  core  is  used  to 
make  the  bore.  It  consists  of  a  hollow  cast- 
iron  pi|)e,  fluted  on  the  outside,  called  the 
core-bnrrel.  This  is  wrapped  with  rope  and 
the  molding  sand  is  plastered  over  the  rope. 
A  water-pipe  entering  the  core-barrel  and 
reaching  nearly  to  the  bottom,  and  another 
leaving  it  near  the  to[>,  are  used  to  maintain 
a  circulation  of  water  through  it,  thus  cool- 
ing the  casting  from  the  interior. 

Corea,  or  Korea.  Is  an  extensive  penin- 
sular country  in  Northeastern  Asia,  whoso 
limits  are  not  accurately  known.  It  is 
bounded  east  by  the  Sea  of  Japan,  south  by 


CORFU 


IK 


CORPS  D'ARMEE 


the.Strait  of  Corea,  and  west  by  the  Whang- 
hai,  or  Yellow  Sea.  Corea  was  first  sub- 
jected by  the  Tartars,  but  in  about  1120 
B.C.  the  Chinese  appear  to  have  gained  pos- 
session of  the  country  The  Japanese  con- 
quered and  held  it  between  the  years  1692 
and  1698,  when  it  again  fell  under  the  sway 
of  China,  and  still  pays  a  small  annual 
tribute  to  the  emperor. 

Corfu.  The  capital  and  principal  town 
of  the  Ionian  Islands.  It  was  first  occupied 
by  the  Phascians,  and  then  by  the  Libur- 
nians  ;  but  the  accounts  of  it  are  somewhat 
mythical  until  its  settlement  bj'  the  Corin- 
thians about  784  B.C.,  and  through  its  com- 
merce it  soon  after  acquired  a  considerable 
importance.  It  soon  quarreled  with  the 
mother-country,  and  after  many  vicissitudes 
of  fortune  passed  under  the  dominion  of 
the  Romans  about  229  B.C.  The  town  is 
defended  by  two  fortresses,  and  garrisoned 
by  British  troops  since  1864,  though  belong- 
ing to  the  kingdom  of  Greece. 

Corinth.  An  ancient  and  celebrated  city 
of  Greece,  the  capital  of  a  department  of 
the  same  name,  situated  on  the  Isthmus  .of 
Corinth.  It  was  totally  destroyed  by  L. 
Mummius,  the  Roman  consul,  and  burnt 
to  the  ground,  146  B.C.  It  remained  in 
ruins  for  a  century,  and  was  rebuilt  in  the 
year  46  by  Julius  Cse.«ar,  after  which  it 
again  arose  to  be  a  populous  and  prosperous 
city.  After  the  taking  of  Constantinople 
it  "fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  from 
whom  it  was  retaken  in  1687  by  its  former 
possessors,  the  Venetians.  In  1715  it  was 
again  possessed  by  the  Turks,  who  held  it 
till  1823,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  Greeks. 

Corinth.  A  village  in  the  northeast  of 
Mississippi,  about  90  miles  east  of  Memphis. 
It  was  evacuated  by  the  Confederates  under 
Beauregard,  May  29,  1862,  and  next  day  oc- 
cupied by  the  Federal  forces  under  Gen. 
HaJleck.  The  Confederates,  under  Gens. 
Van  Dorn,  Price,  and  others,  attempted  to 
take  this  place,  but  they  were  thoroughly 
defeated  after  several  desperate  struggles  by 
Gen.  Rosecrans,  October  3—5,  1862.  The 
Confederate  loss  in  prisoners  alone  was  nearly 
3000. 

Corinthian  War.  Began  395  B.C.  ;  re- 
ceived this  name  because  it  was  carried  on 
mostly  in  the  neighborhood  of  Corinth  ; 
waged  by  a  confederacy  of  the  Athenians, 
Thebans,  Corinthians,  and  Argives  against 
the  Lacedsemonians.  It  was  closed  by  the 
peace  of  Antalcidas,  387  B.C. 

Corium.  Leather  body-armor,  formed  of 
overlapping  leaves  or  scales,  worn  by  Ro- 
man soldiers,  and  those  of  other  nations. 
Its  use  was  continued  in  England  till  the 
reign  of  Edward  I. 

Cork.  A  city  of  Ireland,  capital  of  the 
county  of  the  same  name ;  built  in  the  6th 
century,  it  was  garrisoned  by  Henry  II., 
1172;  taken  by  Cromwell  in  1649.  The 
Earl  of  Marlborough  besieged  and  took  this 
city  from  King  James's  army,  1690. 

Cornet   (Ital.  cornetta,  a  "small   flag"). 


Is  the  lowest  grade  of  commissioned  officers 
in  the  cavalry,  equivalent  to  ensign  in  the 
infantry,  his  duty  being  to  bear  the  standard. 
In  the  IT.  S.  army  there  are  no  cornets. 

Cornet.  In  the  military  history  of  the 
ancients,  an  instrument  much  in  the  nature 
of  a  trumpet :  when  the  cornet  only  sounded, 
the  ensigns  were  to  march  alone  without  the 
soldiers ;  whereas,  when  the  trumpet  only 
sounded,  the  soldiers  were  to  move  forward 
without  the  ensigns.  A  troop  of  horse  was 
so  called. 

Cornette-blanche  (Fr.).  An  ornament 
which  in  ancient  times  served  to  distinguish 
French  officers  who  were  high  in  command. 
It  was  worn  by  them  on  the  top  of  their 
helmets.  It  likewise  meant  a  royal  standard, 
and  was  substituted  in  the  room  of  the  royal 
pennon.  The  cornette-blanche  was  only  un- 
furled when  the  king  joined  the  army  ;  and 
the  persons  who  served  under  it  were  princes, 
noblemen,  marshals  of  France,  and  old  cap- 
tains, whose  orders  came  direct  from  the  king. 

Coroneia.  An  ancient  town  of  Bceotia. 
The  Athenians  were  here  defeated  by  the 
Bceotians,  and  their  leader,  Tolmides,  slain, 
447  B.C.  The  Athenians,  Thebans,  Argives, 
and  Corinthians  having  entered  into  a  league, 
offensive  and  defensive,  against  Sparta,  Ages- 
ilaus,  after  diffusing  the  terror  of  bis  arms 
from  his  many  victories,  even  into  Upper 
Asia,  engaged'  the  allies  at  Coroneia  and 
achieved  a  great  victory  over  them,  394  B.C. 

Corporal.  In  the  military  service,  is  a 
non-commissioned  officer  next  in  rank  below 
a  sergeant.  He  is  distinguished  by  two 
chevrons  worn  on  the  arm. 

Corporal,  Lance.  A  private  soldier  who 
acts  as  corporal.  He  wears  one  chevron,  but 
has  no  increase  of  pay. 

Corporal-Major.  In  the  British  service, 
a  troop  ciirpiiral-iiiajor  is  the  non-commis- 
sioned officer  of  the  highest  rank  in  a  troop 
of  the  Household  Cavalry  ;  his  position  and 
authority  are  the  same  as  those  of  a  color- 
sergeant  of  infantry.  A  regimental  corporal- 
major  is  the  non-commissioned  officer  of  the 
highest  rank  in  each  of  the  three  regiments 
of  Household  Cavalry,  and  corresponds  to  a 
sergeant-major  of  infantry. 

Corporal's  Guard.  Used  to  indicate  a 
detachment  of  several  men  under  arms.  May 
be  applied  to  a  squad  equal  to  that  usually 
placed  under  the  charge  of  a  corporal  for 
drill,  police,  guard  duty,  etc.  Generally 
made  use  of  in  a  derisive  manner. 

Corps.  A  body  of  men ;  especially  a 
body  of  troops  ;  an  organized  part  or  division 
of  an  army. 

Corps  d'Armee.  In  the  military  organi- 
zation of  large  armies  two  or  more  divisions 
form  a  co7-ps  d^armee,  or  army  corps,  which 
is  complete  in  itself  as  an  army,  with  every- 
thing needed  for  service.  In  European 
states,  where  large  standing  armies  are  kept, 
this  custom  of  dividing  them  into  corps, 
each  under  an  officer  of  very  high  rank,  and 
quartering  them  in  different  provinces,  is 
followed  even  in  times  of  peace. 


CORRESPONDENCE 


117 


COUNTERMAND 


Correspondence,  Official.  Is  correspond- 
ence carried  on  officially  between  military 
officers  and  various  departments  of  the  ser- 
vice, such  as  orders,  reports,  letters,  indorse- 
ments, etc.  All  official  correspondence  be- 
tween the  lieadsof  the  ilitterent  departments 
of  the  statf  of  any  command  and  its  com- 
mander must  puss  throuj^h  the  adjutant- 
general,  assistant  adjutant-general,  or  ad- 
jutant of  the  command,  as  the  case  may  be. 
Communications  toor  from  a  commander  and 
those  under  his  command  must  pass  through 
the  adjutant-general,  assistant  adjutant-gen- 
eral, or  adjutant  on  duty  with  it;  excepting 
only  such  communications  between  a  dis- 
bursing officer  and  thechief  of  his  jiarticular 
branch  of  the  staff  as  relate  exclusively  to 
the  ordinary  routine  of  business  in  their  own 
department.  All  communications,  whether 
from  an  inferior  to  a  superior,  or  vice  versa, 
are,  as  a  general  rule,  to  bo  passed  through 
the  intermediate  commanders.  The  same 
rule  governs  in  verbal  applications :  for 
example,  a  lieutenant  seeking  an  indulgence 
must  apply  through  his  captain,  the  captain 
through  the  adjutant,  and  soon.  All  corre- 
spondence relating  toor  involving  the  pe>-- 
siiuucl  of  the  army  when  forwarded  to  the 
Secretary  of  "VVar  for  his  orders,  must  be 
forwarded  through  the  adjutant-general  for 
the  consideration  of  the  general  of  the  army. 

Corridor.  The  covered  way  lying  round 
the  whole  compass  of  the  fortifications  of  a 
place. 

Corselet.  A  little  cuirass,  or  piece  of 
armor  to  cover  the  front  of  the  body,  worn 
formerly  by  j)ikemen. 

Corsica.  An  island  in  the  Mediterranean, 
held  by  the  French.  This  island  has  been 
successively  occupied  by  the  Carthaginians, 
Romans,  Goths,  Saracens,  Franks,  the  popes, 
and  Genoese;  and  lastly  by  the  French,  in 
whose  possession  it  now  remains,  and  to 
whom  it  was  ceded  by  the  Genoese  in  1768. 
This  island  was  held  bv  the  British  from 
June,  17!»4,  to  Oct.  22,  1790. 

Cortege.  The  official  staff,  civil  or  mili- 
tary. 

Corus,  Corupedion,  or  Cyropedium.  A 
plain  in  IMirygia,  Asia  Minor,  where  the 
aged  Lysimachus  was  defeated  by  Seleucus, 
and  slain,  2S1  B.C.  These  two  were  the  only 
survivors  of  Alexander  the  Great's  generals. 

Corygaum.  An  insignificant  village  in 
the  presidency  of  Bombay  ;  historically  inter- 
esting in  connection  with  the  final  subjuga- 
tion of  the  Peishwa  of  the  Mahrattas.  On 
Jan.  1,  1818,  it  was  defended  for  nine  hours 
by  n  mere  handful  of  men  under  Capt. 
Staunton,  against  a  native  force  immberins; 
at  least  3000  infantry  and  about  20,0tXI 
cavalry,  the  struggle  terminating  in  the  re- 
pulse of  the  assailants  after  terrible  slaughter. 

Cossacks  (Ru.ss.,  KasacLi).  A  military 
organization  of  irregulars  in  the  Ru-ssian 
service.  They  contribute  much  to  the  mili- 
tary strength  of  Russia;  but  several  insur- 
rections, of  which  the  most  alarming  was 
that  of  1773,  have   taken  place  since  they 


became  subjects  to  the  Russian  govern- 
ment. 

Cossova.  A  plain  in  Servia.  Here 
Amurath  I.  totally  defeated  the  Christian 
army  (Servians,  Hungarians,  etc.),  Septem- 
ber, 1389;  but  was  himself  killed  by  an 
expiring  soldier.  At  this  place,  in  144H, 
John  Uuniades  was  defeated  by  a  Turkish 
army  four  times  larger  than  his  own. 

Costa  Rica.  The  most  southern  state  of 
Central  America;  bounded  north. by  Nica- 
ragua, northeast  by  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
south  by  New  Granada,  and  south  and 
west  by  the  Pacific.  The  government  of 
Costa  Rica  was  established  in  1832,  and  is 
accounted  as  the  best  and  most  liberal  in 
Central  America. 

Coston's  Lights.  Colored  pyrotechnical 
compositions  used  for  night  signaling.  Some- 
times used  in  the  form  of  a  pistol  cartridge. 

Cotice,  or  Cost.  In  heraldry,  one  of  the 
diminutives  of  the  bend.  It  is  a  fourth  part 
of  the  bend,  and  is  usually  borne  in  couples, 
with  a  head  between. 

Couchant.  In  heraldry,  a  beast  lying 
down,  with  his  head  up,  is  couchant.  If  the 
head  is  down,  he  is  dormant. 

Coulmiers.  A  village  10  miles  west  of 
Orleans,  Central  France.  Here  the  Bava- 
rians under  Gen.  Von  der  Tann  were  de- 
feated by  the  French  army  of  the  Loire  un- 
der Gen.  d'Aurelle  de  Paladines,  who  took 
about  2000  prisoners,  Nov.  9,  1870,  and  re- 
gained Orleans. 

Council  of  War.  A  conference  of  offi- 
cers in  military  or  naval  warfare,  on  some 
matter  in  which  the  commander  wishes  to 
fortify  his  judgment  by  an  appeal  to  that  of 
others.  The  commandant  of  a  garrison  gen- 
erally solicits  the  opinion  of  a  council  of 
war  before  surrendering  to  besiegers. 

Counter-approach.  A  trench  by  which 
the  besieged  proceeds  to  meet  the  approaches 
of  the  besiegers.     It  is  generally  zigzag. 

Counter-arch.  A  vertical  arch  connect- 
ing the  top  of  the  counter-forts. 

Counter-battery.  A  battery  which  re- 
turns the  fire  of  an  opposing  battery. 

Counter-changed.  In  heraldry,  when 
several  metals  and  colors  are  intermixed,  one 
being  set  against  the  other,  they  are  said  to 
be  counter-changed. 

Counter-forts.  Interior  buttre-sses  con- 
structed for  the  purpose  of  strengthening 
masonry  revetments. 

Counter-guards.  Sometimes  called  cou- 
vre-faces,  are  works  constructed  in  ])erma- 
nent  fortifications  to  cover  a  bastion  or  demi- 
lune. They  consist  of  two  faces  forming  a 
salient  angle. 

Counterhurters.  In  gunnery,  are  pieces 
of  iron  bolted  to  the  rails  on  which  the  gun- 
carriage  moves  to  check  it  in  front  and  rear. 
See  Ordnance,  Carriages  for.  Sea-coast 
Carriages. 

Countermand,  To  revoke,  as  a  former 
command  ;  to  direct  or  order  in  opposition 
to  an  order  previously  given,  thereby  an- 
nulling it,  or  prohibiting  its  execution. 


COUNTERMARCH 


118 


COURT-MARTIAL 


Countermarch.  A  change  of  direction  of 
a  company  or  battalion  in  column  from  front 
to  rear,  by  a  flank  movement,  retaining  the 
same  ground. 

Countermine.  A  gallery  underground  so 
constructed  as  to  facilitate  the  formation  of 
mines,  by  means  of  which  those  of  the  enemy 
may  be  reached  and  destroyed. 

Countermine.  To  oppose  by  means  of  a 
countermine;  to  frustrate  the  designs  of,  by 
sinking  a  well  and  gallery  in  the  earth,  in 
search  of  an  enemy's  mine. 

Counter-parole.  A  word  given  in  any 
time  of  alarm,  as  a  signal. 

Counterpoise  Carriage.  A  gun-carriage 
which,  applied  to  a  gun  mounted  in  barbette, 
allows  it  to  recoil  behind  the  parapet  or 
other  shelter,  and  by  means  of  a  counter- 
poise brings  it,  or  assists  in  bringing  it, 
again  into  battei-y  after  it  has  been  loaded. 
Among  the  best  known  of  these  carriages 
are  Moncrieff^ s  and  King^s, — the  former  in- 
vented by  Capt.  Moncrieft',  of  the  British 
army,  and  the  latter  by  Capt.  W.  R.  King, 
of  the  U.  S.  Engineers.  In  Moncrieff"'s  car- 
riage the  counterpoise  is  a  heavy  weight  be- 
tween the  cheeks  of  the  top  carriage.  In 
King's  the  weight  is  in  a  well  under  the  pin- 
tle-block, and  is  attached  to  the  carriage  by 
a  wire  cable. 

Counter-round.  A  body  of  oiRcers, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  visit  and  inspect  the 
rounds  and  sentinels. 

Counterscarp.  In  fortification,  is  the 
vertical  or  nearly  vertical  side  of  the  ditch 
nearest  to  the  besiegers,  and  opposite  to  the 
scarp  or  escarp.  It  is  generally  faced  or 
revetted  in  permanent  works,  to  render  the 
descent  into  the  ditch  difficult. 

Counterscarp  Galleries.  Galleries  under 
the  counterscarp  at  the  salients,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  flanking  the  ditch. 

Countersign.  In  military  discipline  or 
manoeuvres,  is  a  watch-word  given  by  the 
commanding  officer  of  an  army  or  garrison 
daily,  in  order  that  a  friend  may  be  distin- 
guished from  an  enemy.  The  countersign 
is  given  to  sentinels,  and  others  who  are  im- 
mediately concerned.  It  is  given  in  garri- 
son to  prevent  unauthorized  persons  from 
passing  the  guards.  The  countersign  is 
usually  the  name  of  a  battle. 

Counter-swallowtail.  In  fortification,  is 
a  kind  of  an  outwork  very  much  resembling 
a  single  tenaille. 

Counter-trenches.  Are  trenches  made 
against  the  besiegers,  which  consequently 
have  their  parapets  turned  against  the  ene- 
my's approaches,  and  are  enfiladed  from 
several  parts  of  the  place  on  purpose  to  ren- 
der them  useless  to  the  enemy,  if  they  should 
chance  to  become  masters  of  them  ;  but  thej'' 
should  not  be  enfiladed  or  commanded  by 
any  height  in  the  enemy's  possession. 

Counter-vair.  A  heraldic  fur.  It  diff'ers 
from  vair  by  having  its  cups  or  bells  of  the 
same  tinctures  placed  base  against  base,  and 
point  against  point.  The  tinctures  are  or 
and  azure. 


Coup  de  Grace.  A  finishing  or  decisive 
stroke. 

Coup  de  Main.  A  sudden  and  vigorous 
attack,  for  the  purpose  of  instantaneously 
capturing  a  position. 

Coup  d'CEil.  The  gift  of  rapidly  grasp- 
ing and  turning  to  the  best  account  the  con- 
tingencies of  war,  and  the  features  of  the 
country  which  is  its  scene. 

Couped  (Fr.  coupe).  A  term  in  heraldry, 
used  to  describe  the  head  or  any  limb  of  an 
animal  cut  oft"  from  the  trunk,  and  smooth. 
When  crosses,  bends,  bars,  etc.,  are  cut  so 
as  not  to  touch  the  sides  of  the  escutcheon, 
they  are  also  said  to  be  couped. 

Coupe-gorge  {Fr. ).  Literally  means  cut- 
throat. It  is  used  in  a  military  sense  to  sig- 
nify any  spot  or  position  which  aftords  an 
enemy  so  many  advantages  that  the  troops 
who  occupy  it  must  either  surrender  or  be 
cut  to  pieces. 

Coupures.  In  fortification,  are  passages 
cut  through  the  glacis,  of  about  12  or  1-5 
feet  broad,  in  the  re-entering  angle  of  the 
covert  way,  to  facilitate  the  sallies  of  the 
besieged.  They  are  sometimes  made  through 
the  lower  curtain,  to  let  boats  into  a  little 
haven  built  in  the  re-entrant  angle  of  the 
counterscarp  of  the  outworks. 

Cour9on  (Fr.).  A  long  piece  of  iron 
which  is  used  in  the  artillery  and  serves  to 
constrain  or  tighten  cannon. 

Courier.  In  a  military  sense,  means  a 
messenger  sent  post  or  express  to  carry  dis- 
patches of  battles  gained,  lost,  etc.,  or  any 
other  occurrences  that  happened  in  war. 

Courland.  A  duchy  of  Livonia,  sub- 
jected to  Poland  in  1582,  conquered  by 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  in  1701  ;  Ernest 
Biren,  duke,  1737;  his  son,  Peter,  1769; 
annexed  to  Russia,  March,  1795. 

Couronement,  or  Couronnement.  In  for- 
tification, implies  the  most  exterior  part  of  a 
work  when  besieged. 

Courtel.  A  military  implement  which 
served  both  for  a  knife  and  a  dagger. 

Court-martial.  In  the  army,  a  tribunal 
for  the  examination  and  punishment  of 
offenders  against  martial  law  or  against  good 
order  and  discipline.  Under  the  present 
construction  of  law,  members  of  courts-mar- 
tial become  judges  and  jurors.  In  ancient 
feudal  times  the  lords  had  arbitrary  power 
over  vassals  who  held  their  lands  by  tenure 
of  military  service,  and  punished  them  as 
they  saw  fit,  and  courts  of  chivalry  took 
cognizance  of  off"enses  committed  by  the 
nobles.  With  the  decline  of  feudalism  the 
system  of  military  despotism  became  ob- 
noxious to  the  English  people,  and  although 
the  necessity  for  a  standing  army  was  ad- 
mitted in  time  of  peace,  it  could  only  exist 
with  the  consent  of  Parliament.  The  first 
military  act  passed  after  the  accession  of 
William  to  the  throne  of  England  is  be- 
lieved to  have  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
present  system  of  courts-martial,  which  has 
also  been  adopted  to  a  certain  extent  in  the 
American  service.     Parliament  having  been 


COURT 


119 


COVERT 


notified  that  a  body  of  English  and  Scotch 
troops  who  were  ordered  to  HolUmd  had 
mutinied,  tliat  body  passed,  on  April  3,  1(J89, 
an  act  for  punishing  mutiny,  desertion,  etc., 
which  has  been  renewed  annually  by  Par- 
liament to  tlie  present  day.  It  authorized 
the  king  to  grant  commissions  to  certain 
officers  to  hold  courts-martial  for  the  trial  of 
crimes  committed  by  officers  and  soldiers. 
Similar  acts  were  at  difl'erent  times  passed 
in  relation  to  oftenses  committed  in  the  navy. 
A  court-martial  is  a  court  of  limited  and 
special  jurisdiction  called  into  existence  by 
force  of  express  statute  for  a  special  purpose, 
and  to  perform  a  particular  duty  ;  and  when 
the  object  of  its  creation  is  accomplished  it 
ceases  to  exist.  The  law  presumes  nothing 
in  its  favor.  He  who  seeks  to  enforce  its 
sentences,  or  to  justify  its  conduct  under 
them,  mustsetforth  affirmatively  and  clearly 
all  the  facts  which  are  necessary  to  show 
that  it  was  legally  constituted,  and  that  the 
subject  was  within  its  jurisdiction.  And  if 
in  its  proceedings  or  sentence  it  transcends 
the  limits  of  its  jurisdiction,  the  members 
of  the  court  and  its  officer  who  executes  its 
sentence  are  trespassers,  and  as  such  are 
answerable  to  the  party  injured  in  damages 
in  the  courts  of  common  law.  Courts  are 
classed  into  general,  garrison,  summary, 
regimental,  and  field-officers',  according  as 
the  authority  convening,  the  nature  of  the 
offenses  to  be  inquired  into,  the  punishment 
to  be  awarded,  or  other  circumstances  may 
determine.  See  Appkndix,  Articles  of 
AVak,  72  to  114;  also  Tkial. 

Court  of  Honor.  Is  a  military  court  au- 
thorized by  the  regulations  of  the  Prussian 
service,  convened  for  the  purpose  of  sus- 
taining the  honor  of  the  service  and  of  indi- 
viduals, and  of  punishing  officers  who  may 
be  found  guilty  of  conduct  deviating  even 
in  the  least  from  the  principles  which  actuate 
military  men  as  men  of  honor.  The  court 
of  honor  of  a  regiment  consists  of  all  com- 
missioned officers  in  it,  except  the  prosecutor, 
the  defendant,  near  relations,  officers  appear- 
ing as  witnesses  in  the  case,  officers  on  leave, 
detached  service,  under  arrest,  or  awaiting 
trial  before  any  court ;  and  has  for  its  regular 
business  management  a  council  of  honor, 
consisting  of  the  senior  captain,  senior  first 
lieutenant,  and  senior  second  lieutenant.  The 
court  has  jurisdiction  over  all  acts  or  omissions 
(not  provided  for  by  any  fixed  laws)  which 
are  unofficerlike  or  ungentlemanly  in  their 
nature,  particularly  such  as  contracting 
debts,  imprt>per  choice  of  society,  excessive 
use  of  int*)xicating  liquors,  gambling,  quar- 
rels, carelessness  »>r  neglect  of  duty,  and 
scandal.  "With  the  exception  of  general 
officers,  all  officers  of  the  standing  army, 
the  reserve,  the  landwehr,  and  those  of  the 
retired  list  are  subject  to  the  laws  of  the 
court  of  honor.  The  court  to  investigate 
the  conduct  of  a  field-i>fficer  is  made  up  of 
the  fiold-otlicers  of  the  division  to  which  the 
officer  beloiiijs. 

Court  of  Inquiry.     In  the  military  ser- 


vice of  the  United  States,  is  a  legally  con- 
stituted court  which  may  be  ordered  by  the 
President  or  by  any  commanding  officer  to 
examine  into  the  nature  of  any  transaction 
of,  or  accusation  or  imputation  against,  any 
otficer  or  soldier  upon  a  demand  by  the 
officer  or  soldier  whose  conduct  is  to  be  in- 
quired into.  It  may  consist  of  one,  two,  or 
three  officers,  and  a  judge-advocate  or  other 
suitable  person  as  recorder,  all  of  whom  are 
sworn.  It  has  the  same  powers  as  a  court- 
martial  to  summon  witnesses  and  to  examine 
them  on  oath.  Courts  of  inquiry  cannot 
award  punishment,  but  must  report  to  the 
officer  by  whose  order  they  were  assembled. 
(See  Appendix,  Articles  of  War,  115  to 
121;  also  Inquiry,  Board  of.)  In  the 
British  service  courts  of  inquiry  are  not 
regulated  by  any  statute  or  standing  regula- 
tion, but  depend  on  the  will  of  the  sovereign, 
or  of  the  superior  officer  convoking  the 
court,  both  as  to  the  officers  who  may  com- 
pose it,  and  as  to  every  particular  of  its 
constitution.  It  is  not  a  judicial  body,  but 
is  rather  a  council,  having  no  power  to  com- 
pel the  attendance  of  witnesses  not  of  the 
army  or  navy,  nor  to  administer  oaths. 

Courtrai.  A  fortified  town  of  Belgium, 
on  the  river  Lys.  Here  Robert,  count  of 
Artois,  who  had  defeated  the  Flemings  in 
1297,  was  defeated  and  slain  by  them,  July 
11,  1302.  The  conflict  was  named  the 
"Battle  of  the  Spurs,"  from  the  number  of 
gilt  spurs  collected. 

Coussinet  a  Mousquetaire  (Fr.).  A  bag 
formerly  worn  by  a  French  soldier  on  his 
left  side  beneath  the  cross-belt.  It  hung 
on  a  hook  near  the  butt  of  his  musket.  It 
likewise  signifies  a  wedge  used  to  support  the 
mortar  in  its  frame. 

Coutere.  A  piece  of  armor  which  cov- 
ered the  elbow. 

Coutras.  In  Southwestern  France.  Here 
Henry  of  Navarre  totally  defeated  the  Due 
de  Joveuse  and  the  Royalists,  October  20, 
1587.  ' 

Cover.  N^atural  or  artificial  protection 
from  the  fire  of  the  enemy,  the  former  being 
afforded  by  hills,  woods,  banks,  walls,  etc., 
the  latter  by  fortifications  constructed  for 
the  purpose.  To  cover  is,  in  military  lan- 
gUMge,  to  stand  exactly.behind  another  man. 

Covering.  Standing  exactly  in  front  or 
in  rear  t>f  another  man  or  an  object. 

Covering-fascines.  Are  those  made  of 
stout  jiicket  stuff,  not  less  than  1  inch  thick, 
without  any  mixture  of  small  brush-wood. 
They  may  be  used  in  place  of  planks  for  the 
superstructure  of  wooden  bridges;  and  may 
also  be  used,  if  no  stout  planks  or  spars  are 
to  be  had,  for  the  roofs  of  field  powder- 
magazines.  They  may  be  made  of  the  usual 
diameter  of  9  inches.  Their  length  will 
depend  upon  the  special  purpose  for  which 
they  are  intended.  The  withes  should  bo 
particularly  good. 

Covert  Way.  or  Covered  Way.  Is  a 
road  or  brond  path  outside  the  fosse  or  moat 
of  a  fortified  place,  between  the  counterscarp 


COVINAKII 


120 


CEENAUX 


and  the  glacis.  It  is  usually  about  30  feet 
wide,  and  sunk  so  far  below  the  crest  of  the 
glacis  that  soldiers  standing  upon  it  cannot 
be  seen  by  the  besiegers ;  hence  the  name. 
The  covert  way  is  broad  enough  to  allow 
troops  to  form  on  it,  either  to  act  defensively 
or  make  sorties;  and  to  increase  this  accom- 
modation enlarged  portions,  called  places  of 
arms,  are  made  at  certain  spots. 

Covinarii.  The  soldiers  who  fought  on 
the  covinus  were  so  called. 

Covinus.  A  kind  of  war-chariot  used  by 
the  ancient  Britons  and  Belgians. 

Cowardice.  See  Appendix,  Articles  of 
War,  42. 

Cow-boys.  A  band  of  marauders  in  the 
time  of  the  American  Kevolution,  consisting 
mostly  of  refugees  who  adhered  to  the 
British  side,  and  who  infested  the  so-called 
"neutral  ground"  lying  between  the  Amer- 
ican and  British  lines,  plundering  all  those 
who  had  taken  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the 
Continental  Congress.     See  Skinners. 

Cowpens.  A  village  in  Spartanburg  Co., 
N.  C.  At  this  place  Gen.  Morgan  defeated 
Col.  Tarleton,  January  17,  1781;  it  is  said 
that  Tarleton  lost  300  men  in  killed  and 
wounded,  and  about  500  prisoners.  The 
American  loss  was  also  considerable. 

Cracow.  A  city  in  Austrian  Poland,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Vistula.  It  was  taken 
by  Charles  XII.  in  1702;  taken  and  retaken 
several  times  by  the  Kussians  and  other 
confederates.  The  Russians  were  expelled 
from  the  city  March  24,  1794;  but  it  sur- 
rendered to  the  Prussians  June  15,  the  same 
year,  and  in  1795  was  awarded  to  Austria. 
It  was  occupied  by  10,000  Piussians,  who 
followed  the  defeated  Poles,  September,  1881. 
It  was  finally  incorporated  with  the  Austrian 
empire,  November  16,  1846. 

Cradle.  A  narrow  frame-work  of  heavy 
timbers  upon  which  heavy  guns  are  some- 
times placed,  to  be  moved  upon  rollers. 

Crakers.  Choice  soldiers  were  so  called 
in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII. 

Crakys.     An  old  term  for  great  guns. 

Crampets.  The  cramp  rings  of  a  sword 
scabbard. 

Crampton's  Gap.  A  pass  in  the  South 
Mountains,  Frederick  Co.,  Md.  A  stubborn 
fight  of  four  or  five  hours  took  place  here  Sep- 
tember 14, 1862,  between  partof  Gen.  McClel- 
lan's  army  under  command  of  Gen.  W.  B. 
Franklin  and  a  portion  of  the  Confederate 
army  under  Gen.  Cobb,  which  was  defending 
the  pass.  The  Confederates  were  forced  to 
retire,  having  suifered  severe  loss  in  killed 
and  wounded. 

Cranon.  In  Thessaly,  Northern  Greece. 
The  Macedonians  under  Antipater  and  Crat- 
erus  defeated  the  confederated  Greeks,  twice 
by  sea,  and  once  by  land,  near  Cranon. 

Craonne.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Aisne.  Here  Victor  and  Ney 
defeated  the  Prussians  under  Bliicher,  after 
a  severe  contest,  March  7,  1814. 

Crater.  The  pit  left  by  the  explosion  of  a 
military  mine. 


Cravant.     See  Crevant-stjr-Yonne. 

Crecy,  or  Cressy.  A  village  in  France, 
department  of  the  Somme,  famous  for  a 
great  victory  obtained  over  the  French,  under 
Philip  of  Vafois,  by  Edward  III.  of  England, 
August  26,  1346.  In  this  battle  fell  the  king 
of  Bohemia,  the  Count  of  Flanders,  8  other 
sovereign  princes,  80  bannerets,  1200  knights, 
1500  gentlemen,  4000  men-at-arms,  with  the 
Duke  of  Alencjon  and  the  flower  of  the  French 
nobility.  The  English  army  was  drawn  up 
in  three  lines  ;  of  which  the  first  was  com- 
manded by  Edward,  prince  of  Wales,  assisted 
by  the  Earls  of  Warwick  and  O.xford ;  the 
second  led  by  the  Earls  of  Arundel  and 
Northampton;  while  the  third,  or  body 
reserve,  was  posted  along  the  summit  of  a 
hill,  under  the  command  of  the  king  in 
person,  attended  by  the  Lords  Mowbraj', 
Mortimer,  and  others.  The  English  loss  in 
this  battle  was  very  small. 

Crecy-sur-Serre.  A  town  of  France, 
department  of  Aisne.  Its  castle  was  taken 
and  razed  by  Louis  le  Gros  in  1115.  The 
English  took  the  town  in  1339,  1358,  and 
1373;  it  was  taken  by  the  forces  of  the 
League  in  1589;  and  it  was  burned  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1662. 

Creedmoor.  About  10  miles  east  of  New 
York,  noted  for  its  splendid  rifle  range, 
which  was  established  in  1871. 

Creek  Indians.  Formerly  a  numerous 
and  powerfuj  tribe  dwelling  in  Georgia  and 
Alabama.  Their  number  was  much  reduced 
by  the  war  of  1814,  in  which  year  they 
waged  war  against  the  United  States,  but 
were  subdued  by  Gen.  Jackson.  Of  the 
survivors  most  removed  beyond  the  Missis- 
sippi,and  are  nowsettledin  Indian  Territory, 
where  they  are  rapidly  advancing  in  the  art 
of  civilization.  For  numbers,  etc.,  see  In- 
dians AND  THEIR  AGENCIES. 

Creil.  A  town  of  France,  department  of 
the  Oise.  It  was  ravaged  several  times  by 
the  Normans  ;  taken  by  the  king  of  Navarre 
in  1358 ;  by  the  English  in  1434  ;  by  Charles 
VII.  in  1441 ;  pillaged  by  the  Calvinists  in 
1567,  and  occupied  by  forces  of  the  League 
in  1588. 

Cremaille.  In  field  fortification,  is  when 
the  inside  line  of  the  parapet  is  broken  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  resemble  the  teeth  of  a 
saw.  This  advantage  is  gained  by  the  meas- 
ure, that  a  greater  fire  can  be  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  defile  than  if  only  a  simple 
face  was  opposed  to  it ;  and  consequently  the 
passage  is  rendered  more  difficult. 

Cremaillere  [Fr.).  An  indented  or  zig- 
zag line  of  intrenchment. 

Cremona.  A  fortified  city  of  Northern 
Italy,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same 
name.  It  was  besieged  by  the  Gauls  in  200 
B.C.;  by  Primus,  a  general  of  Vespasian, 
in  69;  by  Frederick  Barbarossa  in  1160. 
Prince  Eugene  took  possession  of  it  in  1702; 
it  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1796  and 
1800. 

Crenaux  (Fr.).  In  fortification,  small 
openings   or  loop-holes,  made   through  the 


CRENELLE 


121 


CRIQUES 


walls  of  a  fortified  town  or  place.  They  are 
extremely  narrow  towards  the  enemy,  and 
wide  within  ;  so  that  the  balls  from  the  be- 
giegers  can  scarcely  ever  enter,  whereas  two 
or  three  soldiers  may  fire  from  within. 

Crenelle,  or  Crenel.  A  term  used  some- 
times to  denote  a  battlement,  but  more  fre- 
quently an  embrasure  in  a  battlement.  The 
adjective  crenellated  is  employed  to  signify 
that  u  building  is  supplied  with  crenelles. 

Crepy.  A  town  of  France,  department  of 
the  (Jsie  ;  it  was  captured  and  sacked  by  the 
English  in  1339;  by  the  Duke  of  Lancaster 
in  1373;  occupied  by  the  Hurgundians  in 
1418;  by  Pothon  and  Xaintrailles  in  1419; 
it  was  besieged  by  the  Duke  of  Burgundy 
in  1420;  tal<en  by  the  English  and  their 
allies  in  1431  ;  by  Charles  Vll.  in  1433;  by 
the  Due  de  Mayenne  in  1588. 

Cr6py  en  Laonois.  A  town  of  France, 
department  of  Aisne.  It  was  sacked  by  the 
English  in  1339  and  1373,  and  taken  by  the 
Burgundians  in  1^18  and  1420.  A  treaty 
of  peace  was  concluded  here  between  Spain 
and  France,  8eptember  18,  1544. 

Crescent.  The  figure  or  likeness  of  the 
new  moon  borne  in  the  Turkish  flag  or 
national  standard  ;  also  the  standard  itself. 

Crescent.  The  name  of  three  orders  of 
knighthood  ;  the  first  instituted  by  Charles 
I.,  king  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  in  1208;  the 
second  by  Rene  of  Anjou,  in  1448;  and  the 
third  by  the  sultan  Selim,  in  1801.  Of  these 
the  last  is  still  in  existence,  and  is  remarkable 
for  the  fact  that  none  but  Christians  arc 
eligible.  See Crk.scent,  Turkish  Okdkrof. 

Crescent.  In  heraldry,  is  used  both  as  a 
bearing  or  charge,  and  as  a  difference  or 
mark  of  cadency.  In  the  latter  case  it  des- 
ignates the  second  son,  and  those  that  descend 
from  him. 

Crescent,  Turkish  Order  of  the.  In  1799, 
after  the  battle  of  Aboukir,  the  sultan 
Selini  III.  testified  his  gratitude  to  Nelson 
by  sending  him  a  crescent  richly  adorned 
with  diamonds.  Selim  was  flattered  by  the 
value  which  the  English  admiral  seemed  to 
attach  to  this  gift,  and  it  was  this  circum- 
stance which  determined  him,  in  1801,  to 
found  the  order  of  the  Crescent,  which  is 
only  conferred  on  Christians  who  have  done 
service  to  the  state.  The  second  jierson  on 
whom  it  was  conferred  was  Gen.  Sebastiani, 
for  his  defense  of  Constantinople  against  the 
English  tleet  in  1807. 

Cressit.     A  small  crease  or  dagger. 

Crest.  Signifies  the  line  which  marks  the 
top  of  a  parapet.  It  is  sometimes  called  the 
interior  crest.  The  exterior,  or  sub-crest,  is 
the  line  marking  the  meeting  of  the  exterior 
and  superior  slopes. 

Crest.  In  feudal  times  was  the  distinctive 
ornament  of  the  helmet;  hence  the  term  is 
frequently  applied  to  the  helmet  itself.  In 
heraldry  the  crest  is  shown  as  an  appendage 
to  the  shield,  placed  over  it,  and  usually 
borne  upon  a  wreath.  It  is  generally  either 
tome  portion  of  the  coat-armor,  or  a  device 
commcmorativo  of  some  incident  in  the  his- 
9 


tory  of  a  family,  and  often  contains  an  allu- 
sion to  the  office  of  the  bearer. 

Crete.     In  fortification,  implies  the  earth 
thrown  out  of  the  ditch   in  a  fortification, 
trench,  etc.     The  most  elevated  part  of  a 
parapet  or  glacis. 
Crete.     See  Candia. 

Crevant-sur-Yonne.  In  Northern  France ; 
besieged  by  John  Stuart,  earl  of  Buchan, 
with  a  French  army,  July,  1423, and  relieved 
by  the  Earl  of  Salisbury  with  an  army  of 
English  and  Burgundians ;  after  a  severe 
contest  the  French  were  totally  defeated. 

Creveldt.  Near  Cleves,  Western  Prussia. 
Here,  on  June  23,  1758,  Prince  Ferdinand 
of  Brunswick  defeated  the  French  under 
the  Count  of  Clermont. 

Crimea.  A  peninsula  of  Southern  Rus- 
sia, formed  by  the  Sea  of  Azof  and  the  Black 
Sea.  It  was  the  Taurica  CheisonesuH  of  the 
ancient  Greeks,  by  whom  it  was  colonized 
about  550  B.C.  Here  was  founded  the  king- 
dom of  Bosporus^  which  formed  part  of  the 
dominions  of  Mithridatcs,  king  of  Pontus, 
whose  descendants  continued  to  rule  the 
country  under  Roman  protection  until  the 
irruption  of  the  Goths,  Huns,  etc.,  258  a.d. 
It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Mongols  in  the 
13th  centur}',  was  subjected  to  the  Ottoman 
yoke  in  1475,  and  was  ceded  to  Russia  in 
1783.  AVar  having  been  declared  against 
Russia  by  England  and  France,  March  28, 
1854,  an  expedition  against  the  Crimea  was 
determined  on.  Accordingly,  the  allied 
British,  French,  and  Turkish  forces,  amount- 
ing to  58,000  men,  commanded  by  Lord 
Raglan  and  Marshal  St.  Arnaud,  sailed 
from  Varna  September  3,  and  landed  on  the 
14th,  15th,  and  Itith  without  opposition  at 
Old  Fort,  near  Eupatoria,  about  30  miles 
from  Sebastopol.  On  the  20th  they  attacked 
the  Russians  (40,000  to  SO.OtRl  strong),  who 
were  intrenched  on  the  heights  of  Alma, 
supposed  to  be  unassailable.  After  a  sharp 
contest  the  Russians  were  totally  routed.  It 
was  the  scene  of  several  other  engagements 
during  the  continuance  of  the  war,  until  the 
proclamation  of  peace  in  Aj)ril,  185().  The 
allies  quitted  the  Crimea  July  12,  following. 

Crimes,  Capital.  See  Ar'pENUix,  Arti- 
cles OK  Wak,  21,  22,  23,  39,  42,  43,  44,  45, 
46,  47,  5f.,  57,  105,  and  Section  1343. 

Crimes,  Military.  See  Appendix,  Arti- 
cles OF  War. 

Crimisus.  A  river  in  Sicily,  near  which 
Timoleon   defeated  the  Carthaginians,  339 

B.C. 

Crimping-houses.  Houses  in  which  per- 
sons were  entriip|icd  into  the  army  ;   hence 


the  name  of 


rimp  sergeaiu 


in  London  some  of  these  receptacles  were 
destroyed  by  the  populace,  in  consequence 
of  a  young  man  who  had  been  enticed  into 
one  being'killed  in  endeavoring  to  escape, 
September  16,  1794. 

Criques  (Fr.).  Small  ditches  which  are 
made  in  different  parts  of  a  ground  for  the 
purpose  of  inundating  a  country,  in  order  to 
obstruct  the  approaches  of  an  enemy. 


CROATIA 


122 


CUBA 


Croatia.  A  province  of  the  Austro-Hun- 
garian  monarchy.  This  region  was  anciently 
inhabited  by  the  Pannonians,  who  were 
conquered  by  the  Romans  in  the  reign  of 
Augustus.  It  was  conquered  by  Coleman, 
king  of  Hungary,  in  1102,  and  was  with 
that  country  united  to  Austria  in  1526. 

Croats.  In  military  history,  light  irreg- 
ular troops  were  so  called  ;  generally  people 
of  Croatia.  They  were  ordered  upon  all 
desperate  services,  and  their  method  of  fight- 
ing was  the  same  as  the  Pandours. 

Crochert.  A  hagbut  or  hand-cannon, 
anciently  in  use. 

Cronstadt,  A  seaport  and  fortress  of 
Russia,  about  20  miles  west  from  St. 
Petersburg.  It  was  founded  by  Peter  the 
Great  in  1710,  the  island  having  been  taken 
from  the  Swedes  by  him  in  1703.  A  Swed- 
ish fleet  was  defeated  here  by  the  Russians 
in  1790,  and  in  1855  an  English  fleet,  com- 
manded by  Sir  Charles  Napier,  proceeded  to 
the  Baltic,  with  the  view  of  taking  this  place 
or  destroying  its  fortiflcations  ;  but  either 
from  the  inadequacy  of  the  means  placed  at 
his  disposal,  or  from  the  great  strength  of 
the  forts,  no  attempt  was  made  upon  them. 

Cropedy  Bridge.  Near  Banbury,  Oxford- 
shire, England.  Here  the  royalists  defeated 
Sir  William  Waller  and  the  army  of  Par- 
liament, June  29,  1644. 

Cross-belts.  Belts  worn  over  both  shoul- 
ders, and  crossing  the  breast. 

Cross-bow.  A  weapon  formerly  used  in 
discharging  arrows,  formed  by  placing  a  bow 
crosswise  on  a  stock. 

Crossen.  A  town  of  the  Prussian  province 
of  Brandenburg.  In  1758  this  place  was 
taken  by  the  Russians. 

Cross-fire.  The  crossing  of  lines  of  fire 
from  two  or  more  points  or  places. 

Cross,  Victoria.     See  Victoria  Cross. 

Crotchet.  In  fortification,  an  indenta- 
tion in  the  glacis  of  the  covered  way  at  a 
point  where  a  traverse  is  placed. 

Crotchet.  The  arrangement  of  a  body  of 
troops,  either  forward  or  rearward,  so  as  to 
form  a  line  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  gen- 
eral line  of  battle. 

Croton,  or  Crotona.  One  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  Greek  colonies  in  Southern 
Italy,  founded  about  710  B.C.  About  510  a 
Crotoniat  army  of  100,000  men,  under  Milo, 
defeated  a  greatly  superior  force  of  Sybar- 
ites on  the  banks  of  the  Tracis,  took  the  city 
of  Sybaris,  and  utterly  destroyed  it.  (See 
Stbaris.)  In  the  second  Punic  war  the 
Bruttians,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Car- 
thaginian general  Hanno,  succeeded  in 
making  themselves  inasters  of  the  city  of 
Crotona,  with  the  exception  of  the  citadel, 
which  held  out  until  induced  to  suri-ender 
on  terms.  The  ravages  of  this  war  com- 
pleted the  decay  of  the  city,  and  it  sunk 
into  the  condition  of  an  obscure  provincial 
town. 

Crown.  The  emblem  of  sovereignty  in 
modern  Europe.  It  was  originall}^  an  Ori- 
ental decoration,  and  was  adopted  by  Alex- 


ander the  Great  from  the  kings  of  Persia. 
In  modern  states  crowns  were  of  various 
forms,  till  heralds  devised  a  regular  series  of 
them  to  mark  the  various  gradations  of  sov- 
ereignty, from  that  of  the  emperor  down  to 
what  are  called  the  coronets  of  counts  and 
barons.  In  England,  so  entirely  has  the 
crown  been  regarded  as  the  symbol  of  sov- 
ereignty, that  the  word  is  frequently  used  as 
synonymous  with  the  monarchy. 

Crown,  Civic.     See  Civic  Crown. 

Crown,  Mural.     See  Mural  Crown. 

Crown,  Obsidional.  See  Obsidional 
Crown. 

Crown,  Triumphal.  See  Triumphal 
Crown. 

Crown,  Vallary.     See  Vallary  Crovtn. 

Crowning.  A  term  in  fortifications  gen- 
erally applied  to  the  operation,  by  the  be- 
sieged, of  establishing  works  on  the  crest  of 
the  glacis  or  summit  of  the  breach.  It  is 
sometimes  used  when  describing  the  move- 
ments of  troops,  to  signify  that  they  have 
reached  the  top  of  a  hill  or  parapet,  which 
they  are  said  to  have  crowned. 

Crown-work,  A  term  used  in  fortifica- 
tion to  signify  a  work  consisting  of  two  or 
more  fronls  of  fortification,  joined  by  two 
long  branches  to  the  ditch  of  another  work, 
a  river,  a  village,  etc.  It  is  generally  used 
to  defend  a  bridge  or  suburb. 

Crows,  or  Absorokas.  A  tribe  of  Indi- 
ans inhabiting  the  northern  part  of  Wyo- 
ming Territory  and  the  southern  part  of 
Montana.  They  are  divided  into  two  bands, 
and  belong  to  the  Dakota  family.  See 
Indians  and  their  Agencies. 

Crows-foot.  An  implement  of  metal 
with  four  points,  so  formed  that,  in  what- 
ever way  it  falls,  there  is  one  point  upward  ; 
intended  to  injure  the  feet  of  horses  ;  a  cal- 
trop. 

Crucible,  Steel.  Steel  melted  in  cruci- 
bles ;  cast  steel.     See  Ordnance,  Metals 

FOR. 

Crusader.  A  knight  engaged  in  the 
Crusades. 

Crusades.  From  the  Latin  crux,  a 
"cross."  A  term  applied  to  the  military 
expeditions  undertaken  by  Christian  powers 
in  the  11th,  12th,  and  13th  centuries  for  the 
recovery  of  Palestine,  or  the  "Holy  Land," 
from  the  Mohammedans.  They  were  origi- 
nated by  Peter  the  Hermit,  an  enthusiastic 
French  officer  of  Amiens,  who  turned  pil- 
grim. There  were  in  all  eight  crusades, 
from  1096  to  1270.  The  last  one  ended  in 
the  Christians  being  driven  out  of  Syria. 

Ctesiphon  (afterwards  Al  Madayn).  On 
the  Tigris,  the  splendid  capital  of  Parthia, 
was  taken  by  Trajan  in  116,  and  by  Alex- 
ander Severus  (who  made  100,000  captives), 
198.  Its  defenses  deterred  Julian  from  the 
siege,  363.  Through  the  cowardice  or  treach- 
ery of  the  defenders,  it  was  taken  by  Omar 
and  the  Saracens,  637,  and  utterly  destroyed. 
He  built  Cufa  near  it  with  the  remains. 

Cuba.  An  island  in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.     It  is  the 


CUBICAL 


123 


CURAgOA 


lar.ffest  of  the  West  Indian  group,  belongs 
to  .Spain,  and  is  the  most  important  of  the 
Simiiish  colonial  jjossessions.  It  was  dis- 
covered by  Colmnbus,  October  28,  1402,  and 
the  Spaniards  formed  their  first  settlement 
on  it  in  1511,  and  have  remained  in  posses- 
sion ever  since.  Havana,  a  city  of  Cuba, 
was  tai<en  by  the  British  in  17(i2,  but  was 
restored  to  Spain  the  following  j'ear.  In 
May,  1850,  and  August,  1851,  unsuccessful 
attempts  to  revolutionize  the  island  were 
made  by  bands  of  adventurers  under  a 
Spaniard  named  Narcisso  Lopez.  In  the 
latter  expedition,  the  whole  450  who  landed 
were  citiier  slain  in  fight  or  taken  prisoners. 
In  1808  the  inhabitants  revolted  against 
Spain,  and  declared  a  republic.  Spain  at 
once  proceeded  to  crush  them  into  submis- 
sion, but  the  patriots  held  out  until,  in  1878, 
abandoning  all  hope  of  assistance  or  recog- 
nition from  abroad,  they  were  obliged  to 
succimb,  and  the  Spaniards  resumed  full 
control  of  the  country. 

Cubical  Powder.     See  Gunpowdkr. 

Cuddalore  (India).  On  the  coast  of  the 
Carnatic,  was  acquired  by  the  English  in 
1G81.  It  was  reduced  by  the  French  in 
1758,  but  recaptured  in  17()0  by  Sir  Eyre 
Coote.  Again  lost  in  1781,  it  underwent  a 
destructive  siege  by  the  British  under  Gen. 
Stuart,  in  1783,  which  was  continued  until 
peace  was  signed,  when  it  reverted  to  them, 
1784. 

Cuenca.  A  city  of  Spain,  in  New  Cas- 
tile, about  84  miles  from  Madrid.  It  was 
captured  from  the  Moors  by  the  kings  of 
Castile  and  Aragon  in  1170. 

Cuirass  ( Fr.  cuir,  leather).  Originally  a 
jerkin,  or  garment  of  leather  for  soldiers,  so 
thick  and  strong  as  to  be  pistol- proof,  and 
even  musket-proof  The  name  was  after- 
wards applied  to  a  portion  of  armor  made  of 
metal,  consisting  of  a  back-plate  and  breast- 
plate hooked  or  buckled  together.  The  cui- 
rass is  worn  in  the  British  army  by  the 
Life  Guards  and  the  Horse  Guards. 

Cuish.  Defensive  armor  for  the  thighs, 
written  also  riitsse. 

Cul-de-sac  (/>.).  The  "bottom  of  a 
bag."  A  passage  with  only  one  outlet;  a 
position  ill  whicii  an  army  finds  itself,  with 
no  wiiv  of  exit  hut  to  thefront. 

CuUen  Rifle.     Sec  .Maoazixe  Guks. 

Cullen's-wood.  In  Ireland.  A  horrible 
slaughter  of  the  English  by  the  Irish  took 
place  ut  a  village  near  Dublin  on  Easter  or 
Black  Mondav,  so  called  from  this  massacre, 
March  30,  12()1>.  The  English  were  a  col- 
ony from  Bristol  inhabiting  Dublin,  whence 
they  went  to  divert  themselves  at  Cullen's- 
wood,  when  the  OByrnes  and  O'Tooles  fell 
upon  them,  and  destroyed  500  men,  besides 
Women  and  children. 

Culloden,  or  Drummossie  Moor.  A  wide 
heath  in  Scotland.  3  miles  east  of  Inverness, 
on  which  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  the  Highland  army  in 
their  attemjit  "to  restore  the  Stuart  dynasty 
to  the  throne,  in  I74(j. 


Culpeper  Court-house.     See  Fairfa.x. 

Culverin.  A  long  cannon  u.sed  from  the 
14th  to  the  ItJth  century;  generally  carried 
a  shot  of  18  pounds.  The  gun  at  Dover 
Castle,  called  Queen  Elizabeth's  nocket-pis- 
tol,  is  a  specimen  of  a  large  culverin.  A 
demi-culuerin  was  a  similar  piece,  carrying  u 
9-pound  shot. 

Cumae.  An  ancient  and  celebrated  Gre(  k 
city  on  the  coast  of  Campania,  about  G  miles 
north  of  Cape  Misenum.  The  Tyrrhenians 
and  Carthaginians  attacked  it  by  sea,  and 
were  defeated  by  Hieron,  474  n.c.  In  420 
the  Samnites  laid  siege  to  the  city,  and  after 
repeated  attacks  succeeded  in  carrying  it  by 
assault.  It  was  given  up  to  pillage  and  its 
inhabitants  put  to  the  sword.  In  the  second 
Punic  war  Hannibal  made  an  attempt  upon 
the  city,  but  was  repulsed  by  Sempronius 
Gracchus.  It  was  chosen  by  the  Gothic 
kings  as  the  depository  of  their  regalia  and 
valuables,  and  was  the  last  place  in  Italy 
that  held  out  against  Narses. 

Cumberland  Gap.  Is  a  natural  gap  in 
the  Cumberland  Mountains,  about  80  miles 
in  length,  and  about  150  miles  south  by  east 
from  Lexington,  Ky.  During  the  civil  war 
it  was  an  important  strategic  point,  and  was 
held  at  different  times  by  each  of  the  con- 
tending forces.  It  was  held  by  the  Con- 
federates without  any  serious  interference 
until  Chattanooga  was  occupied  by  the  forces 
of  Gen.  Mitchell,  when  it  was  evacuated 
about  June  18,  1862,  and  occupied  on  thfr 
same  daj'  by  the  Union  general  Geo.  AV. 
Morgan.  It  was  held  by  him  until  Septem- 
ber 17,  when  he  was  compelled  to  evacuate 
it.  It  was  again  occupied  by  the  Confeder- 
ates, who  to  the  number  of  2000  under  Gen. 
Frazer  surrendered  to  Gen.  Burnside,  Sep- 
tember 9,  1803.  A  large  quantity  of  stores, 
and  10  pieces  of  artillery  were  captured. 

Cunaxa.  In  Mesopotamia,  near  the  Eu- 
phrates, where  Cyrus  the  Younger  was  de- 
feated and  slain  by  his  brother  Artaxerxes 
II.,  against  whom  he  had  conspired,  401  n.c. 

Cunette,  or  Cuvette.  A  trench  in  the 
bottom  of  a  dry  ditch;  an  obstacle  in  the- 
passage  of  an  enemy  (especially  if  tilled  with 
water),  and  also  acting  as  a  drain. 

Cunnersdorf,  or  Kunnersdorf.  A  village 
in  Bohemia,  12  miles  north-northwest  of 
Buntzlau.  On  August  12,  1759,  Frederick 
the  Great  with  50,000  men  attacked  the 
Austrian  and  Russian  army  of  90,(X>0  in 
their  camp  near  this  place,  and  at  first  gained 
considerable  advantages  ;  but  pursuing  them 
too  far,  the  Austrians  and  Russians  rallied, 
and  gained  a  complete  victory.  The  Prus- 
sians lost  200  pieces  of  cannon  and  30,000 
men  in  killed  and  wounded. 

Cura^oa.  An  island  in  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  settled  by  the  Spaniards  about  1.527, 
was  seized  by  the  Dutch  in  H;;U.  In  1800 
the  French  settled  on  part  of  this  island, 
quarreled  with  the  Dutch,  who  surrendered 
it  to  a  British  frigate.  It  was  restored  to  the 
Dutch  in  18n2;  taken  from  them  by  the 
British  in  1807,  and  again  restored  in"l814. 


CURIET 


124 


CZASLAU 


Curiet.  A  breastplate  made  of  leather. 
Current  Series.  In  military  administra- 
tion, orders  issued  from  established  com- 
mands, such  as  divisions,  departments,  etc., 
being  numbered  in  regular  order  for  each 
year;  this  term  is  frequently  used  when  re- 
ferring to  orders  issued  in  the  year  passing 
or  current,  when  the  expression  is  employed. 
Currier.  A  small  musketoon  with  a 
swivel  mounting. 

Currytown.  A  village  in  Montgomery 
Co.,  N.  Y.,  noted  for  the  attack  on  and 
murder  of  its  settlers  by  nearly  500  Indians 
and  a  few  loyalists,  commanded  by  a  Tory 
named  Doxstader,  July  9,  1781.  The  settlers 
were  unsuspicious  of  danger,  and  were  gener- 
ally at  work  in  the  fields  when  the  enemy 
fell  upon  them.  After  killing  and  capturing 
all  they  could,  the  Indians  set  lire  to  the 
buildings,  and  drove  away  most  of  the  cattle 
and  horses  in  the  neighborhood.  Next  day 
Col.  Willett,  who  was  at  Fort  Plain  when 
the  attack  was  made,  pursued  the  enemy 
with  about  150  men,  attacked  and  killed 
about  40  of  them,  and  recovered  all  their 
plunder. 

Curtain.  In  fortification,  is  that  part  of 
the  rampart  or  wall  between  two  bastions  or 
two  gates. 

Curtail,  or  Curtald.  An  ancient  piece  of 
ordnance,  apparently  a  short  one. 

Curtatone.  Near  Mantua,  Northern  Italy. 
Here  the  Austrians  under  Radetzky  crossed 
the  Minco,  and  defeated  the  Italians  after  a 
severe  conflict,  May  29,  1848. 

Customs  of  the  Service.  Sometimes  called 
common  law  of  the  army.  Signifies  gener- 
ally a  right  or  law  not  written,  but  estab- 
lished by  long  usage.  To  render  a  custom 
valid  it  has  been  said  that  the  following 
qualities  are  requisite:  1,  habitual  or  long 
established  practice;  2,  continuance  with- 
out interruption;  3,  without  dispute;  4, 
it  must  be  reasonable;  5,  certain  ;  6,  com- 
pulsory; 7,  customs  must  be  consistent  with 
each  other.  It  may  be  said  that  the  common 
law  of  the  army  derives  its  force  from  the 
tacit  consent  of  those  in  the  service.  Gen. 
Kautz  states  that  officers  of  the  army  have 
certain  duties  to  perform  that  are  governed 
by  certain  laws,  rules,  and  regulations,  which 
are  interpreted  and  executed  in  a  certain 
way,  called  "Customs  of  the  Service."  A 
knowledge  of  these  rules  of  the  service,  and 
their  application,  constitutes  the  military 
profession,  and  is  the  true  art  of  war.  To 
this  extent  it  is  an  exact  science,  and  may 
be  acquired  by  application  and  experience. 
Custozza.    Near  Verona,  Northern  Italy. 


Here  the  Italians  were  defeated  by  Marshal 
Radetzky,  July  23,  1848;  and  here  they 
were  again  defeated  June  24,  1860,  after  a 
series  of  desperate  attacks  on  the  Austrian 
army.  The  Italians  were  commanded  by 
their  king,  Victor  Emmanuel,  and  the  Aus- 
trians by  the  Archduke  Albrecbt. 

Cut  Off,  To.  To  intercept,  to  hinder  from 
union  or  return.  In  a  military  sense  this 
phrase  is  variously  applicable,  and  extremely 
familiar. 

To  Cut  Off  an  Enemy's  Retreat  is  to 
manoeuvre  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent 
an  opposing  army  or  body  of  men  from  re- 
tiring, when  closely  pressed,  either  to  their 
intrenchments  or  into  a  fortified  town  from 
which  they  had  marched  or  sallied. 

Cut  up,  To.  To  destroy  promiscuously. 
"When  the  cavalry  are  sent  in  pursuit  of  a 
flying  enemy,  the  latter  are  generally  cut 
up. 

Cuttack  (anc.  Catac).  A  province  in^the 
East  Indies,  ceded  to  the  East  India  Com- 
pany in  1803.  Cuttack,  the  capital,  was 
taken  by  Col.  Harcourt,  October  14,  1803. 
This  province  was  captured  by  the  Mahrat- 
tas  in  1750. 

Cuzco.  A  city  of  Peru,  capital  of  a  de- 
partment, and  the  ancient  capital  of  the 
Peruvian  empire,  in  South  America.  This 
city  was  entered  by  Pizarro  in  November, 
1533,  and  taken  by  him  in  August,  1536, 
after  a  five  months'  siege. 

Cylinder-gauge.  See  Inspection  of 
Cannon. 

Cylinder-staff.  See  Inspection  of  Can- 
non. 

Cyprus.  The  most  eastern  island  in  the 
Mediterranean,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf 
of  Iskanderoon.  It  was  divided  among 
several  petty  kings  till  the  time  of  Cyrus  of 
Persia,  who  subdued  them.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Greeks  in  477  B.C.,  and  ranked  among  f 

the  proconsular  provinces  in  the  reign  of 
Augustus.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Sara- 
cens, 648  A.D.,  but  recovered  by  the  Greeks 
in  957.  It  was  reduced  by  Richard  I.  of 
England  in  1191,  and  given  by  him  to  Guy 
de  Lusignan,  who  became  king  in  1192,  and 
whose  descendants  governed  it  until  1489, 
when  it  was  sold  to  the  Venetians.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Turks  in  August,  1571,  and 
held  by  them  until  June,  1878,  when  it  was 
awarded  to  England  by  the  "Peace  Congress 
of  Berlin.'' 

Czaslau.  A  town  of  Bohemia,  45  miles 
east-southeast  of  Prague.  Here  Frederick 
the  Great  gained  a  victory  over  the  Austrians, 
May  17,  1742. 


DACIA 


123 


DAKOTA 


D, 


Dacia.  The  liind  of  the  Daci  or  Getae. 
It  comprised  the  various  countries  now 
known  as  Eastern  Hungary,  Transylvania, 
Wallachia,  and  Moldavia.  The  Getae  came 
originally  from  Thrace,  and  were  divided 
into  various  tribes,  and  seem  to  have  been 
the  most  valiant  of  the  Thracian  barbarians. 
Curio,  the  first  lloinan  general  who  ever 
penetrated  as  far  north  as  the  Danube,  did 
not  venture  to  assail  them.  Julius  Ciesar, 
however,  is  said  to  have  intended  their  sub- 
jugation. In  10  B.C.,  Augustus  sent  an 
army  up  the  valley  of  the  Maros.  PVom 
this  time  a  continual  war  was  waged  by  the 
Dacians  against  the  Komans,  who  actually 
compelled  the  latter,  in  the  reign  of  Do-  j 
mitian,  to  pay  a  tribute.  In  101  A.D.  the  | 
Emperor  Trajan  crossed  the  Theiss,  and 
marched  into  Transylvania,  where  he  fought 
a  great  battle  near  Thorda.  The  Daci,  who 
were  commanded  by  their  famous  chief  De- 
cebalus,  were  defeated.  A  second  expedition 
of  the  emperor's  (104  a.d.)  resulted  in  the 
destruction  of  their  capital,  the  death  of 
Decebalus,  and  the  loss  of  their  freedom. 
In  270  and  275  a.d.  the  Romans  abandoned 
the  country  to  the  Goths,  and  the  colonists 
were  transferred  to  Mcesia.  After  a  series 
of  vicissitudes,  Dacia  fell  into  the  possession 
of  the  Magyars  in  the  9th  century.    • 

Dacota.     See  Dakota. 

Dadur.  A  town  of  Beloochistan,  5  miles 
to  the  east  of  the  Bolan  Pass.  It  is  said  to 
be  one  of  the  hottest  places  in  the  world,  and 
is  celebrated  as  the  place  where,  in  Novem- 
ber, 1840,  the  British  troops  routed  a  Kelat 
force.  ^ 

Dag.  A  thick,  clumsy  pistol,  used  in  the 
15th  and  16th  centuries. 

Dagen.     A  peculiar  kind  of  poniard. 

Dagger.  A  weapon  resembling  a  sword, 
but  considerably  smaller,  being  used  for 
stabbing  at  close  quarters.  Daggers  are 
generally  two-(*dged,  and  very  sharp  to- 
wards the  point. 

Daghestan.  A  province  of  Russia,  on 
the  west  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  was 
conquered  by  the  C7.ar  Peter  in  1723;  re- 
stored to  Persia,  173.'j;  but  re-annexed  to 
Russia  by  Alexander  I.  in  1813. 

Dague  {Fr.).  Dagger,  a  short  thick  pon- 
iard which  was  formerly  used  when  individ- 
uals engaged  in  single  combat. 

Dahigren  Gun.  So  named  from  Admiral 
Dahlgren,  its  inventor.  An  improved  form 
of  ordnance  used  for  howitzers,  heavy  artil- 
lery, and  especially  in  naval  gunnery.  It 
having  been  demonstrated  that  in  ordinary 
cast  guns  the  weight  of  the  metal  forward 
is  greater  than  is  needed,  and  that  by  far  the 


greatest  strain  in  firing  is  at  the  breech, 
Dahlgren  greatly  increased  the  relative  size 
and  weight  of  the  breech,  with  the  best 
results.  These  guns  are  chiefly  used  by  the 
U.  S.  forces.  See  Ordnance,  Construc- 
tion OF. 

Dahme.  A  town  of  Prussia,  on  the  river 
of  the  same  name.  It  is  defended  by  a 
strong  citadel,  and  inclosed  by  walls.  Here, 
in  1713,  the  French  were  defeated  by  the 
Prussians. 

Dahomey.  An  independent  state  of 
Guinea,  Western  Africa,  extending  along 
the  coast  from  Fort  Badagry  on  the  eJist,  to 
the  river  Volta,  which  separates  it  from 
Ashantee  on  the  west.  The  Dahomans,  who 
came  into  possession  of  this  tract  of  coun- 
try about  the  beginning  of  the  18th  cen- 
tur}',  are  for  the  most  part  tall,  well  formed, 
and  intelligent,  and,  for  an  African  race, 
singularly  honest  and  far  advanced  in  agri- 
culture. With  the  exception  of  a  few  Mo- 
hammedans, whose  religious  belief  is  in  no 
way  interfered  with,  they  are  all  pagans, 
and  practice  fetish-worship.  The  king  is  the 
most  absolute  of  despots,  having  entire  con- 
trol over  the  lives  and  property  of  his  sub- 
jects. Wholesale  murder  is  one  of  the  chief 
features  in  religious  and  state  ceremonies, 
and  the  most  valued  ornaments  of  the  royal 
residence  are  human  skulls.  As  many  as 
2000  human  victims  are  sometimes  sacri- 
ficed at  one  "  grand  custom."  Of  the  regu- 
lar army  of  12,000,  about  one-half  are  Ama- 
zons (devoted  to  celibacy),  who  are  described 
as  much  more  effective  soldiers  than  their 
male  companions  in  arms  ;  but  at  the  same 
time  as  blood-thirsty  and  ferocious  as  ti- 
gresses. 

Dahra.  In  Algeria;  on  June  18,  1845, 
above  500  Kabyles  at  war  with  the  French, 
were  sutlbcated  in  a  cave  by  smoke,  the  fire 
having  been  kindled  by  order  of  Gen.  Pel- 
issier,  afterwards  Duke  of  Malakoft".  They 
had  fired  on  a  messenger  bearing  an  offer  of 
truce.  The  massacre  was  condemned  by 
Soult,  the  minister  of  war,  but  justified  by 
Marshal  Bugcaud. 

Dakota.  A  Territory  in  the  north  central 
part  of  the  United  States.  It  was  organ- 
ized under  a  territorial  form  of  government 
March  2,  1861,  but  verv  extensive  altera- 
tions have  since  been  made  in  its  boundaries. 
The  Territory  has  been  greatly  disturbed  by 
marauding  bands  of  Si«>ux  Indians,  or  Da- 
kotas,  who  were  in  18tJ2  and  18<;3  especially 
daring  and  aggressive,  and  though  they 
have  frequently  been  defeated  by  U.  S. 
troops,  notably  "under  Gens.  Sully  and  Sibley 
in    1863,  they  are   still   very   troublesome, 


DAKOTA 


126 


DANGEROUS 


necessitating  the    frequent  intervention    of 
troops  for  the  protection  of  the  settlers. 

Dakota  Indians.  A  numerous  and  power- 
ful tribe  or  collection  of  tribes  of  Indians 
of  common  stock,  often  called  Sioux,  who 
formerly  roamed  over  the  territory  between 
the  Missouri  and  Mississippi,  but  have 
moved  farther  west  since  1851,  and  are 
settled  on  agencies  in  Dakota,  Montana, 
Nebraska,  etc.  A  great  proportion  of  them 
still  preserve  their  nomadic  habits  and  are 
still  frequently  troublesome.     See  Indians 

AND    THEIR   AGENCIES. 

Dalecarlians.  Natives  of  Dalecarlia, 
Sweden,  who  revolted  against  Christian  of 
Denmark,  1521,  and  placed  Gustavus  Vasa 
on  the  throne  of  Sweden. 

Dalmatia.  A  narrow  strip  of  territory 
extending  along  the  Adriatic  Sea  ;  bounded 
north  by  Istria  and  Croatia,  and  east  by 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.  In  ancient  times 
Dalmatia  was  a  considerable  kingdom,  and, 
after  many  unsuccessful  attempts,  was  first 
subjugated  by  the  Romans  in  the  time  of 
Augustus.  After  the  fall  of  the  Western 
empire,  Dalmatia,  which  had  formed  the 
most  southern  part  of  the  province  of  II- 
lyricum,  was  captured  by  the  Goths,  from 
whom  it  was  taken  by  the  Avari  (490),  who 
in  their  turn  yielded  it  to  the  Slavonians 
about  620.  It  continued  under  the  rule  of 
the  Slavonians  until  the  beginning  of  the 
11th  century,  when  King  Ladislaus  of  Hun- 
gary incorporated  a  part  of  it  with  Croatia, 
while  the  other  part,  with  the  title  of  duchy, 
placed  itself  under  the  protection  of  the 
Venetian  republic.  The  Turks  afterwards 
made  themselves  masters  of  a  small  portion, 
and  by  the  peace  of  Campo-Formio  (1797), 
the  Venetian  part,  with  Venice  itself,  be- 
came subject  to  Austrian  rule,  and  when 
Austria,  in  1805,  had  ceded  this  part  to 
Napoleon,  it  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom 
of  Italy ;  afterwards  (1810)  to  Illyria.  Since 
1814,  excepting  the  Turkish  portion,  it  has 
been  reunited  with  Austria. 

Damages,  Barrack.  In  the  British  ser- 
vice, is  the  term  applied  to  the  injuries  done 
to  barracks,  barrack  furniture,  etc.,  by  sol- 
diers, when  the  actual  perpetrator  cannot  be 
discovered.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the 
sum  levied  from  the  company  or  regiment 
generally,  to  make  good  the  injury.  Dam- 
ages to  arms,  clothing,  etc.  See  Appendix, 
Articles  or  War,  17. 

Damascus.  A  city  of  Syria,  in  Asiatic 
Turkey.  During  the  time  of  the  Hebrew 
monarchy,  it  was  the  capital  of  Syria,  but 
afterwards  passed  successively  under  the  rule 
of  the  Assyrians,  Persians,  Macedonians,  Ro- 
mans, and  Saracens;  and  finally,  in  1516,  it 
was  captured  by  the  Turks  (under  Sultan 
Selim  I.),  in  whose  hands  it  has  remained 
ever  since.  Damascus  was  at  one  time  cele- 
brated for  the  manufacture  of  sword-blades 
of  the  finest  temper  and  most  exquisite  work- 
manship, but  the  process  by  which  such 
unequaled  specimens  of  art  were  perfected 
appears  no  longer  to  exist. 


Damaskin.  A  certain  kind  of  sabre;  .so 
called  from  the  manufacture  of  Damascus. 

Dame  (Fr.).  Among  miners  any  portion 
of  earth  which  may  remain  after  the  explo- 
sion of  a  mine  has  taken  place.  It  likewise 
means  a  piece  of  wood  with  two  handles 
used  to  press  down  turf  or  dirt  in  a  mortar. 

Damietta.  A  city  of  Lower  Egypt,  on 
the  east  branch  of  the  Nile.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Crusaders,  1219;  lost,  1229;  retaken 
by  Louis  IX.,  June  5,  1249;  surrendered  as 
his  ransom  when  a  prisoner.  May  6,  1250. 

Damnonii,  Dumnonii,  or  Dumnunii.  A 
powerful  people  who  inhabited  the  southwest 
of  Britain,  comprising  Cornwall,  Devon- 
shire, and  the  western  part  of  Somersetshire, 
from  whom  was  called  the  promontory  Dam- 
nonium  (now  Cape  Lizard),  in  Cornwall. 

Danai.  An  ancient  name  of  the  Greeks, 
derived  from  Danaus,  king  of  Argos,  1474 

B.C. 

Danala.  A  city  in  the  territory  of  the 
Trocmi,  in  the  northeast  of  Galatia,  notable 
in  the  history  of  the  Mithridatic  war  as  the 
place  where  Lucullus  resigned  the  command 
to  Pompey. 

Dancette.  One  of  the  lines  of  partition 
in  heraldry,  difl'ering  from  indented  only  in 
the  greater  size  of  the  notches.  See  In- 
dented. 

Danes,  or  Northmen.  Natives  of  Den- 
mark ;  during  their  attacks  upon  Britain 
and  Ireland  they  made  a  descent  on  France, 
where,  in  895,  under  Rollo,  they  received 
presents  under  the  walls  of  Paris.  They  re- 
turned and  ravaged  the  French  territories  as 
far  as  Ostend  in  896.  They  attacked  Italy 
in  903.  Neustria  was  granted  by  the  king 
of  France  to  Rollo  and  his  Normans  (North- 
men), hence  Normandy,  in  911.  The  Danes 
invaded  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  with 
varying  succes.ses  from  783  to  1084. 

Dangerous  Space.  That  zone,  partly  be- 
fore and  partly  beyond  the  object  fired  at 
(the  sights  having  been  correctly  elevated), 
which  is  covered  by«the  trajectory ;  the  object 
may  be  displaced  to  the  front  or  rear  of  its 
correct  range-point,  a  distance  equal,  in  the 
aggregate,  to  the  depth  of  this  zone,  and  still 
be  struck  by  the  projectile.  "  Dangerous 
space"  is  calculated  under  the  assumption 
that  the  gun  when  fired  is  56  inches  from  the 
ground,  that  it  is  aimed  at  "a  point  34  inches 
from  the  ground,  and  that  the  stature  of  a 
man  is  68  inches  ;  and  that  the  head  of  a  man 
on  horseback  is  8  feet  above  the  ground.  The 
"dangerous  space"  will,  of  course,  be  in- 
creased by  the  firer  lying  down  and  aiming 
at  his  adversary's  feet.  A  part  of  the  "dan- 
gerous space"  is  near  the  muzzle  of  the  gun 
in  the  rising  branch  of  the  trajectory;  the 
rest  of  it  is  in  the  falling  branch ;  these  two 
parts  being  continuous  up  to  and  including 
the  "battle-range"  (which  see).  The  "dan- 
gerous space"  varies  with  the  weapon  used 
and  the  object  fired  at ;  and  for  the  same  arm 
diminishes  as  the  range  increases  beyond 
"battle-range";  up  to  this  point  it  increases 
with  the  range.     A  perfect  understanding  of 


DANNEBROG 


127 


DEAD 


this  subject  is  essential  to  effective  infantry 
fire  upon  the  field  of  battle.  Valuable  tables 
will  be  found  upon  it  in  Laidley's  "  Rifle 
Firinsj." 

Dannebrog.  The  ancient  battle-standard 
of  Deiitnark,  bearing  the  figures  of  a  cross 
and  crown.  It  was  fabled  to  have  fallen 
from  heaven  at  the  battle  of  Volmur,  in  Es- 
thonia  (1211)),  during  a  crusade  against  the 
heathens.  It  was  twice  taken  in  battle  and 
twice  recaptured.  In  1500  a  mere  fragment 
remained. 

Dannebrog,  Order  of  the.  Is  the  second 
of  the  Danish  orders  of  knighthood.  It  is 
said  to  liave  been  founded  in  1219,  but  fell 
into  decay,  and  was  restored  in  1071. 

Dannevirke,  or  Dannewerke.  A  series  of 
earthworks  considered  almost  impregnable, 
stretching  across  the  long  narrow  peninsula 
of  Sleswick,  Holstein,  ancL  Jutland, — said  to 
have  been  built  during  the  "  stone  age."  It 
was  rebuilt  in  937  by  Thyra,  queen  of  Gormo 
the  Old,  for  which  she  was  named  Dunnnhod, 
"the  })ride  of  the  Danes."  It  was  again 
repaired  between  995  and  1000.  Near  here 
the  Prussians,  aiding  the  duchies,  defeated 
the  Danes,  April  23,  1848. 

Dantzic,  or  Danzig.  A  city  of  Prussia; 
is  surrounded  with  ramparts,  mounted  with 
cannon,  and  the  town  may  be  considered 
as  being  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in 
Prussia.  In  the  10th  century  it  was  known 
as  the  capital  of  Pomcrali ;  it  passed  with 
that  province,  in  1295,  under  the  author- 
ity of  Poland;  but  in  1308,  Ladislaus  IV. 
ceded  the  whole  to  the  Teutonic  knights, 
who  held  it  till  1454.  In  that  year  it  was 
again  seized  by  the  Poles  ;  and  in  1575,  hav- 
ing refused  to  acknowledge  Stephen  Bathory, 
it  had  to  sustain  a  siege  by  that  monarch, 
and  was  taken  in  1577.  From  13(j0  to  1641 
it  was  one  of  the  principal  towns  in  the 
Hanseatic  League.  When  this  league  was 
dissolved,  Dantzic  joined  Lubeck,  Hamburg, 
and  Bremen  ;  and  these  four  cities,  down  to 
a  very  late  period,  retained  their  name  of 
Hanse  Towns.  In  1734  it  was  forced  to  sur- 
render to  the  Russians  and  Saxons,  who 
were  then  besieging  Stanislaus  of  Poland. 
In  1793  it  was  occupied  by  the  Prussians. 
It  was  taken  by  the  French  in  May,  1807, 
after  a  long  siege,  by  Marshal  Lefevre,  who 
thence  acquired  his  title  of  duke  of  Dantzic. 
After  Bonapartos  disastrous  campaign  in 
Russia,  it  was  blockaded  and  obliged  to  sur- 
render, after  a  long  and  able  defense  by 
Gen.  Rapn.  At  the  peace  of  Paris,  in  1814, 
it  reverted  to  Prussia. 

Dardanelles,  or  Hellespont  (anc.  Hellcs- 
po)ifux).  A  narrow  strait  between  Europe 
and  Asiatic  Turkey,  connecting  the  Sea  of 
Marmora  and  the  .Egean  Sea.  As  it  is  the 
key  to  Constantinople,  there  are  on  both 
shores  of  this  narrow  channel  numerous 
forts  and  batteries,  there  being  8  on  the 
European  and  7  on  the  Asiatic  side.  It  was 
here  the  invading  armies  of  Xerxes  crossed 
on  a  bridge  of  boats  to  enter  Europe.  The 
passage  of  the  strait  was  achieved  by  the 


British  under  Sir  John  Duckworth,  Febru- 
ary 9,  1807  ;  but  he  repassed  with  great  loss, 
Marcii  2,  two  castles  occupying  the  sites  of 
the  ancient  Sestos  and  Abydos,  hurling 
d()wn  stones  of  many  tons  weight  upon  the 
British.  The  allied  English  and  French 
passed  the  Dardanelles  at  the  sultan's  re- 
quest, October,  1853. 

Dart.  A  pointed,  missile  weapon,  intend- 
ed to  be  thrown  by  the  hand  ;  a  short  lance; 
a  javelin  ;  hence,  any  mi.ssile  weapon. 

Dartmouth.  A  seaport  town  of  England, 
in  Devonshire ;  it  was  burnt  by  the  French 
in  the  reigns  of  Richard  I.  and  Henry  IV. 
In  a  third  attempt  (1404)  the  invaders  were 
defeated  by  the  inliabitants,  assisted  by  the 
valor  of  the  women.  In  the  war  of  the 
Parliament,  Dartmouth  was  taken,  after  a 
siege  of  four  weeks,  by  Prince  Maurice,  who 
garrisoned  the  place  for  the  king  (1043);  but 
it  was  retaken  by  Gen.  Fairfax  by  storm  in 
1040. 

Dauphin  (Dolphin),  Fr.  An  ornamental 
handle  on  brass  guns  over  the  trunnions,  so 
called  from  its  resemblance  to  that  fish. 

Dauphine.  An  old  province  of  Southeast 
France,  successively  held  by  the  Allobroges, 
Burgundians,  and  Lombards ;  was,  about 
723-24,  delivered  from  the  invading  Sara- 
cens by  Charles  Martel.  Its  counts  were 
called  dauphins  ;  and  when  it  was  ceded  to 
Philip  of  Valois,  in  1349,  the  title  of  dau- 
phin was  given  to  the  eldest  son  of  the  king 
of  France,  to  whom  it  continued  to  be  ap- 
plied till  the  revolution  of  1830. 

David's  Day,  St.  The  1st  day  of  March 
is  annually  commemorated  by  the  Welsh,  in 
honor  of  St.  David.  Tradition  states  that 
on  St.  David's  birthday,  540,  a  great  victory 
was  obtained  bj-  the  Welsh  over  their  Saxon 
invaders,  and  that  the  Welsh  soldiers  were 
distinguished  by  order  of  St.  David  by  a 
leek  in  their  caps. 

Dax.  A  well-built  town  of  France,  de- 
partment of  Landes.  It  is  surrounded  by  an 
old  wall,  flanked  with  towers,  and  is  also 
protected  by  a  castle.  Dax  was  taken  by 
the  English  in  the  12th  century,  and  re- 
mained in  their  possession  till  the  middle  of 
the  15th  century. 

Day-book.  In  the  British  service,  is  a 
sort  of  private  memorandum-book,  in  which 
the  pay-sergeant  enters  all  details  of  expen- 
diture' other  than  pay  under  each  man's 
head.  These  entries  are  made  at  the  mo- 
ment, and  afterwards  transferred  to  the  led- 
ger. 

Day's  March.     See  ^lARrri. 

Dead  Angle.  In  fortification,  is  any  an- 
gle or  piece  of  ground  which  cannot  be  seen, 
and  which  therefore  cannot  be  defended 
from  behind  the  parapet  of  the  fortification. 

Dead-head.  In  casting  a  cannon,  is  the 
surplus  metal  in  the  top  of  the  mold  ;  called 
also  the  sprue. 

Dead  March.  A  piece  of  solemn  music 
intended  t<>  be  played  as  an  accompaniment 
to  a  funeral  procession. 

Dead  Pay.     Was  the  pay  formerly  drawn 


DEAD-SHOT 


128 


DEEG 


for  soldiers  really  dead,  whose  names  were 
kept  on  the  rolls  ;  and  whose  pay  was  appro- 
priated by  dishonest  officers. 

Dead-shot.     An  unerring  marksman. 

Debark.  To  leave  a  ship  or  boat  ai^  pass 
to  the  land;  to  go  on  shore;  as,  the  troops 
debarked  at  4  o'clock  ;  disembark. 

Deblai.  The  hollow  space  or  excavation 
formed  by  removing  earth  for  the  construc- 
tion of  parapets  in  fortification.  Thus  the 
ditch  or  fosse  whence  the  earth  has  been 
taken  represents  the  deblai,  while  the  earth 
itself,  so  removed,  constitutes  the  remhlai. 

Deblayer  un  Camp  {Fr.).  To  evacuate 
a  camp  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  and 
purifying  the  ground. 

Debouch.  A  military  term,  signifying 
to  march  out  from  a  wood,  defile,  or  other 
confined  place  into  open  ground ;  also  an 
outlet  or  available  issue  by  which  an  army 
can  march  out. 

Debris  (Fr.).  Remains,  ruins  of  a  build- 
ing or  town  which  has  been  sacked ;  broken 
remains  of  an  army  after  defeat. 

Debruised.  A  term  in  English  heraldry 
used  to  indicate  the  restrained  position  of  an 
animal  in  a  coat  of  arms,  by  having  any  of 
the  ordinaries  laid  over  it. 

Decagon.  In  fortification,  is  a  polygon 
figure,  having  10  sides,  and  as  many  angles  ; 
and  if  all  the  sides  and  angles  be  equal, 
it  is  called  a  regular  decagon,  and  may  be 
inscribed  in  a  circle.  The  sides  of  a  regular 
decagon  are  in  power  and  length  equal  to 
the  greatest  segment  of  a  hexagon,  inscribed 
in  the  same  circle  and  cut  in  extreme  and 
mean  proportion. 

Decamp,  To.  To  march  an  army  or 
body  of  men  from  the  ground  where  it  be- 
fore lay  encamped.  It  also  signifies  to  quit 
any  place  or  position  in  an  unexpected  man- 
ner. 

Decanus.  In  Roman  military  history,  a 
petty  officer  who  presided  over  the  10  sol- 
diers of  his  contubernium,  or  those  living 
in  the  same  ten. 

Deccan.  An  extensive  region  of  India  ; 
invaded  by  the  Mohammedans  in  1294. 
About  1686-90,  Aurungzebe  I.  recovered 
the  Deccan,  but  soon  lost  great  part  of  it 
to  the  Mahrattas.  A  large  part  of  the 
Deccan  was  ceded  to  the  English  in  1818. 

Deceased  Officers  and  Soldiers.  See 
Appkndix,  Articles  OF  Wak,  125,126. 

.  Dechargeurs  {Fr.).  Are  men  appointed  to 
attend  the  park  of  artillery,  and  to  assist 
the  non-commissioned  officers,  etc.,  who  are 
employed  on  that  service.  It  is  the  duty 
of  the  former  to  keep  a  specific  account  of 
articles  received  and  consumed,  in  order  to 
enable  the  latter  to  furnish  their  officers 
with  accurate  statements. 

Decimation.  A  military  punishment  in- 
flicted among  the  Romans  on  cowardly  or 
mutinous  troops.  It  consisted  in  selecting 
by  lot  one-tenth  of  the  whole  body  of  troops 
who  misbehaved,  and  putting  them  to  death. 
There  have  been  a  few  instances  of  this  spe- 
cies of  punishment   in   modern   times.     In 


1642  the  Archduke  Leopold  employed  it 
against  a  regiment  of  cavalry ;  Marshal 
Crequi  also  had  recourse  to  it  against  the 
mutinous  garrison  of  Treves,  and  before  the 
battle  of  Waterloo  Bliicher  is  said  to  have 
punished  in  this  manner  a  body  of  mutinous 
troops. 

Decisions.  In  courts-martial,  the  ma- 
jority of  votes  decides  all  questions  as  to  the 
admission  or  rejection  of  evidence,  and  on 
other  points  involving  law  or  custom.  If 
equally  divided,  the  doubt  is  in  favor  of  the 
prisoner. 

Declaration  of  Independence.  This 
celebrated  document  by  which  the  thirteen 
United  Colonies  of  America  announced 
their  intention  of  taking  their  affairs  into 
their  own  hands,  renouncing  their  alle- 
giance to  Great  Britain,  and  asserting  their 
freedom,  was  dra,wn  up  by  Thomas  jefl'er- 
son,  and  received  the  unanimous  approval 
of  the  delegates  in  the  Congress  of  the  Col- 
onies, July  4,  1776. 

Declaration  of  War.  The  formal  an- 
nouncement by  a  government  of  its  inten- 
tion to  wage  war  against  another,  is  a  pro- 
ceeding which  is  observed  among  all  civ- 
ilized nations.  In  the  United  States  the 
declaration  of  war  is  a  power  exercised  by 
Congress  alone.  During  the  age  of  chivalry, 
a  herald  made  declaration  of  war  at  the 
enemy's  court,  his  tabard  on  his  arm. 

Decompte  (Fr.).  Signifies  a  liquidation 
or  balance,  which  from  time  to  time  was 
made  in  the  old  French  service,  between  the 
captain  of  a  company  and  each  private  sol- 
dier for  money  advanced  or  in  hand. 

Decoration  Day.  The  anniversary,  in 
the  United  States,  on  which  flowers  are 
placed  on  soldiers'  graves,  and  which  is  ob- 
served on  May  30.  This  day  was  set  apart  for 
the  purpose  mentioned  soon  after  the  war 
of  the  Rebellion,  1861-65. 

Decoration,  Military.  A  medal,  cross  of 
honor,  etc.,  bestowed  for  distinguished  ser- 
vices. 

Decorations.  In  pyrotechny,  are  the  com- 
positions which  are  placed  in  the  heads  of 
rockets,  in  paper  shells,  etc.,  to  make  a  bril- 
liant display  when  the  receptacle  is  burst. 

Decouple.  In  heraldry,  signifies  severed 
or  disjoined,  so  that  the  ends  stand  at  a  dis- 
tance from  one  another,  as  a  chevj-on  decou- 
ple. 

Decoy.  To  lead  or  to  entice  into  a  snare  ; 
to  lead  into  danger  by  artifice;  to  entrap. 
An  enemy  is  said  to  be  decoyed  when  a 
small  body  of  troops  draws  them  in  to  ac- 
tion, whilst  the  main  body  lies  in  ambush 
ready  to  act  with  the  greatest  effect. 

Decrement.  Is  a  heraldic  term  by 
which  the  wane  of  the  moon  is  indicated. 
Decrescent  and  decours  are  also  used  in  the 
same  sense.  A  moon  decrescent  is  a  half- 
moon  with  her  horns  turned  to  the  sinister. 

Decurion.  An  officer  in  the  Roman  cav- 
alry, who  commanded  a  decuria,  which  was 
a  body  consisting  of  10  men. 

Deeg.      A  strong  fortress  of  Hindostan 


DEEP 


129 


DELAWARE 


in  tlie  province  of  Agra,  which  was  cap- 
tured bv  the  British  arms  under  Gen.  Lake 
in   1804: 

Deep.  A  term  used  in  the  disposition  or 
arrangements  of  soldiers  pluced  in  ranks 
before  each  other;  hence,  two  deep,  three 
deef),  etc.  Deej)  line  of  operations,  a  long 
line. 

Default.  A  military  offense,  in  the  Brit- 
ish service,  is  so  called. 

Defaulter.  A  soldier  who  has  been  guilty 
of  a  military  offense.  It  is  generally  applied 
to  men  sentenced  to  conlinement  to  barracks, 
and  attaches  to  them  until  the  completion  of 
their  punishment. 

Defaulter  Book.  The  book  in  which  the 
defaulter  sheets  are  contained.  The  regi- 
mental defaulter  book  containing  regimental, 
and  the  company  defaulter  book  company, 
defaults. 

Defaulters'  Sheet.  For  every  soldier 
there  are  two  sheets  of  foolscap  paper,  in 
one  of  which,  called  his  company  defaulter 
sheet,  are  entered  all  offenses  and  the  pun- 
ishments awarded.  The  other,  called  the 
regimental  defaulter  sheet,  contains  only  ' 
oftenses  for  which  a  man  has  been  punished 
by  more  than  seven  days  confined  to  bar- 
racks, or  other  awards  considered  of  equal 
gravity. 

Defeat.  This  word  expresses  the  com- 
plete want  of  success  of  an  army  ;  a  repulse 
signifying  less,  and  a  rout  more,  than  defeat. 

Defeat.  To  resist  with  success  ;  as,  to  de- 
feat an  assault. 

Defection.  The  act  of  abandoning  a  per- 
son or  cause  to  which  one  is  bound  by  alle- 
giance OP  duty,  or  to  which  one  has  attached 
himself. 

Defend.  To  secure  against  attack  ;  to 
maintain  ;  as,  to  defend  a  town  ;  to  defend  a 
cause. 

Defender.  One  who  defends;  one  who 
maintains,  supports,  protects,  etc. 

Defense.  In  military  law,  is  the  defend- 
ant's answer  to  the  plea  ;  an  opposing  or 
denial  of  the  truth  or  validity  of  the  plain- 
tiff's case  ;  themethod  of  proceeding  adopted 
b}'  the  defendant  to  protect  himself  against 
the  plaintiffs  action. 

Defense.  In  fortification,  consists  of  all 
sorts  of  works  that  cover  and  defend  the  op- 
posite posts  ;  as  flanks,  parapets,  casements, 
etc. 

Defense,  Active.  Comprehends  every 
species  of  otVensive  operation  which  is  re- 
sorted to  by  the  besieged  to  annoy  the  be- 
siegers. 

Defense,  Distant.  Consists  in  being  able 
to  interrupt  the  enemy's  movements  by  cir- 
cuitous inundations ;  to  inundate,  for  in- 
stance, a  bridge,  when  a  convoy  is  passing, 
or  to  insulate  batteries,  the  heads  of  saps 
or  lodgments  which  have  been  made  in  the 
covert  way.  By  this  species  of  defense  an 
enemy's  communications  may  be  perpetu- 
ally intercepted,  and  his  approaches  so  ob- 
structed as  to  force  him  to  leave  dangerous 
intervals. 


Defense,  Line  of.  Represents  the  flight 
of  a  rifle-ball  from  the  j)lace  where  the  sol- 
diers stand,  to  scour  the  face  of  the  bastion. 
The  line  of  defense  should  never  exceed  the 
range  of  a  rifle.  It  is  either  /Jc/ian^  or  ray- 
ant.  The  first  is  when  it  is  drawn  from 
the  angle  ;  the  last,  when  it  is  drawn  from 
a  point  in  the  curtain,  ranging  the  face  of 
the  bastion  in  fortification. 

Defense,  Lines  of.  Are  the  distances 
between  the  salient  angle  of  the  bastion  and 
the  opposite  flank  ;  that  is,  the  faces  pro- 
duced to  the  flanks. 

Defense,  Passing.  Is  chiefly  confined  to 
inundations,  and  is  effected  by  letting  out 
water  in  such  a  manner  that  the  level  ground 
which  lies  round  a  fortified  town  or  place 
may  be  entirely  overflowed,  and  become  an 
inert  stagnant  pool. 

Defensive.  A  force  is  said  to  be  on  the 
defensive,  or  to  assume  a  defensive  attitude, 
when  it  takes  up  a  position  to  receive  an 
attack. 

Defensive  'War.     See  War,  Defensive. 

Defilading,  or  Defilement.  The  art  of 
arranging  the  plan  and  profile  of  works,  so 
that  their  lines  shall  not  oe  liable  to  enfilade, 
nor  their  interior  to  plunging  or  reverse 
fire. 

Defile.  A  narrow  passage,  or  road, 
through  which  troops  cannot  march  other- 
wise than  by  making  a  small  front  and  tiling 
off. 

Defile,  To.  To  reduce  a  body  of  troops 
into  a  small  front,  in  order  to  march  through 
a  defile  ;  also,  to  defilade. 

Deformer  (Fr.).  In  a  military  sense, 
signifies  to  break  ;  as,  deformer  une  colonne, 
to  break  a  column. 

Degat  (F/-.).  The  laying  waste  an  ene- 
my's country,  particularly  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  a  town  which  an  army  attempts  to 
reduce  by  famine,  or  which  refuses  to  pay 
military  exactions. 

Degorgeoir  ( Fr. ).  A  sort  of  steel  pricker 
used  in  examining  the  vent  of  a  cannon  ;  a 
priming  wire. 

Degradation.  In  military  life,  the  act  of 
depriving  an  officer  forever  of  his  commis- 
sion, rank,  dignity,  or  degree  of  honor,  and 
taking  away  at  the  same  time  every  title, 
badge,  or  privilege  he  may  possess. 

Degraded.  In  heraldry,  means  placed 
upon  steps  or  degrees. 

Degsestan,  Battle  of.     See  Scotland. 

Dehors.  In  the  military  art,  all  .sorts  of 
outworks  in  general,  placed  at  son)c  distance 
from  the  walls  of  a  fortification,  the  better 
to  secure  the  main  places,  and  to  protect  the 
siege,  etc. 

Delaware.  One  of  the  Middle  States  of 
the  United  States,  and  one  of  the  original 
thirteen.  It  derives  its  name  (as  do  the 
Delaware  River  and  Bay  and  Delaware  In- 
dians) from  Thomas  AVcst.  lord  de  la  Warr, 
who  visited  the  bay  in  UHO,  and  died  on  his 
vessel  at  its  mouth".  It  was  first  settled  by 
the  Swedes  and  Dutch,  but  came  into  pos- 
session of  the  English  in   1GG4,  and  formed 


DELAWAKE 


130 


DENBIGH 


part  of  the  grant  to  William  Penn  in  1682. 
In  1701  it  was  separated  from  Pennsylvania, 
though  subject  to  the  same  governor  down 
to  the  period  of  the  Revolution,  to  the  suc- 
cess of  which  it  contributed  its  full  share, 
and  for  the  maintenance  of  the  results  of 
which  it  has  ever  been  a  zealous  advocate. 

Delaware  Indians.  A  tribe  of  aborigi- 
nes, called  by  themselves  Lennl-Lenape^  who 
formerly  lived  on  the  Delaware  River,  but 
are  now  settled  in  Indian  Territory,  on  the 
"Wichita  Agency,  with  the  Caddos.  See 
Indians  and  their  Agencies. 

Delf.  A  heraldic  charge  representing  a 
square  sod  or  turf,  the  term  being  probably 
derived  from  the  word  delve,  to  dig.  A  delf 
tenne  is  the  appropriate  abatement  for  him 
who  revokes  his  challenge,  or  otherwise  goes 
from  his  word. 

Delhi.  A  celebrated  city  of  Northern 
India,  situated  on  an  offset  of  the  river 
Jumna.  The  city  was  taken  by  a  British 
army  under  Lord  Lake,  September  8,  1803, 
and  has  ever  since  continued  under  British 
rule.  In  1857  it  was  held  by  the  Sepoys, 
who  murdered  several  English  subjects,  but 
was  retaken,  after  a  successful  assault,  Sep- 
tember, 1857. 

Deliver  Battle.  A  term  taken  from  the 
French  livrer  bataille,  meaning  to  enter  prac- 
tically upon  a  contest ;  the  opposing  armies 
being  in  sight  of  each  other. 

Dellamcotta.  A  fortress  of  Northern  Hin- 
dostan,  in  the  province  of  Bootan,  command- 
ing the  principal  pass  into  that  province.  It 
was  stormed  by  the  British  troops  in  1773, 
which  so  alarmed  the  Booteans  that  they 
petitioned  for  peace.  The  fortress  was  then 
restored  to  them. 

Dellis.  Were  Bosnian  and  Albanian 
horsemen,  who  served  without  pay  in  the 
Turkish  armies. 

Delphi  (now  CaRtri).  An  ancient  town 
of  Phocis,  Greece,  celebrated  on  account  of 
its  oracle  of  Apollo.  Its  temple  was  burnt 
by  the  Pisistratidse,  548  b.c.  A  new  temple 
was  raised  by  the  Alcniieonidje.  The  Per- 
sians (480  B.C.)  and  the  Gauls  (279  B.C.)  were 
deterred  from  plundering  the  temple  by  awful 
portents.  It  was,  however,  robbed  and  seized 
by  the  Phocians,  357  B.C.,  which  led  to  the 
Sacred  War,  and  Nero  carried  from  it  300 
costly  statues  in  67  a.d. 

Demembre,  or  Dismembered.  A  heraldic 
term  signifying  that  the  members  of  an  ani- 
mal are  cut  from  its  body. 

Demerara  and  Essequibo.  Colonies  in 
Guiana,  South  America,  founded  by  the 
Dutch  in  1580,  were  taken  by  the  British, 
under  Maj.-Gen.  Whyte,  Apri'l  22,1796,  but 
were  restored  at  the  peace  of  Amiens,  1802. 
The}'  again  surrendered  to  the  British  under 
Gen.  Grinfield  and  Commodore  Hood,  Sep- 
tember, 1803,  and  became  English  colonies 
in  1814. 

Demi,  or  Demy.  In  heraldry,  an  animal 
is  said  to  be  demi  when  only  the  upper  or 
fore  half  of  it  is  represented. 

Demi-bastion.     A  piece  in  fortification, 


which  generally  terminates  the  branches  of 
crown-works  or  horn-works  towards  their 
head. 

Demi-brigade.     A  half  brigade. 

Demi-cannon.  A  kind  of  ordnance,  an- 
ciently used,  carrying  a  ball  of  from  30  to  36 
pounds  in  weight. 

Demi-culverin.  A  kind  of  ordnance  an- 
ciently used,  carrying  a  ball  of  9  or  10  pounds 
in  weight. 

Demi-distances  {Fr.).  Half  distances; 
as,  serrcz  la  calonne  a  demi-distances,  close  to 
the  column  at  half  distances. 

Demi-file  (Fr.).  Is  that  rank  in  a  French 
battalion  which  immediately  succeeds  to  the 
serre-demi-file,  and  is  at  the  head  of  the  re- 
maining half  of  its  depth. 

Demi-gorge.  In  fortification,  is  half  the 
gorge  or  entrance  into  the  bastion,  not  taken 
directly  from  angle  to  angle,  where  the  bas- 
tion joins  the  curtain,  but  from  the  angle  of 
the  flank  to  the  centre  of  the  bastion,  or  the 
angle  which  the  two  curtains  would  make 
by  their  prolongation. 

Demihag.  A  long  pistol,  much  used  in 
the  16th  century. 

Demi-lance.  A  light  lance;  half-pike. 
Also  a  light  horseman  who  carried  a  lance. 

Demi-lune.  In  fortification,  is  a  work 
constructed  beyond  the  main  ditch  of  a  fort- 
ress, and  in  front  of  the  curtain  between  two 
bastions,  intended  to  defend  the  curtain ;  a 
ravelin. 

Demi-parallel.  In  fortification,  is  a  place 
of  arms  formed  between  the  second  and  third 
parallels  to  protect  the  head  of  the  sap. 

Demi-pike.  A  kind  of  spontoon,  7  feet 
long,  used  by  infantry  or  for  boarding. 

Demi-place  d'Armes.  In  fortification,  a 
circular  trench  constructed  upon  the  prolon- 
gation of  the  lines  of  the  covered  way,  to 
the  right  and  left  of  the  zigzags,  to  cover  the 
troops  employed  in  their  defense. 

Demi-revetment.  A  revetment  of  the 
scarf  only  to  the  height  protected  by  the 
glacis. 

Demmin.  A  town  of  Prussia,  on  the  river 
Peene,  on  the  borders  of  Pomerania  and 
Mecklenburg.  It  is  a  town  of  considerable 
antiquity,  having  been  a  place  of  importance 
in  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  and  is  noted  for 
the  number  of  sieges  it  has  sustained.  Its 
fortifications  were  destroyed  in  1759.  In 
1807  several  engagements  took  place  here 
between  the  French  and  Russians. 

Demonstration.  In  military  operations, 
is  an  apparent  movement,  the  chief  object  of 
which  is  to  deceive  the  enemy,  and  induce 
him  to  divide  his  force,  as  if  to  meet  dangers 
from  various  quarters.  When  thus  divided 
and  weakened,  he  may  be  attacked  with 
greater  chance  of  success. 

Denain.  A  village  of  France,  department 
of  the  North.  It  is  celebrated  in  history  as 
the  scene  of  the  decisive  victory  gained  in 
1712  by  Marshal  Villars  over  the  allies  com- 
manded by  Prince  Eugene. 

Denbigh.  The  capital  town  of  the  county 
of  the  same  name.  North  Wales.     In  ancient 


DENDERMONDE 


131 


DEPARTMENT 


times  it  was  a  place  of  groat  military  im- 
portance. The  castle  was  gallantly  held  by 
Col.  William  Salisbury  for  the  king  during 
the  civil  wars  of  the  revolution,  but  finally 
surrendered  to  the  Parliamentary  forces  under 
Gen.  Mytt(m. 

Dendermonde.  A  town  of  Belgium,  in 
the  province  of  East  Flanders.  It  is  forti- 
fied, and  has  a  citadel  dating  from  l')84,  and 
posse-ssing  the  means  of  laying  the  surround- 
ing country  under  water  in  case  of  an  attack. 
Louis  XIV.  besieged  it  in  vain  in  l(j(J7,  but 
Marlborough,  aided  by  a  long  drought,  suc- 
ceeded in  taking  it  in  170G. 

Denmark.  A  kingdom  of  Northern  Eu- 
rope, which,  with  Sweden  and  Norway,  was 
originally  called  Scandinavia.  In  ancient 
times  it  was  occupied  by  a  fierce  and  war- 
like people,  whose  principal  occupation  was 
1)iracy.  In  832  the  Danes  landed  in  Eng- 
and,  and  there  cstabli.slied  two  kingdoms, 
and  two  centuries  afterwards  the  conquest 
of  England  was  completed  by  Canute,  king 
of  Denmark.  In  the  1.5th  century  Christian 
I.  connected  Norway,  Sleswick,  and  Hol- 
stein  with  the  crown  of  Denmark,  but  in  con- 
sequence of  siding  with  Napoleon,  Denmark 
was  obliged  to  cede  Norway  to  Sweden  in 
1814.  In  1848  Sleswick  and  Holstein  re- 
volted, the  duchies  being  aided  by  Prussia 
and  other  powers  of  the  Germanic  Confed- 
eration, wlm,  however,  concluded  a  peace  on 
their  own  account,  July  2,  1850.  The  duchies 
continued  the  war,  were  defeated  at  Idstet, 
July  25,  1850,  and  peace  was  restored  by  the 
intervention  of  the  powers  in  January,  1851. 
Hostilities  again  commenced  in  1803,  and 
were  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Vienna  in 
1864,  Denmark  renouncing  all  claim  on 
Sleswick-Holstein. 

Dennewitz.  A  small  village  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Hnuulenburg,  Prussia.  Here  was 
fought,  on  the  (ith  of  September,  1813,  a  battle 
between  70,000  P'ronch,  Saxons,  and  Poles, 
commanded  by  Marshal  Ney,  and  45,000 
Prussians,  under  Gen.  Tauentzien.  Both 
armies  more  than  once  drove  each  other  from 
their  positions,  but  the  Prussians  finally  pre- 
vailed, and  Ney  gave  orders  to  retreat.  At 
this  moment  Bcrnadotte,  crown-prince  of 
Sweden,  appeared  at  the  head  of  a  large  army, 
and  turned  the  retreat  of  the  French  army 
into  a  complete  rout. 

Denonciateur  (/•>.).  In  a  general  sense, 
may  not  improperly  be  called  a  military  in- 
former. So  rigid  indeed  were  the  regula- 
tions (even  in  the  most  corrupt  state  of  the 
French  government)  against  every  species  of 
misapplication  and  embezzlement,  that  if  a 
private  dragoon  gave  information  to  thecom- 
mis.sary  of  musters  of  a  troop  horse  that  had 
passed  nuister,  having  been  used  in  the  pri- 
vate service  of  an  otficer,  he  was  not  onl}' 
entitled  to  his  discharge,  but  received,  more- 
over, UX)  livres  in  cash,  and  became  master 
of  the  horse  and  equipage,  with  which  he  re- 
tired unmolested.  The  officer  was  summarily 
dealt  with. 

Densimeter.     An  apparatus  for  obtaining 


the  specific  gravity  of  gunpowder  by  im- 
mersing it  in  mercury.  It  consists  of  an 
open  vessel  containing  mercury,  a  frame  sup- 
porting a  glass  globe  communicating  by  a 
tube  with  the  mercury  in  the  open  vessel,  and 
joined  at  top  to  a  graduated  glass  tube, 
which  communicates  by  a  fie.xible  tube  with 
an  ordiruirj-  air-pump.  Sto))-cocks  are  in- 
serted in  the  tubes  above  and  below  the  glass 
globe,  and  a  diajdiragm  of  chamois-skin  is 
placed  over  the  bottom  orifice  and  one  of  wire 
cloth  over  the  top  orifice  of  the  globe.  The 
arrangement  allows  the  globe  to  be  filled  with 
mercury  to  any  mark  on  the  graduated  tube, 
or  with  gunpowder  and  mercury.  The  globe 
can  be  taken  otl'  and  weighed  in  both  cases. 
The  specific  gravity  is  obtained  from  the  re- 
lation between  the  weights  in  the  two  cases. 

Density.  The  density  or  specific  gravity 
of  gunpowder  is  one  of  its  most  important 
properties.  In  the  form  of  du.st,  the  velocity 
of  combustion  increases  rapidly  with  theden- 
sity  up  to  about  1.00,  when  it  decreases.  In 
grained  powder  the  velocity  of  combustion 
decreases  as  the  density  increases.  For  Eng- 
lish or  American  powder  this  velocity  is  about 
four-tenths  of  an  inch  per  second.  For 
French  and  most  of  the  continental  powders, 
which  are  less  dense  than  the  English,  it  is 
about  forty-eight-hundredths  of  an  inch. 
The  excellent  preservative  qualities  of  Eng- 
lish and  American  powders  are  largely  due 
to  their  high  densities, — the  standard  being 
about  1.75.  A  certain  degree  of  density  is 
absolutely  essential  to  grain  powder  to  pre- 
vent the  inflamed  gases  from  penetrating  the 
pores  of  the  powder  and  flashing  otf  the  whole 
mass  to  the  destruction  of  the  gun.  In  the 
manufacture  of  powder  the  density  depends, 
first,  upon  the  amount  of  trituration  to  which 
the  ingredients  are  subjected  in  the  incorpo- 
rating mill;  second,  upon  the  pressure  em- 
ployed to  form  the  cake;  and,  third,  upon  the 
degree  of  moisture  it  contains  when  sub- 
jected to  these  operations,  particularly  the 
last.  The  jiressure-gauge  is  not  a  reliable 
measure  of  the  tlmsity  given  to  a  powder, 
though  a  good  indication  of  the  /mnhiess, 
with  which  density  must  not  be  confounded. 
Dry  powder  meal  oflers  a  great  resistance  to 
compression,  but  becomes  very  hard, — the 
work  being  consumed  in  consolidating  the 
surface  particles.  To  obtain  uniform  den- 
sity a  certain  amount  of  moisture  is  neces- 
sary to  assist  the  particles  in  their  move- 
ment. As  much  as  0  per  cent,  of  moisture 
is  used  in  making  ]irismatic  powder. 

Department     Commander.       See     Geo- 

GRAIMIICAI,    DkI'AKTMKNT,  CoMMANKKR  OF. 

Department,  Military.  A  military  sul>- 
division  of  a  country.  The  whole  territory 
of  the  United  States  is  divided  into  military 
departments,  each  under  a  general  oflicer. 
See    Geooraphical    Departmkxt,    Com- 

MAXDKR  OK. 

Department  of  War.  That  department 
of  a  <;ovornment  which  takes  charge  of  all 
matters  relating  to  war.  See  Skorktary  of 
War. 


DEFENSES 


132 


DETACH 


Depenses  (Fr.).  In  a  military  sense,  im- 
plies secret  service  money. 

Deploy.  Signifies  a  military  movement, 
in  which  a  body  of  troops  is  spread  out  in 
such  a  way  that  they  shall  display  a  wider 
front  and  a  smaller  depth  than  before  deploy- 
ing. To  ploy  is  to  execute  the  reverse  of  this 
movement. 

Deployment.  The  act  of  unfolding  or  ex- 
panding any  given  body  of  men,  in  order  to 
extend  their  front. 

Deposits,  Soldiers'.  Soldiers  in  the  U.  S. 
service  may  deposit  with  the  paymaster  any 
portion  of  their  savings,  in  sums  not  less 
than  $5,  the  same  to  remain  so  deposited 
until  final  payment  on  discharge.  Interest 
on  deposits  at  the  rate  of  4  per  cent,  per 
annum  will  be  paid  on  final  settlement  upon 
each  deposit  from  the  date  thereof  to  date  of 
discharge.  No  interest  is  payable,  however, 
upon  any  deposit  of  less  than  |oO,  or  upon 
any  sum,  whatever  its  amount,  which  has 
been  on  deposit  for  a  less  period  than  six 
months  prior  to  date  of  discharge.  Deposits 
are  forfeited  by  desertion. 

Depot.  Any  place  at  which  military 
stores  are  deposited  for  the  use  of  an  army. 
It  also  signifies  a  fort  or  other  suitable  place 
appropriated  for  the  reception  of  recruits,  or 
detached  parties  belonging  to  diflerent  regi- 
ments. In  fortification,  the  term  is  likewise 
used  to  denote  a  particular  place  at  the  trail 
of  the  trenches  out  of  the  reach  of  the 
cannon  of  a  besieged  place.  It  is  here  that 
besiegers  generally  assemble  when  ordered 
to  attack  the  outworks,  or  support  the  troops 
in  the  trenches  when  there  is  reason  to  im- 
agine the  besieged  intend  making  a  sally. 

Depredate.  To  take  plunder  or  prey  ;  to 
commit  waste;  as,  the  troops  depredated  on 
the  country  ;  also,  in  an  active  sense,  to  plun- 
der or  pillage  ;  to  spoil ;  to  lay  waste. 

Depressed  Gun.  Any  piece  of  ordnance 
having  its  mouth  depressed  below  the  hori- 
zontatline. 

Depression.  The  pointing  of  any  piece 
of  ordnance  so  that  its  shot  may  be  projected 
short  of  the  point-blank. 

Depth.  A  technical  word,  peculiarly  ap- 
plicable to  bodies  of  men  drawn  up  in  line 
or  column.  The  depth  of  a  battalion  or 
squadron  is  the  number  of  men  in  rank  and 
file  from  front  to  rear. 

Deputy-Marshal.  In  the  British  service, 
is  the  senior  sergeant-major  of  each  regiment 
of  Foot  Guards,  who  sees  after  and  makes 
out  the  routes  of  deserters,  and  receives  an 
allowance  for  so  doing. 

Deraser  [Fr.).  To  cut  off  the  superfluous 
clay  from  a  gun-mold  previous  to  its  being 
placed  in  the  pit. 

Derayeh,  El.  A  town  of  Arabia,  nearly 
in  the  centre  of  the  district  called  El  Nedjed. 
It  is  tolerably  well  fortified,  but  after  a  siege 
of  seven  months,  in  1819,  it  was  nearly  de- 
stroyed by  the  troops  of  Ibrahim  Pasha. 

Derbend,  or  Derbent.  A  town  of  Russia, 
the  capital  of  the  province  of  Daghestan. 
It  is  surrounded  by  strong  walls  and  flanked 


and  strengthened  by  massive  bastions.  It 
was  taken  from  Persia  by  Russia  in  1722, 
restored  to  the  former  power  in  1735,  and 
retaken  by  the  Muscovites  in  1795. 

Derivation  (Fr.).  Drift  of  rifle  pro- 
jectiles.    See  Projectiles. 

Descend.  In  a  military  sense,  means  to 
make  an  attack  or  incursion  as  if  from  a 
vantage-ground. 

Descents.  In  fortification,  are  the  holes, 
vaults,  and  hollow  places  made  by  under- 
mining the  ground. 

Descents  into  the  Ditch.  Cuts  and  ex- 
cavations made  by  means  of  saps  in  the 
counterscarp,  beneath  the  covert  way.  They 
are  covered  with  thick  boards  and  hurdles  ; 
and  a  certain  quantity  of  earth  is  thrown 
upon  the  top  in  order  to  obviate  the  bad 
effects  which  might  arise  from  shells,  etc. 

Descriptive  Book.  A  book  in  which  de- 
scriptive lists  of  the  soldiers  belonging  to  a 
company  are  kept. 

Descriptive  List  of  Soldier.  A  paper 
giving  a  short  history  of  the  soldier,  a  de- 
scription of  his  person,  and  the  statement  of 
his  account.  It  accompanies  him  wherever 
he  goes,  being  intrusted  to  his  detachment  or 
company  commander. 

Descriptive  Memoir.  This  memoir,  which 
should  always  accompany  a  sketch  of  a  topo- 
graphical reconnoissance,  is  intended  to  con- 
vej'  that  information  relating  t(»the  natural 
features  of  the  ground  not  expressed  upon 
the  sketch  ;  to  express  that  information  for 
which  there  are  no  conventional  signs,  and 
to  present  those  facts  relative  to  the  ground 
which  become  important  by  being  considered 
in  connection  with  the  probable  military 
operations  to  be  undertaken. 

Desenzano.  A  town  of  Lombardy,  in 
the  province  of  Brescia.  Garibaldi,  in  com- 
mand of  the  Italian  volunteers,  defeated  an 
Austrian  force  near  this  place  in  1859. 

Desert.  To  quit  a  service  without  per- 
mission ;  to  run  away ;  as,  to  desert  from  the 
army  ;  to  forsake  in  violation  of  duty  ;  as, 
to  desert  one's  colors. 

Deserter.  A  soldier  who  absconds,  dur- 
ing the  period  for  which  he  is  enlisted,  from 
the  service  of  the  army  or  navy.  In  England 
this  crime  was  by  certain  old  statutes  made 
punishable  with  death,  but  now  the  punish- 
ment is  left  to  the  discretion  of  a  court- 
martial.  In  the  United  States,  deserters  in 
the  time  of  war  may  be  sentenced  to  death, 
but  in  time  of  peace  the  penalty  for  this 
offense  is  lighter. 

Desertion.  The  act  of  absence  from  duty 
without  intention  to  return.  See  Appendix, 
Articles  of  War,  47. 

Despatch,  or  Dispatch.  An  official  mil- 
itary letter  sent  by  the  commander  of  an 
army  in  the  field  to  the  authorities  at 
home.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  mili- 
tary letters  giving  an  account  of  military 
operations  sent  by  subordinate  officers  hold- 
ing detached  commands  to  the  general  of  an 
army  in  the  field.     See  Dispatches. 

Detach.     To  separate  for  a  special  object 


DETACHED 


133 


DICTATOR 


or  use ;  as,  to  send  out  a  body  of  men  on 
some  particular  service,  separate  from  that 
of  the  main  body. 

Detached  Bastion.  In  fortification,  is 
that  basis  wliich  is  separated  from  the  en- 
ceinte by  a  ditch. 

Detached  Works.  In  fortification,  are 
such  outworks  a>  are  detached,  or  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  body  of  the  place  ;  such  as 
half-moons,  ravelins,  bastions,  etc. 

Detachment.      In    military     affairs,    an 
uncertain  number  of  men  drawn  out  from 
several    regiments     or    camps     equally,    to 
march  or  be  employed  as  the  general  may 
think  proper,  whether    on  an  attack,  at   a  ' 
siege,  or  in  parties  to  scour  the  country.     A  j 
detachment  of  2000  or  3000  men  is  a'  com-  1 
mandfor  a  general  officer,  800  for  a  colonel, 
500  for  lieutenant-colonel,  200  or  300  for  a 
major,  80  or  100   for  a   captain,   40   for   a 
lieutenant,  12  for   a  sergeant,  and  6   for  a 
corposal. 

Detachment,  Gun.  The  men  required 
for  the  service  of  a  ])icce  of  artillery. 

Detachment,  Manoeuvring.  The  men 
required  for  mechanical  manoeuvres  of  a 
siege  or  sea-coast  gun. 

Detail  for  Duty.  Is  a  roster,  or  table, 
for  the  regular  performance  of  duty  either 
in  camp  or  garrison.  The  general  detail  is 
regulated  by  the  adjutant-general,  according 
to  the  strength  of  the  several  corps.  The 
adjutant  of  each  regiment  superintends  the 
detail  of  officers  and  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers for  duty,  and  orderly  sergeants  detail 
the  privates. 

Detmold.  A  town  of  Northwestern  Ger- 
many, capital  of  the  principality  of  Lippe- 
Detmold,  on  the  Werra.  In  the  vicinity  is 
the  battle-field  on  which  the  army  of  Varus 
was  destroyed  by  the  Germans  under  Ar- 
minius,  in  9  a.d. 

Detonating  Powder.  A  term  applied  in 
chemistry  to  fulminating  mercury  and  sil- 
ver, and  to  other  comjiounds  which  sud- 
denly explode  when  struck  or  heated.  Some 
of  these  compounds  have  been  much  used 
for  the  ignition  of  gunpowder  in  percussion 
locks. 

Detonation.  The  instantaneous  conver- 
sion of  an  explosive  into  gas  ;  a  term  applied 
to  the  phenomena  attending  the  explosion  of 
certain  substances,  such  as  nitro-glycerine^ 
chloride  of  nitrogen,  iodide  of  nitrogen,  gun- 
cotton,  the  picrates,  etc.  Detonation,  or  ex- 
plosion of  the  first  order,  is  distinguished 
from  ordinary  explosion,  or  explosion  of  the 
second  order,  by  the  difl^erent  way  in  which 
the  explosion  is  propagated.  Ordinary  ex- 
plosion proceeds  by  inflammation,  being  no- 
thing more  than  a  rapid  combustion.  Deto- 
nation is  propagated  by  vibration.  A  deto- 
nating agent  is  a  substance  used  to  produce 
the  initial  vibration,  or  "  impulse  of  explo- 
sion." The  exploder,  or  cap,  used  for  this 
purpose  is  usually  primed  with  fulminate  of 
mercury,  a  substance  having  a  wide  range 
in  bringing  about  detonation  in  the  high  ex- 
plosives. 


Dettingen.  A  village  of  Bavaria,  on  the 
Maine.  It  is  noted  for  a  victory  gained  by 
the  Knglish,  under  George  II.,  over  the 
French,  commanded  by  Marshal  Noaille.9,  in 
1743. 

Devastation.  In  warfare,  is  the  act  of 
destroying,  laying  waste,  demolishing,  or 
unpeopling  towns,  etc. 

Deviation  of  Projectiles.      See   Projec- 

Device.  The  emblem  on  a  shield  or 
standard. 

Devicotta.  A  fort  and  seaport  town  in 
the  south  of  India,  and  district  of  Tanjore. 
It  was  taken  in  1749  from  the  rajah  of  Tan- 
jore. 

Devonshire.  A  maritime  county  in  the 
southwest  peninsula  of  England,  between 
the  Bristol  and  English  Channels.  The 
Saxons  failed  to  conquer  Devonshire  till  the 
9th  century.  It  was  ravaged  by  the  Danes 
in  the  9th  and  10th  centuries,  and  by  the 
Irish  in  the  11th  century.  In  1088  the 
Prince  of  Orange  landed  at  Tor  Bay,  in  this 
county. 

Deyrah,  or  Dehra.  A  town  of  Northern 
Hindostan,  and  the  principal  place  of  the 
British  province  designated  the  Deyrah 
Doon.  During  the  Nepaul  war  in  1815,  the 
Deyrah  Doon  became  the  scene  of  military 
operations,  and  acquired  a  mournful  celeb- 
rity by  the  obstinate  defense  made  by  the 
Goorkhas  at  Kalunga,  or  Nalapani,  in  the 
siege  of  which  the  British  lost  a  considerable 
number  of  men,  including  their  gallant 
commander,  Gen.  Gillespie. 

Diable  { Devil-carriage),  Fr.  A  truck  car- 
riage on  four  trucks,  for  carrying  mortars, 
etc.,  to  short  distances;  it  is  provided  with 
draught-hooks  at  each  end,  so  as  to  be  drawn 
to  front  or  rear. 

Diameter.  In  both  a  military  and  geo- 
metrical sense,  implies  a  right  line  passing 
through  the  centre  of  a  circle,  and  terminated 
at  each  end  by  the  circumference  thereof. 

Diaphragm  Shell.  An  obsolete  spherical 
shell  formerly  used  in  the  English  service, 
so  named  from  the  arrangement  of  the 
interior. 

Diapre.  A  term  applied  in  heraldry  to 
fields  and  charges  relieved  by  arabesque  and 
geometrical  patterns.  This  ornamentation, 
not  affecting  the  heraldic  value  of  the 
objects  to  which  it  wa.s  applied,  was  gener- 
ally left  to  the  fancy  of  the  painter. 

biarbekir.  A  city  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
and  capital  of  the  pashalic  of  Diarbekir. 
This  place  was  successively  taken,  retaken, 
and  destroyed,  in  the  ancient  wars  between 
the  Persians  and  Romans.  It  was  pillaged 
by  Tamerlane  in  the  year  1393  ;  and  was 
successively  taken  and  retaken  by  the  Per- 
sian kings,  until  it  was  conquered  by  Selim, 
the  first  sultan  of  theOsmanli  Turks,  in  the 
year  1515.  In  ltl05  it  again  fell  into  the 
power  of  Persia ;  but  it  was  afterwards  re- 
taken by  the  Turks,  under  whose  dominion 
it  ha?  since  continued. 

Dictator.     In  the  earliest  times,  was  the 


DIDEON'S 


134 


DIRECTING 


name  of  the  highest  magistrate  of  the  Latin 
Confederation,  and  in  some  of  the  Latin 
towns  the  title  was  continued  long  after 
these  towns  were  subjected  to  the  dominion 
of  Rome.  In  the  Roman  republic  the  dic- 
tator was  an  extraordinary  magistrate,  irre- 
sponsible and  endowed  with  absolute  author- 
ity. The  dictatorship  could  not  lawfully' 
be  held  longer  than  six  months.  Dicta- 
tors were  only  appointed  so  long  as  the 
Romans  had  to  carry  on  wars  in  and  out  of 
Italy,  or  when  any  vigorous  measure  had  to 
be  acted  upon.  The  limits  of  his  power 
were  as  follows :  he  could  not  touch  the 
treasury  ;  he  could  not  leave  Italy  ;  and  he 
could  not  ride  through  Rome  on  horseback 
without  previously  obtaining  the  permission 
of  the  people. 

Dideon's  Formulas.  Certain  equations 
relating  to  the  trajectory  of  a  projectile  in 
the  air,  obtained  by  Capt.  Dideon  of  Metz 
by  integrating  the  ditferential  equations  of 
the  trajectory  under  certain  assumptions  as 
to  the  law  of  the  resistance,  etc.  See  Pro- 
jectiles, Trajectory,  in  Air. 

Diego.     A  very  strong  and  heavy  sword. 

Diest.  A  town  of  Belgium,  in  Southern 
Brabant,  on  the  Demer.  This  town  was  taken 
by  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  in  1705,  but 
retaken  by  the  French,  and  dismantled,  in 
the  same  year.  Since  1830  it  has  been  sur- 
rounded with  fortifications  and  made  a  place 
of  great  strength. 

Dietary,  Military.  See  Subsistence  of 
Armies  and  Food. 

Dieu  et  Mon  Droit  {F>\).  "  God  and  my 
Right.  "  The  motto  of  the  royal  arms  of 
England,  first  assumed  by  Richard  I.,  to  in- 
timate that  he  did  not  hold  his  empire  in 
vassalage  of  any  mortal.  It  was  afterwards 
assumed  by  Edward  III.,  and  was  continued 
witho'ut  interruption  to  the  time  of  William, 
who  used  the  motto  Je  maintiendray,  though 
the  former  was  still  retained  upon  the  great 
seal.  After  him  Anne  used  the  motto 
Semper  eadem;  but  ever  since  her  time 
Dieu  et  7non  droit  has  continued  to  be  the 
royal  motto. 

Differences.  In  heraldry,  are  marks  in- 
troduced into  a  coat  of  arms  to  distinguish 
brothers  and  their  descendants  from  the 
father  or  head  of  the  house,  while  he  is 
alive;  marks  of  cadency  being  used  for  a 
similar  purpose  after  his  death. 

Differential  Pulley.  A  hoisting  apparatus 
consisting  of  an  endless  chain  and  two 
pulleys  of  slightly  different  diameters.  The 
chain  winds  upon  one  while  unwinding  from 
the  other.  It  is  attached  to  a  crane,  and 
used  to  hoist  heavy  shot  to  the  muzzle  of 
large  cannon. 

Dijon.  An  ancient  walled  city  of  France, 
chief  town  of  the  department  of  Cotc-d'Or. 
It  has  been  several  times  captured  in  war. 
It  was  attacked  by  the  Germans  under  Gen. 
Beyer,  October  30,  1870.  The  heights  and 
suburbs  were  taken  by  Prince  William  of  | 
Baden,  and  the  town  surrendered  October  31.   | 

Dike,  or   Dyke.      A   channel   to   receive  j 


water;  also  a  dam  or  mound,  to  prevent 
inundation.  Dikes  diflTer  from  sluices;  the 
former  being  intended  only  to  oppose  the 
flowing  of  other  water  into  a  river,  or  to 
confine  the  stream  by  means  of  strong  walls, 
pieces  of  timber,  or  a  double  row  of  hurdles, 
the  intervals  of  which  are  filled  with  earth, 
stones,  or  pebbles. 

Dimachae.  In  ancient  military  aflfairs, 
were  a  kind  of  horsemen,  answering  to  the 
dragoons  of  the  moderns. 

Dimidiation.  In  heraldry,  a  mode  of 
marshaling  arms,  adopted  chiefly  before 
quartering  and  impaling  according  to  the 
modern  practice  came  into  use,  and  subse- 
quently retained  to  some  extent  in  conti- 
nental, though  not  in  English  heraldry.  It 
consists  in  cutting  two  coats  of  arms  in 
halves  by  a  vertical  line,  and  uniting  the 
dexter  half  of  one  to  the  sinister  half  of  the 
other.  Coats  of  husband  and  wife  were  often 
so  marshaled  in  England  in  the  13th  and 
14th  centuries. 

Diminish.  In  a  military  sense,  means  to 
decrease  the  front  of  a  battalion ;  to  adopt 
the  columns  of  march,  or  manoeuvre  ac- 
cording to  the  obstructions  and  difliculties 
which  it  meets  in  advancing. 

Diminished  Angle.  Is  that  formed  by 
the  exterior  side  and  line  of  defense  in  forti- 
fication. 

Diminutions.  A  word  sometimes  used  in 
heraldry  for  diff'erences,  marks  of  cadency, 
and  brisures,  indifferently. 

Dinan.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  C6tes-du-Nord,  situated  on  the 
Ranee.  This  place  was  often  besieged  during 
the  Middle  Ages  ;  in  1373  was  taken  by  Du 
Guesclin,  and  in  1379  by  De  Clisson. 

Dinant.  A  town  of  Belgium,  on  the 
Meuse,  14  miles  south  from  Namur.  It 
was  taken  bv  Philip  the  Good,  duke  of 
Burgundy,  in  1466,  when  800  of  its  inhab- 
itants were  taken  by  twos,  tied  back^to  back, 
and  thrown  into  the  Meuse.  The  town  was 
also  razed  to  the  ground  ;  but  in  1493  it  was 
rebuilt.  In  1554  and  1675  it  was  again  taken 
by  the  French. 

Dinapore,  or  Dinapoor.  A  town  of  Brit- 
ish India,  in  the  presidency  of  Bengal,  on 
the  Ganges.  It  is  an  important  military 
station,  containing  extensive  barracks  and 
cantonments  for  English  and  native  troops. 

Dindigul.  Capital  of  a  district  in  the  south 
of  India,  in  the  presidency  of  Madras.  It 
was  captured  by  the  British  troops,  under 
Col.  Stuart,  in  1790. 

Dipping  of  the  Muzzle.  A  piece  of  ar- 
tillery when  fired  has  been  explained  by  the 
action  of  the  vent  in  bringing  increased 
pressure  on  the  elevating  screw  or  quoin, 
the  reaction  from  which  throws  down  the 
muzzle. 

Direct  Fire.     See  Fire,  Direct. 

Directing  Sergeant.  When  a  company 
is  being  drilled  in  marching,  a  sergeant  dis- 
tinguished for  precision  in  marching  is  se- 
lected, who  is  called  a  directing  sergeant, 
and  placed  in  front  of  the  guide  on  the  line 


established, 
the  direction 
selected  by  I 
The   rii^ht   g 
straight  in  the-, 

Direction,      x..., 
nitie.s  tlie  line  or  pa. 
along  which  it  endeavc 
according  to  the  propellu.^., 
given  to  it. 

Direction.  In  gunnery,  is  that  v,.. 
of  pointing  which  relates  to  the  movcnieni 
of  the  j)iece  around  an  imaginary  vertical 
axis.  The  direction  is  given  when  the  j)lane 
of  sight  passes  through  tlie  object.  Elevation 
is  a  iMovcini.nt  about  a  horizontal  axis. 

Directory.  In  the  history  of  France,  the 
name  given  by  the  constitution  of  1795,  to 
an  executive  body  comnosed  of  live  mem- 
bers of  the  French  republic.  They  assumed 
authority  in  a  moment  f)f  immense  peril. 
France  was  environed  with  gigantic  adver- 
saries, while  distrust,  discontent,  and  the 
malice  of  rival  factions  made  her  internal 
administration  almost  hopeless.  The  frantic 
heroism  of  her  soldiers  saved  her  from 
spoliation  by  the  foreigner;  but,  on  the 
contrary,  the  home  policy  of  the  Directory 
was  deplorable.  In  1799  the  Directory  was 
overthrown  by  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  18th 
Brumaire,  November  9,  1799,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Consulate. 

Dirk.  Is  a  short  dagger  which  at  various 
times  and  in  various  countries  has  been 
much  used  as  a  weapon  of  defense.  It  is 
still  worn  by  Highland  regiments  in  the 
British  service. 

Dirk-knife.  A  clasp-knife,  having  a 
large,  dirk-like  blade. 

Disability.  Stateof  being  disabled  ;  want 
of  competent  physical  or  intellectual  power. 
"When  a  soldier  becomes  disabled  from  ex- 
posure, accidents,  or  other  causes,  he  is  dis- 
charged from  the  service  on  a  surgeon's  cer- 
tificate of  disability,  which  enables  him  to 
draw  a  pension. 

Disarm.  To  deprive  of  arms;  to  take 
away  the  weapons  of;  to  deprive  of  the 
means  of  attack  or  defense. 

Disarmament.     The  act  of  disarming. 

Disarmed.  Soldiers  divested  of  their 
arms,  either  by  conquest,  or  in  consequence 
of  some  defection. 

Disarmer.     One  who  disarms. 

Disarray.  To  throw  into  disorder;  to 
break  the  array  of. 

Disarray.  Want  of  array  or  regular 
order;  ilisurder. 

Disbanding.  Is  the  breaking  up  of  a 
niilitury  organization  and  the  discharge  of 
soldiers  frmii   military  duty. 

Disbursing  Officer.  An  officer  whose 
special  function  is  to  make  disbursements  of 
money. 

Discharge.  From  military  service,  is 
obtained  by  non-commissioned  officers  and 
privates  by  expiration  of  term  of  service, 
which  varies  in  different  countries;  on  sur- 
geon's certificate  of  disability,  and  by  spe- 


conducL  ....  ..^.i  -.   V.JO  souiit..o, 

etc.  This  is  the  technical  meaning.  In  u 
higher  sense  discipline  is  the  habit  of  obedi- 
ence. The  soldier  acquires  the  habit  of  subor- 
dinating his  own  will,  pleasure,  and  inclina- 
tions to  those  of  his  superior.  When  the 
habit  has  become  so  strong  that  it  is  second 
nature,  the  soldier  is  disciplined. 

Discomfit.     Defeat,  rout,  overthrow. 

Discretion.  Se  rendre  a  discretion,  sur- 
rendering unconditionally  to  a  victorious 
enemy. 

Disembarkation.  The  act  of  landing 
troops  from  a  boat  or  ship.  The  term  has 
lately  been  applied  to  the  act  of  quitting  a 
railway  train. 

Disembody.  To  disarm  a  military  body, 
and  to  disjiense  with  its  services. 

Disengage.  To  separate  the  wings  of  a 
battalion  or  regiment,  which  is  necessary 
when  the  battalion  counternnirches  from  its 
centre  and  on  its  centre  by  files.  It  like- 
wise means  to  clear  a  column  or  line  which 
may  have  lost  its  proper  front  by  the  over- 
lapping of  any  particular  division.  It  also 
signifies  to  extricate  oneself  and  the  troops 
commanded  from  a  critical  situation.  It 
likewise  means  to  break  suddenly  from  any 
particular  order  in  line  or  column,  and  to 
re|)air  to  some  rallying-point. 

Disengage.  In  fencing,  means  to  quit 
that  side  of  an  adversary's  blade  on  which 
one  is  opposed  by  his  guard,  in  order  to 
eftect  a  cut  or  thrust  where  an  opportunity 
may  present. 

Disgarnish.  To  take  guns  from  a  for- 
tress. 

Disgarrison.     To  deprive  of  a  garrison. 

Dishelm.  To  deprive  of  the  helmet;  to 
take  the  helmet  from. 

Dish  of  a  Wheel.  Is  the  inclination  out- 
ward of  the  spokes  when  fastened  in  the 
nave. 

Dislodge.  To  drive  an  enemy  from  a 
position. 

Dismantle.  To  render  fortificatii>ns  in- 
ciijialile  iif  defense,  or  cannon  unserviceable. 

Dismiss.  To  discard,  or  deprive  an  offi- 
cer of  his  commission  or  warrant.     See  Ap- 

I'KNDIX,   AkTICLK.S  OK    WaK. 

Dismount.  To  dismount  the  cavalry  is 
to  use  them  as  infantry.  Guards,  when  re- 
lieved, are  said  to  di?mount.  They  are  to 
be  marched  with  the  utmost  regularity  to 
the  parade-ground  where  they  were  formed, 
and  from  thence  to  their  regimental  or  com- 
pany parades,  previously  to  being  dismissed 


jxterior  pol- 

•OINTING. 

ally,  any  di- 

the  purposes  of 

-^ents  made  for  the 


-  ^  iiac- 
ural  angle  of  sight  to  a  rauius  equal  to  the 
distance  from  the  rear  of  the  base-ring,  or 
base-line,  to  the  highest  point  of  the  swell 
of  the  muzzle,  measured  parallel  to  the 
axis.  For  convenience  the  muzzle  sight  is 
usually  made  equal  in  height  to  the  "dispart 
in  modern  guns, — giving  a  natural  line  of 
sight  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  piece. 

Dispatches.  Official  messages.  In  war, 
important  dispatches  which  have  to  pass 
through  the  enemy's  country,  or  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  his  forces,  are  only  intrusted  to 
officers  to  whom  their  contents  can  be  con- 
fided. Dispatches  are  frequently  in  cipher, 
especially  when  telegraphed  or  signaled  with 
a  liability  to  interception.    See  Despatch. 

Disperse.  To  scatter  any  body  of  men, 
armed  or  unarmed,  who  may  have  assem- 
bled in  an  illegal  or  hostile  manner.  The 
cavalry  are  generally  employed  on  these  oc- 
casions. 

Displaced.  Officers  in  the  British  ser- 
vice are  sometimes  displaced  from  a  partic- 
ular regiment  in  consequence  of  misconduct, 
but  they  are  at  liberty  to  serve  in  any  other 
corps. 

Display,  To.  In  a  military  sense,  is  to 
extend  the  front  of  a  column,  and  thereby 
bring  it  into  line. 

Displayed.  In  heraldic  usage,  means 
expanded  ;  as,  an  eagle  displayed,  or  what 
is  commonly  known  as  a  spread  eagle. 

Displume.  To  deprive  of  decoration  or 
ornament ;   to  degrade. 

Dispose.  To  dispose  cannon,  is  to  place 
it  in  such  a  manner  that  its  discharge  may 
do  the  greatest  mischief. 

Disposition.  In  a  general  sense,  is  the 
just  placing  of  an  army  or  body  of  men 
upon  the  most  advantageous  ground,  and  in 
the  strongest  situation,  for  a  vigorous  attack 
or  defense. 

Disposition  de  Guerre  (Fr.).  Warlike 
arrangement  or  disposition.  Under  this 
head  may  be  considered  the  mode  of  estab- 
lishing, combining,  conducting,  and  finally 
terminating  a  war,  so  as  to  produce  success 
and  victory. 

Disrespect  to  a  Commanding  Officer. 
See  Appendix,  Articles  of  War,  20. 

Disrespectful  Words.  See  Appendix, 
Articles  of  War,  19. 

Distance.  In  military  formation,  signi- 
fies the  relative  space  which  is  left  between 
men  standing  under  arms  in  rank,  or  the 
interval  which  appears  between  those  ranks. 

Distance  of  the   Bastion.     In   fortifica- 


_, .  One  of  those  portions 
„  11  try  is  divided,  for  the  con- 
.  command,  and  to  insure  a  co- 
^  ..aiion  between  distant  bodies  of  troops. 

Disvelloped,  or  Developed.  Are  heraldic 
terms  applied  to  the  colors  of  a  regiment,  or 
army,  when  they  are  flying. 

Ditch.  In  fortification,  is  an  excavation 
made  round  the  works,  from  which  the 
earth  required  for  the  construction  of  the 
rampart  and  parapet  is  obtained.  Ditches 
are  of  two  kinds,  wet  and  dry  ;  but  in  mod- 
ern fortification  the  dry  ditch  is  considered 
preferable  to  the  wet  one.  When  the  exca- 
vation is  on  the  side  farthest  from  the  en- 
emy it  is  called  a  trench. 

Diu.  A  once  celebrated  island  and  for- 
tress of  Hindostan,  in  the  peninsula  of  Kat- 
tywar.  In  1515  the  Portuguese  gained  pos- 
session of  it;  they  fortified  it,  and  in  ten 
years  rendered  it  impregnable  against  all 
the  powers  of  India.  With  the  decline  of 
Portuguese  power  it  fell  into  decay,  and  was 
plundered  by  the  Arabs  of  Muscat  in  1670. 

Diversion.  An  attack  upon  an  enemy 
in  a  place  where  he  is  weak  and  unprovided, 
in  order  to  draw  ofl'  his  forces  from  making 
an  irruption  elsewhere;  or  a  manoeuvre, 
where  an  enemy  is  strong,  which  obliges 
him  to  detach  part  of  his  forces  to  resist  any 
feint  or  menacing  attempt  of  his  opponent. 

Divest.  To  strip  of  clothes,  arms,  or 
equipage. 

Divine  Service.  See  Appendix,  Arti- 
cles OF  War,  52. 

Division.  In  military  matters,  is  one  sec- 
tion of  an  army,  comprising  2  or  more  bri- 
gades, commanded  by  a  general  officer.  In 
regimental  formation,  2  companies  of  a  reg- 
iment or  battalion  constitute  a  division, 
when  in  column. 

Dizier,  St.  A  town  of  France,  on  the 
Marne.  The  emperor  Charles  V.  besieged 
and  took  this  place  in  1544 ;  and  in  its  neigh- 
borhood Napoleon  defeated  the  allies  in  two 
battles  fought  January  27  and  March  26, 
1814. 

Djokjokarta.  A  Dutch  residency  of  Java, 
near  the  middle  of  the  south  coast  of  that 
island.  The  town  of  the  same  name  is  the 
seat  of  a  Dutch  resident  and  a  native  sultan, 
who  has  a  body-guard  of  young  females, 
completely  armed  and  equipped,  some  of 
whom  do  duty  on  horseback.  It  was  taken 
by  the  British  in  1812. 

Dobrudscha  (anc.  Scythia  Minor).  A 
name  used  to  denote  the  northeastern  por- 
tion of  Bulgaria.  The  Dobrudscha  has  long 
been  a  famous  battle-ground.  Some  of  the 
earliest  incidents  of  the  Russian  war  of  1854- 
56  took  place  here. 

Dolabra.     A  rude  ancient  hatchet.     They 


d6le 


137 


DOUBLE-SHELL 


are  represented  on  the  columns  of  Trajan 
and  Antoninus,  and  abound  in  ail  museums. 
"When  made  of  flint,  wliioh  was  their  earliest 
and  rudest  form,  they  are  usually  called  celts. 

Ddle.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Jura,  on  the  rii^ht  hank  of  the 
Doubs.  In  1479  it  was  taken  by  Louis  XL, 
when  the  greater  part  of  the  town  was  de- 
stroyed, and  many  of  its  inhabitants  were 
put  to  the  sword.  It  subsequently  came  into 
the  hands  of  the  Spaniards,  and  was  forti- 
fied by  Charles  V.  in  1030.  In  1(586  it  was 
ineffectually  besieged  by  the  Prince  of  Conde. 
In  1068  it  was  taken  by  the  French  ;  and 
again  in  1074,  when  its  fortifications  were 
destroyed. 

Dolphins.  Two  handles  placed  upon  a 
piece  of  ordnance  with  their  centres  over  the 
centre  of  gravity,  by  which  it  was  mounted 
or  dismounted.  They  are  no  longer  in  use 
in  the  I'.  S.  service. 

Domingo,  San.  The  capital  of  the  Span- 
ish part  of  the  island  of  Hayti,  in  the  West 
Indies.  About  the  year  1580  the  city  was 
sacked  by  Sir  Francis  Drake. 

Dominica.  An  island  in  the  West  Indies, 
belonging  to  the  Leeward  grt>up,  lying  about 
20  miles  to  tl)e  north  of  Martinique.  This 
island  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498, 
and  was  claimed  alternately  by  England, 
France,  and  Spain  :  it  was  finally  ceded  to 
Great  Uritain  in  1763. 

Dommage  {Fr. ).  In  a  general  acceptation 
of  the  term,  signified  in  the  old  French  ser- 
vice, the  compensation  which  every  captain 
of  a  troop,  or  company,  was  obliged  to  make 
in  consequence  of  any  damage  that  their 
men  might  have  done  in  a  town,  or  on  a 
march. 

Donahue.  A  town  in  India,  in  the  Brit- 
ish province  of  Pegu.  In  1825,  during  the 
Burmese  war,  it  maintained  a  successful  re- 
sistance against  the  assault  of  a  British  force 
under  the  command  of  Brigadier  Cotton  ; 
and  here  in  1853,  during  the  last  war  with 
the  same  nation,  the  British  troops  suffered 
a  repulse  in  an  encounter  with  a  Burmese 
force,  losing  several  otficers. 

Donauworth.  A  town  of  Bavaria,  situ- 
ated at  the  confluence  of  the  Wernitz  and 
the  Danube.  Here  Marlborough  stormed 
and  carried  the  intrenched  camp  of  the  Ba- 
varians in  1704,  and  on  October  6,  1805,  the 
French  under  Soult  obtained  a  victory  over 
the  Austriuns  under  Mack. 

Donelson,  Fort.  A  position  on  a  slight 
bend  of  the  Cumberland  River,  in  Tennes- 
see, which  was  strongly  fortified  by  the  Con- 
federates during  the  civil  war.  On  the 
afternoon  of  February  14,  1862,  Commodore 
Foote  commenced  with  his  gunboats  an 
attack  on  this  place,  but  met  with  a  decided 
reverse.  Meantime,  Gen.  Grant's  army,  ad- 
vancing from  the  capture  of  Fort  Henry, 
?;radually  approached,  and  surrounded  the 
ort,  with  occasional  skirmishing  on  the 
line.  Ne.xt  day  the  Confederates  attacked 
them,  but  were  repulsed  with  loss,  and  find- 
ing all  hope  of  reinfo%oments  unavailing, 
10 


they  surrendered  the  fort  on  the  16th. 
About  10,0<X)  prisoners,  40  pieces  of  artil- 
lery, and  a  large  quantity  of  stores  of  all 
kinds  fell  into  (Jen.  (Jrant's  hands. 

Dongola,  New,  or  Maraka.  A  town  on 
the  Nile,  and  capital  of  a  province  of  the 
same  name,  in  Nubia.  Ibrahim  Pasha  took 
it  from  the  Mamelukes  in  1820. 

Donjon,  or  Dungeon.  The  principal 
tower  or  keej)  of  a  castle  or  fortress.  It 
was  so  called  either  from  being  placed  on  a 
dun  or  elevation,  natural  or  artificial,  or  be- 
cause, from  its  jiosition,  it  dominated  or 
commanded  the  other  parts  of  the  fortress. 
From  the  circumstance  that  the  lower  or 
under-ground  story  of  the  donjon  was  used 
as  a  prison,  has  come  the  modern  meaning 
of  the  word  dungeon. 

Doolee.  A  palanquin  litter,  used  in  In- 
dian armies,  to  carry  sick  and  wounded  men. 

Dormans.  In  Northeast  France.  The  Hu- 
guenots and  their  allies  under  Montmorency 
were  here  defeated  by  the  Duke  of  Guise, 
October  10,  1575. 

Dormant.  (/•>.).  Sleeping.  In  heraldic 
representation,  an  animal  dormant  has  its 
head  resting  on  its  fore-paws,  whereas  an 
animal  ro^/r/io;;^  has  its  head  erect. 

Dornach.  A  village  of  Switzerland,  20 
miles  northeast  from  Soleure,  remarkable 
for  the  victory  obtained  by  the  Swiss  over 
the  Austrians,  July  22,  1499,  and  which, 
gave  Switzerland  her  iiule|)endence. 

Dorogoboozh,  Dorogobush,  or  Dorogo- 
bouge.  A  town  of  Kussia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Smolensk.  At  this  place  the 
French  were  defeated  by  the  Russians,  Oc- 
tober 12,  1812. 

Dosser.  In  military  matters,  is  a  sort 
of  basket,  carried  on  the  shoulders  of  men, 
used  in  carrying  the  earth  from  one  part  of 
afortification  toanother,  where  it  is  required. 

Dossiere  (Fr.).    Back-piece  of  a  cuirass. 

Douai,  or  Douay.  A  fortified  town  of 
France,  on  the  small  river  Scarpe,  18  miles 
.south  from  Lille.  This  place  was  taken 
from  the  Flemings  bv  Philip  the  Fair  in 
1297;  restored  by  Charles  V.  in  1368.  It 
reverted  to  Spain,  from  whom  it  was  taken 
by  Louis  XIV'.  in  1667.  It  was  captured  by 
the  allies,  under  the  Duke  of  Marlborough 
and  Prince  Eugene,  in  1710,  but  was  retaken 
by  the  French,  September  8,  1712. 

Double.  To  unite,  as  ranks  or  files,  so  as 
to  form  one.  To  double  upon,  to  inclose  be- 
tween two  fires. 

Double-quick.  Performed  in  the  time 
called  d(»uble-quick;  as,  a  double-quick  step 
or  march. 

Double-quick.  To  move,  or  cause  to 
move,  in  double-quick  time. 

Double-rank.  A  line  formed  of  double 
files. 

Double-shell.  A  shell  used  in  the  7-inch 
English  rirtes.  It  is  27  inches  long,  and  ha« 
a  large  cavity.  To  strengthen  it  against 
outside  pressure  it  has  three  internal  longitu- 
dinal ribs  projecting  about  an  inch  into  the 
cavitv. 


DOUBLE-SHOTTING 


138 


DRAWBRIDGE 


Double-shotting.  Is  an  increase  of  the 
destructive  power  of  ordnance  by  doubling 
the  shot  fired  oft'  at  one  time  from  a  gun. 
Sometimes  three  shots  are  fired  at  once,  in 
which  case  the  piece  is  said  to  be  treble- 
shotted. 

Double-time.  The  fastest  time  or  step  in 
marching,  next  to  the  run,  requiring  1G5 
steps,  each  33  inches  in  length,  to  be  taken 
in  one  minute.  The  degree  of  swiftness 
may  vary  in  urgent  cases,  and  the  number  of 
steps  be  tlius  increased  up  to  180  per  minute. 

Doubling.  The  putting  of  two  ranks  of 
soldiers  into  one. 

Doublings.  The  heraldic  term  for  the 
linings  of  robes  or  mantles,  or  of  the  mantlings 
of  achievements.  ' 

DouUens.  A  town  of  France,  15  miles 
northeast  of  Amiens.  This  place  was  taken 
by  the  allies  in  1814. 

Doune.  A  village  of  Perthshire,  Scot- 
land. The  ruins  of  Doune  Castle,  a  large 
and  massive  fortress  built  about  the  14th 
century,  are  situated  on  the  point  of  a  steep 
and  narrow  elevation.  Doune  was  held  for 
Prince  Charles  in  1745,  and  here  he  confined 
his  prisoners  taken  at  Falkirk,  among  the 
rest  the  author  of  the  tragedy  of  "Douglas." 

Douro.  A  large  river  in  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal, which  was  crossed  in  1809  by  the 
British  army  under  the  Duke  of  Wellington, 
when  he  surprised  the  French  under  Mar- 
shal Soult,  and  won  the  battle  of  Oporto. 

Dover  (anc.  Dubris).  A  city  and  sea- 
port of  England,  in  the  county  of  Kent,  on 
Dover  Strait.  The  city  is  defended  by  Dover 
Castle,  which  is  built  on  chalk-clifts  320 
feet  high,  and  is  a  fortress  of  great  strength 
and  extent.  The  castle  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  ancient  Romans  Near  here 
Julius  Cffisar  is  said  to  have  first  landed  in 
England,  August  26,  55  B.C.,  and  here  King 
John  resigned  his  kingdom  to  Pandolf,  the 
pope's  legate.  May  13,  1213. 

Dowletabad.  A  celebrated  city  and  for- 
tress of  Hindostan,  province  of  Hyderabad, 
deemed  impregnable  by  the  natives  ;  but 
notwithstanding  its  strength,  it  has  been 
frequently  taken. 

Drabants.  A  company  of  200  picked 
men,  of  which  Charles  IX.  of  Sweden  was 
captain. 

Draft.  A  selecting  or  detaching  of  sol- 
diers from  an  army,  or  any  part  of  it,  or 
from  a  military  post  ;  also  from  any  com- 
pany or  collection  of  persons,  or  from  the 
people  at  large  for  military  service. 

Draft.    See  Draught. 

Draft,  To.  To  draw  from  a  military 
band  or  post,  or  from  any  company,  collec- 
tion, society,  or  from  the  people  at  large  ;  to 
detach ;  to  select.     Written  also  draught. 

Dragon.     An  old  name  for  a  musketoon. 

Dragon  et  Dragon  Volant  {Fr.).  Some 
old  pieces  of  artillery  were  anciently  so 
called.  The  Dragon  was  a  40-pound er;  the 
Dragon  Volant  a  32-pounder.  But  neither 
the  name  nor  the  size  of  the  caliber  of 
either  piece  is  now  in  use. 


Dragonner  {Fr.).  According  to  the 
French  acceptation  of  the  term,  is  to  attack 
any  person  in  a  rude  and  violent  manner; 
to  take  iinything  by  force;  to  adopt  prompt 
and  vigorous  means;  and  to  bring  those 
people  to  reason  by  hard  blows,  who  could 
not  be  persuaded  by  fair  words. 

Dragoon.  From  the  old  fable  that  the 
dragon  spouts  fire,  the  head  of  the  monster 
was  worked  upon  the  muzzle  of  a  peculiar 
kind  of  short  muskets  which  were  first 
carried  by  the  horsemen  raised  by  Marshal 
Brissac  in  1600.  This  circumstance  led  to 
their  being  called  dragoons  ;  and  from  the 
general  adoption  of  the  same  weapon, 
though  without  the  emblem  in  question, 
the  term  gradually  extended  itself  till  it  be- 
came almost  synonymous  with  horse-soldier. 
Dragoons  were  at  one  time  a  kind  of 
mounted  infantry,  drilled  to  perform  the 
services  both  of  horse  and  foot.  At  present, 
dragoon  is  simply  one  among  many  desig- 
nations for  cavalry,  not  very  precise  in  its 
application.  This  term  is  not  now  used  in 
the  U.  S.  service. 

Dragoon,  To.  Is  to  persecute  by  aban- 
doning a  place  to  the  rage  of  the  soldiers. 

Dragoon  Guards.  In  the  British  ser- 
vice, seven  regiments  of  heavy  cavalry  bear 
this  title. 

Drag-rope.  This  is  a  4-inch  hemp  rope, 
28  feet  long,  with  a  thimble  worked  into 
each  end,  one  of  the  thimbles  carrying  a 
hook.  Six  handles,  made  of  oak  or  ash,  are 
put  in  between  the  strands  of  the  rope,  and 
lashed  with  a  marline.  It  is  used  to  assist 
in  extricating  carriages  from  different  posi- 
tions by  the  men,  for  dragging  pieces,  etc. 

Drag-rope  Men.  The  men  attached  to 
light  or  heavy  ordnance,  for  the  purpose 
of  expediting  movements  in  action.  The 
French  servans  d  la  prolonge  are  of  this 
description. 

Drain,  or  Drein.  In  the  military  art,  is 
a  trench  made  to  draw  water  out  of  a  ditch, 
which  is  afterwards  filled  with  hurdles  and 
earth,  or  with  fascines  or  bundles  of 
rushes,  and  planks,  to  facilitate  the  passage 
over  the  mud. 

Drake.  A  small  piece  of  artillery,  no 
longer  used. 

Draught.  The  act  of  drawing  men  from 
a  military  band,  army,  or  post,  or  from  any 
company  or  society;  draft;  detachment; 
also,  formerly,  a  sudden  attack  or  drawing 
upon  an  enemy. 

Draughted.  The  soldiers  of  any  regi- 
ment allotted  to  complete  other  regiments 
are  said  to  be  draughted,  or  drafted. 

Draught-hook.  Either  of  two  large 
hooks  of  iron  fixed  on  the  cheeks  of  a  gun- 
carriage,  two  on  each  side,  used  in  drawing 
the  gun  backward  and  forward. 

Drawbridge.  A  bridge  of  which  the 
whole  or  part  is  made  to  be  let  down,  or 
drawn  or  turned  aside,  to  admit  or  hinder 
communication  at  pleasure,  as  before  the 
gate  of  a  town  or  castle.  It  is  called  bas- 
cule, swivel,  or  rolling  bridge  according  as 


DRAWING 


139 


DRUM-HEAD 


it  turns  on  a  hinge  verticully,  on  a  pivot 
horizontally,  or  is  pushed  lengthwise  on 
rollers. 

Drawing.  In  a  military  sense,  is  the  art 
of  representing  the  api)earances  of  all  kinds 
of  military  objects  by  imitation  or  copying, 
both  with  and  without  the  assistance  of 
mathematical  rules. 

Drawn  Battle.  A  fight  from  which  the 
combatants  withdraw  without  either  side 
claiming  the  victory. 

Draw  off,  To.  In  a  military  sense, 
means  to  retire ;  also  to  abstract  or  take 
away ;  as,  to  draw  oft'  your  forces.  To 
draw  on  is  to  advance ;  also  to  occasion  ;  as, 
to  draw  on  an  enemy's  tire.  To  draw  over 
is  to  persuade  to  revolt;  to  entice  from  a 
party.  To  draw  out  is  to  call  the  soldiers 
forth  in  array  for  action.  To  draw  up  is  to 
form  in  battle  array.  To  draw  out  a  party 
is  to  assemble  any  particular  number  of 
armed  men  for  military  duty.  The  French 
say,  faire  un  detachotient. 

Drayton-in-Hales,  or  Market  Drayton. 
A  town  of  England,  in  Slimpsliire.  Here 
the  partisans  of  the  house  of  York  defeated 
the  Lancastrians  in  1459. 

Dresden.  The  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Saxony,  and  one  of  the  best  built  towns  of 
Europe.  Taken  by  Frederick  of  Prussia  in 
1756  ;  by  the  Austrians  in  1759  ;  bombarded 
in  vain  by  Frederick,  July,  1700.  On 
August  2tj-27,  1813,  the  allies  were  defeated 
in  a  terrible  battle  by  the  French  under  the 
walls  of  this  city  ;  and  about  a  mile  from  it 
is  a  granite  block,  surmounted  by  a  helmet, 
marking  the  spot  where  Moreau  fell  in  the 
conflict,  while  conversing  with  the  emperor 
Alexander. 

Dress.  A  word  of  command  for  align- 
ment uf  troops  ;  also  of  the  alignment  itself. 

Dressers.     See  Guides. 

Dress,  Full.  Dress  uniform.  The  French 
isprtnide  tcinte,  or  grande  uniforme. 

Dress  Parade.  Parade  in  full  uniform  ; 
one  of  the  ceremonies  prescribed  in  tactics. 

Dress,  To.  To  cause  a  company  or  bat- 
taliun  t<j  take  such  a  position  or  order  as 
will  preserve  an  exact  continuity  of  line  in 
the  whole  front,  or  in  whatever  shape  the 
command  is  to  be  formed.  Soldiers  dress 
by  one  another  in  ranks,  and  the  body  col- 
lectively by  some  given  object.  To  dress 
the  line  is  to  arrange  any  given  number  of 
soldiers,  so  as  to  stand  perfectly  correct  with 
regard  to  the  several  points  of  an  alignment 
that  have  been  taken  up. 

Dress  Uniform.  The  dress  prescribed 
for  oot-Hsions  of  ceremony. 

Dreux.  An  old  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  Eure  and  Loire,  on  the 
Blaise.  In  1188  this  town  was  burned  by 
the  English  ;  and  in  15tj2  the  Prince  of 
Conde  was  taken  prisoner  in  a  severe  action 
fought  between  the  Huguenots  and  Roman 
Catholics  in  its  neighborhood. 
,  Drift.  A  tool  used  in  driving  down  com- 
pactly the  composition  contained  iu  a  rocket, 
or  like  lirework. 


Drift.  A  deviation  peculiar  to  oblong 
rille  projectiles.     See  Pkojectilks. 

Drill.  Is  a  general  name  for  the  exercises 
through  which  .soldiers  and  sailors  are  i)assed, 
to  qualify  them  fur  their  duties.  There  are 
many  varieties  of  drill, — that  of  the  cavalry, 
infantry,  and  artillerj-, — all  have  ditt'erent 
drills  conformable  to  their  diflerent  organi- 
zations. 

Drill-Sergeant.  A  non-commissioned  offi- 
cer, whose  office  it  is  to  instruct  soldiers  as 
to  their  duties,  and  to  train  them  to  military 
evolutions. 

Drogheda.  A  seaport  town  of  Ireland, 
in  the  counties  of  Meath  and  Louth,  built  on 
both  sides  of  the  Boyne.  From  the  14th 
to  the  17th  century,  Drogheda  was  the  chief 
military  station  in  Ulster.  In  l(i41  the  town 
was  besieged  by  O'Neal  and  the  northern 
Irish  forces,  but  was  gallantly  defended  by 
Sir  Henry  Tichbourne,  and  after  a  long 
blockade  relieved  by  the  Marquis  of  Ormond, 
who  also  relieved  it  a  second  time  when  in- 
vested by  the  Parliamentary  army  under 
Col.  Jones.  In  1049,  Cromwell  was  twice 
repulsed  in  besieging  this  town;  but  in  the 
third  attempt  he  was  successful,  when  most 
of  the  garrison  were  slaughtered.  This  place 
surrendered  to  William  III.  the  day  after 
the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  which  was  fought 
in  1090  at  Oldbridge,  4  miles  west  of  Drog- 
heda. 

Drum.  A  musical  instrument  of  percus- 
sion, formed  by  stretching  a  piece  of  parch- 
ment over  each  end  of  a  cylinder  formed  of 
thin  wood,  or  over  the  top  of  a  caldron- 
shaped  vessel  of  brass;  the  latter  is  hence 
called  a  kettle-drum.  The  large  drums  which 
are  beaten  at  each  end  are  called  double 
drums,  or  boss  drums,  and  are  used  chietly 
in  military  bands.  Kettle-drums  are  always 
used  in  pairs;  one  of  which  is  tuned  to  the 
key-note,  the  other  to  the  fifth  of  the  key. 
The  drum  is  principally  used  for  military 
purposes,  especially  for  inspiring  the  soldiers 
under  the  fatigue  of  march  or  in  battle.  It 
is  supposed  to  be  an  Eastern  invention,  and 
to  have  been  brought  into  Eur(»pe  by  the 
Arabians,  or  perhaps  the  Moors.  In  the 
French  army  the  drum  is  now,  to  some  ex- 
tent, abolished. 

Drum.  To  execute  on  a  drum,  as  a  tune ; — 
with  out,  to  expel  with  beat  of  drum  ;  as,  to 
drum  out  a  deserter,  etc.  ;  with  up,  to  assem- 
ble by  beat  of  drum  ;  to  gather  ;  to  collect ; 
as,  to  drum  up  recryits,  etc. 

Drumclog.  In  Western  Scotland  ;  here 
the  Covenanters  defeated  Graham  of  Claver- 
house,  June  1,  1079.  An  account  .of  the 
conflict  is  given  by  Walter  Scott,  in  "Old 
Mortality." 

Drum-head.  The  head  or  upper  part  of 
a  drum. 

Drum-head  Court-martial.  A  court- 
martial  called  suddenly  by  the  commanding 
officer  to  try  oflenscs  committed  on  the  line 
of  march,  and  which  demand  an  immediate 
example.  This  method  is  not  resorted  to  in 
time  of  peace. 


DRUM-MAJOR 


140 


DUNBAR 


Drum-Major.  Is  that  person  in  a  regi- 
ment of  infantry  who  lias  command  of  the 
drummers  and  teaches  them  their  duty.  He 
also  directs  the  movements  of  the  regimental 
band,  while  on  parade. 

Drummer.  The  soldier  who  plays  a  drum. 
The  majority  of  drummers  are  boys,  gener- 
ally the  sons  of  soldiers.  In  former  times  it 
was  the  part  of  a  drummer's  duty  to  flog 
men  sentenced  to  corporal  punishment. 

Drumming  Out.  The  ceremony  of  igno- 
miniously  discharging  a  soldier  from  the 
service.  The  culprit  is  marched  out  of  the 
garrison  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet,  the 
drummers  or  musicians  playing  the  ' '  Rogue's 
March." 

Drum-stick.  A  stick  with  which  a  drum 
is  beaten,  or  shaped  for  the  purpose  of  beat- 
ing a  drum. 

brunk  on  Duty.  See  Appendix,  Arti- 
cles OF  War,  38. 

Druses.  A  warlike  people  dwelling  among 
the  mountains  of  Lebanon,  derive  their  ori- 
gin from  a  fanatical  Mohammedan  sect  which 
arose  in  Egypt  about  996,  and  fled  to  Pales- 
tine to  avoid  persecution.  They  now  retain 
hardly  any  of  the  religion  of  their  ancestors. 
In  1860,  in  consequence  of  disputes,  the 
Druses  attacked  their  neighbors,  the  Maro- 
nites,  whom  they  massacred,  it  was  said, 
without  regard  to  age  or  sex.  This  led  to  a 
general  massacre  of  Christians  soon  after. 
But  the  Turkish  troops,  with  French  auxilia- 
ries, interfering  on  behalf  of  the  Christians, 
invaded  Lebanon  in  August  and  September, 
when  the  Druses  surrendered,  giving  up 
their  chiefs.  January,  186L 

Dry  Camp,  To  Make  a.  Troops  on  the 
march  are  said  to  make  a  dry  camp  when 
they  are  compelled  by  exhaustion,  or  other 
causes,  to  camp  at  a  place  where  there  is  no 
water.  For  such  camps  water  is  usually 
transported  with  the  troops. 

Dualin.     See  Explosives. 

Dubicza,  or  Dubitza.  A  town  and  fort 
of  European  Turkey,  in  Bosnia,  on  the 
Unna.  The  Austrians  took  this  town  in 
17.38. 

Dublin.  The  capital  city  of  Ireland,  on 
the  Lifl'ey,  close  to  its  entrance  into  Dublin 
Bay.  It  is  alleged  that  this  city  has  been  in 
existence  since  the  time  of  Ptolemy.  In  the 
earlier  part  of  the  9th  century,  Dublin  was 
taken  by  the  Danes,  who  infested  it  for  sev- 
eral centuries  thereafter.  In  1169  it  was 
taken  by  storm  by  the  English  under  Strong- 
bow.  From  about  this  period  the  history  of 
Dublin  is  that  of  Ireland. 

Ducenarius.  An  otficer  in  the  Roman 
armies  who  commanded  two  centuries. 

Dudgeon.     A  small  dagger  (rare). 

Duel.  Was  the  old  form  of  a  combat  bC" 
tween  two  persons,  at  a  time  and  place  indi- 
cated in  the  challenge,  cartel,  or  defiance 
borne  by  one  party  to  the  other.  A  duel 
generally  takes  place  in  the  presence  of  wit- 
nesses, called  seconds,  who  regulate  the 
mode  of  fighting,  place  the  weapons  in  the 
hands  of  the  combatants,  and  enforce  con> 


pliance  with  the  rules  which  they  have  laid 
down.  In  the  United  States  the  practice  of 
fighting  duels,  being  declared  illegal  by  stat- 
utes, is  very  seldom  resorted  to. 

Dueling.  See  Appendix,  Articles  of 
War,  26,  27. 

Duffadar.  A  rank  in  the  East  Indian 
Native  Cavalry,  corresponding  with  that  of 
sergeant. 

Duffadar,  Kot.  A  non-commissioned  oiR- 
cer  in  the  East  Indian  Native  Cavalry,  cor- 
responding with  a  troop  sergeant-major. 

Duffadar  Major.  A  rank  in  the  East 
Indian  Native  Cavalry,  corresponding  with 
that  of  regimental  sergeant-major. 

Duke.  From  the  Latin  dux,  a  "  leader," 
a  title  that  first  came  into  use  when  Constan- 
tine  separated  the  civil  and  military  com- 
mands in  the  provinces.  This  title  was 
successively  borrowed  bj'^  the  Goths  and 
Franks,  and  since  the  time  of  the  Black 
Prince,  who  was  created  first  duke  in  Eng- 
land (Duke  of  Cornwall)  in  1335,  it  has 
been  a  title  of  the  nobility,  ranking  next  be- 
low the  blood  royal. 

Dukigi-Bachi.  Second  officer  in  the 
Turkish  artillery,  who  commands  the  Tope- 
las,  or  gunners  and  founders. 

Duledge.  A  peg  of  wood  which  joins 
the  ends  of  the  felloes,  forming  the  circle  of 
the  wheel  of  a  gun-carriage  ;  and  the  joint 
is  strengthened  on  the  outside  of  the  wheel 
by  a  strong  plate  of  iron,  called  the  duledge 
jilnte. 

Dumdum.  The  name  of  a  town  and  of 
a  valley  in  India,  well  known  in  the  military 
history  of  the  country ;  it  is  8  miles  to  the 
northeast  of  Calcutta,  having  extensive  ac- 
commodations for  troops,  and  a  cannon- 
foundry.  The  place  is  famous  in  connection 
with  the  mutiny  of  1857,  as  the  scene  of  the 
first  open  manifestation  on  the  part  of  the 
Sepoys  against  the  greased  cartridges. 

Dumfries.  A  royal  burgh  and  parish  of 
Scotland,  the  capital  of  Dumfriesshire,  on 
the  Nith.  This  town  was  exposed  to  re- 
peated calamities  from  the  invasions  of  the 
English  during  the  border  wars.  In  this 
town  John  Comyn,  the  competitor  for  the 
Scottish  throne,  was  stabbed  by  Robert 
Bruce  in  1305. 

Diinaburg.  A  strongly  fortified  town  of 
Western  Russia,  on  the  Diina.  It  is  of  great 
military  importance,  owing  to  the  strength 
of  its  fortifications.  It  was  founded  by  the 
Knights  of  the  Sword  in  1277. 

Dunbar.  A  seaport  town  of  Scotland,  in 
Haddingtonshire,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Frith 
of  Forth.  On  the  high  rocks  at  the  entrance 
to  the  new  harbor  are  a  few  fragments  of 
the  ruins  of  an  old  castle,  which  was  once 
very  strong,  and  an  important  security 
against  English  invasions.  Edward  I.  took 
it,  and  Edward  II.  fled  thither  after  the  bat- 
tle of  Bannockburn  ;  it  was  demolished  in 
1333,  and  rebuilt  in  1336  ;  it  was  successfully 
defended  in  a  siege  of  six  weeks  against  the 
Earl  of  Salisbury  by  Black  Agnes,  countess 
of  Dunbar,  in  1338  ;  it  sheltered  Queen  Mary 


DUNBLANE 


141 


DYNAMITE 


and  Bothwcll  in  1567;  and  in  the  same  year 
it  was  destroyed  by  the  retjent  Murray.  In 
1650,  Cromwell,  at  the  "  Kaoe  of  Dunbar," 
defeated  the  Scottish  army  under  Leslie. 

Dunblane,  or  Dumblane.  A  town  and 
parish  of  Scotland,  in  Perthshire,  on  the 
Allan.  Not  far  from  this  place  is  Sheriff- 
muir,  where,  in  1715,  a  battle  was  fought 
between  the  royal  troops  and  the  followers 
of  the  Pretender. 

Dungan  Hill  (Ireland).  Here  the  Eng- 
lish army,  commanded  by  Col.  Jones,  sig- 
nally defeated  the  Irish,  of  whom  6000  are 
said  to  have  been  slain,  August  8,  1647. 

Dungeon  (originally  Donjon,  which  see). 
A  prison  ;  a  dark  and  subterraneous  cell  or 
place  of  confinement. 

Dunkirk.  A  fortified  seaport  town  in  the 
extreme  northern  part  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  North.  In  1558  the  English, 
who  had  for  some  time  held  possession  of  the 
town,  were  expelled  from  it  by  the  French, 
who,  in  the  ensuing  year,  surrendered  it  to 
the  Spaniards.  In  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century  it  once  more  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  French,  who,  after  a  few  years'  occu- 
pation of  it,  again  restored  it  to  Spain.  In 
1658  it  was  retaken  by  the  French  and  made 
over  to  the  English.  It  was  sold  to  the 
French  king  byCharles  II.  in  1662.  In 
1793  it  was  attacked  by  the  English  under 
the  Duke  of  York,  who,  however,  was  com- 
pelled to  retire  from  before  its  walls  with 
severe  loss. 

Dunnottar.  A  parish  of  Scotland,  in 
Kincardineshire.  It  contains  the  castle  of 
Dunnottar,  now  in  ruins.  In  the  time  of 
the  civil  wars,  this  was  thefortress  in  which 
the  Scottish  regalia  were  deposited.  After 
being  besieged  by  Cromwell's  forces  for  six 
months,  it  capitulated  ;  but,  before  this,  the 
regalia  were  secretly  conveyed  from  it. 

Dunsinane.  In  Perthshire,  Scotland. 
On  the  hill  was  fought  the  battle  between 
Macbeth,  the  thane  of  Glammis,  and  Siward, 
earl  of  Northumberland,  July  27,  1054. 
Macbeth  was  defeated,  and  it  was  said  pur- 
sued to  Lumphanan  in  Aberdeenshire,  and 
there  slain,  1056  or  1057. 

Durazzo  (aiic.  Epidnmnus).  A  town  of 
Albania,  European  Turkey.  It  is  fortified, 
and  is  a  place  of  considerable  antiquity. 
Durazzo  was  founded  about  627  b.c.  by  a 
conjoined  band  of  Corcyr;eans  and  Corin- 
thians under  one  Phaleus,  a  Heracleidan. 
It  became  a  great  and  populous  city,  but 
was  much  harassed  by  the  internal  strifes  of 
party,  which  ultimately  led  to  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war.  Under  the  Romans  it  Wiis 
called  Di/rrarhiuin  (whence  its  modern 
name).  Hero  Pompey  was  for  some  time 
beleaguered  by  Ciesar.  In  the  5th  century 
it  was  besieged  by  Thcodoric,  the  Ostro- 
Goth  ;  in  the  lOthand  11th  centuries  by  the 
Bulgarians;  and  in  1081  it  was  captured, 
after  a  severe  battle,  by  the  Norman,  Robert 
Guiscard  of  Apulia. 

Diiren.  A  town  of  Prussia,  on  the  Roer. 
This  was  a  Roman  town,  and  is  mentioned 


by  Tacitus  by  the  name  of  Marcodurum. 
Charlemagne  held  two  diets  here  in  775  and 
779,  when  on  his  way  to  attack  the  Saxons. 
It  was  taken  by  assault  and  burned  by 
Charles  Y.,  after  an  obstinate  resistance,  in 
1543.  In  1794  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
French,  but  was  ceded  to  Prussia  in  1814. 

Diirkeim.  A  town  of  Rhenish  Bavaria, 
20  miles  north  from  Landau.  The  sum- 
mit of  a  height  near  this  town  is  crowned 
by  a  rampart  of  loose  stones  6  to  10  feet 
high,  60  to  70  feet  wide  at  the  base, 
and  inclosing  a  space  of  about  two  square 
miles  called  the  Heidenmnner  ("  heathens' 
wall"),  which  the  Romans  are  said  to  have 
built  to  keep  the  barbarians  in  check,  and 
where  Attila  is  said  to  have  passed  a  winter, 
after  having  wrested  the  fortress  from  the 
Romans,  when  passing  on  his  way  to  Rome. 

Durrenstein.  A  town  of  Austria,  on  the 
Danube.  In  the  neighborhood,  on  a  rock, 
are  the  ruins  of  the  castle  in  which  Richard 
Coeur  de  Lion  was  imprisoned  in  1192.  In 
1805  the  Russian  and  Austrian  armies  were 
defeated  here  by  the  French. 

Duties.  This  word  is  used  in  military 
parlance  to  express  the  men  paraded  for  any 
particular  duty,  such  as  guards,  etc. 

Duty.  There  is  no  word  oftener  used  in 
military  parlance  than  this.  In  the  techni- 
cal sense  it  refers  to  the  various  services 
necessary  for  the  maintenance,  discipline, 
and  regulation  of  armies, — as  signal  duty, 
staff  duty,  the  duties  of  a  sentinel,  etc.  To 
be  on  duty  is  to  be  in  the  active  exercise  of 
military  functions ;  to  be  off  duty  is  to  have 
these  functions  temporarily  suspended  ;  to  be 
put  on  duty  is  to  be  assigned  to  duty  by  order 
of  a  superior.  Military  duties  are  variously 
classed  as  duties  of  detail,  which  are  recur- 
ring and  governed  by  a  roster,  such  as  guard, 
fatigue,  etc. ;  special  duties  which  are  de- 
termined by  appointment,  selection,  or  order; 
extra  duty,  continuous  special  duty  of  en- 
listed men,  entitling  them  to  pay  ;  daily  duty, 
short  terms  of  special  service  for  enlisted 
men.  In  a  higher  and  broader  sense  duty 
is  that  which  is  due  one's  country.  It  covers 
all  the  soldier's  obligations,  and  forms  his 
simplest  and  sublimest  rule  of  action. 

Dyer  Projectile.     See  Pkojectilk. 

Dynamite,  called  in  the  United  States 
"giant  powder,"  is  formed  by  mixing  nitro- 
glycerine with  certain  porous  substances,  and 
especially  with  certain  varieties  of  silica  or 
alumina,  these  substances  absorbing  the 
nitro-glycerine.  It  was  invented  in  1867 
by  the  Swedish  engineer  Nobel,  who  pro- 
posed to  prevent  the  frequent  and  unexpected 
explosions  of  nitro-glycerine,  at  the  same 
time  without  sacrificing  any  of  its  power. 
This  he  eflected  by  the  use  of  certain  sili- 
cious  earths  as  a  base  for  the  absorption  of 
the  nitro-glycerine,  the  experiment  resulting 
in  the  new  compound  which  he  called  dyna- 
mite, its  transportation  and  handling  being 
no  more  dangerous  than  that  of  ordinary 
gunpowder.  It  is  not  liable  to  spontaneous 
explosion  like  pure  nitroglycerine,  nor  can 


DYNAMITE 


142 


EAST  INDIAN  AEMY 


it  be  exploded  by  moderate  concussion ; 
when  unconfined,  if  set  tire  to,  it  will  burn 
without  explosion  ;  it  may  be  safely  kept  at 
any  moderate  temperature ;  is  inexplosive 
when  frozen,  and  acts  effectively  under 
water.  Its  effects  are  proportional  to  the 
quantity  of  nitro-glycerine  held  in  absorp- 
tion ;  but  under  circumstances  where  a  sus- 
tained bursting  pressure  is  required,  not 
being  as  instantaneous  in  its  action  as  nitro- 
glycerine, its  effects  are  more  powerful  than 
those  of  an  equal  weight  of  the  pure  mate- 
rial. The  best  absorbent  of  nitro-glycerine 
for  the  formation  of  dynamite  is  a  silicious 
earth  found  at  Oberlohe,  Hanover.  During 
the  siege  of  Paris,  a  scientific  committee  of 
investigation,  engaged  in  experimenting  on 
different  substances  as  a  substitute  for  this 
earth,  selected  as  the  best  silica,  alumina, 
and  boghead  cinders.  Any  of  these,  they  de- 
clared, when  combined  with  nitro-glycerine, 
formed  a  substance  which  possessed  all  the 
remarkable  qualities  attributed  to  the  dyna- 
mite of  Nobel.  During  the  siege  of  Paris 
dynamite  was  used  successfully  by  the 
French  engineers  to  free  a  flotilla  of  gun- 
boats caught  in  the  ice  on  the  Seine,  below 
Charenton,  by  simply  placing  a  quantity  of 
it  on  the  surface  of  the  ice.  The  explosion 
dislodged  the  ice  for  a  great  distance,  and 
the  masses  thus  loosened,  being  directed  into 


the  current  by  the  aid  of  a  small  steamer, 
floated  down  the  stream,  and  left  the  river 
open.  There  are  various  other  compounds 
of  nitro-glycerine,  such  as  dualin,  glyoxiline, 
etc.,  all  differing  in  the  matter  used  as  a 
base,  they  being  generally  some  explosive 
substances ;  but  none  of  them  appears  to 
have  come  into  such  general  use  or  to  be  as 
reliable  as  dynamite.  Many  preparations  of 
chlorate  and  picrate  of  potassium  have  also 
been  used  from  time  to  time  as  explosive 
agents  ;  but  their  great  sensibility  to  friction 
or  percussion  renders  them  extremely  dan- 
gerous ;  they  are,  therefore,  not  liable  to 
come  into  general  use.  A  preparation  of 
potassium  chlorate  and  sulphur,  not  liable 
to  explode  by  concussion,  but  very  sensitive 
to  friction,  is  used  with  great  effect  as  a 
charge  for  explosive  bullets. 

Dynamometer.  An  instrument  for  meas- 
uring the  force  of  recoil  in  a  small-arm, 
consisting  usually  of  a  spiral  spring  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  be  compressed  by  the  butt  of  the 
gun  in  firing.  An  index  shows  the  number 
of  pounds  required  to  produce  a  similar  com- 
pression. The  instruments  now  used  by  the 
U.  S.  Ordnance  Department  are  graduated 
to  show  the  effect  of  the  recoil  in  foot-pounds 
or  unltfi  of  work.  This  sensible  change  was 
made  at  the  suggestion  of  Lieut.  Henry 
Metcalfe  of  that  department. 


^.^ 


E. 


Eagle.  In  heraldry,  is  used  as  an  emblem 
of  magnanimity  and  fortitude.  In  the  Ko- 
man  armies  the  eagle  was  used  as  a  military 
standard,  and  even  previous  to  that  time  the 
Persians  under  Cyrus  the  Younger  used  the 
same  military  emblem.  In  modern  times, 
France,  Russia,  Prussia,  Austria,  and  the 
United  States  have  adopted  the  eagle  as  a 
national  military  symbol.  The  Austrian 
eagle  is  represented  as  double-headed. 

Eagle,  Black.  A  Prussian  order  of 
knighthood,  founded  in  1701 ;  united  with 
theorder  of  the  Red  Eagle,  or  order  of  Sin- 
cerity, instituted  by  the  margraves  of  Bay- 
reuth. 

Earl  Marshal.  Of  England,  is  one  of 
the  officers  of  state ;  is  the  head  of  the  col- 
lege of  arms,  which  has  jurisdiction  in  de- 
scents and  pedigrees ;  determines  all  rival 
claims  to  arms ;  and  he  grants  armorial- 
bearings,  through  the  medium  of  the  kings- 
of-arms,  to  parties  not  possessed  of  hereditary 
arms. 

Early  Cannon.  See  Ordnance,  His- 
tory OF. 

Earth-bag.     See  Bags. 

Earth-house,  or  Eird-house.     The  name 


generally  given  throughout  Ireland  and 
Scotland  to  the  underground  buildings 
(which  in  some  places  are  called  also  "  Picts' 
houses")  which  served  to  hide  a  few  people 
and  their  goods  in  time  of  war.  The  earth- 
house  is  a  single  irregularly-shaped  cham- 
ber, from  4  to  10  feet  in  width,  from  20  to  60 
feet  in  length,  and  from  4  to  7  feet  in  height, 
built  of  unhewn  and  uncemented  stones 
roofed  by  unhewn  fiags,  and  entered  from 
near  the  top  by  a  rude  doorway,  so  low  and 
narrow  that  only  one  man  can  slide  down 
through  it  at  a  time.  Implements  of  va- 
rious kinds  have  been  found  in  them, — such 
as  bronze  swords,  gold  rings,  etc. 

Earthworks.  In  fortification,  is  a  general 
name  for  all  military  constructions,  whether 
for  attack  or  defense,  in  which  the  material 
employed  is  chiefly  earth. 

East  Indian  Army.  In  1861  the  British 
Secretary  of  State  for  India  brought  forward 
a  measure  for  reorganizing  the  Indian  army, 
which  has  been  passed  into  a  law.  The 
British  portion  of  the  Indian  army  is  to 
form  part  of  the  queen's  army  generally, 
with  certain  honorary  distinctions,  and  is  to 
take  its  turn  at  home  and  in  the  colonies  like 


EBERSBERG 


143 


ECUADOR 


the  rest;  but  the  expenses  are  to  be  paid 
out  of  Indian,  not  Imperial  revenues.  The 
native  portion  is  to  be  wholly  in  India;  in 
its  reconstruction  many  iniprovoments  are 
made  to  lessen  the  chances  of  future  revolt. 

Ebersberg,  or  Ebelsberg.  A  town  of 
Upper  Austria,  on  the  Traun,  8  miles  north- 
west from  Ens,  remarkable  for  beinjf  the 
scene  of  the  defeat  of  the  Austrians  by  the 
French  in  1H0<». 

Eboulement  (Fr.).  The  crumbling  or 
fallinir  "f  the  walls  of  a  fortification. 

Ebro.  A  river  in  Spain,  the  scene  of  a 
signal  defeat  of  the  .Spaniards  by  the  French 
under  Lunnes,  near  Tudela,  November  28, 
1808;  and  also  of  several  important  move- 
ments of  the  allied  British  and  Spanish 
armies  duriiij;  the  Peninsular  war  (1809-13). 

Eccentric.  A  device  applied  to  tlie  truck 
wheels  of  top  carriages  and  beds  of  mortars 
in  sea-coast  artillery  to  give  either  rolling 
or  sliding  friction  at  will.  The  wheels  turn 
on  axle-arms  which  project  eccentrically 
from  the  ends  of  an  axle  passing  through 
both  cheeks;  when  the  axle  is  turned  the 
axle-arms  carry  the  wheels  up  or  down; 
when  at  the  lowest  point  the  weight  of  the 
carriage  is  borne  by  the  wheels,  and  the 
system  moves  on  rolling  friction;  the  wheels 
are  then  said  to  be  in  (jeo';  when  out  of  gear, 
or  at  their  highest  points,  the  wheels  do  not 
touch  the  rails  or  platform  plates,  but  the 
cheeks  rest  on  them,  and  the  carriage  moves 
upon  sliding  friction.  A  similar  device  is 
attached  tothe  chassis  near  the  pintle  to 
enable  it  to  be  readily  traversed  when  in 
gear,  and  give  it  stability  when  out  of  (fear. 

Eccentric  Projectiles.  A  spherical  pro- 
jectile in  which  the  centre  of  inertia  does 
not  coincide  with  the  centre  of  figure.  Such 
projectiles  are  subject  to  great  deviations, 
which  can  be  predicted  as  to  direction  by 
knowing  the  position  of  the  centre  of  inertia 
of  the  shot  in  the  bore  of  the  gun.  (See  Pro- 
JECTILKS,  Dkviation  OF.)  The  side  of  the 
ball  upiin  which  the  centre  t)f  inertia  lies  can 
be  found  by  floating  it  in  a  bath  of  mercury, 
and  marking  the  highest  point  where  itcomes 
to  a  state  of  rest;  the  centre  of  inertia  lies 
nearest  the  opposite  side;  its  exact  position 
is  determined  by  a  kind  of  balance  called  the 
eccentrowrier ;  the  ball  is  placed  in  the  bal- 
ance with  the  marked  point  nearest  the 
fulcrum ;  the  distance  of  the  centre  of  inertia 
or  gravity  from  the  fulcrum  is  obtained  by 
dividing  the  product  of  thecounterbaiancing 
weight  and  its  distance  from  the  fulcrum  by 
the  weight  of  the  projectile. 

Echarge,  Feu,  or  Feu  d'Echarge.  Is 
employed  to  signify  that  a  column  of  troops 
is  struck  at  a  very  oblique  angle. 

Echaugette.  In  military  history, signifies 
a  watch-tower,  or  kind  of  sentry-box. 

Echelon.  A  military  term  applied  to  a 
certain  arrangement  of  troops  when  several 
divisions  are  drawn  up  in  parallel  lines,  each 
to  the  right  or  the  left  of  the  one  preceding 
it,  like  "stops,"  or  the  rounds  of  a  ladder, 
so  that  ao  two  are  on  the  same  alignment. 


Each  division  by  marching  directly  forward 
can  form  a  line  with  that  which  is  in  advance 
of  it.  There  are  two  sorts  of  echelon,  direct 
and  oblique,  the  former  of  which  is  used  in 
an  attack  or  retreut. 

Eckmiihl,  or  Eggmiihl.  A  small  village 
of  Bavaria,  on  the  (ireut  Laber.  This  place 
is  celebrated  for  the  imi)ortant  victory  gained 
by  the  French  over  the  Austrians  on  Ajiril 
22,  1800,  and  which  obtained  for  Davoust 
the  title  of  Prince  of  Eckmiihl. 

Eclaireurs  (Fr.).  A  corps  of  grenadiers 
raised  by  Bonaparte  in  France,  who  from 
their  celerity  of  movements  were  compared 
to  lightning. 

Eclopes  (Fr.).  A  military  term  to  ex- 
press those  soldiers  who,  though  invalids,  are 
well  enough  to  follow  the  army.  Among 
these  may  be  classed  dragoons  or  horsemen 
whose  horses  become  lame  and  cannot  keep 
up  with  the  troop  or  squadron.  They  always 
march  in  the  rear  of  a  column. 

Ecole  Polytechnique.  A  celebrated  mili- 
tary school  in  Paris,  established  in  17H4, 
chiefly  for  the  artillery  service.  The  ex- 
aminations for  the  sciiools  are  public  to  all 
France.  It  not  only  furnishes  officers  of 
artillery,  but  also  civil  and  military  engineers 
of  every  description.  The  pupils  of  this 
school  defended  Paris  in  1814  and  1830. 

Economy.  In  a  military  sense,  implies 
the  minutiffl  or  interior  regulations  of  a 
regiment,  troop,  or  company.  Hence  regi- 
mental economy. 

Ecorcheurs  '{Ffaj/ers).  A  name  given  to 
])ands  of  armed  adventurers  who  desolated 
France  and  Belgium  during  the  15th  century, 
beginning  about  1435,  and  they  at  one  time 
numbered  100,000.  They  are  said  to  have 
stripped  their  victims  to  their  shirts,  and 
flayed  the  cattle.  They  were  favored  by  the 
English  invasion  and  the  civil  wars. 

Ecoutes.  Small  galleries  made  at  equal 
distances  in  front  of  the  glacis  of  the  fortifi- 
cations of  a  place.  They  serve  to  annoy  the 
enemy's  miners,  and  to  interrupt  them  in 
their  work. 

Ecreter  (Fr.).  To  batter  or  fire  at  the 
top  of  a  wall,  redoubt,  epaulement,  etc.,  so 
as  to  dislodge  or  drive  away  the  Tuen  that 
may  be  stationed  behind  it,  in  order  to  ren- 
der the  approach  more  easy.  Ecreter  leu 
y)oai/e.9rf<'.s/)«/i.s,<fn(fe'«  is  to  blunt  the  sharp  ends 
of  the  palisades.  This  ought  always  ti>  be 
done  before  you  attack  the  covert  way,  which 
is  generally  fenced  by  them. 

Ecu  (Fr.).  A  large  shield  which  was 
used  by  the  ancients,  and  carrieii  on  their 
left  arm,  to  ward  ott'  the  blows  of  sword  or 
sabre.  This  instrument  of  defense  was 
originally  invented  by  the  Samnite.s.  The 
Moors  had  ecus,  or  shields,  sufficiently  large 
to  cover  the  whole  of  their  bodies.  The 
clipei  of  the  Romans  only  di tiered  from  the 
ecii  in  shape  ;  the  former  being  entirely 
round,  and  the  latter  oval. 

Ecuador,  or  Equator.  A  South  Ameri- 
can republic,  founded  in  1831,  when  the 
Colombian  republic  was  divided  into  three; 


EDESSA 


144 


EI  LAU-PEEUSSISCH 


the  other  two  being  Venezuela  and  New 
Granada.  Gen.  Franco  was  here  defeated 
in  battle  by  Gen.  Flores,  August,  1860. 
Several  insurrections  have  taken  place  in 
Ecuador  since  1860. 

Edessa,  or  Callinhoe.  An  ancient  city 
of  Mesopotamia.  In  1144  the  Edessenes 
were  defeated  by  the  Saracen  chief  Nur-ed- 
deen,  and  all  who  were  not  massacred  were 
sold  as  slaves.  After  many  vicissitudes,  it 
fell  successively  into  the  hands  of  the  sul- 
tans of  Egypt,  the  Byzantines,  the  Mongols, 
Turkomans,  and  Persians;  the  city  was 
finally  conquered  by  the  Turks,  and  has  ever 
since  formed  a  portion  of  the  Turkish  do- 
minion.    Its  modern  name  is  Oorfa. 

Edge.  The  thin  or  cutting  part  of  a 
sword  or  sabre. 

Edgehill.  An  elevated  ridge  in  War- 
wickshire, England,  7  miles  northeast  from 
Banbury.  Here  was  fought,  on  Sunday, 
October  23,  1642,  the  first  great  battle  of  the 
civil  war,  between  the  royalist  forces  under 
Charles  I.  and  the  Parliamentarians  under 
the  Earl  of  Essex.  Prince  Rupert,  who  led 
the  right  wing,  charged  with  his  cavalry 
the  left  wing  of  the  Parliamentarians,  broke 
it,  and  pursued  it  madly  to  Keinton.  Essex 
with  his  force  defeated  the  right  wing  of  the 
royalists. 

Edinburgh.  The  metropolis  of  Scotland, 
situated  about  IJ  miles  from  the  Firth  of 
Forth.  It  was  taken  by  the  Anglo-Saxons 
in  482 ;  retaken  by  the  Picts  in  695 ;  city 
fortified  and  castle  rebuilt,  1074;  besieged 
by  Donald  Bane,  1093.  The  city  was  taken 
by  the  English  in  1296;  surrendered  to 
Edward  III.  in  1356.  It  was  burnt  by 
Eichard  II.,  1385,  and  by  Henry  IV.,  1401. 
A  British  force  landed  from  a  fleet  of  200 
ships,  in  1544,  and  burned  Edinburgh.  The 
castle  surrendered  to  Cromwell  in  1650. 
The  young  Pretender  occupied  Holyrood 
September  17,  1745,  and  the  battle  of  Pres- 
ton Pans  took  place  September  21,  1745. 

Effective.  Fit  for  service  ;  as,  an  army 
of  30,000  eflTective  (fighting)  men. 

Efficient.  A  thoroughly  trained  and 
capable  soldier.  It  is  also  a  term  used  in 
connection  with  the  volunteers.  A  volun- 
teer is  said  to  be  eflicient  when  he  has  per- 
formed the  appointed  number  of  drills  and 
fired  the  regular  number  of  rounds  at  the 
target,  in  the  course  of  the  year. 

Egham.  A  village  in  the  northwest  of 
Surrey,  18  miles  west  of  London.  In  the 
vicinity  is  Runnymede,  a  meadow  on  the 
Thames,  where  King  John  conferred  with 
his  barons  before  signing  the  Magna  Charta 
in  1215. 

Egypt.  A  country  in  Northeast  Africa. 
On  the  division  of  the  Roman  empire  (395 
A.D.)  Egypt  became  a  part  of  the  dominions 
of  Arcadius,  ruler  of  the  Eastern  empire. 
But,  owing  to  religious  feuds  of  the  Jaco- 
bites and  Melchites,  it  became  a  province 
of  Persia  (616)  for  twelve  years.  In  640  the 
governor,  Makaukas,  endeavored  to  make 
himself  independent,  and  invited  the  arms 


of  the  Arabs,  and  Amrou  easily  conquered 
Egypt.  Although  Alexandria  was  retaken 
by  Constantine  III.,  the  Arabs  drove  him 
out  and  maintained  their  conquest,  and 
Egypt  remained  an  appenage  of  the  caliph- 
ate. It  afterwards  passed  into  the  dynasty 
of  the  Turks,  and  was  administered  by 
pashas.  Constant  rebellions  of  the  Mame- 
lukes, and  the  violence  of  contending  fac- 
tions, distracted  the  country  for  more  than 
two  centuries.  The  most  remarkable  event 
of  this  period  was  the  French  invasion  by 
Bonaparte  in  1798,  which,  by  the  conquest 
of  Alexandria  and  the  battle  of  the  Pyra- 
mids against  the  Mamelukes,  led  to  the  en- 
tire subjection  of  the  country,  from  which 
the  French  were  finally  expelled  by  the 
Turks  and  British  in  1801,  and  the  country 
restored  to  the  Ottoman  Porte.  The  rise  of 
Mohammed  Ali  in  1806  imparted  a  galvanic 
prosperity  to  Egypt  by  the  destruction  of 
the  Mamelukes,  the  formation  of  a  regular 
army,  and  the  introduction  of  European 
civilization.  He  considerably  extended  its 
boundaries,  even  into  Asia ;  but  in  1840  he 
was  dispossessed  of  his  Asiatic  conquests. 
The  treaty  of  London,  however,  in  1841,  con- 
firmed the  viceroyalty  of  Eg\'pt  as  a  fief  of 
the  Ottoman  empire  to  him  and  his  descend- 
ants. 

Ehrenbreitstein.  A  town  and  fortress  of 
Rhenish  Prussia,  situated  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Rhine,  directly  opposite  Coblentz, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  bridge  of 
boats.  The  fortress  of  Ehrenbreitstein  oc- 
cupies the  summit  of  a  precipitous  rock  490 
feet  high,  and  has  been  called  the  Gibraltar 
of  the  Rhine,  on  account  of  its  great  nat- 
ural strength  and  its  superior  works.  It 
is  capable  of  accommodating  a  garrison  of 
14,000  men,  and  provisions  for  8000  men  for 
ten  years  can  bestowedin  its  vast  magazines. 
Ehrenbreitstein  was  besieged  in  vain  by  the 
French  in  1688,  but  fell  into  their  hands  in 
1799,  after  a  siege  of  fourteen  months.  Two 
years  after,  the  French,  on  leaving,  at  the 
peace  of  Luneville,  blew  up  the  works.  It 
was  assigned,  however,  to  Prussia  by  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  in  1814,  and  under  that 
country  was  restored  and  thoroughly  forti- 
fied, it  is  now  one  of  the  strongest  forts  in 
Europe. 

Eighty- ton  Gun.  A  large  "Woolwich  gun 
designed  as  an  armament  for  the  "  Inflexi- 
ble." Its  construction  was  authorized  in 
March,  1874,  and  the  gun  was  ready  for 
proof  in  October,  1875.  When  first  made 
it  weighed  81  tons,  having  a  caliber  of  14J 
inches.  It  was  bored  during  the  progress  of 
the  experiments  to  16  inches,  and  was  given 
an  enlarged  chamber.  The  experiments  were 
conducted  by  the  celebrated  "  Committee  on 
Explosion."  See  Ordnance,  Recent  His- 
tory OF. 

Eilau-Preussisch.  A  town  of  Prussia, 
government  of  Konigsberg.  It  is  chiefly 
celebrated  for  the  victory  gained  there  by 
the  French  over  the  united  Prussian  and 
Russian  armies,  February  8,  1807. 


EINSIEDELN 


145 


ELMINA 


Einsiedeln.  A  small  town  of  Switzer- 
land, in  the  canton  of  Schwylz.  It  contains 
a  fine  abbey,  which  was  rilled  by  the  French 
in  1798. 

Ejector.  The  device  used  in  breech- 
loading  small-arms  to  throw  out  the  metallic 
cartridge-case  after  it  is  fired. 

Ejector  Spring.  The  spring  which  oper- 
ates an  ejector. 

El  Arish.  A  village  of  Lower  Egypt  on 
the  Mediterranean,  on  the  route  from  Egypt 
to  Syria.  It  is  but  little  more  than  a  i'ort 
and  a  few  houses,  and  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  1799;  and  here  the  French  gen- 
eral Kleber  signed,  in  1800,  a  convention 
with  Sir  Sydney  Smith,  engaging  to  leave 
Egypt  with  his  troops. 

Elath,  or  Eloth.  A  seaport  situated  at 
the  head  of  that  gulf  of  the  Red  Sea,  to 
which  it  gave  its  name.       It  was  a  fertitied 

yort  in  the  time  of  Solomon  ;  revolted  against 
Oram  ;  was  retaken  by  A/.ariah  ;  and  was 
eventually  conquered  by  liezui,  and  held  by 
the  Syrians  till  it  became  a  Uoman  frontier 
town.  Under  the  Mohammedan  rule  it 
rose  for  a  while  to  some  importance,  but  has 
now  sunk  into  insignificance. 

Elba.  An  island  belonging  to  the  king- 
dom of  Italy,  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
between  Corsica  and  the  coast  of  Tuscany, 
from  the  latter  of  which  it  is  separated  by 
a  channel  5  miles  in  breadth.  Elba  has 
been  rendered  famous  in  history  from  having 
been  Napoleon's  place  of  e.\ile  from  May, 
1814,  till  February,  1815. 

El  Boden.  A  mountain-range,  near  Ciu- 
dad  Uoilrino,  in  Spain,  where  the  British 
troops  distinguished  themselves  against  an 
overwhi'lming  French  force  in  1811. 

Elbow-gauntlet.  An  ancient  piece  of 
armor,  a  gauntlet  of  plate  reaching  to  the 
elbow,  adopted  from  the  Asiatics  in  the  lOth 
century. 

Elbow-piece.  An  ancient  piece  of  armor, 
a  metal  jplate  used  to  cover  the  junction  of 
the  rere-brace  and  rant-brace,  by  which  the 
upper  and  lower  half  of  the  arm  were  cov- 
ered. 

Elchingen.  A  village  of  Bavaria,  on  the 
Danube,  7  miles  northeast  from  Ulm.  Here 
the  -Vustrians  were  defeated  by  the  French 
in  ISO.').  Fur  this  victory  Marshal  Ney  re- 
ceived the  title  of  Duke  of  Elchingen.  " 

Electric  light.  An  intense  light  produced 
by  passing  an  electric  current  between  points 
of  carbon  forming  electrodes  of  the  circuit. 
There  are  many  forms  of  the  apparatus.  It 
will  bo  extensively  used  in  future  wars  for 
lighting  harbor  channels,  approaches  to  forts, 
etc. 

Elements.  In  a  military  sense,  signify 
the  first  principles  of  tactics,  fi>rtification, 
and  gunnery. 

Elephant.  See  Pack  and  Draught  Ani- 
mals. 

Elevate,  To.  Is  to  raise  the  muzzle  of  tne 
cannon  or  ritlo  so  that  tlio  luttor  shall  bo  di- 
rected at  a  point  above  that  which  it  is  in- 
tended shall  be  struck. 


Elevating  Arc.  In  gunnery,  is  an  arc  at- 
tached to  the  base  of  the  breech  parallel  to 
the  ratchets  and  graduated  into  degrees  and 
parts  of  a  degree.  A  pointer  attached  to  the 
fulcrum  points  to  the  zero  of  the  scale  when 
the  axis  of  the  piece  is  horizontal.  Eleva- 
tions and  depressions  are  indicated  by  the 
.scale.  Besides  the  graduations  on  the  arc, 
the  ranges  (in  yards)  and  charges  for  shot 
and  shell  are  i^iven. 

Elevating  Bar.  An  iron  bar  used  in  ele- 
vating guns  or  mortars  having  ratchets  at 
the  breech. 

Elevating  Screw.  The  screw  by  means  of 
which  the  breech  of  a  cannon  is  raised,  the 
result  being  to  depress  the  muzzle. 

Elevating  Sight.  See  Sight,  Elevat- 
ing. 

Elevatioru  In  gunnery,  is  one  of  the  ele- 
ments of  pointing,  being  the  movement  of 
the  axis  of  a  piece  in  a  vertical  plane  as  dis- 
tinguished from  direction  or  its  movement 
horizontally.  The  elevation  is  usually  posi- 
tive,— that  is,  the  gun  is  pointed  above  the 
horizontal.  VV^hen  it  is  pointed  below,  it  is 
said  to  be  depressed.  The  word  is  also  used 
to  express  degree,  or  as  a  synonym  for  atirile 
of  elevation.  The  sights  or  elevating  appa- 
ratus of  guns  are  graduated  on  the  theory  that 
the  object  is  in  the  horizontal  plane  of  the 
piece,  or  that  the  line  of  sight  is  horizont^il, 
which  is  not  always  the  case  in  practice. 
"When  the  elevation  is  determined  by  sights 
the  angle  of  elevation  is  the  angle  between 
the  line  of  sight  and  the  axis  of  the  piece, 
when  these  lines  are  in  the  same  vertical 
plane, — or  the  angle  between  the  line  of  sight 
and  a  plane  containing  the  axis  of  the  j)iece 
and  a  horizontal  line  intersecting  it  at  right 
angles,  when  they  are  not.  The  graduations 
of  tangent  scales  and  fixed  breech-sights  give 
this  angle  in  degrees.  The  graduation  of 
the  pendulum  hausse  gives  the  angle  cor- 
rectly only  when  the  line  of  sight  is  horizon- 
tal. When  the  elevation  is  given  by  ele- 
vating arcs  or  gunner's  quadrant,  the  angle 
of  elevation  becomes  the  angle  of  tire,  or  the 
angle  which  the  axis  of  the  piece  makes  with 
the  horizontal.  Elevation  is  necessary  to 
overcome  the  effect  of  gravity  on  the  pro- 
jectile. The  degree  of  elevation  increases 
with  the  range.  In  vacuo  the  elevation  cor- 
responding to  the  maximum  range  is  4o°. 
In  the  air  the  angle  of  maximum  range  di- 
minishes with  the  velocity  and  increases  with 
diameter  and  density  of  the  ball.  It  is 
greater  in  mortars  than  in  howitzers,  and 
greater  in  howitzers  than  in  guns.  In  mor- 
tars it  approximates  to  42°;  in  guns  it  is 
about  37°. 

EUisburgh.  A  village  of  Jefferson  Co., 
X.  Y.  In  1814  an  engagement  t<K>k  place 
here  between  the  Americans  and  British,  in 
which  the  latter  were  defeated. 

Elmina.  A  fortified  town  and  seaport  of 
"West  Africa,  founded  l>y  the  Portuguese  in 
1481  ;  was  the  fir.-*t  European  8ottK<inont 
planted  on  the  coast  of  Guinea.  It  was 
taken  bv  the  Dutch  in  1037,  and  was  ceded 


ELSASS 


146 


EMPEROR 


by  them  to  Portugal.  It  was  burned  by  the 
British  troops  in  1873. 

Elsass  (Fr.  Alsace).  One  of  the  old  Ger- 
man provinces,  having  the  Rhine  on  the  east 
and  the  Vosges  Mountains  on  the  west.  It 
was  ceded  to  France  in  1648;  but  after  the 
Franco-German  war  was  annexed  by  Prussia, 
under  treaty  of  May  10,  1871. 

Elswick  Compressor.  An  arrangement 
for  compressing  friction  phxtes  used  in  the 
English  navy  to  take  up  the  recoil  of  gun- 
carriages  upon  their  slides.  The  7  friction 
plates  arranged  longitudinally  under  the 
carriage  and  attached  to  its  lower  part,  have 
alternating  between  them  6  long  flat  bars 
attached  at  their  ends  to  the  slide  by  bolts 
passing  through  them,  but  allowing  them  a 
side  motion.  The  plates  and  bars  are  tightly 
clamped  by  short  rocking  levers,  the  Tower 
ends  of  which  act  on  the  outside  plates. 
The  levers  are  worked  by  collars  on  a  threaded 
shaft,  which  catch  their  upper  ends.  The 
shaft  is  called  the  compressor  shaft,  and  has 
a  handle  or  crank  on  the  outside  of  each 
cheek  or  bracket, — one  is  called  the  adjusting 
leve?-,  the  other  the  compr-essor  lever.  The 
first  is  used  to  give  an  initial  compression  to 
suit  the  charge,  the  other  is  operated  by  the 
recoil  being  forced  down  by  a  tripper  on  the 
slide.  Two  forms  of  the  compressor  are 
used, — one  for  the  single  plate,  the  other  for 
the  double-plate  carriage.  In  the  double- 
plate  carriage  the  adjusting  lever  can  be  set 
to  any  degree  of  compression  without  caus- 
ing any  motion  in  the  compressor  shaft  or 
lever. 

Klswick    Gun.     Armstrong   gun  (which 

Elvas.  A  strong  frontier  town  of  Portu- 
gal, in  the  province  of  Alemtejo,  situated  on 
a  rocky  hill,  10  miles  northwest  from  Bada- 
jos.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  strong- 
holds in  Europe.  The  arsenal  and  bomb- 
proof barracks  are  capable  of  containing 
6000  or  7000  men.  In  1808  it  was  taken  and 
held  for  five  months  by  the  French. 

Emaum  Ghaur.  In  Scinde,  was  a  strong 
fortress  in  the  Thur  or  Great  Sandy  Desert, 
separating  that  province  from  the  rajpoot 
state  of  Jessulmere.  It  was  captured  by  Sir 
Charles  Napier  in  January,  1843. 

Embark.  To  put  or  cause  to  go  on  board 
a  vessel  or  boat;  as,  to  embark  troops.  To 
go  on  board  of  a  ship,  boat,  or  vessel ;  as,  the 
troops  embarked  for  Egypt. 

Embarkation.  The  act  of  putting  or 
going  on  board  of  a  vessel. 

Embaterion.  A  war-song  of  the  Spar- 
tans, accompanied  by  flutes,  which  they  sung 
marching  in  time,  and  rushing  on  the  en- 
emy. The  origin  of  the  embaterion  is  lost 
in  antiquity. 

Embattle.  To  arrange  in  order  of  battle  ; 
to  draw  up  in  array,  as  troops  for  battle ; 
also,  to  prepare  or  arm  for  battle. 

Embattle.  To  furnish  with  battlements. 
^'  E/nhatiled"  house. 

Embattlement,  An  indented  parapet ; 
battlement. 


Embezzlement.  See  Appendix,  Arti- 
cles OF  Wak,  60. 

Emblazonry.     See  Blazonry. 

Emblee  {Fr.).  A  prompt,  sudden,  and 
vigorous  attack,  which  is  made  against  the 
covert  way  and  outworks  of  a  fortified  place. 

Embody.  To  form  or  collect  into  a  body 
or  united  mass;  as,  to  embody  troops. 

Embrasseur  (Fr.).  A  piece  of  iron, 
which  grasps  the  trunnions  of  a  piece  of 
ordnance,  when  it  is  raised  upon  the  boring 
machine,  to  widen  its  caliber. 

Embrasure.  In  fortification,  is  an  open- 
ing in  the  parapet,  or  a  hole  in  the  mask 
wall  of  a  casemate  through  which  the  guns 
are  pointed.  The  sole  or  bottom  of  the  em- 
brasure is  from  2J  to  4  feet  (according  to  the 
size  of  the  gun)  above  the  platform  upon 
which  the  gun  stands.  Parapet  embrasures 
are  sntallest  at  the  interior  opening,  which 
is  called  the  mouth,  and  is  from  IJ  to  2  feet 
wide.  The  widening  of  the  embrasure  is 
what  is  called  the  splay.  The  sole  slopes 
downward  about  one  in  six.  Its  exterior 
line,  or  its  intersection  with  the  exterior 
slope,  is  usually  made  half  the  length  of  the 
sole.  The  line  which  bisects  the  sole  is  called 
the  directrix.  The  sides  are  called  cheeks. 
The  masses  of  earth  between  embrasures  are 
called  merlons.  When  the  directrix  makes 
an  angle  with  the  direction  of  the  parapet, 
the  embrasure  is  oblique.  The  embrasures  of 
casemates  have  in  horizontal  section  a  shape 
something  like  an  hour-glass.  The  nearest 
part  is  called  the  throat.  This  is  sometimes 
closed  with  iron  shutters. 

Embrocher.  A  vulgar  term  used  among 
French  soldiers  to  signify  the  act  of  running 
a  man  through  the  body ;  literally  to  spit 
him. 

Emery.  A  powder  made  by  grinding  a 
mineral,— corundum, — used  by  soldiers  for 
cleaning  their  arms. 

Eminence.  A  high  or  rising  ground, 
which  overlooks  and  commands  the  low 
places  about  it.  Such  places,  within  cannon- 
shot  of  any  fortified  place,  are  a  great  disad- 
vantage, if  the  besiegers  become  masters  of 
them. 

Emir,  or  Emeer.  An  Arabic  word, 
equivalent  to  "ruler,"  is  a  title  given  to  all 
independent  chieftains,  and  also  to  all  the 
actual  or  supposed  descendants  of  Moham- 
med through  his  daughter  Fatima.  In 
former  times,  the  title  of  Emir  was  borne 
by  the  leaders  in  the  religious  wars  of  the 
Mohammedans,  and  by  several  ruling  fami- 
lies. 

Emissary,  A  person  sent  by  any  power 
that  is  at  war  with  another,  for  the  purpose 
of  creating  disafl'ection  among  the  people  of 
the  latter. 

Emousser  (Fr.).  To  blunt,  to  dull.  In 
a  military  sense,  it  signifies  to  take  off  the 
faur  corners  of  a  battalion,  which  has  formed 
a  square,  and  to  give  it,  by  those  means,  an 
octagon  figure;  from  the  diflTerent  obtuse  an- 
gles of  which  it  may  fire  in  all  directions. 

Emperor  [Imperator).     Among  the   an- 


EMPILEMENT 


147 


ENGINEER 


cient  Romans,  signified  the  general  of  an 
army,  wlio,  for  some  extraordinary  success, 
had  been  complimented  with  this  appellation. 
Subsequently  it  came  to  denominate  an  ab- 
solute monarch  or  supreme  commander  of 
an  emjiire.  In  Europe,  the  first  who  boro 
the  title  was  Charlemagne. 

Empilement  (Fr.).  From  empiler,  to 
pile  uji.  The  act  of  disposing  shot  and  shell 
m  the  most  secure  and  convenient  manner. 
Tiiis  generally  occurs  in  arsenals  and  citadels. 
Emprise.  A  hazardous  attempt  upon  the 
enemy. 

Encamp.  To  form  and  occupy  a  camp  ; 
to  halt  on  a  march,  spread  tents,  and  remain 
for  a  night  or  for  a  longer  time  ;  as,  an  army 
or  company. 

Encampment.  The  pitching  of  a  camp. 
The  act  of  pitching  huts  or  tents,  as  by  an 
army,  for  ttinporary  lodging,  or  rest;  the 
place  where  an  army  or  company  is  en- 
camped. There  are  uitrrnc.hed  camps,  where 
an  army  is  intended  to  be  kept  some  time, 
protected  against  the  enemy  ;  fyin<j  camps, 
for  brief  occupation  ;  camps  of  position,  bear- 
ingrelation  to  thestrategy  of  the  commander; 
and  camps  of  iyi  struct  ion,  to  habituate  the 
troops  to  the  duties  and  fatigues  of  war. 

Enceinte.  In  fortification,  denotes  gen- 
erally the  whole  area  of  a  fortified  place. 
Properly,  however,  it  means  a  cincture  or 
girdle,  and  in  this  sense  the  enceinte  signi- 
fies the  principal  wall  or  rampart  encircling 
the  place,  comprising  the  curtain  and  bas- 
tions, and  having  the  main  ditch  imme- 
diately outside  it. 

Encircle.  To  pass  around,  as  in  a  circle  ; 
to  go  or  come  round  ;  as,  the  army  encircled 
the  city. 

Encombrer  (Fr.).  In  fortification,  to  fill 
up  any  hollow  place,  such  as  a  stagnant 
lake,  etc.,  with  rubbish. 

Encompass.  To  describe  a  circle  about ; 
to  go  around  ;  to  encircle  ;  to  inclose  ;  to  en- 
viron ;  as,  an  army  encompa.sses  a  city  ;  a 
ship's  voyage  encompasses  the  world. 

Encounter.  A  meeting  with  hostile  pur- 
pose ;  hence,  a  combat ;  a  battle. 

Encounter.  To  come  against  face  to  face ; 
to  engage  in  conflict  witli ;  to  oppose;  as, 
two  armies  encounter  each  other. 

Encounters.  In  military  affairs,  are 
combats  or  fights  between  two  persons  only. 
Figuratively,  battles  or  attacks  by  small  or 
lar^e  armifs. 

Encroachments.  The  advancement  of 
the  troops  of  one  nation  on  the  rights  or 
limits  of  another. 

Enemy.  In  military  language,  the  op- 
posing force  ;  as,  "  We  have  met  the  enemy, 
and  they  are  ours." 

Enfans  Perdus.  Forlorn  hope,  in  mil- 
itary history,  are  soldiers  detached  from  sev- 
eral regiments,  or  otherwise  appointed  to 
give  the  first  onset  in  battle,  or  in  an  attack 
upon  the  counterscarp,  or  the  breach  of  a 
place  besieged  ;  so  called  (by  the  French) 
Docause  of  the  imminent  danger  to  which 
tliey  arc  exposed. 


Enfield  Rifle-musket.  The  service  arm 
of  (ircat  Britain  prior  to  the  adoption  of 
breech-loaders;  manufactured  at  Enfield, 
England,  at  the  royal  small-arms  factories. 
It  was  first  extensively  introduced  in  1853, 
and  was  used  during  the  Crimean  war.  It 
had  three  grooves,  with  a  twist  of  about  one 
turn  in  G  feet.  Before  the  ad«jption  of  the 
Martini-Henry,  large  numbers  of  those  guns 
were  utilized  by  converting  them  into  breech- 
loaders on  the  Snider  principle.  The  En- 
field rifles,  though  very  serviceable  weap<ms, 
much  better  than  the  Belgian  and  Austrian 
arms  imported  to  the  United  States  during 
the  civil  war,  were  in  almost  every  respect 
inferior  to  the  old  Springfield  (U.  S.)  rifle- 
musket,  nearly  of  the  same  caliber  (.58),  the 
Enfield  being  .577.  All  those  weapons  have 
now  given  place  to  various  breech-loading 
arms. 

Enfilade.  Is  to  fire  in  the  direction  of 
the  length  of  a  line  of  parapet  or  troops; 
to  "rake  it,"  as  the  sailors  say.  In  the 
siege  of  a  fortress,  the  trenches  of  approach 
are  cut  in  a  zigzag,  to  prevent  the  defenders 
enfilading  them  from  the  walls. 

Enfilading  Batteries.  In  siege  opera- 
tions are  one  of  the  classes  of  batteries  em- 
ployed, the  other  classes  being  counter  and 
breaching  batteries.  Enfilading  batteries 
are  located  on  the  prolongation  of  the  faces 
and  flanks  of  the  works  besieged,  to  secure 
a  raking  fire  along  the  terre-pleins. 

Engage.     To  gain  for  service;  to  enlist. 

Engage.  To  enter  into  conflict  ;  to  join 
battle;  as,  the  armies  engaged  in  a  general 
battle. 

Engagement.  A  general  action  or  bat- 
tle, whether  by  land  or  sea. 

Engarrison.  To  protect  any  place  by  a 
garrison. 

Engen.  In  Baden  ;  here  Moreau  defeated 
the  Austrians,  May  3,  1800. 

Enghien,  or  Steerikirk.  In  Southwest- 
ern Belgium.  Here  the  British  under  AVil- 
lianilli.  were  defeated  bv  the  French  under 
Marshal  Luxemburg,  .lu'ly  24,  1002.  _ 

Engineer,  Military.  An  officer  in  the 
service  of  a  government,  whose  duties  are 
principally  to  construct  fortifications,  to 
make  surveys  for  warlike  purposes,  to  facil- 
itate the  psissage  of  an  army  by  the  con- 
struction of  roads  and  bridges:  in  short,  to 
execute  all  engineering  works  of  a  military 
nature.  He  is  also  called  upon  to  undertake 
many  works  which  more  properly  belong  to 
the  business  of  a  civil  engineer,  such  as  the 
survey  of  the  country,  the  inspection  of 
public  works,  and,  in  short,  all  the  duties  of 
a  government  engineer. 

Engineering.  "  The  business  of  the  engi- 
neer; thi>  art  of  designing  and  superin- 
tending the  execution  of  railways,  bridges, 
canals,  harbors,  docks,  the  defense  of  for- 
tresses, etc. 

Engineer  Corps.  In  modern  nations,  the 
necessity  for  a  corps  of  stafl-oflicers.  trained 
to  arrange  for  and  overcome  the  embarrass- 
ments of  the  movements  of  an  army  in  the 


ENGINEEES 


148 


EPAULEMENT 


field,  has  been  thoroughly  demonstrated, 
and  hence,  in  European  armies,  a  trained 
staff  of  officers  is  organized  for  this  purpose. 
In  the  United  States  a  force  of  about  300 
officers  and  enlisted  men  are  engaged  in 
these  duties.     See  Sappers  and  Miners. 

Engineers,  Topographical.  See  Topo- 
graphical Engineers. 

England.  The  southern  and  larger  divis- 
ion of  the  island  of  Great  Britain,  and  the 
principal  member  of  the  United  Kingdom 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  It  was  so 
named,  it  is  said,  by  Egbert,  first  king  of 
the  English,  in  a  general  council  held  at 
"Winchester,  829.  It  was  united  with 
"Wales,  1283;  with  Scotland  in  1G03;  and 
Ireland  was  incorporated  with  them,  Jan- 
uary 1,  1801.  For  previous  history,  see 
Britain;  and  for  further  details  of  bat- 
tles, etc.,  see  separate  articles. 

Enlargement.  The  act  of  going  or  being 
allowed  to  go  beyond  the  prescribed  limits ; 
as  the  extending  the  boundaries  of  an  arrest, 
when  the  officer  is  said  to  be  enlarged,  or 
under  arrest  at  large. 

Enlargement.  Enlargements  of  the  bore 
and  vent  are  injuries  suftered  by  all  cannon 
that  are  much  used.  The  term  is  technically 
applied  to  certain  injuries  to  brass  cannon. 
See  Injuries  to  Cannon. 

Enlistment.  The  voluntary  enrollment 
of  men  in  the  military  or  naval  service. 

Enniscorthy.  A  town  of  Ireland,  in  the 
county  of  Wexford,  on  the  river  Slaney.  It 
arose  in  the  Norman  castle,  still  entire, 
founded  by  Raymond  le  Gros,  one  of  the 
early  Anglo-Norman  invaders.  Cromwell 
took  this  place  in  1649  ;  and  the  Irish  rebels 
stormed  and  burned  it  in  1798. 

Enniskillen.  A  town  of  Ireland,  in  the 
county  of  Fermanagh.  This  place  is  famous 
for  the  victory,  in  1689,  won  by  the  troops 
of  William  III.,  under  Lord  Hamilton,  over 
a  superior  force  of  James  II.,  under  Lord 
Gilmoy.  The  banners  taken  in  the  battle 
of  the  Bo^'ne  hang  in  the  town-hall  of  En- 
niskillen. 

Enniskillen  Dragoons.  A  British  regi- 
ment of  horse ;  it  was  first  instituted  from 
the  brave  defenders  of  Enniskillen,  in  1689. 

Enrank.     To  place  in  ranks  or  in  order. 

Enroll.  To  place  a  man's  name  on  the 
roll  or  nominal  list  of  a  body  of  soldiers. 

Ensconce.     To  cover  as  with  a  fort. 

Enseigne  (F;-.).  The  colors.  The  French 
designate  all  warlike  symbols  under  the 
term  enseiffne ;  but  they  again  distinguish 
that  word  by  the  appellations  of  drapeaux, 
colors,  and  etendards,  standards.  Drapeaux 
of  colors  are  particularly  characteristic  of 
the  infantry  ;  etendai-ds  or  standards  belong 
to  the  cavalry. 

Ensemble.  Together ;  the  exact  execu- 
tion of  the  same  movements,  performed  in 
the  same  manner,  and  by  the  same  motions. 
It  is  the  union  of  all  the  men  who  compose 
a  battalion,  or  several  battalions  or  compa- 
nies of  infantry  and  cavalry,  who  are  to  act 
as  if  put  in  motion  by  the  same  spring. 


Enshield.     To  cover  from  the  enemy. 

Ensiform.     Having  the  shape  of  a  sword. 

Ensign-bearer.  One  who  carries  a  flag  ; 
an  ensign. 

Ensigncy.  The  rank  or  office  of  an  en- 
sign. 

Ensisheim.  In  Eastern  France;  here 
Turenne  defeated  the  imperial  army,  and 
expelled  it  from  Alsace,  October  4,  1674. 

Entanglement.  Abatis,  so  called,  when 
made  by  cutting  only  partly  through  the 
trunks,  and  pulling  the  upper  parts  to  the 
ground,  where  they  are  picketed. 

Entanglement,  Wire.  Formed  by  twist- 
ing wire  round  stout  stakes  or  trees  7  feet 
apart.  The  wires  are  placed  about  a  foot  or 
18  inches  above  the  ground.  The  trees- 
pickets  or  trees  are  in  two  or  three  rows, 
arranged  cheekerwise,  the  wires  crossing 
diagonally. 

Enter,  To.  To  engage  in  ;  to  enlist  in ; 
as,  to  enter  an  army. 

Enterprise.  An  undertaking  attended 
with  some  hazard  and  danger. 

Enterpriser.  An  officer  who  undertakes 
or  engages  in  any  important  and  hazardous 
design. 

Entire,  or  Rank  Entire.  A  line  of  men 
in  one  continued  row  by  the  side  of  each 
other.  When  behind  each  other,  they  are 
said  to  be  in  file. 

Entonnoir  {Fr.).  The  cavity  or  hole 
which  remains  after  the  explosion  of  amine. 
It  likewise  meant  the  tin  case  or  port-feu 
which  is  used  to  convey  the  priming  powder 
into  the  vent  of  a  cannon. 

Entrench,  To.  Is  to  construct  hastily 
thrown-up  field-works  for  the  purpose  of 
strengthening  a  force  in  position.  See  In- 
trench. 

Entrepots.  Magazines  and  places  appro- 
priated in  garrison  towns  for  the  reception 
of  stores,  etc. 

Envelope.  In  fortification,  a  work  of 
earth,  sometimes  in  the  form  of  a  single 
parapet,  and  at  others  like  a  small  rampart ; 
it  is  raised  sometimes  in  the  ditch,  and  some- 
times beyond  it.  Envelopes  are  occasionally 
en  zif/zag,  to  inclose  a  weak  ground,  where 
that  is  practicable,  with  single  lines.  En- 
velopes, in  a  ditch,  are  sometimes  called 
sillons,  contregardes,  conserves,  lunettes, 
etc. 

Environ,  To.  To  surround  in  a  hostile 
manner  ;  to  hem  in  ;  to  besiege. 

Enzersdorf.  A  fortified  town  of  Austria, 
8  miles  east  from  Vienna. 

Epaule.  In  fortification,  denotes  the 
shoulder  of  a  bastion,  or  the  place  where  its 
face  and  flank  meet  and  form  the  angle, 
called  the  angle  of  the  shoulder. 

Epaulement  (Fr.  epaule).  In  siege 
works,  is  a  portion  of  a  battery  or  earthwork. 
The  siege  batteries  are  generally  shielded  at 
one  end  at  least  by  epaulements,  forming 
an  obtuse  angle  with  the  main  line  of  the 
battery.  The  name  is  often  given  errone- 
ously to  the  parapet  of  the  battery  itself,  but 
it   applies  properly  to  the  flanking  return 


EPAULETTE 


149 


EQUIPMENTS 


only.  Sometimes  the  whole  of  a  small  or 
secondary  earthwork,  inoludinfij  the  battery 
and  its  flanks,  is  called  an  opaulement;  and 
sometimes  the  same  name  is  given  to  an 
isolated  breastwork  intended  to  shield  the 
cavalry  employed  in  defending  a  body  of 
besiegers. 

Epaulette.  A  shoulder-knot  worn  by 
commissioned  officers  of  the  army  and  navy, 
as  a  mark  of  distinction.  The  insignia  of 
their  rank  are  usually  marked  on  officers' 
epaulettes. 

Epauletted.     Furnished  with  epaulettes. 

Ephebi.  In  Grecian  antiquity,  the  name 
given  to  tiie  Attic  youth  from  the  age  of 
18,  till  they  entered  upon  their  '20th  year. 
During  this  period  they  served  a  sort  of  ap- 
prenticeship in  arms,  and  were  frequently 
sent,  under  the  name  of  pei-ipoli,  to  some  of 
the  frontier  towns  of  Attica  to  keep  watch 
against  foreign  invasion. 

Epibatae.  In  Grecian  antiquity,  the  name 
given  to  soldiers  whose  duty  it  was  to  tight 
on  board  ship.  They  corresponded  almost 
exactly  to  the  mariiies  of  modern  naval  war- 
fare. The  term  is  sometimes  found  in  Roman 
authors  to  denote  the  same  class  of  soldiers, 
but  the  general  phrase  adopted  by  them  is 
milites  cUiKsinrii,  or  socii  navales. 

Epignare  (/'>•).  A  small  piece  of  ord- 
nance which  docs  not  exceed  one  pound  in 
caliber. 

Epigoni.  A  term  which  signifies  "heirs" 
or  "descendants."  It  was  applied  to  the 
sons  of  the  seven  chiefs  who  conducted  an 
expedition  against  Thebes  to  restore  Polyni- 
ces,  and  who  were  all  killed  except  Adrastus. 
Ten  years  later  the  Epigoni — nameh',  Alc- 
niajon,  Thersander,  l)iomedes,  yEgialeus, 
Promachus,  Sthenelus,  and  Euryalus — re- 
newed the  enterprise  and  took  Thebes.  The 
war  of  the  Epigoni  was  celebrated  by  several 
ancient  epic  and  dranuitic  poets. 

Epinglette  (/*>.)•  An  iron  needle  with 
which  the  cartridge  of  any  large  piece  of  ord- 
nance is  pierced  before  it  is  primed. 

Epinikian.  Pertaining  to,  or  celebrating, 
victory  ;  as  an  epinikian  ode. 

Epirus.  A  celebrated  country  of  ancient 
Greece,  lying  between  the  Ionian  Sea  and 
the  chain  of  Pindus. 

E  Pluribus  Unum.  "  One  out  of  many." 
A  inotto  adopted  by  the  United  States  since 
their  declaration  of  independence,  in  1770. 

Epouvante  (/•>.).  A  sudden  panic  with 
which  troops  arc  seized,  and  under  which 
thev  retreat  without  any  actual  necessity  for 
80  (Joing. 

Eprouvette  (Fr.).  A  small  mortar  to 
prove  the  strength  of  gunpowder.  There  are 
different  sorts  of  eprouvettes,  according  to 
the  fancy  of  difi'erent  nations  who  use  them. 
Some  raise  a  weight,  and  others  throw  a  shot, 
to  certain  heights  and  distances.  As  a  test 
of  gunpowder  the  eprouvette  is  compara- 
tively worthless,  and  it  has  been  generally 
superseded  by  instruments  for  measuring  the 
initial  velocity  obtained  by  tiring  the  powder 
in  the  particular  gun  for  which  it  is  intended. 


A  short  mortar  is,  however,  still  used,  to  a 
certain  extent,  for  testing  the  power  of  mod- 
ern blasting  powders,  such  as  the  mixtures 
of  nitroglycerine.  A  very  small  charge  and 
a  heavy  shot  of  chilled  iron  which  enters  two 
or  three  inches  only  into  the  mortar  are  used. 
The  square  roots  of  the  ranges  (other  things 
being  equal)  give  the  relative  powers  of  the 
different  powders,  nearly. 

Equalize.  To  render  the  distribution  of 
any  number  of  men  equal  as  to  the  compo- 
nent parts.  To  equalize  a  battalion,  to  tell  off 
a  certain  number  of  companies  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  several  component  parts 
shall  consist  of  the  same  number  of  men. 

Equation  of  Time.  See  Time,  Mean 
Solar  Time. 

Equerry.  Any  person  who  is  appointed 
to  attend  the  sovereign,  or  prince  of  tiie  royal 
blood,  upon  out-door  excursions,  and  who 
has  the  care  and  management  of  their  horses. 

Eques  Auratus.  A  heraldic  term  for  a 
knight. 

Equestrian.  A  man  who  rides  on  horse- 
back ;  a  horseman  ;  a  rider. 

Equestrian  Order.  Among  the  Romans, 
signified  their  knights  or  equites  ;  as,  also, 
their  troopers  or  horsemen  in  the  field. 

Equip,  To.  To  furnish  an  individual,  a 
corps,  or  an  army  with  everything  that  is 
requisite  for  military  service,  such  as  arms, 
accoutrements,  uniforms,  etc. 

Equipage.  In  military  matters,  is  the 
name  given  to  the  necessaries  of  the  soldier. 
The  equipment  of  a  private  is  often  used  as  a 
name  for  the  whole  of  his  clothes,  arms,  and 
accoutrements,  collectively.  The  equipage 
of  the  camp  is  of  two  kinds,  camp  and  field 
equipage. 

Equipments,  Cannoneers'.  Include  the 
haiisse  pouch,  cai-tridge  pouches,  primer 
pouches,  and  thumb-stall,  used  in  the  field 
service.  The  equipments  for  a  field-piece 
are  the  tampkm  and  strap,  vent  cover  &r\A  tar- 
paulin. Other  things  u.sed  in  service  of  can- 
non are  called  implements,  which  see. 

Equipments,  Horse.  In  the  mounted 
service,  comprise  the  bridle,  halter,  watering 
brittle,  saddle,  saddle-bags,  saddle  blanket, 
nose-bag,  lariat,  rurnj-comb,  brush,  etc. 

Equipments,  Infantry.  Comprise  the  per- 
sonal outfit  of  the  soldier,  excluding  arms 
proper  and  clothing.  A  set  of  equipments 
is  called  a  kit  (which  see).  The  standard 
equipments  for  infantry  include  the  knap- 
sack, belts,  and  plates,  cartridge-bo.r,  bnuonet- 
scabbard,  hncosack,  and  canteen.  The  kna|> 
sack,  haversack,  and  canteen  are  only  used  in 
marching.  In  the  United  States  there  is  a 
strong  tendency  towards  discarding  the  knap- 
sack ;  a  roll  made  of  the  blanket,  jiiece  of 
shelter-tent,  or  overcoat,  being  frequently 
used  instead.  A  clothing-bag  is  also  some- 
times used  to  take  its  place.  The  best  man- 
ner of  arranging  and  slinging  the  various 
articles  carried,  for  the  comfort  and  health 
of  the  soldier,  is  still  an  open  question.  In 
future  wars  it  is  probable  that  an  intrench- 
ing tool  will  be  added  to  the  soldiers  equip- 


EQUIPMENTS 


150 


ESPINOSA 


ment.  The  equipments  for  a  cavalry  soldier 
in  the  United  States  are  very  much  the  same 
as  for  infantry. 

Equipments,  Signal.  The  flags,  staffs, 
flying  torches,  fort  torches,  flame  shades, 
haversacks,  telescopes,  etc.,  used  in  signaling. 
A  set  of  equipments  for  one  man  is  called  a 
signal  kit. 

Equites.  An  order  of  equestrian  knights 
introduced  among  the  Komans  by  Romulus. 

Eretria.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  of 
ancient  cities,  and,  next  to  Chalcis,  one  of 
the  most  powerful  in  Eubcea.  After  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  the  city  was  governed  by 
tyrants. 

Erfurt.  A  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  on 
the  river  Gera ;  it  was  founded  in  476. 
Erfurt  was  ceded  to  Prussia  in  1802.  It 
capitulated  to  Murat,  when  14,000  troops 
surrendered,  October  16,  1806.  In  this  city 
Napoleon  and  Alexander  met,  and  offered 
peace  to  England,  September  27, 1808.  The 
French  retreated  from  Leipsic  to  Erfurt, 
October  18,  1813.  This  place  was  restored 
to  Prussia  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 

Ericius.  In  Roman  antiquity,  a  military 
engine,  so  named  from  its  resemblance  to  a 
hedge-hog.  It  was  a  kind  of  chevaux-de- 
frise,  placed  as  a  defense  at  the  gate  of  the 
camp. 

Erie,  Fort.  A  strong  fortification  in 
Upper  Canada,  on  the  northern  shore  of 
Lake  Erie.  Here  the  British  were  defeated 
by  the  Americans,  August  15,  1814. 

Erlau.  A  fortified  town  of  Hungary, 
the  old  castle  of  which  was  frequently  be- 
sieged during  the  Turkish  wars,  both  by 
Moslem  and  Christian. 

Eryx.  A  city  and  mountain  in  the  west 
of  Sicily,  6  miles  from  Drepana,  and  a 
short  distance  from  the  sea-shore.  The  pos- 
session of  the  town  of  Eryx  was  contested 
by  the  Syracusans  and  Carthaginians.  A 
great  battle  was  fought  off  the  town  between 
the  fieets  of  the  two  nations,  in  which  the 
Syracusans  were  victorious.  The  town 
subsequently  changed  hands  more  than 
once,  but  it  seems  to  have  owned  the  Car- 
thaginian supremacy  at  the  time  of  the  ex- 
pedition of  Pyrrhus,  278  B.C.  Though 
taken  by  that  monarch,  it  once  more  fell 
into  the  hands  of  its  original  conquerors, 
who  retained  it  till  the  close  of  the  first 
Punic  war. 

Erzroom,  Erzroum,  or  Erzrum.  A  for- 
tified town  of  Armenia  (Asiatic  Turkey), 
on  the  river  Kara-Soo,  a  branch  of  the 
Euphrates.  Its  position  renders  it  an  im- 
portant military  post.  In  1210  it  was  taken 
by  the  Seljooks,  who  are  said  to  have 
destroyed  here  100  churches ;  taken  by  the 
Ottoman  Turks  in  1517.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Russians  in  1829,  but  was  restored  to 
Turkey  in  the  following  year. 

Escadron  [Fr.).  Squadron.  Froissart 
was  the  first  French  writer  who  made  use  of 
the  word  escadron  to  signify  a  troop  of  horse 
drawn  out  in  order  of  battle.  The  term  esca- 
dron is  more  ancient  than  the  word  battalion. 


Escalade.  From  the  Latin  scala,  a 
ladder.  In  siege  operations,  a  mode  of 
gaining  admission  within  the  enemy's 
works.  It  consists  in  advancing  over  the 
glacis  and  the  covert  way,  descending,  if 
necessary,  into  the  ditch  by  means  of  lad- 
ders, and  ascending  to  the  parapet  of  the 
curtain  and  bastions,  and  are  either  pro- 
cured on  the  spot,  or  are  sent  out  with  the 
siege  army.  The  leaders  constitute  a  forlorn 
hope. 

Escale  {Fr.).  A  machine  used  to  ply 
the  petard. 

Escape  of  Gas.  See  Gas-check  and 
Breech  Mechanism. 

Escarp.  In  fortification,  the  surface  of 
the  ditch  next  the  rampart,  the  surface  next 
the  enemy  being  termed  the  counterscarp. 
Called  also  scarp. 

Escarp  Galleries.  Galleries  constructed 
in  the  escarp  for  the  purpose  of  flanking  the 
ditch  caponniere. 

Escarpment.  Ground  cut  away  nearly 
vertically  about  a  position,  in  order  to  ren- 
der it  inaccessible  to  the  enemy. 

Escort.  A  body  of  troops  attending  an 
individual  as  a  guard.  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  a  guard  placed  over  prisoners  on 
a  march,  to  prevent  their  escape,  and  to 
the  guard  of  a  convoy  of  stores. 

Escort,  Funeral.    See  Funeral  Escort. 

Escort  of  Honor.  A  body  of  troops  at- 
tending a  personage  of  rank  by  way  of  mili- 
tary compliment. 

Escort  of  the  Color.  The  military  cer- 
emony of  sending  for  and  receiving  the 
colors  of  a  battalion. 

Escouade  {Fr.).  In  the  old  French  ser- 
vice generally  meant  the  third  part  of  a 
company  of  foot  or  a  detachment.  Com- 
panies were  divided  in  this  manner  for  the 
purpose  of  more  conveniently  keeping  the 
tour  of  duty  among  the  men.  We  have 
corrupted  the  term,  and  called  it  squad. 

Escuage.  An  ancient  feudal  tenure  by 
which  the  tenant  was  bound  to  follow  his 
lord  to  war  or  to  defend  his  castle. 

Espadon.  In  old  military  works,  a  kind 
of  two-handed  sword,  having  two  edges,  of 
a  great  length  and  breadth  ;  formerly  used 
by  the  Spanish. 

Espauliere  {Fr.).  A  defense  for  the 
shoulder,  composed  of  flexible,  overlapping 
plates  of  metal,  used  in  the  15th  century; 
the  origin  of  the  modern  epaulette. 

Espiere.  A  town  of  Belgium,  8  miles 
from  Courtrai,  where  the  atlied  Austrian 
and  English  army  defeated  the  French, 
May  22,^1794. 

Espingard,  or  Epingare  {Fr.).  An  an- 
cient name  for  a  small  gun  under  a  1-pounder. 
They  were  used  as  early  as  the  14th  century. 

Espingole,  or  Spingole  (F/-.).  A  blun- 
derbuss ;  a  kind  of  blunderbuss  which,  in 
early  times,  was  loaded  with  several  balls ; 
the  charges  were  separated  from  each  other 
by  tampions  in  which  a  hole  was  made,  and 
thus  the  balls  were  fired  in  succession. 

Espinosa  de  la  Monteros.     A   town    of 


ESPLANADE 


151 


ETOILES 


Spain,  on  the  Trueba,  50  miles  from  Burgos. 
The  French  defeated  the  Spaniards  here  in 
1808. 

Esplanade.  In  fortification,  is  the  open 
space  iiileiitii)iuilly  left  between  the  houses 
of  a  city  and  the  glacis  of  its  citadel,  so  that 
the  enemy  may  not  be  able  to  erect  breach- 
ing batteries  under  cover  of  the  houses.  In 
old  works  on  fortification,  the  term  is  often 
applied  to  the  glacis  of  the  counterscarp,  or 
the  slope  of  the  parapet  of  the  covered  way 
towards  the  country. 

Espontoon  (Fr.).  A  sort  of  half  pike, 
about  3  feet  in  length,  used  in  the  17th 
century.  The  colonels  of  corps  as  well  as 
the  captains  of  companies  always  used  them 
in  action.  This  weapon  was  also  used  by 
officers  in  the  British  army. 

Espringal.  In  the  ancient  art  of  war,  a 
machine  lor  throwing  large  darts,  generally 
called  nuu'hettiB. 

Esprit    de   Corps    (Fr.).      This   term   is 

fenerally  u.-ed  among  all  military  men  in 
)urope.  It  may  not  improperly  be  defined 
a  laudable  sjiirit  of  ambition  which  pro- 
duces a  peculiar  attachment  to  any  particu- 
lar corps,  company,  or  service.  Officers 
without  descending  to  mean  and  pitiful  sen- 
sations of  selfish  envy,  under  the  influence 
of  a  true  esprit  de  co7-ps  rise  into  an  emu- 
lous thirst  after  military  glory.  The  good 
are  excited  to  peculiar  feats  of  valor  by  the 
sentiments  it  engenders,  and  the  bad  are  de- 
terred from  ever  hazarding  a  disgraceful 
action  by  a  secret  consciousness  of  the  duties 
.  it  prescribes. 

Esquimaux.  The  tribes  inhabiting  Green- 
landand  Arctic  America.  Those  inhabiting 
the  continent  are  found  in  sparse  settlements 
from  Behring  Strait  to  Labrador.  They  are 
generally  peaceable.  Some  of  these  in  Green- 
land have  been  civilized  by  the  influence  of 
the  Danes. 

Esquire.  In  chivalry,  was  the  shield- 
bearer  or  armor-bearer  to  the  knight.  He 
was  a  candidate  for  the  honor  of  knighthood, 
and  thus  stood  to  the  knight  in  the  relation 
of  a  novice  or  apprentice.  ^Vhen  fully 
equipped  each  knight  was  attended  by  two 
esquires. 

Essedarii.  In  Roman  antiquity,  gladia- 
tors who  fought  in  a  heavy  kind  of  chariot 
called  esscda  or  essedurn.  The  csscdn  ( which 
derived  its  name  fnjin  the  Celtic  word  r.w, 
signifying  a  carriage)  was  a  ponderous  kind 
of  chariot  much  used  in  war  by  the  Gauls, 
the  Belga'.and  the  Britons.  It  differed  from 
the  currus  in  being  open  before  instead  of 
behind;  and  in  this  wuy  the  owner  was  en- 
abled to  run  along  the  pole,  from  the  ex- 
tremity of  which,  or  even  from  the  top  of 
the  yoke,  he  discharged  his  missiles  with 
surprising  dexterity. 

Essek,  or  Eszeic.  A  town  and  fortress 
of  the  Austrian  empire,  in  Sdavonia,  on  the 
Drave.  It  contains  an  arsenal,  barracks, 
and  other  military  buildings.  There  were 
several  battles  fought  here  between  the  Turks 
and  Germans.     It  was   finally   taken  from 


the  Turks  in  1687,  since  which  time  it  has 
continued  in  the  hands  of  the  house  of  Aus- 
tria. 

Essling.  A  village  of  Lower  Austria, 
on  the  left  bank  of  tlie  Danube,  G  miles 
east  of  Vienna.  Between  this  village  and 
that  of  Aspern  the  French  were  repulsed  by 
the  Austrians  in  a  severe  engagement  in 
1809.     See  Aspkrn. 

Establish.  A  technical  phrase  to  express 
the  (juiirtering  of  an}'  considerable  body  of 
troops  in  a  country.  Thus  it  is  common  to 
say,  the  army  took   up    a   position    in    the 

neighborhood  of ,  and  established  the 

headquarters  at . 

Establishment.  The  quota  of  ofllicers 
and  men  in  an  army,  regiment,  troojt,  or 
company. 

Establishment,  Peace.  Is  the  reduced 
condition  of  an  army  suited  to  a  time  of 
peace. 

Establishment,  VJar.  Is  the  augmenta- 
tion of  regiments  to  a  certain  number,  by 
which  the  whole  army  of  a  country  is  con- 
siderably increased,  to  meet  war  exigencies. 
Estacade  {Fr.).  A  dike  constructed  of 
piles  in  the  sea,  a  river,  or  a  morass,  to 
check  the  approach  of  an  enemy. 

Estafette  {Fr.).  A  military  courier,  sent 
express  from  one  part  of  an  army  to  another. 
Esthonia,  or  Revel.  A  Russian  province, 
said  to  have  been  conquered  by  the  Teutonic 
knights  in  the  12th  century;  after  various 
changes  it  was  ceded  to  Sweden  by  the  treaty 
of  Oiiva  in  ir)t;0,  and  finally  to  Russia  by 
the  peace  of  Nystadt  in  1721,  having  been 
con()uered  by  Peter  in  1710. 

Estimates.     Army  estimates  are  the  com- 
putation of  expenses  to  be  incurred  in  the 
su]iport  of  an  army  for  a  given  time. 
j       Estimating  Distances.    See  Pointing. 

Estoc  ( Ifal. ).    A  small  dagger  worn  at  the 
I  girdle,  called  in  Elizabethan  times  u  ticcke. 
I       Estoile.     See  Etoilks. 

Estradiots,  or  Stradiots.  Grecian  and 
Albanian  horsemen,  some  of  whom  were 
employed  in  the  Italian  wars  by  Charles 
Vlll.  ;  their  favorite  weaj>on  was  the  za- 
gaye;  besides  this  they  had  a  broadsword, 
and  club  slung  on  the  bow  of  the  saddle, 
with  sleeves  and  gauntlets  of  nniil. 

Estramacon  {Fr.).     A  sort  of  two-edged 
sword    formerly    used.      A    blow    with   the 
'  edge  of  a  sword. 

;       Etat  Major  (/-v.).     The  staflTof  an  army, 
j  including  all  officers  above  the  rank  of  colo- 
1  nel  ;  also,  all  adjutants,  inspectors,  quarter- 
I  nuisters,  commissaries,  engineers,  ordnance 
officers,  paymasters,  physicians,  signal-oflS- 
cers,  judge-advocates  ;    also,   the   non-com- 
missioned assistants  of  the  above  officers. 

Etoiles  {Fr.).  Small  redoubt-s  which  are 
constructed  by  means  of  angles  rentrant  and 
angles  sortant,  and  have  from  5  to  8  salient 
points.  This  species  of  fortification  has 
fallen  into  disuse,  and  are  superseded  by 
square  redoubts,  which  are  sooner  built  and 
are  applicable  to  the  same  purpose  of  de- 
fense. 


ETOUPILLE 


152 


EXAUCTORATIO 


Btoupille  (Fr.).  An  inflammable  match, 
composed  of  three  threads  of  very  fine  cot- 
ton, which  is  well  steeped  in  brandy  mixed 
with  the  best  priming  gunpowder. 
.  Etruria,  or  Tuscia  (hence  the  modern 
name  Tuscany).  A  province  of  Italy, 
whence  the  liomans,  in  a  great  measure, 
derived  their  laws,  customs,  and  supersti- 
tions. The  subjugation  of  this  country 
forms  an  important  part  of  early  Koman 
history.  A  truce  between  the  Romans  and 
Etrurians  for  forty  years  was  concluded  in 
351  B.C.  The  latter  and  their  allies  were  de- 
feated at  the  Vadimonian  Lake,  310  B.C.; 
with  the  Boii  their  allies,  823  B.C.,  and 
totally  lost  their  independence  about  265  B.C. 

Euboea.  The  largest  island  in  the  yEgean 
Sea.  Two  of  its  cities,  Chalcis  and  Eretria, 
were  very  important,  till  the  former  was 
subdued  by  Athens,  506  B.C.,  and  the  latter 
by  the  Persians,  490.  After  the  Persian  war 
Eubcea  became  wholly  subject  to  Athens.  It 
revolted  in  445,  but  was  soon  subdued  by 
Pericles.  After  the  battle  of  Chferonea,  338, 
it  became  subject  to  Macedon.  It  was  made 
independent  by  the  Romans  in  194,  but  was 
afterwards  incorporated  in  the  province  of 
Acbaia.  It  now  forms  part  of  the  kingdom 
of  Greece. 

Eupatoria,  or  Koslov.  A  town  of  Rus- 
sia, on  the  west  coast  of  the  Crimea.  In 
September,  1854,  the  allied  English  and 
French  armies  landed  near  here,  and  the 
town  soon  after  was  occupied  by  a  small  de- 
tachment. The  Turks  subsequently  occu- 
pied it,  and  in  1855  it  was  attacked  by  the 
Russians,  who,  however,  were  repulsed  by 
the  Turks,  and  the  Anglo-French  ships  of 
war,  lying  in  the  neighboring  roadstead. 

Eureka"  Projectile.     See  Projectile. 

Europe.  The  least  extensive,  but  most 
civilized  of  the  five  great  divisions  of  the 
globe.  It  is  bounded  by  the  sea  in  all  direc- 
tions, except  the  east,  where  it  is  separated 
from  Asia  by  a  boundary-line,  formed  by 
the  river  Kara,  the  Ural  Mountains  and 
River,  and  the  Caspian  Sea.  For  military 
and  naval  events  which  occurred  in  Europe, 
see  separate  articles. 

Eurymedon  (now  Kapri-Su).  A  small 
river  in  Pamphylia,  celebrated  for  the  vic- 
tory which  Cimon  gained  over  the  Persians 
on  its  banks,  469  B.C. 

Eustace,  St.  In  Lower  Canada ;  the 
rebels  were  defeated  here,  December  14, 
1837,  and  compelled  to  surrender  their  arms. 
Their  chiefs  fled. 

Eustatius,  St.  A  West  India  island, 
which  was  settled  by  the  Dutch  in  1632  ; 
taken  by  the  French  in  1689  ;  by  the  Eng- 
lish in  1690;  again  by  the  British  forces 
under  Rodney  and  Vaughan,  February  3, 
1781.  It  was  recovered  by  the  French, 
November  26,  same  year.  It  was  again 
captured  by  the  British  in  1801  and  fSlO, 
and  restored  to  the  Dutch  in  1814. 

Eutaw  Springs.  A  small  affluent  of  the 
Santee  River,  in  South  Carolina.  On  its 
banks  was  fought,  September  8,  1781,  the 


battle  of  this  name.  Gen.  Greene,  determin- 
ing to  dispossess  the  British  of  their  femain- 
ing  posts,  with  about  2000  men  attacked 
their  forces  under  Col.  Stuart.  The  British 
were  routed  and  fled ;  but  finding  in  their 
flight  some  objects  afibrding  shelter,  rallied 
and  repulsed  their  assailants,  and  Gen. 
Greene  finding  it  impossible  to  dislodge 
them,  retreated  to  his  camp  with  500  prison- 
ers. The  British  loss  was  about  1000 ;  the 
American  about  600. 

Euxine  Sea.     See  Black  Sea. 

Evacuate.  To  withdraw  from  a  town  or 
fortress,  in  consequence  either  of  a  treaty  or 
a  capitulation,  or  of  superior  orders. 

Evagination.  An  unsheathing  or  draw- 
ing out  of  a  gheath  or  scabbard. 

Evesham.  A  borough  and  market  town 
of  England,  in  Worcestershire,  on  the  Avon. 
Near  this  place  a  battle  was  fought  between 
Prince  Edward,  son  of  Henry  III.,  and 
Simon  de  Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester,  Au- 
gust 4,  1265. 

Evidence.  Is  that  which  makes  clear, 
demonstrates,  or  ascertains  the  truth  of  the 
very  fact  or  point  in  issue.  Hearsay  evi- 
dence, the  declaration  of  what  one  has  heard 
from  others.  This  species  of  evidence  is  not 
admissible  in  courts-martial. 

Evocati.  Were  a  class  of  soldiers  among 
the  Romans,  who,  after  having  served  their 
full  time  in  the  army,  entered  as  volunteers 
to  accompany  some  favorite  general.  Hence 
they  were  likewise  called  emereti  and  beyie- 
ficlarii. 

Evocation.  A  religious  ceremony  which 
was  observed  among  the  Romans  at  the  com- 
mencement of  a  siege,  wherein  they  solemnly 
called  upon  the  gods  and  goddesses  of  the 
place  to  forsake  it  and  come  over  to  them. 
When  any  place  surrendered  they  always 
took  it  for  granted  that  their  prayer  had 
been  heard. 

Evolutions.  Are  the  movements  of  troops 
in  order  to  change  position.  The  object  may 
be  to  maintain  or  sustain  a  post,  to  occupy 
a  new  post,  to  improve  an  attack,  or  to 
improve  a  defense.  All  such  movements 
as  marching,  countermarching,  changing 
front,  forming  line,  facing,  wheeling,  mak- 
ing column  or  line,  defiling,  deploying,  etc., 
come  under  the  general  heading  of  evolu- 
tions. 

Evreux  (anc.  Mediolanum).  A  city  of 
France,  capital  of  the  department  of  Eure. 
It  has  sustained  several  sieges,  and  was 
burned  by  Henry  1.  of  England  in  1119. 

Examination.Boards  of.  See  Boards  of 
Examination. 

Exarchs.  Were  appointed  by  the  Byzan- 
tine emperors  of  the  East,  to  govern  Central 
Italy  after  its  conquest  by  Belisarius  and 
Narses,  548.  They  ruled  from  568  to  752, 
when  Eutychus,  the  last,  was  overcome  by 
Astolphus  the  Lombard. 

Exauctoratio.  In  the  Roman  military 
discipline,  diflTered  from  the  missio,  which 
was  a  full  discharge,  and  took  place  after 
soldiers  had  served  in  the  army  twenty  years ; 


EXCAVATION 


153 


EXPLOSIVES 


whereas  the  exauctoratio  was  only  a  partial 
discharge;  they  lost  their  pay,  indeed,  but 
still  kept  under  their  colors  or  vexilla, 
though  not  under  the  aquila  or  eagle,  which 
was  the  standard  of  the  legion  ;  whence  in- 
stead of  legionarii,  thev  were  called  auhsig- 
nani,  and  were  retained  till  they  had  either 
served  their  full  time,  or  had  lands  assigned 
thcni.  The  exauctoratio  took  place  after 
they  had  served  seventeen  years. 

Excavation.  The  art  of  cutting  or  other- 
wise making  hollows  in  the  earth  ;  also  the 
cavity  formed. 

Exchange.  The  act  of  two  officers  chang- 
ing regiments,  battalions,  or  batteries.  The 
mutual  giving  up  of  an  equal  number  of 
prisoners  by  hostile  states  or  artnics.  In 
this  sort  of  exchange  an  officer,  according  to 
his  rank,  is  reckoned  as  equal  to  a  certain 
number  of  men  or  of  officers  of  a  lower 
grade  than  his  own. 

Excubiae.  I  n  ancient  warfare,  the  watches 
and  guards  kept  in  the  day  by  the  Roman 
soldiers.  They  di tiered  from  the  vigilix, 
which  were  kept  in  the  night. 

Execution,  Military.  Is  the  pillaging  or 
plundering  of  a  country  by  the  enemy's 
armv.  Military  execution  also  means  every 
kind  of  punishment  inflicted  in  the  army 
by  the  sentence  of  a  court-martial  ;  which 
is  of  various  kinds,  including  putting  a 
soldier  to  death  by  shooting  him,  which  is 
the  ordinary  punishment  of  deserters  to  the 
enemy,  mutineers,  etc.  This  form  of  death 
is  considered  less  disgraceful  than  hanging 
by  the  neck. 

Exempt.  Not  subject,  not  liable  to.  Men 
of  certain  age  are  exempt  from  serving  in 
the  militia.  An  aide-de-camp  and  brigade- 
major  are  exempt  from  all  regimental  duties  j 
■while  serving  in  those  capacities.  Officers 
on  courts-martial  are  sometimes  exempt  from 
all  other  duties  until  the  court  is  dissolved. 

Exercise.  The  practice  of  all  those  mo- 
tions and  actions,  together  with  the  whole 
management  of  arms,  which  are  essential  to 
the  perfection  of  a  soldier,  and  the  render- 
ing him  fit  for  service. 

Exercise,  Artillery.  Is  the  method  of 
teaching  the  regiments  of  artillery  the  use 
and  practice  of  all  the  various  machines  of 
war  belonging  to  that  particular  arm  of  the 
service. 

Exon.  In  England,  an  officer  of  the 
Yeomen  of  the  Koyal  Guard;  an  exempt. 

Exostre  (Fr.).  "Bridge  of  the  Hdepcle 
or  movable  tower  of  the  ancients,  by  which 
they  passed  upon  a  wall  during  a  siege. 

Expanding  System  of  Projectiles.     See 

PRO-IKCTILKS,   UlKI.K. 

Expedient.     A  stratagem  in  warfare. 

Expedition.  Is  an  enterprise  taken  by 
Bea  or  by  land  against  an  enemy,  the  fortu- 
nate termination  of  which  depends  on  the 
rapidity  and  unexpected  nature  of  its  move- 
ments. It  is  usually  intrusted  to  a  com- 
mander of  acknowledged  talents  and  experi- 
ence. 

Expense  Magazines.  Are  small  powder- 
11 


magazines  containing  ammunition,  etc., 
made  up  for  present  use.  There  is  usually 
one  in  each  bastion. 

Experiments.  The  trials  or  applications 
of  any  kind  of  mililury  machines  in  order 
to  ascertain  their  practical  qtuilities  and  uses. 

Expiration  of  Service.  The  termination 
of  a  snldi'^r's  contract  of  enlistment. 

Explode.  T(j  burst  with  a  loud  report; 
to  delimato,  as  gunpowder,  or  a  shell  filled 
with  powder  or  the  like  material. 

Explosion.  The  sudden  enlargement  of 
the  volume  of  a  body  by  its  conversion  into 
gas  or  vapor.  (See  Explosivks.)  The  explo- 
sion of  powder  may  be  divided  into  three 
distinct  parts,  viz.  :  ignition,  inflammation, 
and  combustion,  all  of  which  see  under  their 
proper  headings. 

Explosives.  Substances  the  elements  of 
which  under  certain  conditions  suddenly  un- 
dergo a  chemical  rearrangement  into  gases, 
giving  rise  to  great  pressures  on  surrounding 
bodies.  Modern  writers  recognize  two  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  exj)losions, — explosions  of 
the  \st  order,  or  detonations,  and  explosions  of 
the  2d  order,  or  rapid  combustions.  Detonat- 
ing explosions  are  practically  instantaneous. 
The  explosion  is  supposed  to  be  propagated 
by  a  vibration  throughout  the  mass.  Ordi- 
nary explosions  are  propagated  by  inflamma- 
tion. Gunpowder,  which  may  be  taken  as  a 
type  of  explosives  of  the  2d  order,  burns  at 
a  certain  rate,  depending  upon  the  density. 
When  a  charge  is  fired  the  inflammation 
spreads  from  the  point  of  ignition  to  all 
parts  of  the  charge, — each  grain  is  success- 
ively enveloped  and  burned  from  surface  to 
centre.  The  relocitt/  of  inflammation  is  the 
greater  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  con- 
finement from  the  increased  tension  of  the 
gases.  The  velocity  of  combustihn  is  the  rate 
at  which  the  solid  grains  are  burned.  It  is 
measured  by  the  distance  passed  over  by  the 
burning  surface  (the  line  being  taken  per- 
pendicular to  the  surface)  in  the  unit  of 
time.  Time  thus  enters  into  the  explosion 
of  gunpowder  and  gives  it  its  peculiar  value 
as  a  ballistic  agent. 

In  the  detonating  explosives,  the  case  is 
very  dififerent.  These  bodies  may  be  sup- 
posed to  be  made  up  of  molecules  containing 
so  many  atoms  of  carbon,  oxygen,  nitrogen, 
etc.,  so  placed  as  to  be  held  in  a  state  of 
equilibrium  by  their  mutual  attractions  and 
repulsions,  but  this  equilibrium  is  unstable; 
that  is  to  say,  each  atom  has  only  a  very 
snuillarcof  vibration  in  which  the  molecule 
is  stable.  If  by  any  cause  an  atom  is  forced 
beyond  this  limit  the  eijuilibrium  of  the 
whole  mass  is  destroyed,  and  the  elements 
instantly  rearrange  themselvfs  under  the 
influence  of  the  chemical  affinities  which 
obtain  under  the  particular  conditions  of 
the  explosion.  This  kind  of  explosion  is 
brought  about  in  various  ways, — by  percus- 
sion, concussion,  heat,  etc., — some  bodies 
being  susceptible  to  one  mode  of  firing  more 
than  another.  The  theory  which  offers  the 
best  explanation  of  the  various  phenomena 


EXPLOSIVES 


154 


EXPKESS 


is  that  the  molecular  balance  is  peculiarly 
susceptible  to  overturn  by  certain  vibrations. 
The  vibrations  given  out  by  the  explosion  of 
the  fulminates  seem  to  have  the  widest  range 
in  bringing  about  the  detonation  of  difl'erent 
substances.  For  this  reason  the  fulminate 
of  mercury  is  the  universal  detonating  agent. 
Its  own  susceptibility  to  explosion  by  heat, 
percussion,  and  the  electric  spark  especially 
fits  it  for  this  work.  Wet  gun-cotton  re- 
quires in  addition  to  the  fulminatea"  primer" 
of  dry  gun-cotton. 

Explosives,  Composition  of.  Ordinary 
explosives  of  which  gunpowder  is  the  type  are 
mechanical  mixtures  of  two  essential  ingre- 
dients,— one  a  combustible,  the  other  an  oxi- 
dizing agent.  The  combustible  is  usually 
carbon, — sometimes  associated  with  hydro- 
gen. It  may  be  sulphur  or  any  substance 
having  a  great  afiinity  for  oxygen.  Or- 
ganic substances  containing  carbon  and  hy- 
drogen are  frequently  used.  In  the  chemi- 
cal reaction  the  cartjon  is  oxidized  to  car- 
bonic acid  and  the  hydrogen  to  water  with 
the  evolution  of  great  heat. 

The  oxidizing  substances  ordinarily  used 
are  the  nitrates  and  chlorates.  Mixtures 
containing  nitrates  are  the  most  stable,  since 
the  nitrate  is  comparatively  slow  to  give  up 
its  oxygen.  The  chlorate  mixtures  are  sen- 
sitive to  friction  and  percussion,  and  explode 
with  great  quickness.  Many  of  them  are 
unsafe  to  handle.  A  new  mode  of  prepar- 
ing chlorate  mixtures  has  been  suggested 
which  avoids  this  danger.  A  combustible 
liquid  is  used,  being  absorbed  in  cakes  or 
lumps  of  potassium  or  other  chlorate. 

Detonating  explosives  are  chemical  com- 
pounds. Among  them  are  chloride  and 
iodide  of  7iitrogen.  Both  are  dangerous,  vio- 
lent explosives  of  which  no  practical  use  has 
been  made. 

The  fulminates  are  salts  of  fulminic  acid. 
Thefulniinate  of  m.ercury  is  the  one  in  com- 
mon use.     See  Fulminates. 

The  nitro-substitution  compounds  form  a 
large  class,  comprising  the  most  important 
of  the  higher  explosives.  They  are  all  formed 
by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  organic  sub- 
stances containing  oxygen,  carbon,  and  hy- 
drogen. This  action  is  to  replace  hydrogen 
(H)  in  the  organic  substance  by  hyponitric 
acid  (NO2)  (in  the  acid),  equivalent  for 
equivalent.  Sulphuric  acid  is  generally 
mixed  with  the  nitric,  though  it  plays  no 
direct  part  in  the  reaction,  being  used  to  ab- 
sorb the  water  formed  and  prevent  the  dilu- 
tion of  the  nitric  acid. 

Nitro-glycerine,  the  most  powerful  explo- 
sive in  common  use,  is  formed  by  the  action 
of  the  acids  on  glycerine.     See  Nitbo-qly- 

CERINE. 

Nitro-starch  and  nitro-mannite  are  anal- 
ogous substances,  formed  by  the  action  of  the 
acids  on  starch  and  sugar. 

Gun-cotton  is  produced  by  the  action  of 
the  acids  on  cotton- wool — a  form  of  cellulose. 
See  Gun-cotton. 

There  are  varieties  of  all  these  compounds 


produced  by  the  substitution  of  difl'erent 
numbers  of  equivalents  of  hyponitric  acid, 
but  the  names  are  specially  given  to  the 
most  highly  nitrated  forms. 

Ficric  acid,  the  salts  of  which  form  the 
well-known  picrates,  is  made  by  the  action 
of  the  acids  on  carbolic  acid. 

To  heighten  the  etfect  of  the  lower  forms 
of  nitro-substitution  compounds  they  are 
usually  mixed  with  an  oxidizing  agent,  such 
as  nitrate  or  chlorate,  which  supplies  the 
deficient  oxygen.  This  is  exemplified  in 
Schultz's  wood  powder  (which  see),  and 
Reeve's  gun  felt. 

The  picrates  are  similarly  treated.  Am- 
monium picrate  mixed  with  nitre  forms 
Abel's  picric  powder  (Burgess's  powder). 
This  has  been  used  as  a  bursting  charge  for 
shells. 

Mixtures  of  two  high  explosives  have  also 
been  used,  as  in  glyoxiline,  invented  by  Prof. 
Abel,  which  is  gun-cotton  saturated  with 
nitro-glycerine. 

Explosive  eff"ect  depends  upon  three  ele- 
ments,— 1st,  the  volume  of  the  gases  produced 
taken  at  a  standard  temperature;  2d,  the 
heat  evolved  in  the  chemical  reaction  ;  3d, 
the  time  consumed  in  the  development  of  the 
gases.  Explosive  elTect  is  directly  propor- 
tional to  the  first  two  of  these  elements,  and 
inversely  proportional  to  the  third.  Ac- 
cording to  Bertholet,  nitro-glycerine  gives 
out  twice  as  much  heat  and  three  and  a  half 
times  as  much  gas  as  an  equal  weight  of  gun- 
powder, but  this  gives  no  idea  of  their  rela- 
tive explosive  eftects,  as  the  element  of  time 
in  the  detonating  explosives  is  so  short  that 
it  cannot  be  calculated.  So  nearly  is  this 
element  absent  that  we  may  consider  these 
explosions  as  almost  perfect  Impulsive 
Forces.  To  secure  ballistic  effect  requires 
the  gradual  application  of  force.  When 
motion  is  imparted  to  a  body  the  inertia 
developed  is  inversely  proportional  to  the 
time  consumed  in  imparting  it.  This  re- 
sistance to  motion  becomes  enormously  great 
when  the  detonating  explosives  are  used. 
For  this  reason  their  ballistic  effect  is  small. 
The  force  which  should  give  the  projectile 
motion  is  expended  in  producing  molecular 
changes  in  both  projectile  and  gun.  The 
same  quality,  however,  fits  them  especially 
for  blasting  and  torpedoes,  where  shattering 
effect  is  desirable. 

Express  Rifle.  A  modern  sporting  rifle 
of  great  killing  power,  used  in  hunting  large 
or  dangerous  animals.  They  were  first  in- 
troduced in  England,  and  have  become  cele- 
brated in  the  hands  of  African  travelers  and 
explorers.  The  principle  consists  in  using 
large  charges  of  powder  and  a  light  bullet, 
which  gives  a  very  high  initial  velocity  and 
a  trajectory  practically  a  right  line  for  150 
or  200  yards,  hence  the  term  "  Express." 
To  increase  the  killing  power  of  the  bullet 
it  is  made  of  pure  lead  and  has  a  hollow 
point.  Upon  striking  game  the  bullet 
spreads  outwardly,  giving  a  fearful  death- 
wound.     Moreover,  for  specially  ugly  game 


EXPUGN 


155 


FACTION 


a  small  explosive  cartridge  can  be  dropped 
into  tlie  cavity  in  the  jioiiit,  making  it  an 
explosive  bullet.  (See  Billets,  Extkess. ) 
In  England  a  caliber  as  large  as  .57  is  used 
for  some  Express  rifles.  In  the  United 
States  a  caliber  of  .45  or  .50  is  considered 
sufficient. 

Expugn.     To  conquer  ;  to  take  by  assault. 

Expugnable.  Ca[)able  of  being  expugned, 
forced  or  comiuered. 

Expugnation.  The  act  of  taking  by  as- 
sault ;  conquest. 

Expugner.  One  who  expugns  or  con- 
quers. # 

Extend.  A  term  peculiarly  applicable  to 
light  infantry  movements,  when  the  tiles  are 
frequently  loosened,  and  the  front  of  the 
line  extended  for  the  purpose  of  skirmishing. 
"When  the  divisions  of  a  column  are  made  , 
to  occupy  a  greater  space  of  ground,  they  ; 
are  said  to  extend  their  front.  | 

Exterior  Crest.  The  crest  of  the  exterior 
slope  of  a  piira|)et. 

Exterior  Form  of  Cannon.  See  Ord- 
nance,   EXTEKIOU  FoKM. 

Exterior  Side.  In  fortification,  is  the 
side  of  the  polygon,  upon  which  a  front  of 
fortification  is  formed. 

Exterior   Slope.     In  fortification,  is  the 
slope  given  to  the  outside  of  a  parapet.     It  I 
is  found  by  experience  that  earth  of  common  I 
quality  will  naturally  acquire  a  slope  of  45°, 
even  when  battered  by   cannon.     This    in- 
clination is  therefore  given  to  the  slo])e. 

External  Injuries  to  Cannon.     See  In- 

J  U  K I  E.S  T  O  C  A  N  N  O  X . 

Extortion.     Under  the  modern  laws  of 


war,  honorable  men  no  longer  permit  the 
use  of  any  violence  against  prisoners  in  or- 
der to  extort  information  or  to  punish  them 
for  having  given  false  information. 

Extrados  (Fr.).  The  exterior  surface  of 
a  regular  arch,  used  in  tho  construction  of 
powder-magazines. 

Extraordinaries  of  the  Army.  In  the 
English  service,  the  allowances  to  troops  be- 
yond the  gross  pay  in  the  pay  office,  come 
under  this  head.  Such  are  the  expenses  for 
barracks,  marches,  encampments,  staff,  etc. 

Extraordinarii.  In  the  ancient  Koman 
army,  a  select  body  of  men  consisting  of  the 
third  part  of  the  foreign  cavalry  and  a  fifth 
of  the  infantry.  These  were  carefully  sepa- 
rated from  the  other  forces  borrowed  from 
the  confederate  states,  in  order  to  prevent 
any  treacherous  coalition  between  them. 
From  among  the  extraordinarii  a  morechoice 
body  of  men  were  drawn,  under  the  name  of 
ablecil.     See  Aulecti. 

Eylau,  or  Eilau.  Usually  called  Prussian 
Eylau,  a  town  in  the  government  of  K6nigs- 
berg,  celebrated  for  the  battle  fought  here 
between  Napoleon  and  the  allies — Russians 
and  Prussians — under  Bennigscn,  February 
8,  1807.  The  French  force  amounted  to 
about  80,000,  and  the  allies  numbered  58,000, 
but  were  superior  in  artillery.  The  French 
claimed  the  victory,  chiefly  because  the 
allied  forces,  unable  to  recruit  their  strength, 
were  ordered  to  retreat  from  the  field  on  the 
night  of  the  battle,  and  to  retire  upon  Ko- 
nigsberg.  The  loss  of  the  allies  is  estimated 
at  about  20,000,  while  that  of  the  French 
must  have  been  considerably  greater. 


"    >  OBCj»'» 


F. 


Face.  A  term  of  varied  application.  In  [ 
fortification,  it  is  an  appellation  given  to 
several  parts  of  a  fortress,  as  \.\\o  face  of  the 
baxtion,  which  is  the  two  §ides,  reaching 
from  the  flanks  to  the  salient  angles.  The 
prolonged  or  extended  face  is  that  part  of  the 
line  of  defense  which  is  terminated  by  the 
curtain  and  the  angle  of  the  shoulder. 
Strictly  taken,  it  is  the  line  of  defense  ray- 
ant,  diminished  by  the  face  of  the  bastion. 

Face.  In  tactics,  is  the  turning  of  a 
soldier  on  his  heels  as  a  "  right  face"  ;  also 
the  word  of  command  for  the  movement. 
To  fare  is  to  turn  on  the  heels. 

Face  of  a  Piece.  In  gunnery,  is  the  ter- 
minating j>lane  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of 
thi*  bore. 

Face  of  a  Place.  In  fortification,  is  the 
front  comprehended  between  the  flanked 
anglesof  two  neighboring  bastions, composed 


of  a  curtain,  two  flanks,  and  two  faces;  and 
is  S(imetimes  called  the  tenaille  of  the  place. 

Faces  of  a  Square.  The  sides  of  a  bat- 
talion when  formed  in  square. 

Fachon.  An  Anglo-Norman  term  for  a 
sword  or  falchion. 

Facing.     A  covering,  a  plating. 

Facings.  The  movements  of  soldiers  by 
turning  on  their  heels  to  the  right,  left, 
right-about,  left-about,  etc.  To  put  one 
through  one's  facings,  is  to  examine  into  his 
elementary  knowledge,  to  test  his  pretensions. 

Facings.  Are  atso  the  cuffs  and  collars 
of  a  military  ^)at,  and  are  generally  of  a 
different  color  from  that  of  the  coat. 

Faction.  In  ancient  history,  one  of  the- 
troops  or  bodies  of  comhntants  in  the  games 
of  the  circus,  especially  of  the  horse-races. 

Faction.  A  term  applied  in  an  ill  sens© 
to  any  party  in  a  state  that  offers  uncom- 


FACTION 


156 


FALLING 


promising  opposition  to  the  measures  of  the 
government,  or  that  endeavors  to  excite  pub- 
lic discontent  upon  unreasonable  grounds. 

Faction  (Fr.).  The  duty  done  by  a 
private  soldier  when  he  patrols,  goes  the 
round,  etc.,  but  most  especially  when  he 
does  duty  as  a  sentinel.  The  French  usually 
say,  entrer  en  faction,  to  come  upon  duty; 
eti-e  en  factioti,  to  be  upon  duty ;  sortir  de 
faction,  to  come  off  duty. 

Factionnaire  {Fr.).  Soldat  factionnaire, 
a  soldier  that  does  every  species  of  detail 
duty.  The  term  factionnaire  was  likewise 
applicable  to  the  duty  done  by  officers  in  the 
old  French  service. 

Faenza  (anc.  Faventia).  A  town  in  Cen- 
tral Italy,  19  miles  southwest  of  Kavenna. 
Faventia  is  noted  in  history  as  the  place 
where  Carbo  and  Norbanus  were  defeated 
with  great  loss  by  Metillus,  the  general  of 
Sulla,    in  82  B.C. 

Fsesulse.     See  Fiesole. 

Fag-end.  Is  the  end  of  any  rope.  This 
term  is  also  applied  to  the  end  of  a  rope 
when  it  has  become  untwisted.  To  fog  out, 
to  wear  out  the  end  of  a  rope  or  a  piece  of 
canvas. 

Fagnano.  A  village  of  Italy,  12  miles 
from  Verona.  In  1799  a  battle  was  fought 
here  between  the  Austrians  and  French. 

Fagots.    See  Fascines. 

Fagots.  In  military  history,  were  men 
hired  to  muster  by  officers  whose  companies 
were  not  complete ;  by  which  means  they 
cheated  the  public  of  the  men's  pay,  and 
deprived  the  country  of  its  regular  establish- 
ment. 

Failure.  An  unsuccessful  attempt ;  as, 
the  failure  of  an  expedition. 

Faint.  To  lose  courage  or  spirit ;  to  be- 
come depressed  or  despondent. 

Faint-hearted.  Wanting  in  courage; 
depressed  by  fear,  easily  discouraged  or 
frightened ;  cowardly,  timorous. 

Fairfax,  or  Culpeper  Court-house.  A 
village,  the  capital  of  Culpeper  Co.,  Va., 
on  the  Orange  and  Alexandria  Railroad. 
This  place  was  an  important  strategic  point 
during  the  civil  war  (1861-65). 

Fairfield.  A  village  of  Fairfield  Co., 
Conn.,  situated  on  Long  Island  Sound.  It 
was  settled  in  1659;  it  was  burned  in  1779 
by  order  of  Gov.  Tryon. 

Fair  Haven.  A  village  of  Bristol  Co., 
Mass.,  on  Buzzard's  Bay.  The  town  was 
attacked  by  the  British  on  September  7, 
1788,  but  they  were  repulsed  without  loss. 

Fair  Oaks.  A  locality  in  Henrico  Co., 
Va.,  on  the  Richmond  and  York  River  Rail- 
road, about  7  miles  east  of  Richmond.  Here 
a  severe  battle  took  place  between  the  Fed- 
erals under  Gen.  McClellan  and  the  Con- 
federate army  under  Gen.*Johnston,  May 
31-June  1,  1862,  in  which  the  latter  were 
defeated,  although  the  former  obtained  no 
decisive  results  from  their  success.  The 
Union  loss  was  estimated  at  5500;  the  Con- 
federate was  somewhat  greater. 

Fakir.     A  word  derived  from  the  Arabic 


fakhar,  and  designating  a  member  of  an 
order  of  mendicants  or  penitents,  chiefly  in 
India  and  the  neighboring  countries.  They 
live  either  separately  as  hermits  or  solitary 
mendicants,  or  unite  in  large  gangs,  carrying 
arms  and  a  banner,  beating  drums,  and 
sounding  horns,  whenever  they  approach  a 
town  or  village. 

Falarique  {Fr.)  Falarica;  combustible 
darts  or  arrows  of  various  thicknesses,  gen- 
erally about  3  feet  long;  close  behind  the 
head  was  lodged  the  combustible  matter  by 
which  shipping,  etc.,  was  set  on  fire;  it  was 
projected  from  a  bow  or  catapult. 

Falcair  {Fr.).  A  soldier  who  was  armed 
with  a  falcarius  or  short  crooked  sword. 

Falchion.  A  curved  sword,  or  small  cim- 
eter. 

Falcon,  An  ancient  form  of  cannon,  7 
feet  in  length,  carrying  a  ball  of  4  pounds 
in  weight. 

Falconet.  A  small  cannon  anciently 
used,  a  little  exceeding  6  feet  in  length,  and 
carrying  a  ball  of  2  pounds  in  weight. 

Falczi,  Peace  of.  Concluded  between 
Russia  and  Turkey,  July  2,  1711,  the  Rus- 
sians giving  up  Azof  and  all  their  posses- 
sions on  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Turks.  The 
Russians  were  saved  from  imminent  destruc- 
tion by  the  address  of  Catharine,  the  em- 
press. In  1712  the  war  was  renewed,  and 
terminated  by  the  peace  of  Constantinople, 
April  16,  1712. 

Falerii.  A  city  of  ancient  Etruria,  which 
was  situated  west  of  the  Tiber.  The  inhab- 
itants, who  were  called  Falisci,  joined  with 
those  of  Veii  in  assisting  the  Fidenates 
against  the  Romans,  and  were  among  the 
most  dangerous  enemies  of  Rome.  In  241 
B.C.  the  city  was  destroyed,  and  a  Roman 
colony  was  settled  in  the  time  of  the  trium- 
virs. 

Falkirk.  A  town  of  Scotland,  in  Stirling- 
shire. Sir  William  Wallace  was  defeated 
in  a  battle  near  Falkirk  by  Edward  I.,  and 
here,  also,  the  royal  army  was  defeated  by 
the  adherents  of  the  house  of  Stuart  in 
1746. 

Falkoping.  A  town  of  Sweden,  near 
which,  in  1338,  Margaret,  queen  of  Den- 
mark, defeated  Albert,  king  of  Sweden,  and 
took  him  prisoner. 

Fall.  'The  surrender  or  capture  of  a  place 
after  it  has  been  besieged. 

Fall.  The  rope  rove  through  blocks,  used 
with  gins  and  shears  for  raising  weights, 
and  with  the  crab  for  moving  them. 

Fall.  The  descent  of  a  bt>dy  by  the  at- 
traction of  the  earth. 

Kail  Foul,  To.  To  attack ;  to  make  an 
assault. 

Fall  In.  A  word  of  command  for  men 
to  form  in  ranks,  as  in  parade,  line,  or  divis- 
ion, etc. 

Falling  Bodies,  Laws  of.  When  a  body 
falls  freely  in  vacuo  it  is  actuated  by  a  force 
which  may  be  taken  as  constant,  conse- 
quently its  velocity  will  be  uniformly  accel- 
erated.    The  constant  increment  to  the  ve- 


FALLING 


157 


FATIGUE 


locity  in  one  second  is  called  the  aeceleraiion, 
and  is  a  measure  of  the  force.  (See  Force  of 
Gravity.)  The  velocity  acquired  at  the  end 
of  a  certain  time  will  be  found  by  multiply- 
ing the  force  of  f^ravity  by  the  number  of 
seconds.  The  laws  of  falliuf;  bodies  are 
given  by  the  following  equations  : 

v  =  gt 
V  =  i/2gJi 

In  which  v  is  the  velocity  acquired,  h  the 
heiejht  fallen  through,  ^r  the  force  of  gravity, 
and  t  the  time  in  seconds.  These  laws  are 
appro-vimately  true  for  dense  or  heavy  bodies 
falling  for  a  few  seconds  in  the  atmosphere. 
For  longer  periods,  v  is  less  than  that  due  to 
h  under  the  above  laws.  For  full  discus- 
sion, see  Final  Vklocity. 

Falling  Branch.  That  part  of  the  tra- 
jectory of  a  projectile  in  which  it  approaches 
the  caVtli. 

Fall  Out,  To.  To  quit  the  rank  or  file  in 
which  you  were  first  posted.  Dirty  soldiers 
on  a  parade  are  frequently  ordered  to  fall 
out,  and  remain  in  the  rear  of  their  compa- 
nies. The  phrase  is  applicable  in  a  variety 
of  other  instances. 

Fall  Upon,  To.     To  attack  abruptly. 

Falots  (Fr..).  Small  lanterns  fi.ved  upon 
the  end  of  a  stick  or  pole.  Small  lamps 
likewise  used,  attached  in  the  same  manner, 
for  the  purpose  of  carrying  them  readily 
about  to  light  a  camp,  or  besieged  towns,  as 
occasion  may  require. 

False  Alarm.  An  alarm  or  apprehension 
which  is  cithLT  designedly  or  unintentionally 
created  by  noise,  report,  or  signals,  without 
being  dungcrnus. 

False  Attack.  An  approach  which  is 
made  as  a  feint  for  the  purpose  of  diverting 
an  enemy  from  the  real  object  of  attack. 

False  Fires.  Lights  or  fires  employed 
for  the  purpose  of  deceiving  an  enemy. 
"When  an  army  is  about  to  retire  from  a  po- 
sition during  the  night  false  fires  are  lighted 
in  difl^'crent  parts  of  the  encampment  to  im- 
pose upnii  the  enemy's  vigilance. 

False  Lights.  In  debarkations  under 
cover  of  the  night,  may  likewise  be  used  as 

#  signals  of  deception,  when  it  is  found  expe- 
dient to  attract  the  attention  of  the  invaded 
country  towards  one  part  of  the  coast  or 
territory,  whilst  a  real  attack  is  meditated 
against  another. 

False  Muster.  An  incorrect  statement  of 
the  number  of  eficctive  soldiers  and  horses. 
See  /Vri'KNDix,  Articlks  of  War,  14. 

False  Return.  A  willful  report  of  the 
actual  state  of  a  brigade,  regiment,  troop, 
or  compmiiy,  by  which  the  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  war  department  is  deceived  as 
to  the  eft'ective  force  of  such  regiment  or 
conipanv.  Sue  Aim'F.ndix,  Articles  of 
"NVar,  8. 

Famagosta,  or  Famagusta.  A  seaport 
town  of  the   island  of  Cyprus,  on  the  ea^t 


coast,  built  on  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Ar- 
siiKje.  In  lo71  Famagosta  was  taken  by 
the  Turks,  and  the  town  was  almost  entirely 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1735. 

Fanfare.  The  French  name  of  a  short 
and  lively  military  air  or  call,  executed  on 
brass  instruments. 

Fang,  To.  To  pour  water  into  a  pump 
in  order  to  fetch  it,  when  otherwise  the 
bo.\es  do  not  hold  the  watf-r  left  on  them. 

Fanion  (/'/•.).  A  small  fiag  which  was 
sometimes  carried  at  the  head  of  the  bag- 
gage of  a  brigade.  It  was  made  of  serge, 
and  resembled  in  color  the  uniform  livery 
of  the  brigadier,  or  of  the  commandant  of 
any  particular  corps. 

JF'antassin  (Fr.).  A  foot-soldier.  This 
term  is  derived  from  the  Italian /^/j/f,  a  boy, 
the  light  troops  in  the  14th  and  loth  cen- 
turies being  formed  of  boys  who  followed 
the  armies  and  were  formed  into  corps  with 
light  arms,  hence  the  origin  of  the  word  in- 
fantry. 

Fantee,  or  Fanti.  A  maritime  country 
of  Guinea,  inhabited  by  a  tribe  of  the  same 
name,  who  are  now  under  English  pro- 
tection. 

Farcy.  A  horse  disease  of  the  absorbents , 
affecting  the  skin  and  its  blood-vessels  ;  is 
of  the  nature  of  mange,  and  allied  to 
glanders. 

Farrier.  In  a  general  acceptation  of  the 
term,  any  person  who  shoes  horses,  or  pro- 
fesses to  cure  their  diseases.  In  a  practical 
military  sense,  a  man  appointed  to  do  the 
duty  of  farriery  in  a  troop  of  cavalry. 
Troop  farriers  should  be  under  the  imme- 
diate superintendence  and  control  of  a  veter- 
inary surgeon.  There  is  one  farrier  allowed 
to  each  troop  of  cavalry  in  the  U.  S.  army. 
Farrier-Major.  A  person  who  was  for- 
merly appointed  by  the  colonel  of  a  dragoon 
regiment  to  superintend  the  farriers  of  troops. 
He  has  since  been  superseded  or  replaced  oy 
a  veterinary  surgeon. 

Fasces.  Bundles  of  rods  usually  made 
of  birch,  but  sometimes  of  elm,  with  an  axe 
projecting  from  the  middle  of  them,  which 
were  carried  before  the  chief  magistrates  of 
ancient  Rome,  as  symbols  of  their  power 
over  life  and  limb.  They  were  borne  by  the 
lictors,  at  first  before  the  kings ;  in  the  time 
of  the  republic,  before  consuls  and  prajtors  ; 
and  afterwards  before  the  emperors. 

Fascine.  A  long  cylindrical  fagot  of 
brushwood,  used  to  revet  the  interior  of  bat- 
teries and  embrasures,  and  for  many  other 
purposes  of  military  engineering. 

Fascines,  Covering.  "See  Covkrino-fas- 

CINKS. 

Fastness.  A  fast  place  ;  a  stronghold  ;  a 
fortress  or  fort;  a  place  fortified;  a  castle, 
etc. 

Fatigue.  The  cause  of  weariness  ;  labor ; 
toil.;  as,  the  fatigues  of  war. 

Fatigue.  The  labors  of  military  men, 
distinct  from  the  use  of  arms. 

Fatigue  Call.  A  particular  military  call, 
sounded   on  the   bugle  or  drum,  by  which 


FATIGUE 


158 


FEKENTAKII 


soldiers  are  called  upon  to  perform  fatigue 
duties. 

Fatigue  Dress,  The  working  dress  of 
soldiers. 

Fatigue  Party.  A  party  of  soldiers  on 
fatigue. 

Faulcon.     A  small  cannon. 

Faulx  {Fr.).  An  instrument  nearly  re- 
sembling a  scythe.  It  was  often  used  to  de- 
fend a  breach,  or  to  prevent  an  enemy  from 
scaling  the  walls  of  a  fortified  place.  This 
weapon  was  first  resorted  to  with  some  suc- 
cess, when  Louis  XIV.  besieged  Mons.  On 
the  surrender  of  that  town,  large  quantities  of 
faulx,  or  scythes,  were  found  in  the  garrison. 

Fausse  Braye.  In  fortification,  was  a 
parapet  constructed -at  a  lower  elevation  than 
the  main  parapet,  and  between  the  foot  of 
the  parapet  and  the  edge  of  the  ditch.  It 
was  used  only  in  permanent  fortification, 
and  has  long  been  obsolete. 

Fayetteville.  A  small  town,  capital  of 
Washington  Co.,  Ark.  On  April  18,  1863, 
this  place,  which  was  garrisoned  by  two 
regiments  of  Federal  troops  under  Col. 
Harrison,  was  attacked  by  the  Confederate 
general  Cabell,  with  about  2000  men  ;  and 
after  six  hours'  severe  fighting  the  Confed- 
erates were  repulsed. 

Fayetteville.  A  town  of  Cumberland 
Co.,  N.  C,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Cape 
Fear  Kiver.  On  April  22,  1861,  the  arsenal 
at  this  place  surrendered  to  the  Confederates, 
and  about  35,000  stand  of  arms,  besides  some 
cannon  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  am- 
munition, fell  into  their  hands.  The  town 
was  taken  by  Gen.  Sherman  in  March,  1865. 

Fecial.  Pertaining  to  heralds,  and  the 
denunciation  of  war  to  an  enemy  ;  as,  fecial 
war. 

Federal  States.  Are  those  united  by 
treaty  as  one  state,  without  giving  up  self- 
government, — as  in  Switzerland  or  the 
United  States  of  North  America.  The  Fed- 
erals were  the  people  of  the  Northern  of  the 
United  States  of  America  during  the  great 
conflict  in  1861-65 ;  their  opponents  were 
styled  the  Confederates. 

Fehrbellin.  A  town  of  Prussia,  22  miles 
northwest  from  Potsdam.  The  elector  of 
Brandenburg  defeated  the  Swedish  army 
near  this  town  in  1675. 

Feint.  In  military  or  naval  matters,  a 
mock  attack  or  assault,  usually  made  to 
throw  an  enemy  off"  his  guard  against  some 
real  design  upon  his  position. 

Feint.  In  fencing,  a  seeming  aim  at  one 
part  when  another  is  intended  to  be  struck. 

Felloes.  In  artillery,  the  parts  of  the 
wheel  which  form  its  circumference.  There 
are  generally  seven  in  each  wheel. 

Feltre  (Fr.).  A  Roman  cuirass  made  of 
strong  woolen  cloth. 

Fence.  Self-defense  by  the  use  of  the 
sword  ;  fencing ;  the  art  and  practice  of 
fencing  or  sword-play. 

Fencer.  One  who  fences;  one  who 
teaches  or  practices  the  art  of  fencing  with 
sword  or  foil. 


Fence-roof.     A  covering  of  defense. 

Fencible.  Capable  of  being  defended,  or 
of  making  or  affording  defense. 

Fencible.  A  soldier  enlisted  for  the  de- 
fense of  the  country,  and  not  liable  to  be 
sent  abroad. 

Fencible  Light  Dragoons.  A  body  of 
cavalry  raised  voluntarily  in  various  coun- 
ties of  England  and  Scotland  in  1794,  to 
serve  during  the  war  in  any  part  of  Great 
Britain.     This  force  was  disbanded  in  1800. 

Fencibles.  In  England,  regiments  raised 
for  a  limited  service,  and  for  a  definite 
period.    The  officers  rank  with  the  militia. 

Fencing.  The  art  of  using  skillfully  a 
sword  or  foil  in  attack  or  defense ;  the  art 
or  practice  of  self-defense  with  the  sword. 

Fenian.  A  name  formerly  applied 
among  the  Celts  to  bodies  of  troops  some- 
what similar  to  our  modern  militia.  They 
derived  their  name  from  Finn  McCumhaii, 
a  famous  Celtic  chief.  In  modern  times 
the  name  was  assumed  by  an  association 
formed  for  the  liberation  of  Ireland,  whose 
principal  headquarters  was  in  the  United 
States,  but  ramifications  of  which  extended 
through  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  and  the 
colonies.  In  1866  the  Fenians  attempted  to 
invade  Canada,  and  succeeded  in  crossing 
the  frontier  ;  but  they  were  soon  dispersed, 
and  their  leaders  arrested  by  the  U.  S. 
authorities  for  violation  of  the  neutrality 
laws.  In  1867  there  were  several  demon- 
strations made  by  them  in  England  and 
Ireland,  but  their  leaders  were  promptly 
arrested,  and  after  some  were  executed,  and 
others  sentenced  to  long  terms  of  imprison- 
ment, the  movement  was  crushed. 

Fer  (Fr.).  Iron.  Figuratively,  this 
word  is  used  for  a  sword  or  dagger  ;  as, 
manier  le  fer,  to  wear  the  sword,  to  follow 
the  profession  of  arms. 

Fer  k  Cheval  {Fr.).  In  fortification, 
a  horseshoe,  a  small  round  or  oval  work, 
with  a  parapet,  generally  made  in  a  ditch  or 
in  a  marsh.  It  further  means,  according  to 
the  French  acceptation  of  the  term,  a  work 
constructed  for  the  purpose  of  covering  a 
gate,  by  having  within  it  a  guard-house,  to 
prevent  the  town  from  being  taken  by  sur- 
prise. 

Ferdwit.     In  ancient  military  history,  a 
term  formerly  used  to  denote  a  freedom  from     A 
serving  upon  any  military  expedition  ;  or, 
according  to   some,  the  being  acquitted  of 
manslaughter  committed  in  the  army. 

Fere  Champenoise,  La.  A  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  the  Marne,  20 
miles  from  Epernay.  In  1814  the  French 
wore  defeated  here  by  the  allies. 

Fere,  La.  A  fortified  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  the  Aisne,  on  an  island 
in  the  Oise.  It  has  an  arsenal  and  a  school 
of  artillery.  This  town  was  taken  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1530;  and  by  the  allies  in 
1814. 

Ferentarii.  Among  the  Romans,  were 
auxiliary  troops  lightly  armed ;  their 
weapons  being  a  sword,  arrows,  and  a  sling. 


FEROZESHAH 


159 


FIELD-BATTERY 


We  have  also  mention  of  imother  6ort  of 
Ferentarii,  whose  business  was  to  curry  arms 
after  the  army,  and  to  be  n-ady  to  supply 
the  soldiers  therewith  in  battle. 

Ferozeshah.  A  village  in  Hindostan, 
situated  a  few  miles  frt)ni  the  left  bank  of 
the  river  Sutlcj.  Here  the  British,  com- 
manded by  Sir  Hugh  Goui^h,  attacked  the 
intrenchments  of  the  Sikhs,  and  carried 
their  first  line  of  works,  December  21,  1845; 
but  nif^ht  cominfj  on,  the  r>|)erations  were 
suspended  till  daybreak  next  day,  when 
their  second  line  was  stormed  by  Gen.  Gil- 
bert, and  74  i^uns  captured.  The  Sikhs  ad- 
vanced to  retake  their  f^uns,  but  were  re- 
pulsed with  great  loss,  and  retreated  toward 
the  Sutlej,  December  22;  and  recros-ed  that 
river  unmolested,  December  27.  The  loss 
of  the  British  was  reckoned  at  2415. 

Ferrara.  A  city  of  Italy,  and  the  capital 
of  one  of  the  yEmilian  provinces  of  the  same 
name.  It  was  subdued  by  the  Lombards  in 
the  8th  century,  and  taken  from  them  by 
Pepin,  about  752,  who  gave  it  to  Pope  Ste- 
phen II.  About  1208  it  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  house  of  Este,  and  in  15U8  Pope  Cle- 
ment VIII.  obtained  the  sovereignty.  The 
French  under  Massena  took  Ferrara  in 
1796  ;  but  it  was  restored  to  the  pope  in  1814. 
An  Austrian  garrison  held  it  from  1849  ;  it 
retired  in  June,  1859,  and  the  people  rose 
and  declared  for  annexation  to  Sardinia, 
which  was  accomplished  in  March,  18G0. 

Ferrara.  A  sword  of  excellent  temper, 
made  of  steel  from  Ferrara,  Italy.  The  kind 
most  prized  was  manufactured  by  Andrea  di 
Ferrara  ;  hence  such  a  sword  was  often  called 
an  Andrea-P\'rrara. 

Ferries,  Rope.     See  Pontons. 

Ferrol.  A  seaport  town  of  Spain,  prov- 
ince of  Corunna,  and  an  important  naval 
station.  This  place  was  unsuccessfully  at- 
tacked by  the  British  in  August,  1800.  Mar- 
shal Soult  captured  Ferrol,  January  27, 
1809. 

Ferry.  A  water  conveyance  made  use  of 
to  cross  a  river,  or  branch  of  the  sea. 

Fetter.  To  put  fetters  upon  ;  to  shackle 
or  confine  the  feet  with  a  chain;  to  bind; 
to  enchain.  Deserters  are  sometimes  fettered 
while  undergoing  punishment  for  the  crime 
of  desertion. 

Feu-de-joie.  A  salute  fired  by  musketry 
on  occasions  of  public  rejoicing,  so  that  it 
should  pass  from  man  to  man  rapidly  and 
steadily,  down  one  rank  and  up  the  other, 
giving  one  long  continuous  sound. 

Feu  Rasant  (Fr.).  A  grazing  fire,  or  a 
discharge  of  mu-;ketry  or  cannon,  so  directed 
that  the  balls  shall  run  parallel  with  the 
ground  they  fly  over,  within  3  or  4  feet  of 
the  surface. 

Feud.  A  contention  or  quarrel ;  espe- 
cially an  inveterate  strife  between  families, 
clans,  or  parties  in  a  state;  deadly  hatred; 
contention  satisfied  only  by  bloodshed. 

Feudal.  Consisting  of,  or  founded  upon, 
feuds  or  fiefs;  embracing  tenures  by  military 
•ystem ;  as,  the  feudal  system. 


Fez.  A  red  cap  without  a  brim,  worn  by 
Turkish  soldiers  and  others. 

Fez.  A  city  of  Morocco,  Africa;  it  was 
founded  by  Edris,  a  descendant  of  Moham- 
med, about  787 ;  was  long  capital  of  the  king- 
dom of  Fez.  After  long-continued  struggles 
it  was  annexed  to  Morocco  about  1550. 

Fichant.  In  fortification,  said  of  flanking 
fire  which  impinges  on  the  face  it  defends  ; 
that  is,  of  a  line  of  defense  where  the  angle 
»of*defense  is  less  than  a  right  angle. 

Fidenae.  An  ancient  city  of  Latium,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber,  5  miles  from 
Rome.  The  proximity  of  the  two  cities 
brought  them  early  into  collision,  and  we 
find  that  Fidenae  was  engaged  in  successive 
wars  with  the  early  Roman  kings.  After 
the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins  Fidenae  en- 
tered into  a  league  with  the  Sabines  and 
Latins  to  effect  their  restoration,  but  the  at- 
tempt proved  abortive,  and,  deserted  by  their 
allies,  the  Fidenates  were  compelled  to  sur- 
render to  the  Roman  arms.  The  city  after- 
wards continued  its  struggles  against  Rome, 
but  without  success,  and,  though  there  is  no 
record  of  its  destruction,  it  had  dwindled 
into  an  insignificant  village  before  the  close 
of  the  Roman  republic. 

Fidentia  (now  Rargo  S.  Domine/n).  A 
town  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  on  the  Via  ^^milia, 
between  Parma  and  Placentia,  memorable 
for  the  victory  which  Sulla's  generals  gained 
over  Carbo,  82  B.C. 

Fief.  An  estate  held  of  a  superior  on 
condition  of  military  service;  a  fee  ;  a  feud. 

Field.  A  cleared  space  or  plain  where  a 
battle  is  fought;  also,  the  battle  itself.  To 
take  the  field  means  to  commence  active  op- 
erations against  an  enemy. 

Field.  In  heraldry,  the  surface  of  a  shield; 
hence,  any  blank  space  or  ground  on  which 
figures  are  drawn  or  projected. 

Field  Allowance.  In  the  British  service, 
is  an  allowance  granted  to  officers  in  camp  at 
home,  or  on  a  campaign,  to  enable  them  to 
repay  themselves  the  expense  of  purchasing 
camp  equipage,  bat-horses,  etc.  It  is  di- 
vided into  ordinary  and  extraordinary  field 
allowance,  the  former  being  granted  in  time 
of  peace,  the  latter  in  that  of  war. 

Field  Artillery.     That  portion  of  the  ar- 
tillery which  is  used   in   the  field.     In  the 
U.  S.  army  the  3-  and  3.1-inch  rifle  guns,  Gat- 
ling,  and  12-pounder  smooth-bore,  constitute 
the  field  artillery.     See  Artillkry. 
I       Field-battery.     Is   a   certain   number  of 
pieces  of  artillery  so  equipped  as  to  be  avail- 
;  able  for  attack  or  defense,  and  capable  of  ac- 
,  ct>mpanying  cavalry  or  infantry  in  all  their 
I  movements  in  the  field.     There  are  allotted 
I  to  a  field-battery  4  pieces  in  time  of  peace 
and  6  in  time  of  war,  and  it  is  divided  into 
mounted  artitleru,  which  usually  serves  with 
infantry,  and  horse  artillery,  which  ordina- 
rily serves  with  cavalry.  The  main  difference 
between  the  two  consists  in  the  cannoneers 
of  the  latter  being  mounted  ;  in  rapid  evolu- 
tions of  the  former  they  are  conveyed  on  the 
gun-carriages.     See  Artillkry. 


FIELD-BED 


160 


FIGHT 


Field-bed.  A  folding  bed  used  by  officers 
while  on  campaigns  or  in  the  field. 
_  Field-carriage.  Field-gun  carriages  con- 
sist of  two  short  cheeks  of  wood,  bolted  upon 
a  stock  and  wooden  axle-body,  in  a  recess 
which  fits  the  iron  axle  on  which  the  wheels 
are  placed.  The  stock  terminates, in  a  trail 
and  trail-plate  which  rests  on  the  ground, 
and  has  on  the  end  a  strong  ring  called  the 
lunette,  which  is  placed  on  the  pintle-hook 
when  the  piece  is  limbered.  In  the  stock  Is 
placed  an  elevating  screw-box  of  bronze  in 
which  the  elevating  screw  fits.  They  have 
also  limbers  (which  see). 

Field-colors.  Small  flags  of  about  a  foot 
and  a  half  square,  carried  along  with  troops 
for  marking  out  the  ground  for  the  squad- 
rons and  battalions  ;  camp-colors. 

Field-day.  A  term  used  when  a  regi- 
ment is  taken  out  to  the  field,  for  the  piar- 
pose  of  being  instructed  in  the  field  exer- 
cise and  evolutions. 

Fielded.  Being  in  the  field  of  battle ;  en- 
camped.    This  term  is  now  obsolete. 

Field-equipage.  Military  apparatus  for 
field  service. 

Field  Forge.     See  Forge. 

Field-glass.  A  binocular  telescope,  used 
by  officers  in  field  service. 

Field-gun.  A  small  kind  of  gun,  or 
cannon,  used  on  the  battle-field;  a  field- 
piece. 

Field -Marshal  (Mareschal,  Feldmar- 
schall,  Feldzeugmeister).  The  commander  of 
an  army;  a  military  officer  of  high  rank  in 
France,  Germany,  and  other  nations,  and 
the  highest  military  officer  in  England. 
Forrnerly  a  captain-general  was  occasionally 
appointed,  who  had  rank  higher  even  than 
a  field-marshal. 

Field-officer.  Is  a  colonel,  lieutenant- 
colonel,  or  major  of  a  battalion  or  regiment, 
as  distinguished  from  general  officers,  who 
are  superior  to  field-officers  in  rank;  from 
line-officers,  who  are  inferior;  and  from 
staff"-officers,  general  or  regimental,  who 
may  be  of  rank  superior,  equivalent,  or  in- 
ferior to  that  of  field-officers. 

Field-officer's  Court.  In  the  U.  S.  service, 
a  court-martial  consisting  of  one  field-offi- 
cer empowered  to  try  cases,  subject  to  juris- 
diction of  garrison  and  regimental  courts, 
takes  the  place  of  the  latter  courts  in  time 
of  war,  but  cannot  be  held  in  time  of  peace. 
Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  A  name 
given  to  an  open  plain  between  Ardres  and 
Guisnes,  where  Henry  VIII.  of  England 
had  an  interview  in  1520  with  Francis  I.  of 
France.  The  nobility  of  both  kingdoms 
embraced  the  opportunity  to  display  their 
magnificence  with  the  utmost  emulation  and 
profusion  of  expense. 

Field-park.  The  spare  carriages,  re- 
served supplies  of  ammunition,  tools,  and 
materials  for  extensive  repairs  and  for  mak- 
ing up  ammunition,  for  the  service  of  an 
army  in  the  field,  form  the  field-park,  to 
which  should  be  attached  also  the  batteries 
of  reserve. 


Field-piece.  A  small  cannon  which  is 
carried  along  with  armies,  and  used  in  the 
field  of  battle. 

Field  Service.  Service  performed  by 
troops  in  the  field. 

Field-staff.  A  staff  formerly  carried  by 
gunners  in  the  field,  and  holding  lighted 
matches  for  discharging  cannon.  It  is  no- 
longer  used. 

Field  Telegraph,  See  Telegravh, 
Field.       • 

Field-train.  In  the  British  service,  a 
department  of  the  Royal  Artillery,  consist- 
ing of  commissaries  and  conductors  of  stores, 
responsible  for  the  safe  custody  of  the  ammu- 
nition, for  the  formation  of  proper  depots  of 
shot,  etc.,  between  the  front  and  the  base  of 
operations,  and  that  a  due  proportion  shall 
be  constantly  at  the  service  of  each  gun 
during  an  engagement. 

Field-works.  Are  intrenchments  and 
other  temporary  fortifications  thrown  up  by 
an  army  in  the  field,  either  as  a  protection 
from  the  onslaught  of  a  hostile  force,  or  to 
cover  an  attack  upon  some  stronghold.  All 
works  which  do  not  come  under  the  head 
of  permanent  fortification  are  called  field- 
works. 

Fiesole  (anc.  Faesulce).  One  of  the  most 
ancient  Etruscan  cities,  situated  about  3 
miles  from  Florence.  This  city  was  first 
mentioned  in  225  B.C.  during  the  great 
Gaulish  war.  Hannibal  encamped  here 
after  crossing  the  Apennines.  The  city  was 
next  destroyed  by  Sulla  in  the  Social  war 
(90-89  B.C.),  who  afterwards  dispatched 
thither  a  military  colony.  About  the  be- 
ginning of  the  11th  century,  it  was  destroyed 
by  the  Florentines,  and  many  of  its  inhab- 
itants compelled  to  remove  to  the  city  of 
Florence. 

Fife.  A  wooden  wind  instrument,  which 
is  used  with  the  snare-drum  for  playing  mil- 
itary music.  The  music  is  produced  by 
blowing  through  a  hole  in  a  reed  or  tube, 
while  the  escape  of  air  is  regulated  by  the 
fingers  stopping  or  opening  a  number  of 
other  holes  in  different  parts  of  the  pipe. 

Fife-Major.  The  chief  or  superintend- 
ent of  the  filers  of  a  regiment. 

Fifer.  One  who  plays  a  fife;  there  is  one 
fifer  allowed  to  each  company  of  infantry  in 
the  U.  S.  army.  Fifers  are  also  employed 
aboard  men-of-war,  and  in  the  marine  corps. 
Fight.  To  strive  or  contend  for  victory, 
in  battle  or  in  single  combat ;  to  defeat, 
subdue,  or  destroy  an  enemy,  either  by 
blows  or  weapons;  to  contend  in  arms; — 
followed  by  with  or  against. 

Fight.  To  carry  on,  or  wage,  as  a  con- 
flict, or  battle;  to  win  or  gain  by  struggle, 
as  one's  way ;  to  sustain  by  fighting,  as  a 
cause.  To  contend  with  in  battle ;  to  war 
against,  as,  they  fought  the  enemy  in  two 
pitched  battles.  To  cause  to  fight;  manage 
or  manoeuvre  in  a  fight. 

Fight.  A  battle  ;"  an  engagement ;  a  con- 
test in  arms;  a  struggle  for  victory,  either 
between    individuals    or    between    armies, 


FIGHTER 


161 


FIRE 


ships,  or  mivies.     A  duel  is  called  a  single 
fight  or  combat. 

Fighter.  One  who  fights;  a  combatant; 
a  warrior. 

Fighting.  Qualified  for  war  ;  fit  for  bat- 
tle; as,  "A  host  of  fighting  men."  Also, 
occupied  in  war;  being  the  scene  of  war; 
as,  a  fighting  field. 

Fight,  Running.  That  in  which  the  en- 
emy is  fdiitiiiually  chased. 

Figueras.  A  town  in  the  northeast  of 
Spain,  province  of  Gerona.  On  a  height 
near  the  town  is  the  citadel  of  San  Fer- 
nando, the  strongest  fortress  of  Spain,  and 
the  key  of  the  Pyrenees  on  their  south  side. 
It  has  accommodation  for  2000  men. 

Figure.  In  fortification,  the  plan  of  any 
fortified  place,  or  the  interior  polygon.  Of 
this  there  are  two  sorts,  regular  and  irregular ; 
a  regular  figure  is  that  where  the  sides  and 
angles  are  equal ;  an  irregular  one  where 
they  are  unequal. 

File.  A  line  of  soldiers  drawn  up  behind 
each  other,  in  contradistinction  to  rank,  which 
refers  to  men  standing  beside  one  another. 
The  general  term  means  two  soldiers,  consist- 
ing of  the  front  and  rear  rank  men.  To 
file  is  to  advance  to  or  from  any  given 
points  by  files;  as,  to  file  to  the  front,  etc. 
To  file  off,  or  to  defile,  is  to  wheel  off  by 
flies  from  moving  in  a  spacious  front, 
and  march  in  length.  Flank  file,  is  the 
extreme  file  on  the  right  or  left  of  a 
squadron  or  troop,  battalion  or  company, 
etc.  Indian  files,  i\  line  of  men  advancing 
or  retreating  from  either  of  the  flanks,  from 
the  centre  or  from  any  proportion  of  a  line 
in  succession  to  one  another. 

File  Firing.     Firing  by  files. 

File-leader.  Is  the  soldier  placed  in  front 
of  any  Hie,  or  the  man  who  is  to  cover  all 
those  who  stand  diret;tly  in  the  rear  of  him, 
and  by  whom  they  are  to  be  guided  in  all 
their  movements. 

Filibuster.  A  lawless  military  adven- 
turer, especially  one  in  quest  of  plunder  ;  a 
freebooter;  a  pirate;  applied  especially  to 
the  followers  of  Lopez  in  his  expedition  to 
Cuba  in   1851. 

Filings.  Are  movements  to  the  front, 
rear,  or  thinks  by  files. 

Fillet.  A  molding  used  on  cannon  of  old 
pattern. 

Fillibeg,  or  Filibeg.  A  little  plaid;  a 
kilt  or  dn-ss  reaching  nearly  to  the  knees, 
■worn  in  the  liiglilands  of  Scotland,  and  by 
the  soldiers  of  Highland  regiments  in  the 
British  service. 
Fillibuster.  See  Filihuster. 
Final  Velocity.  In  gunnery,  is  the  tech- 
nical term  for  the  uniform  velocity  which  a 
projectile  would  acquire  in  falling  through 
»n  indefinite  height  in  the  air.  A  body 
falling  in  vacuo  is  uniformly  accelerated, 
its  velocity  being  continually  increased.  In 
the  atmosphere  the  case  is  different.  Since 
the  resistance  of  the  air  increases  with  some 
power  of  the  velocity  greater  than  the 
square,  it  follows  that  at  some  point  in  the 


descent  the  retardation  becomes  equal  to 
the  acceleration,  and  the  body  will  move 
with  uniform  velocity.  This  is  called  "  final 
velocity,"  and  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant elements  in  the  theory  of  projectiles. 
Every  projectile  has  its  own  ''final  velocity." 
Other  things  being  equal,  that  projectile  is 
best  which  has  the  greatest  '■  final  velocity." 
The  "  final  velocity"  of  a  given  projectile 
will  depend  upon  its  weight  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  extent  of  surface  and  the  way 
it  is  presented  to  the  air  on  the  other.  The 
extent  and  form  of  the  surface  directly 
opposed  to  the  action  of  the  air  will 
largely  determine  the  resistance.  The  wIt 
form,  as  determined  by  the  experiments  of 
Borda,  is  the  ogival.  The  resistance,  other 
things  being  the  same,  may  be  taken  as  pro- 
portional to  the  area  of  greatest  cross-sec- 
tion. The  weight  in  spherical  projectiles  is 
proportional  to  the  cube  of  this  dimension. 
It  follows  from  these  general  principles  that 
large  projectiles  are  better  than  small,  dense 
;  better  than  light,  solid  better  than  hollow, 
in  regard  to  their  final  velocities  ;  moreover, 
I  that  oblong  projectiles  are  better  than 
1  spherical,  ogival-headed  oblong  better  than 
j  flat-headed,  and  long  rifle  projectiles  better 
I  than  short,  in  the  same  regard. 
I  Finding.  Before  a  court-martial  delib- 
erates upon  the  judgment,  the  judge-advo- 
cate reads  over  the  whole  proceedings  of  the 
court;  he  then  collects  the  votes  of  each 
member,  beginning  with  the  youngest. 
The  best  mode  of  doing  so  is  by  slips  of 
paper.  The  Articles  of  War  require  a  ma- 
jority in  all  cases,  and  in  cases  of  sentence 
of  death  two-thirds.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
find  &  qeneral  verdict  of  guilt  or  acquittal 
upon  the  whole  of  every  charge.  The  court 
may  find  the  prisoner  guilty  of  part  of  a 
charge,  and  acquit  him  of  the  remainder, 
and  render  sentence  according  to  their  find- 
ing.    This  is  a  special  verdict. 

Finland.  A  Russian  grand  duchy  ;  in  the 
middle  of  the  I'ith  century  was  conquered 
by  the  Swedes,  who  introduced  Christianity. 
It  was  several  times  conquered  by  the  Rus- 
sians (1714,  1742,  and  1808),  and  restored 
(1721  and  1743) ;  but  in  1809  they  retained  it 
by  treaty. 

Fire.  In  the  art  of  war,  a  word  of  com- 
mand to  soldiers  of  all  denominations  to  dis- 
charge their  fire-arms,  cannon,  etc.  It  like- 
wise expresses  a  general  discharge  against 
an  enemy.  To  bo  "  under  fire"  means  to 
be  exposed  to  the  attack  of  an  enemy  by 
cannonade  or  fusilade.  The  fire  in  artil- 
lery may  be  either  direct,  ricochet,  rolling, 
plunging,  horizontal,  or  vertical,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  projectile  and  the  angle 
of  elevation.  A  fire  is  said  to  be  direct,  when 
the  projectile  hits  the  object  without  striking 
any  intermediate  one;  ricochet,  when  the 
projectile  strikes  the  ground  or  water  under 
a  snuill  angle  of  fall,  penetrates  obliquely 
to  a  certain  distance,  and  is  then  reflected 
at  an  angle  greater  than  the  angle  of  fall. 
This  action  may  recur  frequently,  depend- 


FIRE-ALARM 


162 


FIRE 


ing,  as  it  does,  on  the  nature  of  the  surface 
struck,  the  initial  velocity,  shape,  size,  and 
density  of  the  projectile,  and  on  the  angle  of 
fall.  It  is  employed  in  siege-works  to  attain 
the  face  of  a  work  in  flank,  or  in  reverse ; 
and  in  the  field,  or  on  water,  when  the  ob- 
ject is  large,  and  the  distance  is  not  accu- 
rately known.  The  character  of  ricochet 
fire  is  determined  by  the  angle  of  fall.  It 
is  flattened  when  this  angle  does  not  exceed 
4°,  and  curvated  when  the  angle  is  between 
6°  and  15°.  Against  troops  the  angle  of  fall 
should  not  exceed  3°.  A  particular  kind  of 
ricochet  fire  called  rolling  is  produced  by  plac- 
ing the  axis  of  the  piece  parallel,  or  nearly  so, 
with  the  ground.  It  was  formerly  much 
used  when  the  conditions  were  favorable  in 
the  field  service,  where  it  was  very  elfective, 
as  the  projectile  never  passes  at  a  greater 
distance  above  the  ground  than  the  muzzle 
of  the  piece.  The  projectile  was  solid  round 
shot;  rifled  projectiles  are  unsuited  to  this 
kind  of  flre.  When  the  object  is  situated 
below  the  piece,  the  fire  is  said  to  he  plung- 
ing. This  kind  of  fire  is  particularly  eft'ec- 
tive  against  the  decks  of  vessels.  Under 
low  angles  of  elevation  the  fire  of  guns  and 
howitzers  is  said  to  be  horizontal.  The  fire 
of  mortars  under  high  angles  of  elevation  is 
called  vertical. 

Fire-alarm.  An  alarm  given  of  a  fire  or 
conflagration.  In  military  barracks  or 
camp,  it  is  sounded  on  drum  or  bugle,  or  the 
discharge  of  fire-arms  by  the  guard. 

Fire,  Angle  of.     See  Pointing. 

Fire-arms.  EvtJry  description  of  arms 
charged  with  powder  and  ball.  See  spe- 
cial headings. 

Fire-arrow.  A  small  iron  dart,  furnished 
with  a  match  impregnated  with  powder  and 
sulphur,  used  to  fire  the  sails  of  ships. 

Fire-ball.     See  Pyrotechny. 

Fire-bavin.  A  bundle  of  brushwood 
used  in  fire-ships. 

Fire-bucket.  A  bucket  to  convey  water 
for  extinguishing  fires.  To  each  set  of  quar- 
ters in  a  garrison  there  are  allotted  a  certain 
number  of  fire-buckets. 

Fire-cross.  An  ancient  token  in  Scot- 
land for  the  nation  to  take  up  arms. 

Fire,  Curved,  or  Curvated.     See  Pire. 

Fire,  Direct.     See  Fire. 

Fire-eater.  One  notoriously  fond  of 
being  in  action. 

Fire,  Effects  of.  See  Projectiles,  Ef- 
fects OF. 

Fire,  Enfilade.  Fire  in  the  direction  of 
the  length  of  a  parapet  or  a  line  of  troops. 

Fire-engine.  A  hydraulic  or  forcing 
pump  for  throwing  water  to  extinguish  fires. 

Fire,  Greek.     See  Greek  Fire. 

Fire-hoops.  A  combustible  invented  by 
the  Knights  of  Malta  to  throw  among  their 
besiegers,  and  afterwards  used  in  boarding 
Turkish  galleys. 

Fire,  Line  of.     See  Pointing. 

Firelocks.  Were  fire-arms  formerly 
used  by  foot-soldiers ;  they  were  so  called 
from   their    producing   fire  of    themselves, 


by  the  action  of  the  flint  and  steel.  They 
were  first  made  use  of  in  1(390,  but  ft  is  not 
ascertained  when  they  were  first  invented. 
About  the  middle  of  the  last  century  a  fire- 
lock was  called,  by  military  writers,  asfiap- 
baan,  which  being  a  low  Dutch  word,  seems 
to  indicate  its  being  a  Dutch  invention. 

Fire-master.  In  the  artillery,  was  a  com- 
missioned ofiicer  who  gave  the  directions 
and  proportions  of  all  ingredients  for  each 
composition  required  in  fireworks,  whether 
for  the  service  of  war,  or  for  rejoicings  and 
recreation. 

Fire-master's-mate.  In  the  artillery,  a 
commissioned  t)flicer  whose  duty  was  to  aid 
and  assist  the  chief  fire-master;  and  he  was 
required  to  be  skilled  in  every  kind  of  labo- 
ratory works. 

Fire,  Oblique.  That  which  strikes  a  par- 
apet or  a  body  of  troops  in  a  slanting  direc- 
tion. 

Fire-pan.  A  pan  for  holding  or  convey- 
ing fire ;  especially,  the  receptacle  for  the 
priming  in  a  gun. 

Fire,  Plane  of.     See  Pointing. 

Fire,  Plunging.     See  Fire. 

Fire-pot.  A  small  earthen  pot,  into 
which  is  put  a  charged  grenade,  and  over 
that,  powder  enough  to  cover  the  grenade  ; 
the  whole  covered  with  a  piece  of  parch- 
ment, and  two  pieces  of  quick-match  across 
lighted  ;  it  breaks  and  fires  the  powder,  as  also 
the  powder  in  the  grenade,  which  has  no 
fuze,  that  its  operations  may  be  quicker;  it 
burns  all  that  is  near  it.  These  are  no  longer 
used. 

Fire  Rasant.  Is  produced  by  firing  the 
artillery  and  small-arms  in  a  line  parallel 
with  those  parts  of  the  works  you  are  de- 
fending. 

Fire,  Reverse.  -Is  that  which  strikes  the 
rear  of  a  parapet  or  body  of  troops. 

Fire,  Ricochet.     See  Fire. 

Fire,  Slant.  Is  when  the  shot  strikes  the 
interior  slope  of  the  parapet,  forming  with 
it  a  horizontal  angle,  not  greater  than  30°. 

Fire  Stone.  A  composition  placed  in  a 
shell  with  the  bursting  charge,  to  set  fire  to 
ships,  buildings,  etc.  It  is  made  by  stirring 
nitre,  sulphur,  antimony,  and  rosin  in  a  mix- 
ture of  melted  tallow  and  turpentine.  It  is 
cast  in  molds  made  of  rocket-paper.  A 
priming  of  fuze  composition  is  driven  in  a 
hole  to  insure  its  ignition. 

Fire-swab.  The  bunch  of  rope-yarns 
sometimes  secured  to  the  tampion,  saturated 
with  water  to  cool  the  gun  in  action,  and  to 
swab  up  any  grains  of  powder. 

Fire,  Tables  of.  In  artillery,  are  tabu- 
lated statements  for  each  piece,  showing  the 
range  and  time  of  flight  for  each  elevation, 
charge  of  powder,  and  kind  of  projectile. 
Their  purpose  is  to  assist  the  artillerist  in 
attaining  his  object  without  waste  of  time 
and  ammunition,  and  also  to  regulate  his 
aim  when  the  efl^ect  of  shot  cannot  be  seen 
on  account  of  the  dust  and  smoke  of  the 
battle-field.  The  first  few  shots  generally 
produce  a  great  effect  on  the  enemy,  and  it 


FIRE 


163 


FLAGS 


is  very  important  that  they  should  be  di- 
rected with  some  knowledj^e  of  their  results, 
which,  in  the  tield,  can  only  be  attained  by 
experience,  or  from  the  data  afiorded  by  a 
table  of  fire.  Tables  of  fire  for  different 
kinds  of  cannon  may  be  found  in  the  Ord- 
nance and  Artillery  Manuals. 

Fire,  Vertical.     See  Fire. 

Fire-workers.  In  the  British  service, 
were  formerly  subordinate  to  the  fire-master 
and  his  mate ;  had  afterwards  the  rank  of 
youngest  lieutenants  in  the  regiment  of  artil- 
lery, but  now  that  rank  is  abolished,  and  they 
are  all  second  lieutenants.  They  were  sup- 
posed to  be  well  skilled  in  every  kind  of 
laboratory-work,  which  knowledge  is  an 
essential  qualification  in  every  officer  of  that 
branch  of  the  service. 

Fireworks.  Are  various  combustible 
preparations  used  in  war.    See  Pyrotechny. 

Firing.     The  act  of  discharging  fire-arms. 

First  Sergeant.  The  ranking  non-com- 
missioned othcer  in  a  company.  lie  has  im- 
mediate, charge  of  all  enlisted  men  of  the 
company  and  company  property  ;  has  com- 
mand o(  it  during  formations,  and  calls  the 
roll.  He  also  makes  all  details,  keeps  the 
roster,  etc.     See  Urukkly  Skrgeant. 

Fishguard.  A  seaport  town  of  South 
"Wales,  county  of  PcMubroke.  About  2i 
miles  south  of  this  town  a  French  force  of 
1400  men,  under  Gen.  Tate,  landed  on  Feb- 
ruary 22,  1797,  and  next  day  surrendered  to 
a  few  militia  and  volunteers  not  half  their 
number. 

Fishtail  Wind.  A  term  in  target  prac- 
tice with  small-arms  for  a  rear  wind  which 
is  variable  in  direction. 

Fish  Torpedoes.     See  Torpedoes. 

Fissure.  A  narrow  chasm  where  a  small 
breach  has  been  made,  as  in  a  fort,  citadel, 
etc. 

Five  Forks.  A  name  given  to  a  locality 
in  Dinwiddle  Co.,  "S'a.,  the  junction  of  the 
"White  Oak  and  Ford's  road  with  the  one 
leading  to  Dinwiddie  Court-house.  An 
important  battle  was  fought  here  April  1, 
18(35.  The  possession  of  this  radiating  cen- 
tre was  one  of  great  strategic  importance, 
inasmuch  as  by  Ford's  road  the  South- 
side  Railroad  could  be  reached,  and,  in- 
deed, the  whole  country  which  the  in- 
trenched Confederate  lines  were  intended  to  ! 
cover.  The  attempt  to  gain  possession  of 
this  position  had  been  made  (Mareh  30-31) 
by  Gen.  Sheridan,  with  momentary  success 
(March  31),  during  the  absence  of  most  of 
the  Confederate  force,  engaged  in  fighting 
"Warren  on  the  "White  Oak  road,  but  which 
now  being  recalled,  regained  possession, 
driving  Sheridan  back  towards  Dinwiddie 
Court-house.  On  the  morning  of  April  1 
Sheridan  renewed  the  attempt,  and  after  u 
day  of  very  severe  fightingcompelled  the  s»ir- 
render  of"  nearly  all  the  Confederate  force, 

gursuing   such    as  escaped    till    after  dark, 
•ver  6000  prisoners  were  captured  with  5  i 
guns.     The  Union  loss  was  not  above  1900  I 
»U  told.     The  effect  of  this  decisive  battle  I 


was  to  determine  Lee  to  abandon  Petersburg, 
which  he  did  undercover  of  night  (April  2), 
but  not  before  his  entire  outer  line  of  works 
had  been  carried  during  the  day.  One  week 
later  Lee  surrendered  his  army  at  Appomat- 
tox Court-house. 

Fix  Bayonets.  A  word  of  command  in 
the  manual  exercise,  whereby  the  bayonets 
are  fixed  on  the  rifies. 

Fixed  Ammunition.  Consists  of  a  pro- 
jectile and  its  cartridge  whieh  are  attached 
to  the  same  block  of  wood  called  a  sabot. 
See  Ordnance,  Ammi'mtion  for. 

Flag,  Black.  A  flag  of  a  black  color, 
displayed  as  a  sign  that  no  mercy  will  be 
shown  to  the  vanquished,  or  that  no  quarter 
will  be  given. 

Flag,  Garrison.  In  the  IT.  S.  army  the 
garrison  flag  is  the  national  flag,  and  is  36 
feet  fly  and  20  feet  hoist.  It  is  furnished 
only  to  very  important  posts,  or  those  having 
large  garrisons,  and  is  hoisted  only  on  gala 
days  and  great  occasions. 

Flag  of  the  Prophet  [Snnjak-Sheriff). 
Is  the  sacred  banner  of  the  Mohammedans. 
It  was  originally  of  a  white  color,  and  was 
composed  of  the  turban  of  the  Koreish,  cap- 
tured by  i[obammcd.  A  black  flag  was, 
however,  soon  substituted  in  its  place,  con- 
sisting of  the  curtain  that  hung  before  the 
door  of  Ayeshah,one  of  the  prophet's  wives. 
This  flag  is  regarded  by  the  Mohammedans 
as  their  most  sacred  relic  ;  it  was  brought  into 
Europe  by  Amurath  III.  It  was  covered 
with  forty  wrappings  of  silk,  deposited  in  a 
costly  casket,  and  preserved  in  a  chapel  in 
the  interior  of  the  seraglio,  where  it  is  guarded 
by  several  emirs,  with  c(jnstant  prayers. 
The  banner  unfolded  at  the  commencement 
of  a  war,  and  likewise  carefully  preserved, 
is  not  the  same,  although  it  is  believed  by 
the  people  to  be  so. 

Flag  of  Truce.  A  white  flag  carried  by 
an  otlicer  sent  to  communicate  with  the 
enemy.  The  flag  signifies  his  errand,  but 
the  enemy  are  not  bound  to  receive  him, 
though  it  would  be  a  violation  of  the  rules 
of  war  to  injure  the  messenger,  unless  he 
persisted  in  his  endeavor  to  communicate 
after  due  warning  given.  The  term  is  often 
extended  to  the  party  whieh  accompanies 
the  flag,  which  consists  generally  of  an  offi- 
cer, a  trumpeter  or  bugler,  who  sounds  to 
attract  attention,  and  sometimes  of  an  addi- 
tional soldier  who  carries  the  flag. 

Flag,  Post.  In  the  U.  S.  army,  is  the 
national  flag,  and  is  20  feet  fly  and  10  feet 
hoist;  it  is  furnished  to  all  posts  garrisoned 
by  troops,  and  is  hoisted  only  in  pleasant 
weather. 

Flag,  Red.  Is  frequently  used  by  revo- 
lutionists as  an  emblem  of  defiance.  It  is 
used  in  the  U.  S.  service  as  a  danger-signal 
at  target  practice,  and  »>n  a  man-of-war  as  a 
signal  that  the  ship  is  receiving  or  discharg- 
ing her  powder. 

Flags.     See  Colors,  Standards,  etc. 

Flags.  The  national  flag  of  the  United 
States  consists  of  13  horizontal  stripes,  alter- 


PLAG-STAFF 


164 


FLANK 


nately  red  and  white  ;  the  union  to  consist  of 
20 stars,  white,  in  a  blue  lield  ;  one  star  to  be 
added  to  the  union  on  the  admission  of 
every  new  State  ;  the  addition  to  be  made  on 
the  4th  day  of  July  succeeding  such  admis- 
sion. There  are  flags  which  are  symbols 
of  individual  authority.  Among  such  are 
royal  standards,  flag-officers'  flags,  etc.  An 
admiral's  flag  is  usually  the  flag  of  the 
country  which  such  admiral  serves,  with  the 
exception  of  the  union.  The  flag  of  the 
admiral,  vice-admiral,  and  rear-admirals  of 
the  United  States  is  rectangular  and  consists 
of  13  alternate  red  and  white  stripes.  The 
admiral  hoists  this  at  the  main  ;  the  vice- 
admiral  at  the  fore ;  the  rear-admiral  at  the 
mizzen.  Should  there  be  two  rear-admirals 
present,  the  junior  hoists  a  flag  at  the  miz- 
zen similar  to  the  one  described,  with  the 
addition  of  two  stars  in  the  upper  left-hand 
corner.  The  commodore's  flag  diflers  from 
that  of  the  admiral's  in  form  alone,  it  being 
a  swallow-tail  instead  of  a  rectangular. 
Should  the  President  go  afloat,  the  American 
flag  is  carried  in  the  bows  of  his  barge  or 
hoisted  at  the  main  of  the  vessel  on  board 
of  which  he  may  be.  In  foreign  countries 
the  royal  standard  is  worn  at  ceremonies  in 
honor  of  the  sovereign  or  at  which  the  sov- 
ereign may  be  present.  The  highest  flag  in 
the  British  navy  is  the  anchor  and  cable, 
the  next  is  the  union,  and  the  lowest  the 
blue.  Flags  are  said  to  be  at  half-mast  when 
they  are  hoisted  but  half  the  height  at  which 
they  are  ordinarily  worn,  and  in  this  posi- 
tion designate  mourning.  To  strike  or  lower 
the  flag,  to  pull  it  down  upon  the  cap,  in 
token  of  respect,  submission,  or,  in  an  en- 
gagement, of  surrender.  Dipping  the  flag 
is  a  salute  to  a  fort  or  passing  vessel  by  low- 
ering it  slightly  and  hoisting  it  again. 

Flag-staff.  The  stafl"  on  which  a  flag  is 
fixed. 

Flag,  Storm.  In  the  U.  S.  army,  is  the 
national  flag,  and  is  8  feet  fly  and  4  feet  2 
inches  hoist;  it  is  furnished  to  all  occupied 
military  posts  and  national  cemeteries,  and 
will  be  hoisted  in  stormy  or  windy  weather. 
It  is  also  to  be  used  as  a  recruiting  flag. 

Flam.  A  peculiar  tap  upon  a  drum. 
This  word  was  formerly  made  use  of  in  the 
British  service,  signifying  a  particular  tap 
or  beat  upon  the  drum,  according  to  which 
each  battalion  went  through  its  firings  or 
evolutions. 

Flambeau.  A  kind  of  torch  made  of 
thick  wicks,  covered  with  wax,  and  used  in 
the  streets  at  night,  at  illuminations  and  in 
processions. 

Flanchiere  { Fr.).  A  part  of  horse  armor 
which  covered  the  flanks  and  croup  as  far  as 
the  houghs. 

Flanconade.  In  fencing,  a  thrust  in  the 
side. 

Flanders.  The  principal  part  of  the  an- 
cient Belgium,  which  was  conquered  by  Ju- 
lius Csesar,  51  B.C.  It  became  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  France  in  843,  and  was  gov- 
erned by  counts  subject  to  the  king,  from 


862  till  1369.  Flanders  was  subjected  suc- 
cessively to  Burgundy  (1384),  Austria  (1477), 
and  Spain  (1555).  In  1580  it  declared  its 
independence,  but  afterwards  returned  to  its 
allegiance  to  the  house  of  Austria.  In  1792 
the  French  invaded  imperial  Flanders,  and 
occupied  it  till  1814.  In  1814  a  portion  of 
Flanders  was  given  to  the  king  of  the  Neth- 
erlands. Since  the  revolution  of  1831,  it 
has  belonged  to  Belgium. 

Flank.  A  word  of  very  extensive  appli- 
cation in  military  matters.  It  literally  means 
sides  or  ends  of  any  fortification,  or  encamp- 
ment, or  body  of  troops.  Thus  a  writer  has 
described  flanks  as  "certain  proportions  of 
offensive  or  defensive  forces  extended  to  the 
right  and  left  of  a  main  body."  In  forti- 
fication the  term  means  any  part  of  the  work 
defending  another  by  a  fire  along  the  outside 
of  its  parapet. 

Flank  Casemate  Carriage.  Is  a  gun- 
carriage  which  is  especially  adapted  to  the 
mounting  of  the  24-pound  iron  howitzer  in 
the  flanks  of  casemate-batteries,  for  defending 
the  ditch. 

Flank  Company.  A  certain  number  of 
men  drawn  up  on  the  right  or  left  of  a  bat- 
talion. Thus  when  there  are  grenadiers 
they  compose  the  right,  and  the  light  in- 
fantry the  left  flank  company.  Grenadiers 
and  light  infantry  are  generally  called  flank 
companies,  whether  attached  or  not  to  their 
battalions  ;  rifle  corps  are  always  flankers. 

Flank,  Concave.  Is  that  which  is  made 
in  the  arc  of  a  semicircle  bending  outwards. 

Flank,  Covered.  The  platform  of  the 
casemate,  which  lies  hid  in  the  bastion. 
These  retired  flanks  were  a  great  defense  to 
the  opposite  bastion  and  passage  of  the  ditch  ; 
because  the  besiegers  could  not  see  nor 
easily  dismount  their  guns. 

Flank  Defense  Carriage.  See  Ordnance, 
Carriagks  for.  Sea-coast  Carriage.s. 

Flank,  Directing.  In  drill,  that  by  which 
companies  march, — i.e.,  that  at  which  is 
placed  the  guide,  who  directs  and  regulates 
the  march. 

Flank  En  Potence.  Is  any  part  of  the 
right  or  left  wing  formed  at  a  projecting 
angle  with  the  line.     See  Potence. 

Flank  Files.  Are  the  two  first  men  on 
the  right  and  the  two  last  men  on  the  left  of 
a  battalion,  company,  etc.  When  a  battalion 
is  drawn  up  three  deep,  its  flank  files  con- 
sist of  three  men,  or,  as  the  French  call  it, 
file  and  demi-file.  When  four  deep,  the  flank 
files  are  termed  double  files ;  so  that  a  column 
formed  from  any  of  these  alignments  will 
have  all  its  relative  flank  files,  be  the  depth 
of  formation  what  it  may. 

Flank,  Inner.  That  which  is  nearest  the 
point  on  which  a  line  rests,  or  which  is 
farthest  from  the  enemy.  In  drill,  it  is  that 
nearest  the  point  from  which  the  line  is 
dressed. 

Flank,  Leading.  When  the  line  breaks 
into  column  in  order  to  attack  an  enemy,  it 
is  the  flank  which  must  always  preserve  the 
line  of  appui  in  all  movements  in  front.    The 


FLANK 


165 


FLEUR-DE-LIS 


first  battalion,  or  company  of  every  column 
which  conducts,  is  called  the  head  or  leading 
flank  of  that  column. 

Flank,  Oblique.  Or  second  flank,  in  forti- 
fication; that  part  of  the  curtain  from  whence 
the  face  of  the  opposite  bastion  may  be  dis-  , 
covered,  and  is  the  distance  between  the  lines 
rasant  and  Jichant,  which  are  rejected  by 
some  engineers,  as  being  liable  to  be  ruined 
at  the  beginning  of  a  siege,  especially  when 
made  of  sandy  earth.  This  second  flank 
defends  very  obliquely  the  opposite  face,  and 
18  to  be  used  only  in  a  place  attacked  by  an 
army  without  artillery. 

Flank  of  a  Bastion.  In  fortification,  that 
part  which  joins  the  face  to  the  curtain,  com- 
prehended between  the  angle  of  the  curtain 
and  that  of  the  shoulder,  and  is  the  principal 
defense  of  a  place.  Its  use  is  to  defend  the 
curtain,  the  flank,  and  the  faceof  the  opposite 
bastion,  as  well  as  the  passage  of  the  ditch  ; 
and  to  batter  the  salient  angles  of  the  counter- 
scarp and  glacis,  from  whence  the  besiegers 
generally  ruin  the  flanks  with  their  artillery. 
Flank,  Outward.  Of  a  line  or  battalion, 
the  extreme  file  on  the  right  or  left  of  a 
division,  subdivision,  or  section,  according 
to  the  given  front,  when  the  battalion  is  at  | 
close  or  open  column,  and  which  is  the 
farthest  wheeling  point  from  line  into  col- 
umn, or  from  column  into  line.  It  is  like- 
wise called  the  reverse  flank. 

Flank,  Prolonged.  In  fortification,  is  the 
extending  of  the  flank  from  the  angle  of  the 
epaule  to  the  exterior  side,  when  the  angle 
of  the  flank  is  a  right  one. 

Flank,  Second.  See  Flank,  Oblique. 
Flank,  To.  In  fortification,  is  to  erect  a 
battery  which  may  play  upon  an  enemy's 
works  on  the  right  or  left  without  being  ex- 
posed to  his  line  of  tire.  In  evolutit)ns,  to 
take  such  a  position  in  action  as  either  to 
assist  your  own  troops,  or  to  annoy  those  of 
your  enemy  by  attacking  either  of  his  flanks, 
without  exposing  yourself  to  all  of  his  fire. 
To  oufflnnk,  a  manannre  by  which  an  army, 
battalion,  troop,  or  company  outstretches 
another,  and  gets  upon  both  or  either  of  his 
flanks.  In  an  extensive  acceptation  of  the 
term,  when  applied  to  locality,  it  means  to 
possess  any  range  or  opposite  parts,  or  terri- 
tory, whence  you  might  invade  your  neigh- 
bors. 

Flanker.  A  fortification  jutting  out  so  as 
to  command  the  side  or  flank  of  an  enemy 
marching  to  the  assault  or  attack.  Riflemen 
and  all  light  troops  are  also  called  flankers, 
from  the  fact  of  their  acting  on  the  flanks. 

Flanker,  To  [Vr. Jlnnquer).  In  fortifica- 
tion, to  fortify  the  walls  of  a  city  with  bul- 
warks or  countermines. 

Flanking.  Is  the  same  in  fortification 
as  defending. 

Flanking  Angle.  In  fortification,  that 
composed  of  tlie  two  lines  of  defense,  and 
pointing  toward  thecurtain.  See  Tknaillb. 
Flanking  Party.  Any  body  of  men  de- 
tached from  the  main  army  to  act  upon  the 
flanks  of  an  enemy.     See  Flanker. 


Flanks  of  a  Frontier.  Are  certain  salient 
points  in  a  national  boundary,  strong  by 
nature  and  art,  and  ordinarily  projecting 
somewhat  beyond  the  general  line.  The 
efl'ect  of  these  flanks  is  to  protect  the  whole 
frontier  against  an  enemy,  as  he  dare  not 
penetrate  between,  with  the  risk  of  their 
garrisons,  reinforced  from  their  own  terri- 
tories, attacking  his  rear,  and  cutting  off 
communicationbetween  him  and  his  ba.se. 

Flash.  The  flame  which  issues  from  any 
fire-arm  or  piece  of  ordnance  on  its  being 
fired. 

Flash  in  the  Pan.  An  explosion  of  gun- 
powder without  any  communication  beyond 
the  vent.  "When  a  piece  is  loaded,  and,  upon 
the  trigger  being  drawn,  nothing  but  the 
priming  takes  fire,  that  piece  is  said  to  flash 
in  the  pan. 

Flask,  Powder-.  A  measure  formerly 
made  of  horn,  used  to  carry  powder  in,  with 
the  measure  of  the  charge  of  the  piece  on  the 
top  of  it. 

Flathead  Indians.  A  tribe  of  aborigines, 
so  called  from  the  practice  which  prevailed 
among  them  of  binding  some  solid  sub- 
stance on  the  foreheads  of  their  children  so 
as  to  cause  a  depression  of  the  skull.  They 
are  located  on  an  agenc}'  in  Montana.  See 
Indians  and  their  Agencie.s. 

Flaw.  A  crack  or  small  opening  in  a  gun 
or  its  carriage  is  so  called. 

Fleau  d'Armes  (Fr.).  An  ancient  of- 
fensive weapon;  the  part  used  for  striking 
was  armed  with  sharp  iron  spikes. 

Fleche.  Literally  an  arrow  ;  but  applied 
in  forliHcation  to  a  work  resembling  a  redan, 
except  that  it  is  raised  upon  the  terre-plein 
without  a  ditch.  It  is  in  short  a  field-work, 
having  faces  and  small  flanks  hastily  run  up 
to  shelter  a  small  number  of  men,  and  form 
an  outwork  to  some  more  powerful  fortifica- 
tion. 

Fleece,  Order  of  the  Golden.  One  of  the 
mosteminont  orders  of  knight liood  in  Europe, 
was  founded  in  1430  by  riiilip  III.,  duke  of 
Burgundy.  By  its  foundation  his  successors 
were  declared  hereditary  grand-masters ;  and 
thus  the  title  passed  to  the  imperial  house  of 
Austria  with  the  Burgundian  inheritance, 
and  thence  to  the  Spanish  line  of  the  same 
house  after  the  death  of  the  emperor  Charles 
V.  "When  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  how- 
ever, became  Austrian,  and  the  Bourbons 
became  monarchsof  Spain,  the  grand-master- 
ship was  claimed  by  the  archdukes  of  Aus- 
tria. Hence  at  present  the  Spanish  and 
Austrian  sovereigns  alike  confer  the  order, 
and  at  both  courts  it  gives  the  highest  rank. 
Fletch,  To.  To  feather  an  arrow. 
Fletcher.  The  man  who  made  or  re- 
paired the  military  bows  wjis  so  called. 
Also  called  hou-ycr. 

Fleur-de-lis  (Fr.).  This  celebrated  em- 
blem is  derived  from  the  white  lily  of  the 
garden,  or  from  the  flag  or  iris.  The  Franks 
of  old  had  a  custom  at  the  proclamation  of 
their  king,  to  elevate  him  uiwn  a  shield  or 
target,  and  j^lace  in  his  hana  a  reed  or  flag 


FLEURUS 


166 


TLUSHING 


in  blossom,  instead  of  a  sceptre;  and  from 
that  time  the  kings  of  the  first  and  second 
race  in  France  are  represented  with  sceptres 
in  their  hands  like  the  flag  with  its  flowers, 
these  flowers  subsequently  becoming  the 
armorial  bearings  of  France.  In  later  times 
their  arms  were  azure,  three  fleur-de-lis  or. 
Many  English  and  Scotch  families  bear  the 
fleur-de-lis  in  some  portion  of  their  arms, 
and  generally  with  some  reference  to  France. 

Fleurus.  A  small  town  in  Belgium,  in 
the  province  of  Hainault.  It  has  been  the 
scene  of  several  conflicts,  the  last  and  most 
important  being  the  battle  fought  June  26, 
1794,  between  the  army  of  the  French  re- 
public under  Jourdan  and  the  allies  under 
the  Prince  of  Saxe-Coburg.  The  allied 
forces  were  compelled  for  a  time  to  evacuate 
Flanders. 

Flight.  Is  used  figuratively  for  the  swift 
retreat  of  an  army  or  &ny  party  from  a  vic- 
torious enemy.  It  is  likewise  applicable  to 
missile  weapons  or  shot ;  as,  a  flight  of  ar- 
rows, a  flight  of  bombs,  etc. 

Flight,  Time  of.  In  gunnery,  the  flight  of 
a  shot  or  shell  is  the  time  during  which  it  is 
passing  through  the  air  from  the  piece  to  the 
first  graze. 

Flight,  To  Put  to.  To  force  your  enemy 
to  quit  the  field. 

Flint.  In  the  flint-lock  musket,  the  stone 
which  was  fixed  to  the  cock  or  gun-lock  by 
which  the  sparks  were  elicited  that  dis- 
charged the  piece. 

Flint-lock.  A  musket  lock  with  a  flint 
fixed  in  the  hammer  for  striking  on  the  cap 
of  the  pan ;  also  the  musket  itself. 

Flint  Weapons.  Believed  to  have  been 
used  by  the  primitive  inhabitants,  have  from 
time  to  time,  in  more  or  less  number,  been 
turned  up  with  the  plow. and  the  spade, 
and  dug  out  from  ancient  graves,  fortifica- 
tions, and  dwelling-places.  They  do  not 
ditter  in  any  material  respect  from  the  flint 
weapons  still  in  use  among  uncivilized  tribes 
in  Asia,  Africa,  America,  etc.  The  weapons 
of  most  frequent  occurrence  are  arrow-heads, 
spear-points,  dagger-blades,  and  axe-heads, 
or  celts. 

Flo.     An  arrow  was  formerly  so  called. 

Floating  Batteries.  These  are  used  in 
defending  harbors,  or  in  attacks  on  marine 
fortresses.  The  most  remarkable  instance 
of  their  employment  was  by  the  French  and 
Spaniards  against  Gibraltar,  in  the  memor- 
able siege  which  lasted  from  July,  1779,  to 
February,  1783.  During  the  Russian  war, 
1854-55,  they  rendered  good  service  before 
Kinburn.  Now  they  are  only  used  for  de- 
fensive purposes. 

Floating-bridge.  A  kind  of  double 
bridge,  the  upper  one  projecting  beyond  the 
lower  one,  and  capable  of  being  moved  for- 
ward by  pulleys,  used  for  carrying  troops 
over  narrow  moats  in  attacking  the  out- 
works of  a  fort.     See  Bridge,  Flying. 

Flodden  Field.  The  last  point  of  the 
Cheviots,  the  place  where  King  James  IV. 
ot  Scotland,  after   crossing   the   border   on 


August  22,  1513,  with  an  army  of  over 
30,000  men,  took  up  his  position,  and  where, 
on  September  9,  the  bloody  battle  was  fought 
in  which  the  king  was  killed,  and  the  Scot- 
tish army  destroyed. 

Flogging.  A  barbarous  punishment  for- 
merly inflicted  in  the  British  army  and 
navy.  It  was  generally  administered  with 
a  whip,  or  "  cat-of-nine-tails,"  on  the  bare 
back.  This  mode  of  punishment  formerly 
existed  in  the  American  army  and  navy. 

Flood-gate.  In  fortified  towns,  is  com- 
posed of  2  or  4  gates,  so  that  the  besieged 
by  opening  the  gates  may  inundate  the 
environs  so  as  to  keep  the  enemy  out  of  gun- 
shot. 

Florent,  St.  A  fortified  seaport  town  of 
Corsica,  on  the  gulf  of  the  same  name,  6 
miles  west  from  Bastia.  This  town  was 
taken  by  the  British  in  1793.  ^ 

Florida.     One  of    the    United   States  of 
America,  which  was  discovered  by  Sebastian 
Cabot,  in  the  year  1497.     Its  conquest  was 
accomplished  by  the  Spaniards  in  1539.     It 
was  plundered  by  Sir  Francis  Drake  in  1585 ; 
and  by  Davis,  a  buccaneer,  in  1665.     It  was      ! 
invaded  by  the  British  in  1702;  and  again      ' 
by  Gen.  Oglethorpe  in  1740.     In  1763  it  was 
ceded  to  Britain,  but  in  1781  was  recovered      i 
by  Spain,  and  confirmed  to  her  by  the  peace      ; 
of  1783.     In  1821   it  was   purchased   from 
Spain  by  the  United  -States.     A  war  with      \ 
the  Seminole  Indians  commenced  in  1835. 
After  great  trouble  and  expense  they  were      ; 
subdued  and  emigrated  to  the  Indian  Terri-      , 
tory  in  1842.     In  1839  its  constitution  was      ; 
formed,  and  in  1845  it  was  admitted  into  the      : 
Union.     Florida  seceded  from  the  Union  on 
January  10,  1861,  and  was  one  of  the  first  to 
return  to  the  Union,  October  25,  1865.  ; 

Flourish.  The  waving  of  a  weapon  or  1 
other  thing  ;  a  brandishing  ;  as,  the  flourish  ; 
of  a  sword.  ! 

Flourish.  To  execute  an  irregular  or  1 
fanciful  strain  of  music,  by  way  of  orna-  ; 
ment  or  prelude,  as,  a  flourish  of  trumpets. 

Flugelman.     The  leader   of  a   file ;    one 
who  stands  in  front  of  a  body  of  soldiers, 
and  whose  motions  in  the  manual  exercise      i 
they  all  simultaneously  follow  ;  a  fugelman.      i 

Flushed.  A  term  frequently  applied  when  \ 
men  have  been  successful;  as,  flushed  with  i 
victory,  etc.  ; 

Flushing.     An  important  seaport  of  the      J 
Netherlands,  in  the  island  of  Walcheren,  on      j 
the  north  side  of    the  Scheldt,  where  that      i 
river  enters  the  North  Sea.     It  was  the  flrst      j 
town  which  declared  against  the  Spaniards      j 
in   1572.      In   1585  the   Prince   of  Orange      j 
pledged  it  to  Queen  Elizabeth  as  security      \ 
for  a  loan  which  she  made  to  the  people  of  the 
Netherlands  in  their  struggle  against  Philip 
II.  of  Spain.     The  English  held  it  till  1616.      ; 
At  the  commencement  of  the  19th  century      i 
it  came  into  the  possession   of  the  French,      j 
and  in  1809  was  bombarded  by  the  British      i 
composing  the  Walcheren  expedition,  under 
Lord  Chatham,  when  it  sutt'ered   severely. 
Admiral  Ruyter  was  born  here  in  1607. 


FLUTE 


167 


FOOD 


Flute.  A  wind  instrument  which  is  some- 
times used  in  military  bands,  but  never  in 
service. 

Fly.  The  length  of  a  flag.  The  dimen- 
sion at  right  angles  to  the  stafT.  The  other 
diuK'nsion  is  called  the  hoist. 

Flying  Army.  A  strong  body  of  cavalry 
and  infantry  which  is  always  in  motion, 
both  to  cover  its  own  garrisons  and  to  keep 
the  enemy  in  ctiiitinual  alarm. 

Flying  Artillery.  Artillery  trained  to  very 
rapid  ('voiiitions.  In  passing  from  one  part 
of  the  field  to  another,  the  men  spring  upon 
their  horses  in  horse  artillery,  or  on  the 
ammunition-chests  in  light  artillery. 

Flying  Bridges.     See  Pontons. 

Flying  Camp.  A  camp  or  body  of  troops 
foriiicd  tor  r:ii)id  motion  from  one  place  to 
another. 

Flying  Colors.  Colors  unfurled  and  left 
to  wave  in  the  air.  Hence  to  return  or  come 
oft'  with  flying  colors  is  to  be  victorious,  to 
get  the  better. 

Flying  Party.  A  detachment  of  men  era- 
ployed  lu  hover  about  an  enemy. 

Flying  Sap.     See  Sat. 

Flying  Shot.  A  shot  fired  at  something 
in  motion,  as  a  bird  on  the  wing,  a  ship 
under  sail,  etc.  ;  also,  one  who  fires  thus. 

Flying  Torch.  The  torch  used  on  a  staflf 
in  signaling. 

Fodder.     See  Forage. 

Foe.  An  enemy  in  war;  a  national  en- 
emy ;  a  hostile  army  ;  an  adversary. 

Foeman.     An  enemy  in  war. 

Fogey.  An  old-fashioned  or  singular  per- 
son ;  an  invalid  soldier  or  sailor. 

Foil.  A  long  piece  of  steel  of  an  elastic 
temjier,  mounted  somewhat  like-  a  sword, 
which  is  used  to  learn  to  fence  with  ;  it  is 
without  a  point,  or  any  sharpness,  having  a 
button  at  tlie  extremity  covered  with  leather. 

Foil.  To  render  vain  or  nugatory  as  an 
eflfort  or  attempt ;  to  frustrate ;  to  defeat ; 
to  battle  ;  to  balk  ;  as,  the  enemy  attempted 
to  pass  the  river,  but  was  foiled;  he  foiled 
his  adversaries. 

Fein.     A  thrust  with  a  pike  or  sword. 

Foissonnement.  A  term  used  in  fortifi- 
cation to  signify  the  increase  in  bulk  of 
earth  after  its  excavation.  This  increase 
varies  from  one-eighth  to  one-twelfth  gen- 
erally. 

Folding  Boat.  A  boat  of  a  jointed  frame- 
work euventl  with  canvas,  used  in  cam- 
paigning and  by  voyageurs. 

Followers,    "Canrjp-.       See     Camp-fol- 

LOWEKS. 

Follow  Up.  To  pursue  with  additional 
vigor  some  advantage  which  has  already 
been  gained  ;  as,  to  follow  up  a  victory. 

Fone.  Formerly  the  plural  of  Foe.  Now 
obsolete. 

Fontainebleau.  A  town  and  parish  of 
France,  in  tlie  department  of  the  Seine  and 
Marne,  37  miles  southeast  from  Paris. 
There  is  a  celebrated  royal  palare  here  en- 
compa.ssed  by  parks  and  gardi-ns,  mentioned 
in  history,  ever  since  the   13th  century,  as 


the  residence  of  the  monarchs  of  France 
This  place  was  entered  by  the  Austrians, 
February  17,  1814.  liere  Napoleon  resigned 
his  dignity,  April  4,  and  bade  farewell  to 
his  army,  April  20,  1814. 

Fontenoy.  A  village  in  Belgium,  in  the 
province  of  Hainaut,  5  miles  southwest  of 
Tournay.  Here  was  fought  thp  most  fa- 
mous contest  in  the  AVur  ()f  the  Austrian 
Succession,  on  May  11,  1745,  between  the 
French  under  Marshal  Saxe  and  the  allies 
(English,  Dutch,  and  Austrians)  under  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland.  After  a  hard-fought 
battle  the  allies  were  forced  to  retreat.  The 
loss  on  both  sides  was  stated  at  about  7U00 
men. 

Food.  Food  has  two  functions,  building 
lip  the  body,  and  sup|)lying  it  with  force. 
Substances  used  as  food  may  1)e  divided  into 
elements  which  are  oxidizable  and  those 
conducive  to  chemical  changes.  Milk  con- 
tains all  the  necessary  elements  in  the  best 
form.  The  nourishing  elements  of  foods 
are  usually  cla.«sed  under  the  heads  of  albu- 
minates, fats,  carbo-hydrates,  and  salts.  In 
regard  to  the  part  played  by  the  condiments 
used  in  flavoring  and  seasoning,  and  such 
things  as  tea,  cotfee,  chocolate,  alcohol,  etc., 
little  is  positively  known  beyond  the  fact 
that  some  of  them  are  useful  in  exciting  the 
salivary  and  alimentary  secretions.  The 
amount  of  food  necessary  to  health  and 
vigor  varies  with  the  kind  and  amount  of 
occupation,  the  character  of  the  climate,  and 
specifically  with  the  individual.  Playfair 
and  Parkes  give  the  following  as  the  aver- 
age daily  allowance  of  anhydrous  food  for 
an  adult,  in  avoirdupois  ounces: 

Jn  quietude. 

Albuminates 2.5 

Fats 1. 

Cailw-hydTHtes 12. 

SalU 5 

Total 16. 

Hard  labor  or  campaignitig. 

Albuminates 6.    to    7. 

Fats 3.5  to    4.5 

CarlKj-hydrates 16.    to  18. 

Salto 12  to    1.5 

Total 2C.7  to  31.0 

European  standard,  for  moderate  xcork. 

AlbumiDates 4.587 

FaU 2.964 

Carbo-bydrutM 14.257 

Salts 1.058 

Total 22.866 

From  70  to  90  ounces  of  water  in  addi- 
tion to  this  are  usually  consumed  jier  day. 

The  ration  of  the  U.  S.  army  resolved 
into  anhydrous  elements  gives  the  follow- 
ing: 

Soft  bread,  with  Afresh  beef,  |  salt  pork  and 
beans. 

Albuminates ~    3.93 

FmU 4.15 

Oarlio-bvilrates 12.:i7 

Salts.....". l.I'J 

Total 21.64  and  .26  coffe«. 


FOOT 


168 


FORAGE-MASTER 


Same  with  rice  instead  of  beans. 

Albumioates 3.47 

Fats 4.11 

Carbo-hydrates 12.50 

Salts 1.14 

Total 21.22  and  .26  coffee. 

Hard  bread,  Afresh  beef,  ^  salt  pork  arid 
r  beans. 

Albuminates 4.99 

Fats 4.09 

Carbo-hydrates 15.26 

Salts 1.23 

Total 25.57  and  .26  coffee. 

Hard  bread,  bacon  and  beans. 

Albuminates 4.10 

Fats 9.06 

Carbo-hydrates 15.-26 

Salts 1.29 

Total 29.71  and  .26  coffee. 

The  following  table,  compiled  from  stand- 
ard authorities,  gives  an  alimentary  analy- 
sis of  100  parts  of  various  substances  used 
as  food,  by  means  of  which  the  nutritive 
value  of  all  ordinary  diets  may  be  calcu- 
lated : 


Meat  (best  quality), 
beefsteak 

Meat  (average  like  sol- 
diers), less  1-5  for 
bone 

Meat  (very  fat,  stall 
fed) 

Salt  beef  (Girardin)... 

Salt  pork  (Girardin)... 

Fat  pork  (Letheby) 

Bacon  (salted  and 
smoked)  (Letheby).. 

Fish  (Letheby) 

Poultry,  less  bone  J/^ 
(Letheby) 

Butter 

Eggs(le88 1- 10  for  shell) 

Cheese 

Bread  (wheat,  average 
quality) 

Biscuit,  hard 

Wheat  flour  (average) 

Kice 

Oatmeal 

Cornmeal 

Peas  (dry) 

Beans (dry) 

Potatoes,  Iriiih  

Potatoes,  sweet 

Yams 

Carrots 

Parsnips 

Turnips 

Cabbage 

Milk  (average) 

Cream 

Sugar 


s 

g 

c 

& 

te 

S 

•1 

s 

^ 

< 

^ 

6 

74.4 
75. 

20.5 
15, 

3.5 

8.4 

63. 
49.1 
44.1 

14. 
29.6 
26.1 

19. 
0.2 

7. 

39. 
15. 

9.8 

88 

48.9 
73.3 

78. 

18.1 

21. 
.3 

2.9 

3.8 
91. 

735 
30.8 

13.5 
33.5 

11.6 
24.3 



40. 

8. 

1.5 

49.2 

8. 

15.6 

1.3 

73.4 

15. 

11. 

2. 

70.3 

10. 

5. 

0.8 

83.2 

15. 

12.6 

5.6 

63. 

13  5 

10. 

6.7 

64.5 

15. 

22. 

2. 

53. 

16. 

22.5 

2.2 

49.9 

74. 

1.5 

0.1 

23.4 

70.2 

1.5 

0.3 

23.5 

74. 

2. 

0.5 

10.2 

85. 

.6 

0  25 

8.4 

82.4 

1.125 

0.54 

6.39 

90.5 

1.1 

4. 

91. 

.2 

0.5 

5.8 

88.3 

3.5 

3.1 

4.5 

66. 

2.7 

26.7 

2.8 

3. 

96.5 

Foot.  The  foot-soldiers;  the  infantry, 
usually  designated  as  the  foot,  in  distinction 
from  the  cavalry. 

Foot.  To  gain  or  lose  ground  foot  by  foot, 
is  to  do  it  regularly  and  resolutely  ;  defend- 


ing everything  to  the  utmost  extremity,  or 
forcing  it  by  dint  of  art  or  labor. 

Foot  Artillery.  Artillery  troops  serving 
on  foot.     Heavy  artillery. 

Foot-band.     A  band  of  infantry. 

Foot-bank.     See  Banquette. 

Foot-boards.  The  transverse  boards  on 
the  front  of  a  limber,  on  which  the  can- 
noneers rest  their  feet  when  mounted. 

Foot-fight.  A  conflict  by  persons  on 
foot ;  in  opposition  to  a  tight  on  horseback. 

Foot  Guards.  Guards  of  infantry.  The 
flower  of  the  British  infantry,  and  the  garri- 
son ordinarily  of  the  metropolis,  comprise  3 
regiments,  the  Grenadier,  Coldstream,  and 
Scots  Fusilier  Guards,  in  all  7  battalions,  and 
6307  officers  and  men  of  all  ranks. 

Footing.  To  be  on  the  same  footing  with 
another,  is  to  be  under  the  same  circum- 
stances in  point  of  service  ;  to  have  the  same 
number  of  men,  and  the  same  pay,  etc. 

Footman.  A  soldier  who  marches  and 
fights  on  foot. 

Foot-pound.  In  mechanics,  is  the  unit 
of  work.  It  is  simply  a  contraction  for 
"  one  pound  raised  through  a  height  of  one 
foot."     See  Work. 

Foot-soldier.  A  soldier  that  serves  on 
foot. 

Foot-ton.  In  England  the  power  of  mod- 
ern ordnance  is  estimated  by  the  energy  of 
the  shot  in  foot-tons,  divided  by  the  num- 
ber of  inches  in  the  shot's  circumference. 
The  formula  for  calculating  it  is 

2nr.g 

in  which  TFis  the  weight  of  the  shot  in  tons 
(English),  V  is  the  velocity,  277r,  the  circum- 
ference of  the  shot  in  inches,  and  g  the  force 

of  gravity ;  is  the  living  force  of  the 

shot,  and  is  equal  to  twice  the  quantity  of 
work  it  is  capable  of  doing.  This  divided 
by  the  circumference  gives  a  very  fair  esti- 
mate of  its  power  in  penetrating  armor,  as 
the  resistance  to  penetration  increases  with 
the  size  of  the  projectile.  This  unit  is  also 
used  to  estimate  the  resisting  power  of  armor- 
plating  against  shots  of  various  sizes. 

Forage.  The  hay,  corn,  fodder,  and  oats 
required  for  the  subsistence  of  the  animals 
in  the  army.  The  allowance  of  forage  in 
the  U.  S.  army  is  fixed  by  regulations  at 
14  pounds  of  hay  and  12  of  grain  to  each 
horse,  and  14  pounds  of  hay  and  9  of  grain 
to  each  mule  in  the  public  service.  Gener- 
als, field-officers,  staiF-officers,  and  cavalry 
officers  receive  forage  for  a  certain  number 
of  private  horses  while  actually  kept  in  ser- 
vice. 

Forage.  To  collect  supplies  both  for  man 
and  beast,  from  an  enemy  by  force,  from 
friends  by  impressment,  but  giving  to  friends 
receipts,  to  be  paid  ultimately. 

Forage  Cap.  A  small  low  cap  worn  by 
soldiers  when  not  in  full  dress. 

Forage-master.     See  Wagon-mastkr. 


FORAGERS 


169 


FORD ABLE 


Foragers.  A  detachment  of  soldiers  who 
forage  or  collect  stores  for  an  army. 

Foraging.  Is  properly  the  collection  of 
forage  or  other  supplies  systematically  in 
towns  or  villages,  or  going  with  an  escort 
to  cut  nourishment  for  horses  in  fields.  Such 
operations  frequently  lead  to  engagements 
with  the  enemy.  Foraging  parties  are  fur- 
nished with  reaping-hooks  and  cords.  The 
men  promptly  dismount,  make  bundles  with 
which  they  load  their  horses,  and  are  pre- 
pared for  anything  that  may  follow.  The 
word  foraging  is  sometimes  inaccurately 
used  for  marauding. 

Forbach.  A  small  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  the  Moselle,  now  a  part  of 
German  Lorraine.  It  was  occupied  by  the 
Prussians,  January  10,  1814.  During  the 
Franco-Prussian  war  it  was  taken  by  the 
German  generals  Von  Goebcn  and  Von 
Steinmetz,  after  a  fierce  contest,  in  which 
the  French  were  defeated  and  compelled  to 
retreat,  August  6,  1870. 

Forcat.  "A  rest  for  a  musket  in  ancient 
times. 

Force.  In  its  military  application,  signi- 
fies an  army  of  all  branches, — artillery,  cav- 
alry, and  infantry.  It  is  sometimes  used  in 
the"  plural  number,  but  with  the  same  sig- 
nification ;  as,  "  commander  of  the  forces  ;" 
and  occasionally  we  find  the  word  used  in 
another  sense,  thus,  "  He  is  in  great  force." 
To  force,  in  broadsword  exercise,  is  to  break 
an  adversary's  sword-guard,  and  either 
■wound  him  or  expose  him  to  a  wound. 

Force.  To  obtain  or  win  by  strength  ;  to 
take  by  violence  or  struggle;  specifically,  to 
capture  by  assault ;  to  storm,  as  a  fortress. 
Also  to  impel,  drive,  wrest,  extort,  get,  etc., 
by  main  strength  or  violence;  with  a  fol- 
lowing adverb,  as  along,  away,  from,  into, 
ihroufih,  out,  etc. 

Force.  To  provide  with  forces  ;  to  re- 
inforce ;  to  strengthen  by  soldiers ;  to  garri- 
son. 

Force  of  Gravity.  The  force  by  virtue  of 
which  all  terrestrial  bodies  fall  to  the  earth 
when  unsupported.  As  a  terrestrial  force  it 
may  be  considered  constant  f<jr  the  same  place, 
but  as  it  is  practically  the  resultant  of  the 
earth's  attraction  and  the  centrifugal  force 
arising  from  its  rotation,  and  as  the  earth  is 
neither  homogeneous  nor  a  perfect  sphere, 
it  will  vary  slightly  with  the  latitude,  being 
greatest  at  the  poles  and  least  <m  the  equa- 
tor, and  it  will  also  vary  in  an  insignificant 
degree  from  place  to  place  in  the  same  lati- 
tude. Ciravity  is  distinguished  in  dynam- 
ics as  the  only  constant  force  with  which  we 
have  to  do.  It  differs  also  from  all  others  in 
this,  that  its  measure  is  independent  of  mass 
Other  forces  are  measured  by  the  product  of 
the  mass  moved  into  the  velocity  imparted 
■  in  the  unit  of  time  ;  but  as  gravity  impresses 
the  same  velocity  upon  all  masses,  great  or 
small,  mass  is  properly  omitted  in  its  meas- 
ure. The  velocity  impressed  by  it  during 
each  second  of  its  action,  or  the  accrlrration, 
is  about  3'J.1808  feet  in  latitude  45°,  about 
12 


32.0977  at  the  equator,  and  32  2029  at  the 
poles.  This  number  in  gunnery  is  indi- 
cated by  the  algebraic  symbol  q.  Its  exact 
value  at  any  place  is  best  determined  by  the 
length  of  the  simple  second's  pendulum  at 
that  place.  The  value  for  g  for  bodies  fall- 
ing in  the  air  is  very  nearly  true  for  dense 
substances  presenting  small  surfaces,  when 
the  fall  is  limited  by  a  few  seconds.  For  the 
ordinary  time  of  flight  of  projectiles  it  can 
be  used  without  material  error. 

Force,  To.  To  force  an  enemy  to  give 
battle,  is  to  render  the  situation  of  an  enemy 
so  hazardous,  that  whether  he  attempts  to 
quit  his  position,  or  endeavors  to  keep  it, 
his  capture  or  destruction  must  be  equally 
inevitable.  In  either  of  such  desperate 
cases,  a  bold  and  determined  general  will 
not  wait  to  be  attacked,  but  resolutely  ad- 
vance and  give  battle,  especially  if  circum- 
stances should  combine  to  deprive  him  of 
the  means  of  honorablecapitulation.  To  force 
a  passage,  is  to  oblige  your  enemy  to  retire 
from  his  fastnesses,  and  to  open  a  way  into 
the  country  which  he  had  occupied.  This 
may  be  done  either  by  crmp  de  main,  or 
renewal  of  assaults.  In  either  case,  the  ad- 
vancing body  should  be  well  supported  and 
its  flanks  be  secured  with  the  most  jealous 
attention. 

Forced,  Exerted  to  the  utmost ;  urged  ; 
hence,  strained,  urged  to  excessive  or  unnat- 
ural action  ;  as,  a  forced  march. 

Forces,  Effective.  All  the  eflScient  parts 
of  an  army  that  may  be  brought  into  action 
are  called  effective,  and  generally  consist  of 
artillery,  cavalry,  and  infantry,  with  their 
necessary  appendages,  such  as  hospital  staff, 
wagon-train,  etc.  Effective  forces  of  a 
country;  all  the  disposable  strength,  vigor, 
and  activity  of  any  armed  proportion  of 
native  or  territorial  population.  The  navy 
of  a  country  must  be  looked  upon  as  part 
of  the  ertective  force  of  the  country,  to 
which  is  added  the  marines. 

Forcing.  The  operation  of  making  a 
bullet  take  the  grooves  of  a  rifle.  This  was 
formerly  effected  in  various  ways,  by  flatten- 
ing the  bulletin  its  seat  with  the  ramrod,  by 
using  a  patch,  etc.  (See  rROJKCTiLKs,  Bul- 
lets.) The  term  is  not  much  used  at  the 
present  day. 

Ford.  A  place  in  a  river  or  other  water 
where  it  may  be  passed  by  man  or  beast  on 
foot,  or  by  wading.  A  ford  should  not  be 
deeper  than  3  feet  for  infantry,  4  feet  for 
cavalry,  and  2A  feet  for  artillery.  These 
limits  must  be  lessened  if  the  stream  be 
swift.  A  bottom  of  large  stones  is  bad  for 
cavalry  and  impracticable  for  carriages ; 
gravel  is  the  best  bottom  ;  a  sandy  bottom, 
though  good  at  first,  is  apt  to  deepen  when 
many  troops  pass. 

Ford.  To  pass  or  cross,  as  a  river  or  other 
water,  by  treading  or  walking  on  the  bot- 
tom ;  to  pass  through  by  wading;  to  wade 
through. 

Fordable.  Capable  of  being  waded  or 
passed  through  on  foot,  as  water. 


FORDING 


170 


FORT 


Fording.     The  act  of  passing  over  a  ford. 

Fore.  In  advance  ;  at  the  front ;  in  the 
part  that  precedes  or  goes  first. 

Fore-arm.  To  arm  or  prepare  for  attack 
or  resistance  before  the  time  of  need. 

Fore-fence.  Defense  in  front.  The  term 
is  now  obsolete. 

Forefront.  The  foremost  part  or  place ; 
as,  the  forefront  of  the  battle. 

Foreign.  Not  of  one's  country  ;  not  na- 
tive ;  alien  ;  from  abroad. 

Foreign  Enlistment  Act.  59  Geo.  III. 
c.  69  (1819),  forbids  British  subjects  to  enter 
the  service  of  a  foreign  state,  without  license 
from  the  king  or  privy  council,  and  also  the 
fitting  out  or  equipping  ships  for  any  foreign 
power  to  be  employed  against  any  power 
with  which  the  British  government  is  at 
peace.  In  1006  Englishmen  were  forbidden 
to  enter  foreign  service  without  taking  an 
oath  not  to  be  reconciled  to  the  pope.  The 
act  was  suspended  in  1835  on  behalf  of  the 
British  Legion. 

Foreign  Legion.  Foreigners  have  fre- 
quently been  employed  as  auxiliaries  in  the 
pay  of  the  British  government.  An  act  (18 
&  19  Vict.  c.  2)  for  the  formation  of  a  Foreign 
Legion  as  a  contingent  in  the  Russian  war 
(18"55)  was  passed  December  23,  1854.  On 
the  peace,  in  1856,  many  of  the  Foreign 
Legion  were  sent  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Foreign  Service.  In  a  general  sense, 
means  every  service  but  home.  In  a  more 
confined  and  native  acceptation  of  the  term, 
it  signifies  any  service  done  out  of  the  United 
States  or  the  depending  territories. 

Foreland.  In  fortification,  a  piece  of 
ground  between  the  wall  of  a  place  and  the 
moat. 

Fore  Rank.     The  first  rank  ;  the  front. 

Fore-spurrer.  One  who  rode  before. 
This  term  is  now  obsolete. 

Foreward.     The  van  ;  the  front. 

Forfeit.  To  render  oneself  by  misdeeds 
liable  to  be  deprived  of;  as,  a  soldier  forfeits 
pay  by  sentence  of  court-martial  for  offenses 
committed. 

Forge.  Every  field-battery  is  provided 
with  a  forge.  It  consists,  besides  the  lim- 
ber, of  a  frame-work,  on  which  are  fixed  the 
bellows,  fire-place,  etc.  Behind  the  bellows 
is  placed  the  coal-box,  which  has  to  be  re- 
moved before  the  bellows  can  be  put^n  posi- 
tion. In  the  limber-box  are  placed  the 
smith's  tools,  horseshoes,  nails,  and  spare 
parts  (iron)  of  carriages,  harness,  etc.  The 
weight  of  the  forge  equipped  for  field-service 
is  3383  pounds  for  the  battery,  and  3370 
pounds  for  the  reserve.  A  forge  for  red-hot 
shot  is  a  place  where  the  balls  are  made  red- 
hot  before  they  are  fired  ofl'.  It  is  built  about 
5  or  6  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  of 
strong  brick-work,  and  an  iron  grate,  upon 
which  the  balls  are  laid,  with  a  very  large 
fire  under  them. 

Forlorn  Hope.  OflBcers  and  soldiers  who 
generally  volunteer  for  enterprises  of  great 
danger,  such  as  leading  the  attack  when 
storming  a  fortress,  etc.      Formerly  it  was 


applied  to  the  advanced  guard  before  the 
enemy,  even  on  a  march.  See  Enfans 
Perdus. 

Form.  To  form,  in  a  general  acceptation 
of  the  term,  is  to  assume  or  produce  any 
shape  or  figure,  extent  or  depth  of  line  or  col- 
umn, by  means  of  prescribed  rules  in  military 
movements  or  dispositions.  To /o?-m  on  is  to 
advance  forward,  so  as  to  connect  yourself 
with  any  given  object  of  formation,  and  to 
lengthen  the  line. 

Formation  of  Troops.  The  term  forma- 
tion is  a])plied  to  that  particular  arrange- 
ment of  the  troops  composing  any  unit, 
when  this  latter  is  ready  for  battle,  or  is 
prepared  to  execute  a  movement. 

That  portion  of  the  formation  on  the  side 
towards  the  enemy  is  called  the/row^;  the 
side  opposite  to  the  front  is  termed  the  rear  ; 
the  lateral  extremities  are  called ^«hAs. 

Any  row  of  soldiers  placed  parallel  to  the 
front  is  called  a  rank ;  a  row  perpendicular 
to  the  front  is  called  a  file ;  the  number  of 
ranks  measures  the  depth  of  the  formation. 

Troops  drawn  up  so  as  to  show  an  extended 
front,  with  slight  depth,  are  said  to  be  de- 
ployed ;  when  the  depth  is  considerable  and 
the  front  comparatively  small,  they  are  said 
to  be  in  ployed  formation.  See  Order, 
Order  of  Battle,  Concave,  Order  of 
Battle,  Convex. 

Formers.  Are  round  pieces  of  wood  that 
are  fitted  to  the  diameter  of  the  bore  of  a 
gun,  round  which  the  cartridge-paper,  parch- 
ment, lead,  or  cotton  is  rolled  before  it  is 
served. 

Formigny.  A  village  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Calvados,  10  miles  northwest 
from  Bayeux,  where  a  battle  was  fought  in 
1450,  between  the  French  and  English,  the 
latter  being  defeated,  and  thereby  forced  to 
abandon  Normandy. 

Formosa.  An  island  in  the  China  Sea 
belonging  to  China.  The  Dutch  became 
masters  of  it  in  1632,  but  they  were  expelled 
by  the  pirate  Coxinga,  whose  successors 
ruled  it  till  1683.  It  was  invaded  by  the 
Japanese  in  1874,  to  avenge  the  murder  of 
some  of  their  people. 

Fornova  (Parma,  Italy).  Near  here 
Charles  VIII.  of  France  defeated  the  Ital- 
ians, July  6,  1495. 

Fort.  Technically  applied  to  an  inclosed 
work  of  the  higher  class  of  field  fortifica- 
tion ;  but  the  word  is  often  used  in  military 
works  much  more  loosely. 

Fort  Adams.  A  fortification  situated  on 
Brentun's  Point,  1  mile  west  of  the  town  of 
Newport,  R.  I.,  and  commanding  the  en- 
trance to  the  harbor.  It  was  first  garrisoned 
in  1841,  and  is  established  on  the  old  fort 
which  formerly  occupied  the  position. 

Fort  Adjutant.  In  the  British  service,  is 
an  officer  holding  an  appointment  in  a  for-  ' 
tress, — where  the  garrison  is  often  composed 
of  drafts  from  different  corps, — analogous  to 
that  of  adjutant  in  a  regiment.  He  is  re- 
sponsible to  the  commandant  for  the  internal 
discipline,  and  the  assignment  of  the  neces- 


TORT 


171 


sary  duties  to  particular  corps.  Fort  adju- 
tants are  staff-otficers,  and  receive  additional 
pay. 

Fort  Ann.  A  village  of  Washington 
Co.,  N.  Y.,  on  the  Chamjilain  Canal.  A 
fortification,  from  which  the  place  derives 
its  name,  was  erected  here  during  the  wars 
with  the  French,  in  17o0.  It  was  captured 
from  the  Americans  ahout  1779. 

Fort  Barrancas.  Situated  on  the  north 
side  of  the  entrance  to  Pensacola  harhor,  and 
has  been  occujiied  since  October  24,  1820, 
when  it  was  ceded  by  Spain  to  the  United 
States.  During  the  civil  war  it  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Confederates  (1861),  and  held 
by  tlictii  until  the  following  year. 

Fort  Caswell.  An  old  brick  work  situ- 
ated on  Oak  Island,  at  the  mouth  of  Cape 
Fear  Kiver,  North  Carolina.  On  the  out- 
break of  civil  war  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Confederates,  who  held  it  until  the  fall 
of  Fort  Fisher,  in  18Go. 

Fort  Columbus.  See  Governor's 
Island. 

Fort  Constitution.  Is  situated  in  Ports- 
mouth harbor,  N.  H.  It  was  established  in 
1808,  and  garrisoned  by  U.  S.  troops  ;  but  as 
early  as  180(i  the  post  was  occupied.  It  con- 
sisted of  an  earthwork,  built  by  the  English 
government,  and  named  AViiliam  and  Mary. 
A  new  work  was  commenced  in  18<i3,  having 
its  foundation  outside  the  old  one. 

Fort  Covington.  A  village  of  Franklin 
Co.,  N.  Y.,  on  Salmon  Kiver,  about  18  miles 
northwest  of  Malone.  Here  the  American 
army  sutiered  greatly  during  the  winter  of 
1813-14. 

Fort   Delaware.      A   casemated   fort  on 
Pea  Patch  Island,  in  the  Delaware  River.    It 
was  a  military  prison  during  the  civil  war. 
Fort  Donelson.     See  Do'nkl.son,  Fort. 
Fort  Duquesne.     See  Pittsburg. 
Fort  Erie.     In  Upper  Canada;  this  fort 
was  taken  by  the  American  general  Browne, 
June  3,  1814.     After  several  conflicts  it  was 
evacuated  bv  the  Americans,  November  5, 
1814. 

Fort  Fairfield.  A  village  of  Aroostook 
Co.,  Me.  It  contains  a  barrack,  and  is 
chiefly  interesting  from  its  having  been  a 
militarv  post  during  our  trouble  with  Eng- 
land in"lH39. 

Fort  Fisher.  A  strong  earthwork  on 
the  east  side  of  Cape  Fear  River,  about  20 
miles  south  of  Wilmington,  N.  C,  and 
one  of  the  jirincipnl  defenses  of  that  port. 
On  December  24-2'i,  18(54,  the  forces  of  Gen. 
Butler  attempted  to  take  it,  but  unsuccess- 
fVilly  ;  but  on  January  15,  18t»5,  it  was  taken 
by  storm  by  the  Union  army  and  navy,  and 
over  20<X) 'Confederate  prisoners  and  169 
pieces  of  artillery  were  captured. 
,  Fort  George.  A  fortification  in  Inver- 
ness, Scotlaiul,  on  the  extremity  of  a  low 
peninsula,  projecting  upwards  of  a  mile  into 
the  Moray  Firth.  It  has  barracks  for  about 
8000  nien,  and  is  the  most  complete  fortifi- 
cation in  Great  Britain. 
Fort  George.  See  Fokt  William  Uenry. 


Fort  Griswold.  An  old  Revolutionary 
fort  near  Ntw  London,  Conn.  The  traitor 
Arnold  massacred  the  garrison  and  burned 
the  town  in  1781. 

Fort  Hamilton.  A  strong  fortification 
on  the  Narrows,  defending  the  entrance  of 
New  York  harbor. 

Fort  Independence.  A  fortification  on 
Castle  Island,  in  Boston  harbor,  Ma.ss., 
which  forms  one  of  the  defenses  of  the  har- 
bor. It  was  commenced  in  1833,  and  com- 
pleted in  18'>1. 

Fort  Jackson.  A  fort  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  5lississippi  River,  about  80  miles  be- 
low New  (Orleans.  On  April  18,  1862,  Ad- 
miral Farragut,  then  captain,  commenced 
the  bombardment  of  this  fort  and  Fort  St. 
Philip  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river,  and 
after  six  daj's'  and  nights' continuous  firing, 
succeeded  in  passing  with  his  fleet;  and  de- 
stroying the  Confederate  flotilla,  the  forts 
surrendered. 

Fort  La  Fayette.  A  fort  surrounded  by 
water  in  the  Narrows,  at  the  entrance  of 
New  York  harbor,  immediately  in  front  of 
Fort  Hamilton.  It  was  used  during  the 
civil  war  as  a  prison.  This  fort  was  recently 
destroyed  by  fire. 

Fort  Lee.  A  village  of  Bergen  Co.,  N.  J., 
on  the  Hudson  River,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pal- 
isades. It  was  once  a  noted  military  post,, 
and  was  ca])tured  by  the  British  in  1776. 

Fort  McAllister.  See McAllistkr,  Fort. 

Fort  McHenry.  Is  situated  on  Whet- 
stone Point,  a  peninsula  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion of  the  northwest  branch  of  the  Patapsco 
with  the  main  river,  about  3  miles  from  Bal- 
timore, Md.  The  site  was  first  occupied  as 
a  military  post  by  the  erection  of  a  water- 
battery  in  1775  for  the  defense  of  the  town. 
In  17'.)4  the  fort  was  repaired,  and  a  star  or- 
pentagon  fort  of  brick-work  added,  when  it 
was  ceded  to  the  United  States  and  called  by 
its  present  name. 

Fort  Mackinaw.     See  Mackinaw. 

Fort  Macon.  Situated  on  the  eastern  ex- 
tremity of  Boguo  Banks,  near  Heauft>rt  har- 
bor, N.  C.  It  was  surrendered  to  Gen. 
Burnside  after  a  siege  of  about  two  weeks,  in 
which  he  was  aided  by  the  blockading  gun- 
boats, April  25,  1862. 

Fort-Major.  A  commandant  of  a  fort  in 
the  absence  of  the  governor.  Officers  em- 
ployed as  fort-majors,  if  under  the  rank  of 
captains,  take  rank  and  precedence  as  the 
junior  captains  in  the  garrisons  in  which 
they  are  serving.     He  is  a  staff-officer. 

Fort  Marion.  At  St.  Augustine,  Fla. ; 
was  erected  by  the  Spaniards  more  than  100 
years  ago,  and  formerly  called  the  Castle 
of  St.  Mark. 

Fort  Mifflin.  Is  one  of  the  old  Revolu- 
tionarv  fortresses,  situated  near  the  junction 
of  the' Schuylkill  and  Delaware  Rivers.  It 
is  one  of  the  defenses  of  the  city  of  Phila- 
delphia. 

Fort  Monroe.  A  massive  work  of  gran- 
ite surrounded  by  a  moat,  situated  at  Old 
Point  Comfort,  Elizabeth  City  Co.,  Va.     It 


FORT 


172 


FORT 


was  established  in  1818,  in  which  year  a 
reservation  of  about  250  acres  for  defensive 
purposes  was  here  ceded  to  the  United  States 
by  the  State  of  Virginia.  It  is  the  largest 
military  work  in  the  United  States,  and 
during  the  civil  war  was  an  important  naval 
rendezvous.  The  artillery  school  of  the  army 
is  established  at  this  post. 

Fort  Morgan.  Situated  at  the  entrance 
to  anchorage  in  Mobile  Bay,  on  the  site  of 
the  old  Fo'rt  Bowyer,  which  bore  such  an 
important  part  in  the  war  of  1812-15,  the 
Americans  under  Maj.  Lawrence  having 
here  repulsed  with  great  loss  a  combined 
land  and  sea  attack  of  the  British  and  their 
Indian  allies,  September  15,  1814. 

Fort  Moultrie.  One  of  the  defenses  of 
Charleston  harbor,  S.  C,  on  the  west  shore 
of  Sullivan's  Island,  about  5  miles  east- 
southeast  of  Charleston.  It  received  its 
name  in  honor  of  Col.  Moultrie,  an  officer 
of  the  Revolution,  who  here  successfully  re- 
sisted an  attack  from  9  British  vessels  in 
1776.  It  was  abandoned  by  the  Federal 
troops  in  December,  18G0,  and  was  seized  bj' 
the  Confederates,  who  fired  from  it  some  of 
the  first  shots  of  the  civil  war.  It  has  been 
garrisoned  by  U.  S.  troops  since  the  close  of 
the  war. 

Fort  Niagara.  On  the  right  bank  of  the 
Niagara  River,  in  the  county  of  the  same 
name,  in  the  State  of  New  York.  It  was 
established  by  La  Salle  in  1678;  captured 
by  the  British  under  Sir  William  Johnson 
in  1759;  surrendered  to  and  occupied  by  the 
United  States  in  1796.  In  the  war  of  1812-15 
it  was  but  feebly  garrisoned,  and  on  December 
19,  1813,  a  force  of  12U0  British  crossed  the 
river,  and  took  it  by  surprise,  killing  65  of 
the  garrison. 

Fort  Ninety-Six.  A  stockaded  fort  which 
was  situated  in  Abbeville  District,  6  miles 
.from  the  Saluda  River.  It  received  its  name 
from  being  96  miles  from  the  frontier  fort 
Prince  George,  on  the  Keowee  River.  This 
fort  was  the  scene  of  many  exciting  events 
during  the  Revolutionary  war.  With  a  gar- 
rison of  about  350  Tories  under  Lieut.-Col. 
John  Cruger,  it  was  besieged  by  the  Ameri- 
cans under  Gen.  Greene  for  twenty-seven 
days,  May-June,  1781  ;  but  just  as  his  efforts 
were  about  to  be  crowned  with  success.  Gen. 
Greene  was  obliged  to  retreat,  to  avoid  fall- 
ing into  the  hands  of  a  vastly  superior  Brit- 
ish force,  which  was  coming  to  relieve  the 
beleaguered  garrison. 

Fort  Ontario.  An  inclosed  work  on  the 
west  bank  of  Oswego  River,  built  in  1755, 
on  the  site  of  Fort  Oswego.  Here  were  the 
scenes  of  many  stirring  events  in  the  wars 
between  France  and  England,  and  of  a 
skirmish  in  1814. 

Fort  Pickens.  A  fort  on  Santa  Rosa 
Island,  Pensacola  harbor,  Fla.  Lieut.  A. 
J.  Slemmer  in  January,  1861,  after  evacu- 
ating Fort  Barrancas,  held  this  post  against 
the  Confederates  until  reinforced. 

Fort  Pillow.  In  Lauderdale  Co.,  Tenn., 
by  land  about  40  miles  north  of  Memphis. 


It  was  erected  by  the  Confederates  during 
the  civil  war.  It  was  bombarded  by  Federal 
gunboats,  and  evacuated  by  the  Confed- 
erates, June  4,  1862.  On  April  12,  1864,  it 
was  captured  by  the  Confederates,  when 
took  place  an  indiscriminate  slaughter  of 
the  negro  troops  garrisoned  there. 

Fort  Plain.  A  Revolutionary  fortress, 
which  was  situated  near  the  junction  of  Os- 
quaga  Creek  and  the  Mohawk,  in  Mont- 
gomery Co.,  N.  Y.  For  a  while  it  was  an 
important  fortress,  aflTording  protection  to 
the  people  in  the  neighborhood,  and  form- 
ing a  key  to  the  communication  with  the 
Schoharie,  Cherry  Valley,  and  Unadilla 
settlements.  On  August  21,  1780,  a  party 
of  500  Tories  and  Indians  marched  up 
within  cannon-shot  of  this  fort,  burned  53 
dwellings  and  as  many  barns,  destroyed  the 
crops,  and  carried  oft"  everything  of  value. 
Sixteen  of  the  inhabitants  were  slain,  and 
between  50  and  60  persons,  chiefly  women 
and  children,  were  taken  prisoners. 

Fort  Pulaski.  Located  on  Cockspur 
Island,  at  the  head  of  Tybee  Roads,  com- 
manding both  channels  of  the  Savannah 
River.  It  was  named  after  a  Polish  patriot 
who  fought  in  the  American  war  of  the 
Revolution,  and  died  in  consequence  of 
wounds  received  in  the  attack  on  Savannah, 
October,  1779.  During  the  civil  war,  being 
in  possession  of  the  Confederates,  it  surren- 
dered to  the  Federals  under  Gen.  Hunter, 
April  10,  1862. 

Fort  Schuyler.  An  old  Revolutionary 
fort,  which  occupied  the  site  of  old  Fort 
Stanwix,  and  was  built  on  the  present  site 
of  Rome,  N.  Y.  It  is  celebrated  in  early 
American  history  as  among  the  strongest 
forts  on  the  then  northern  frontier. 

Fort  St.  David.  A  town  of  Hindostan, 
on  the  sea-coast  of  the  Carnatic,  situated  on 
the  river  Tripapalore.  After  the  capture  of 
Madras  by  the  French  in  1746,  the  English 
were  besieged  here  without  success ;  and 
from  this  period  it  continued  the  head  of  the 
English  settlements  till  1758,  when  it  was 
taken  by  Lally,  after  a  short  siege,  and  the 
fortifications  were  destroyed. 

Fort  St.  Philip.  Situated  on  the  left  or 
north  bank  of  the  Mississippi  River,  nearly 
opposite  Fort  Jackson  (which  see). 

Fort  Sumter.  A  fort  celebrated  in  the 
annals  of  the  civil  war.  It  is  situated  on  a 
small  island  in  Charleston  harbor,  S.  C, 
between  3  and  4  miles  from  the  city.  April 
12-13,  1861,  it  was  bombarded  and  captured 
by  the  Confederates,  who  thus  inaugurated 
the  civil  war.  It  was  reduced  to  a  ruinous 
condition  during  the  siegei  of  Charleston,  in 
the  summer  of  1863,  but  was  held  by  the 
Confederates  until  February  18,  1865. 

Fort  Taylor.  An  inclosed  casemated 
pentagonal  brick-work  in  Key  West  harbor, 
Fla.,  commenced  1845. 

Fort  Trumbull.  Situated  in  the  harbor 
of  New  London,  Conn.,  on  the  west  side  of 
the  Thames  River.  It  is  an  inclosed  work, 
and  was  commenced  in  1839. 


FORT 


173 


FORTIFIED 


Fort  Wadsworth.  A  permanent  fortifi- 
cation on  Stutcn  Island,  west  of  the  Nar- 
rows, cotiiiiumdini;  the  entrance  on  that 
side  of  New  Vurit  harbor,  distant  from  Fort 
Hamilton  1  mile. 

Fort  Wagner.     See  MoiiRis  Island. 

Fort  Washington.  A  stroni;  earthwork 
erected  diiririi^  the  Itcvohitionary  war  upon 
the  hii^hest  eminence  on  Manhattan  Island, 
at  a  point  now  between  18lst  and  18fJth 
Streets,  New  York  City.  Diirin<;  the  Kevo- 
lutionary  war  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
English,  and  nearly  3000  Americans  were 
captured. 

Fort  Wayne.  A  U.  S.  fortification  in 
Wayne  Co.,  Mich.,  just  below  Detroit. 
It  is  intended  to  command  the  navigation  of 
the  Detroit  Itiver. 

Fort  William  Henry.  A  Revolutionary 
fort  near  the  iiciid  of  Lake  George,  N.  Y. 
During  the  wars  of  the  colonies  it  was  cap- 
tured by  the  French  and  Indians  in  1757. 

Fort  Winthrop.  One  of  the  defenses  of 
Boston  harbor,  Mass.,  on  Governor's  Island, 
the  former  site  of  old  Fort  Warren.  It  is  a 
small  inclosed  quadrangular  work,  with  ex- 
terior open  barbette  batteries ;  commenced 
1844. 

Fort  Wood.  On  Bedloe's  Island,  New 
York  harbor,  and  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
IJ  miles  southwest  of  the  Battery.  It  was 
erected  in  1841,  and  mounted  71  guns. 

Fort  Wool,  A  large  unfinished  inclosed 
casematcd  work  or  "rip-rap''  foundation, 
formerly  called  Fort  Calhoun,  designed  for 
the  defense  of  Hampton  Koads,  Va. 

Fortalice.  A  small  outwork  of  a  fortifi- 
cation ;  a  fortilage  ; — called  iiho  forfelnce. 

Forted.  Furnished  with  or  guarded  by 
forts  ;  strengthened  or  defended,  as  by  forts. 

Forth.     The  ancient  name  for  ford. 

Forth  Mountains.  A  range  in  the  county 
of  We.vi'ord,  Ireland,  celebrated  for  being 
the  rendezvous  of  15,000  insurgents,  who, 
in  17'J8,  met  here  previous  to  the  attack  and 
cai«ture  of  the  town  of  Wexford. 

Fortifiable.     Capable  of  being  fortified. 

Fortification.  Is  the  art  of  fortifying  a 
town,  or  other  place  ;  or  of  putting  it  in  such 
a  posture  of  defense  that  every  one  of  its 
parts  defends,  and  is  defended  by  some  other 
parts,  by  means oframparts,  parapets,  ditches, 
and  other  outworks;  to  the  end  that  a  small 
number  of  men  within  may  be  able  to  defend 
themselves  for  a  considerable  time  against 
the  as.saults  of  a  numerous  army  without ;  so 
that  the  enemy  in  attacking  them  must  of 
necessity  sufi'er  great  loss.  There  are  various 
kinds  of  ft)rtification,  as  defensive  and  offen- 
»ive,  natural,  ariijicial,  and  permanent.  De- 
fensive fortification  is  the  art  of  surrounding 
a  place  by  works  so  disposed  as  to  render  it 
capable  of  a  lasting  defense  against  a  besieg- 
ing army.  Offensive  fortification  compre- 
hends the  various  works  employed  in  con- 
ducting a  siege.  Natural  fortification  consists 
of  those  obstacles  which  nature  afl'ords  to 
retard  the  progress  of  an  enemy ;  such  as 
■woods,   deep   ravines,    rocks,    marshes,  etc. 


Artificial  fortification  is  that  which  is  raised 
by  human  ingenuity  to  aid  the  natural  ad- 
vantages of  the  ground,  or  supply  its  defi- 
ciencies. It  is  divided  \nio  permanent  &Ti6. 
field  fortification.  Permaneiit  fortification  is 
intended  for  the  defense  of  towns,  frontiers, 
and  seaports,  and  is  constructed  of  durable 
materials  in  time  of  peace;  while  /i«W/o;-/i- 
fication  being  raised  only  for  the  temporary 
purpose  of  protecting  trooj)s  in  the  field,  its 
materials  are  those  attordcu  by  local  circum- 
stances and  a  limited  time.  For  the  princi- 
pal parts  of  a  regular  fortress,  see  Hanqukttk, 
Bastiox,  Batakdkau,  Bkkm,Cai'on.\ikre, 
Cavalikr,  Citadel,  Cordon,  Cou.ntkr- 
8CARP,  Covered  Way,  Crown-work,  Cu- 
NETTE,  Curtain,  Ditch,  Embrasures,  En- 
ceinte, Envelope,  Epaulemest,  Escarp, 
Esplanade,  Faces,  Flank,  FLki^iiK,  or 
Arrow,  Fraises,  Glacis,  Hornwork, 
Lines,  Loop- holes,  Lunettes  and  Ten  a  il- 
LONs,  Outworks,  Palisades,  Parallels, 
or  Places  of  Arms,  Parapet,  Kamps, 
Rampart,  Ravelin,  Redan,  Redoubt, 
Revetment,  Sally  ports,  Slope  Interior, 
Star  Fort,  Ten aille,Terre-plein,T£te8 
DE  Pont,  Traverses,  Ziqzaqs,  or  Boyaux 
of  Co.mmunication. 

Fortification,  Elementary.  By  some 
likewise  called  the  theory  of  fortification, 
consists  in  tracing  the  plans  and  profiles  of 
a  fortification  on  paper,  with  scales  and 
compasses;  and  examining  the  systems  pro- 
posed by  diflerent  authors,  in  order  to  dis- 
cover their  advantages  and  disadvantages. 

Fortification,  Front  of.  Consists  of  all  the 
works  constructed  upon  any  one  side  of  a 
regular  polygon,  whether  placed  within  or 
without  the  exterior  side.  Some  authors 
give  a  more  limited  sense  to  the  term  "front 
of  fortification,"  by  confining  it  to  two  half 
bastions  j(jined  by  a  curtain. 

Fortification,  irregular.  Is  that  in  which, 
from  the  nature  of  the  ground  or  other 
causes,  the  several  works  have  not  their  due 
proportions  according  to  rule;  irregularity, 
however,  does  not  necessarily  imply  weak- 
ness. 

Fortification,  Practical.  Consists  in  form- 
ing a  project  of  a  fortification,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  ground,  and  other  necessary 
circumstances,  to  trace  it  on  the  ground,  and 
to  execute  the  project,  together  with  all  the 
military  buildings,  such  as  magazines,  store- 
houses, barracks,  bridges,  etc. 

Fortification,  Regular.  Is  that  in  which 
the  works  are  constructed  on  a  regular  jxily- 
gon,  and  which  has  its  corresponding  parts 
equal  to  each  other. 

Fortification,  Semi-permanent.  During 
the  civil  war  in  America,  18»;i-6"),  it  became 
necessary  to  construct  strong  fortifications 
for  large  cities  in  a  short  time.  These  cir- 
cumstances gave  rise  to  a  new  kind  of  forti- 
fication combining  certain  of  the  arrange- 
ments of  both  permanent  and  field  works, 
which  were  called  semi-permanent  works. 

Fortified.  Strengthened  and  secured  by 
forU. 


FORTIFY 


174 


FOWLING-PIECE 


Fortify.  To  strengthen  and  secure  by 
forts,  batteries,  and  other  works  of  art;  to 
render  defensible  against  an  attack  by  hos- 
tile forces,  or  capable  of  standing  a  siege. 

Fortilage.  A  little  fort;  a  block-house. 
Now  obsolete. 

Fortin.  A  little  fort ;  a  field  fort ;  a 
sconce  ;  a  fortlet.     Now  obsolete. 

Fortlet.     A  little  fort. 

Fortress.  Is  a  fortified  city  or  town,  or 
any  piece  of  ground  so  strongly  fortified  as 
to  be  capable  of  resisting  an  attack  carried 
on  against  it,  according  to  rule.  Also,  as  a 
verb,  to  furnish  with  fortresses  ;  to  guard  ; 
to  fortify. 

Forward.  A  word  of  command  given 
when  troops  are  to  resume  their  march  after 
a  temporary  interruption. 

Fosseway.  One  of  the  military  Eoman 
roads  in  England,  so  called  from  the  ditches 
on  both  sides. 

Fotheringay.  A  village  of  England,  in 
Northamptonshire.  Richard  III.  was  born 
in  the  castle  of  this  place,  and  Mary,  queen 
of  Scots,  was  imprisoned  and  executed  here. 
James  I.  razed  it  to  the  ground  after  his  ac- 
cession to  the  throne. 

Foucade,  or  Fougade.     A  small  mine. 

Fougasses.  A  description  of  small  mines, 
constructed  in  front  of  the  weakest  parts  of 
a  fortification,  as  the  salient  angles  and  faces 
not  defended  by  a  cross-fire. 

Fougass  Shell.  A  row  of  loaded  shells  in 
a  box  divided  into  two  compartments.  The 
lower  compartment  is  filled  with  powder. 
The  box  is  only  just  covered  by  the  earth. 
The  fougass  is  fired  by  a  fuze,  electricity,  or 
a  tube  which  explodes  when  trodden  upon. 

Fougass,  Stone.  A  sort  of  natural  mortar 
formed  by  an  excavation  in  the  ground.  At 
the  bottom  of  the  excavation  is  placed  the 
charge  in  a  box,  over  this  comes  a  shield  of 
wood,  and  over  that  again  is  placed  about  5 
cubic  yards  of  stones,  each  of  which  should 
weigh  not  less  than  1  pound.  The  excava- 
tion is  in  the  shape  of  a  frustrum  of  a  cone, 
and  makes  an  angle  of  about  40°  with  the 
horizon.  The  charge  is  about  80  pounds  of 
powder,  and  the  stones  will  fall  over  a  par- 
allelogram about  110  yards  by  120  yards. 

Fougeres.  A  town  and  parish  of  France, 
28  miles  northeast  from  Rennes.  This  town 
was  the  scene  of  many  engagements  between 
the  English  and  the  French,  from  the  11th 
to  the  15th  centuries. 

Fougette  (Fr.).  An  Indian  sky-rocket, 
a  species  of  firework  which  is  frequently 
used  by  the  Asiatics.  It  is  made  of  the  hol- 
low tube  of  the  bamboo,  of  a  very  large  size, 
filled  with  the  usual  composition  of  rockets. 
The  rod  is  only  a  part  of  the  same  bamboo, 
the  greater  part  of  which  is  cut  away. 

Foughard.  Near  Armagh,  Northern  Ire- 
land. Here  Edward,  brother  of  Robert 
Bruce,  after  invading  Ireland  in  1315,  was 
defeated  by  »Sir  John  Bermingham  in  1318. 
Bruce  was  killed  by  Roger  de  Maupis,  a 
burgess  of  Dundalk. 

Fouiller  {F?-.).    To  search.     In  a  military 


sense,  it  signifies  to  detach  small  bodies  of 
infantry  round  the  flanks  of  a  column  that 
is  marching  through  a  wood,  for  the  purpose 
of  discovering  an  ambuscade,  and  of  giving 
timely  notice  that  it  may  be  avoided.  The 
same  precaution  is  necessary  when  a  body  of 
men  advance  towards  or  enter  a  village. 

Fouling.  The  action  of  gunpowder  in 
dirt\'ing  the  bore  of  a  gun.  Cannon  for 
this  and  other  reasons  are  sponged  after  each 
round. 

Foundation.  In  military  architecture,  is 
that  part  of  a  building  which  is  under- 
ground, or  the  mass  of  stone,  brick,  etc., 
which  supports  a  building,  or  upon  which 
the  walls  of  a  superstructure  are  raised  ;  or 
it  is  the  coffer  or  bed  dug  below  the  level  of 
the  ground  to  raise  a  building  upon. 

Founder.  A  person  who  casts  cannon, 
etc. 

Foundery.  In  military  matters,  the  art 
of  casting  all  kinds  of  ordnance,  such  as 
cannon,  mortars,  etc. 

Foundry.  A  place  for  casting  all  kinds 
of  ordnance  ;  a  foundery. 

Four.  A  place  of  confinement  in  Paris  to 
which  vagabonds  and  persons  who  could  not 
give  any  satisfactory  account  of  themselves 
were  committed  ;  and  when  once  shut  up 
had  their  names  registered,  and  were  enlisted 
for  the  old  French  government.  These 
Fours  added  annually  2000  men  at  least  to 
the  king's  regular  army ;  by  which  means 
the  capital  was  relieved  of  a  multitude  of 
thieves,  pickpockets,  etc. 

Fourage  (Fr.).  Forage  ;  in  the  artillery, 
it  is  used  figuratively  to  signify  hay,  straw, 
or  anything  else  of  vegetable  growth,  which 
is  used  to  ram  into  the  bore  of  a  cannon  for 
the  purpose  of  cleansing  it. 

Fourager  (Fr.).  To  forage,  or  look  about 
for  provender  and  provisions.  It  likewise 
means  among  the  French  to  ravage,  desolate, 
pillage,  and  waste  a  country  for  the  purpose 
of  throwing  the  inhabitants  into  disorder. 
The  word  is  derived  from  fo7-as  agere,  or  to 
seek  for  forage  in  the  field. 

Fourier  {Fr.).  A  quartermaster  belong- 
ing to  a  cavalry  or  infantry  regiment.  In 
France  there  were  fonriers-majors  who  com- 
posed a  part  of  the  cavalry  staff.  Sergeant- 
fourier  and  corporal-fourier  answer  to  our 
quartermaster-sergeant. 

Fourniment  {Fr.).  A  horn  formerly  used, 
which  held  about  1  pound  of  gunpowder  to 
prime  cannon.  It  was  likewise  used  by  cav- 
alry and  infantry  soldiers,  who  slung  it  across 
their  shoulders.  The  artillerists  kept  it  in  a 
belt. 

Fowley.  A  decayed  seaport  town  of  Eng- 
land, in  the  county  of  Cornwall,  at  the 
mouth  of  a  small  river  of  the  same  name. 
It  became  famous  in  the  old  French  wars, 
and  in  1347  sent  37  tall  ships  to  the  siege  of 
Calais.    It  was  burned  by  the  French  in  1457. 

Fowling-piece,  A  term  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  shot-guns  of  large  caliber  and  great 
power,  for  shooting  ducks,  geese,  and  other 
large  birds. 


FOX 


175 


FRANKFORT 


Fox.     Tho  old  English  broadsword. 

Fox  Indians.  A  tribe  of  American  ab- 
oriuitu's  of  the  Algonkin  stock,  associated 
•with  the  Sacs.  They  formerly  dwelt  in  the 
southern  part  of  Iowa,  but  now  occu|)y  lands 
in    Indian   Territory.      See   Indians    and 

TIIEIK  AOKNCIES. 

Fraisers  (Fr.).  To  plait,  knead,  or  drill. 
In  a  military  sense  to  fraise  or  fence;  as, 
fraitier  mh  haitnlion,  is  to  fraise  or  fence  all 
the  infantrymen  with  pikes,  to  oppose  the 
irruption  of  cavalry,  should  it  charge  them 
in  a  plain.  At  present  it  means  to  secure  a 
battalion  by  opposing  bayonets  obliquely 
forward,  or  cross  ways  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  render  it  impossible  for  horsemen  to  act 
against  it. 

Fraises.  Kows  of  palisades  planted  hor- 
izontally, or  nearly  so,  as  at  the  edge  of  a 
ditch,  or  on  the  steep  exterior  of  a  parapet. 
Fraises  are  generally  7  or  8  feet  long,  and 
about  5  inches  thick.  When  an  army  in- 
trenches itself,  the  parapets  of  the  retrench- 
ment are  often  fraised  in  the  parts  exposed 
to  an  attack.  To  /raise  a  battalion  is  to  line 
or  cover  it  every  way  with  bayonets,  that  it 
may  withstand  the  shock  of  a  body  of  horse. 

France.  A  country  of  Western  Europe, 
•which  was  known  to  the  Romans  by  the 
name  of  Gaul  (which  see).  In  the  decline 
of  their  power  it  was  conquered  by  the 
Franks,  a  j)eople  of  Germany,  then  inhabit- 
ing Franconia,  where  they  became  known 
about  240.  These  invaders  gave  the  name 
to  the  kingdom  (Franken-ric,  Frank's 
Kingdom);  but  the  Gauls,  being  by  far  tho 
more  numerous,  are  the  real  ancestors  of  the 
modern  French.  For  details  of  important 
events  in  France,  see  separate  articles. 

Franches  (Fr.).  Les  canipnpnies  fran- 
ehes,  free  companies,  were  bodies  of  men 
detached  and  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
army,  having  each  a  chief,  or  commandant. 
They  consisted  chiefl\'  of  dragoons,  hussars, 
etc.,  and  their  peculiar  duty  was  to  make 
irruptions  into  an  enemy's  country.  They 
may  not  improperly  be  called  land-pirates, 
as  their  chief  occupation  was  to  harass  and 
plunder  the  enemy  and  his  adherents,  in 
whatever  manner  they  could,  without  pay- 
ing any  regard  to  military  forms.  The  per- 
sons who  composed  these  corps  were  termed 
partisans.  They  always  accompanied  the 
main  army  in  time  of  war,  and  were  dis- 
tributed among  the  difiorent  garrison  towns 
in  France  during  peace.  They  were  common 
to  every  power  in  Europe;  the  Pandours 
and  Ilulans  were  of  this  description.  They 
were  the  worst  afflictions  of  war;  and  gen- 
erally as  fatal  to  their  friends  as  to  their 
enenues. 

Francisque  (Fr.).  A  battle-axe;  an  an- 
cient wea|H)n  formed  like  an  axe,  used 
principally  by  the  Franks. 

Franco-Prussian  War.  The  origin  of 
this  dreadful  series  of  sanguinary  conflicts  is 
ascribed  to  the  jealousy  of  the  emperor  of 
the  French  of  the  greatly  increased  power 
of  Prussia,  in  consequence  of  the  successful 


issue  of  the  war  with  Denmark  in  1804,  and 
more  especially  of  that  with  Austria  in 
1800.  By  thus'e  events  the  German  Confed- 
eration was  annulled,  and  the  North  Ger- 
man Confederation  established  under  the 
supremacy  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  whose 
territories  were  also  enlarged  bj'  the  an- 
nexation of  Hanover,  Hesse-Casel,  Nassau, 
Frankfort,  and  other  provinces.  This  great 
augmentation  of  the  power  of  Prussia  was 
mainly  due  to  the  policy  of  Count  Bismarck- 
Schonhausen,  prime  minister.  In  March, 
1857,  a  dispute  arose  through  the  emperor's 
proposals  for  the  purchase  of  Luxemburg  of 
the  king  of  Holland,  which  was  strongly 
opposed  by  Prussia,  but  the  affair  was  event- 
ually settled,  by  a  conference  of  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  great  powers  declaring 
Luxemburg  neutral.  Both  governments, 
however,  had  prepared  for  the  impending 
struggle,  and  the  crisis  came  when  Prince 
Leopold  of  Ilohenzollern-Sigmaringen  con- 
sented to  become  a  candidate  for  the  throne 
of  Spain,  about  July  3,  1870.  This  was 
violently  denounced  by  the  French  govern- 
ment, and  eventually,  after  some  negotia- 
tion and  the  intervention  of  Great  Britain, 
the  prince,  with  the  consent  of  his  sover- 
eign, declined  the  prot!ered  crown.  This 
submission  did  not  satisfy  the  French  gov- 
ernment and  nation,  and  the  demand  for  a 
guarantee  against  the  repetition  of  such  an 
acceptance  irritated  the  Prussian  govern- 
ment, and  led  to  the  termination  of  the  ne- 
gotiations. War  was  declared  by  the  em- 
peror July  1-5,  1870,  and  actually  com- 
menced about  July  '2-i.  It  did  not  end  until 
January  27,  1871,  and  France  was  overrun 
by  the  victorious  Prussians  and  their  auxil- 
iaries. On  May  10,  1871,  a  definitive  treaty 
of  peace  was  concluded  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  and  on  account  of  the  rapid  payment 
of  the  war  expenses  the  last  German  soldier 
left  French  soil  in  July,  1873.  For  impor- 
tant battles  and  engagements  during  the 
war,  see  separate  articles. 

Franconia  (Gcr.  Frankcn).  An  old 
duchy,  afterwards  a  circle  of  the  Germanic 
empire,  between  Upper  Saxony,  the  Upper 
and  Lower  Rhine,  Swabia,  Bavaria,  and 
Bohemia.  Since  180<5,  it  has  been  divided 
between  the  grand  duchies  of  Baden  and 
Hesse,  and  the  kingdoms  of  Bir\-aria  and  Sax- 
ony. 

Franc-Tireurs.  Literally  free-sho<iters, 
a  name  given  to  French  soldiers  during  tho 
Crimean  war,  who  were  stationed  as  sharp- 
shooters. In  the  republican  wars  the  name 
was  also  given  to  certain  corps  of  light  in- 
fantry. During  the  Franco-German  war 
the  name  was  also  applied  to  a  class  of  com- 
batants among  the  French,  who  carried  on  a 
partisan  warfare. 

Frankfort-on-the-Main.  A  city  of  Prus- 
sia, province  of  Hfsse-Nassau,  to  which  it 
was  annexed  in  ISO*",.  It  is  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Main.  Said  to  have  been 
a  free  citv  in  1174.  and  suffered  much  by  the 
wars  of  France.     It  was  entered  by  the  Prus- 


FRANKFOKT 


176 


FRICTION 


sians,  who  exacted  heavy  supplies,  July  16, 
1866. 

Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  A  well-built 
town  of  Prussia,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Brandenburg,  48  miles  southeast  from  Ber- 
lin. It  suffered  much  from  marauders  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
War.  Near  Frankfort,  on  August  12,  1759, 
Frederick  of  Prussia  was  defeated  by  the 
Russians  and  Austrians.  See  Cunnersdorf. 

Franklin.  In  the  southern  part  of  Ten- 
nessee, near  the  boundary-line  of  Alabama. 
A  severe  engagement  took  place  here  be- 
tween the  Union  and  Confederate  forces 
under  Gens.  Scholield  and  Hood  respectively, 
November  30,  1864. 

Franks.  A  name  given  to  a  combination 
of  the  Northwestern  German  tribes  about 
240,  which  invaded  Gaul  and  other  parts  of 
the  empire  with  various  success. 

FraserGun.  See  Ordnance,  Woolwich 
Gun. 

Fraud.  See  Appendix,  Articles  of 
War,  60. 

Fray.  Affray  ;  combat ;  duel ;  broil ;  con- 
test. 

Frazier's  Farm,  Battle  of.  See  Glen- 
dale. 

Fredericia.  A  fortified  town  of  Denmark, 
in  Jutland,  on  the  Little  Belt.  It  was  be- 
sieged and  taken  by  Prussia  in  1864. 

Fredericksburg.  A  city  of  Spottsylvania 
Co.,  Va.,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Rappa- 
hannock River.  On  December  10,  1862, 
Gen.  Burnside  and  the  Federal  army  of  the 
Potomac  crossed  the  small  deep  river  of  the 
Rappahannock.  On  December  11,  Fred- 
ericksburg was  bombarded  by  the  Federals 
and  destroyed.  On  the  13th  commenced  a 
series  of  most  desperate  yet  unsuccessful  at- 
tacks on  the  Confederate  works,  defended  by 
Gens.  Lee,  Jackson,  Longstreet,  and  others. 
Gen.  Hooker  crossed  the  river  with  reserves, 
and  joined  in  the  conflict  in  vain.  The 
Federal  army  recrossed  the  Rappahannock 
December  15  and  16.  This  battle  was  one 
of  the  severest  of  the  war.  Fredericksburg 
was  the  scene  of  several  bloody-battles  during 
the  civil  war. 

Frederickshald.  A  town  of  Norway,  at 
the  influx  of  the  Tistedals-elf  into  the"lde- 
fiord,  55  miles  southeast  from  Christiania. 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  was  killed  here  in 
the  trenches  before  the  fortress  of  Frederick- 
steen,  on  December  11,  1718. 

Frederickshamm,  or  Hamina.  A  forti- 
fied town  of  Finland.  The  treaty  which 
ceded  Finland  to  Russia  was  signed  here  in 
1809. 

Freebooter.  One  who  wanders  about  for 
plunder  ;  a  robber  ;  a  pillager  ;  a  plunderer. 

Freebootery.  The  act,  practice,  or  gains 
of  a  freebooter  ;  freebooting. 

Freebooting.  Robbery  ;  plunder  ;  a  pil- 
laging. Also  acting  the  freebooter;  prac- 
ticing the  freebooter ;  robbing. 

Freehold.  A  village,  the  capital  of  Mon- 
mouth Co.,  N.  J.  Near  here  was  fought 
the  battle  of  Monmouth,  June  28,  1778. 


Free-lances.  Were  roving  companies  of 
knights  and  men-at-arms,  who,  after  the 
Crusades  had  ceased  to  give  them  employ- 
ment, wandered  from  state  to  state,  selling 
their  services  to  any  lord  who  was  willing 
to  purchase  their  aid  in  the  perpetual  feuds 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  They  played  their  most 
prominent  part  in  Italy,  where  they  were 
known  as  Condottieri  (which  see). 

Fregellae  (Fregellanus;  now  Ceprano). 
An  ancient  and  important  town  of  the 
Volsci,  on  the  Liris,  in  Latium,  conquered 
by  the  Romans,  and  colonized  328  B.C.  It 
took  part  with  the  allies  in  the  Social  war, 
and  was  destroyed  by  Opimius. 

Fregosa,  or  Fregose  (in  the  plural  Fre- 
gosi).  A  Genoese  family,  which  in  the  14th 
century  gained  distinction  among  the  popu- 
lar party,  and  by  their  rivalry  with  the 
Adorni  occasioned  frequent  civil  wars.  Fre- 
goso  (Domenico),  became  doge  of  Genoa  in 
1370.  He  conquered  the  isle  of  Cyprus  and 
was  deposed  in  1378.  Pietro  was  a  brother 
of  the  preceding  ;  he  commanded  the  arma- 
ment which  conquered  Cyprus  in  1373,  and 
in  1393  was  elected  doge.  Thomas  was 
elected  doge  in  1415;  being  attacked  by  Al- 
fonso of  Aragon  and  the  Duke  of  Milan,  he 
made  a  brave  resistajice,  and  was  forced  to 
retire  from  Genoa  in  1421.  Pietro  was 
elected  in  1450,  and  for  eight  years  main- 
tained his  power  against  Alfonso  of  Aragon 
and  the  Adorni  ;  he  was  killed  in  an  attempt 
to  expel  the  French  from  Genoa  in  1459. 
There  were  several  other  doges  of  this  family 
in  Genoa. 

Frejus.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Var,  45  miles  northeast 
from  Toulon.  It  was  here  that  Bonaparte 
landed  on  his  return  from  Egypt  in  the 
autumn  of  1799;  and  here  also  he  disem- 
barked after  his  escape  from  Elba  in  1814. 

French  Fury,  The.  A  name  given,  in 
history,  to  the  attempt  made  by  the  Duke  of 
Anjou  to  carry  Antwerp  by  storm,  January 
17,  1583.  The  whole  of  his  force  was  either 
killed  or  taken  captive  in  less  than  an  hour. 

Frenchtown.  In  Canada ;  it  was  taken 
from  the  British  by  the  American  general 
Winchester,  January  22,  1813,  during  the 
second  war  with  the  United  States.  It  was 
retaken  by  the  British  forces  under  Gen. 
Proctor  January  24,  and  the  American  com- 
mander and  troops  were  made  prisoners. 

French  Projectile.     See  Projectile. 

Freteval.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Loir-et-Cher,  9  miles  north- 
east from  Vendome.  In  1194  the  army  of 
Philip  Augustus  was  defeated  here  by  the 
English. 

Friction  Plates.  Plates  used  to  check  the 
recoil  of  guns.  See  Recoil  and  Elswick 
Compressor. 

Friction  Primer.  In  gunnery,  consists 
of  a  short  tube  of  metal  inserted  into  a  hole 
near  the  top  of  a  larger  tube,  and  soldered 
in  that  position.  The  short  tube  is  lined 
with  a  composition  tnade  by  mixing  together 
one  part  of  chlorate  of  potassa  and  two  of 


FRIEDLAND 


177 


FRUMENTARIUS 


sulpliuret  of  antimony,  formed  into  a  paste 
with  gum-wiiter.  A  serrated  wire  pusses 
throufjh  tlie  short  tube  and  hole  opposite  to 
it  in  the  side  of  the  lontj  one,  tlie  oj)en  end 
of  the  short  tube  being  compressed  with 
ni|>pers,  and  the  wire  at  the  end  of  the  ser- 
rated part  doubled  under  to  prevent  dis- 
placement. The  other  end  of  the  wire  is 
doubled  and  twisted  by  machinery.  The 
lonij  tube  is  filled  with  rifie-powder,  its 
upper  end  being  covered  with  shellac-var- 
nish blackened  with  lamf)-black,  and  its 
lower  end  closed  with  shoemaker's  wax  and 
dipped  into  varnish.  One  great  advantage 
of  the  friction  tube  is  that  it  gives  an  enemy 
at  night  no  clue  to  the  position  of  a  piece  as 
does  the  lighted  port-fire  or  slow-match. 

Friedland.  A  town  of  East  Prussia,  in 
the  circle  of  Kunigsberg,  on  the  Alle.  This 
place  is  famous  for  being  the  scene  of  the 
Dattle  gained  by  Napoleon  I.  over  the  Rus- 
sians and  Prussians  on  June  14,  1807,  and 
which  led  to  the  peace  of  Tilsit. 

Frill.  "Was  an  ornamental  appendage  to 
the  shirt  which  officers  and  soldiers  generally 
wore  with  regimentals.  A  small  aperture 
■was  usually  made  at  the  top  to  admit  the 
hook  and  eyeof  the  uniform  coat.  Enlisted 
men  generally  wore  frills  detached  from  the 
coat. 

Frisians.  Were  an  ancient  Teutonic  race, 
dwelling  together  with  the  Batnvi,  the  Bruc- 
teri,  and  the  Chauci,  in  the  extreme  north- 
west of  Germany,  between  the  mouths  of  the 
Rhine  and  Ems.  They  became  tributaries 
of  Rome  under  Drusus,  and  for  a  time  re- 
mained faithful  to  the  Roman  alliance;  but, 
in  28,  they  were  driven  to  hostilities  by  the 
oppression  of  their  protectors,  and  although 
partially  subdued,  they  again  rose  against 
the  Romans  under  Civilis.  They  were  de- 
feated and  compelled  to  embrace  Christianity 
in  689  and  785. 

Frisrutter.  An  instrument  made  of  iron, 
and  used  for  the  purpose  of  blocking  up  a 
haven  or  a  river.  The  beams  through  which 
tbo  upright  bars  pass  must  be  12  feet  in 
length,  and  the  upright  bars  that  go  through 
the  beam  must  be  of  that  length  so  that 
when  one  of  these  iron  frisruttrrs  is  let 
down  into  a  haven  or  river,  the  perpendic- 
ular bars  of  this  iron  instrument  shall  be 
deep  enough  to  reach  at  high  water  within 
6  feet  of  the  surface. 

Friuli.  An  old  province  of  Italy,  belong- 
ing to  Venice  ;  nuide  a  duchy  by  Alboin  tlie 
Lombard,  when  he  established  his  kingdom 
about  570.  It  was  conquered  by  Charle- 
magne; and  lienri,  a  Frenchman,  made 
duke,  who  was  assassinated  in  799.  It  was 
conquered  by  Venice  in  1420. 

Frock.  In  the  British  service,  the  undress 
regimental  coat  of  the  guards,  artillery,  and 
royal  marines. 

Frogged.  A  term  used  in  regard  to  uni- 
forms, and  applied  to  stripes  or  workings 
of  braid  or  hue,  as  ornaments,  mostly  on  the 
breast,  on  the  plain  cloth  of  which  a  coat  is 
made. 


Fronde  (i-V.).      A  sling.      This  weapon 


ling,      mis 
y  the  Hugi 


was  used  in  France  by  the  Huguenots  at 
Sancerre,  as  late  as  the  year  1572,  in  order  to 
save  their  powder.  There  were  two  kinds 
one  which  was  used  in  throwing  a  stone  from 
the  arm,  and  the  other  that  was  fixed  to  a 
lever,  and  was  .so  contrived  that  a  large 
quantity  of  stones  might  be  thrown  out  of  a 
machine,  either  from  a  camp  into  a  besieged 
town,  or  from  a  town  into  the  enemy's  camp. 
This  machine  has  been  used  since  the  in- 
vention of  cannon.  The  fronde  or  sling  was 
used  by  the  Romans  on  three  difierent  <»c- 
casions,  viz. :  when  they  sent  their  light- 
armed  men,  called  velltes,  forward  toskirmish 
before  a  general  engagement ;  when  they 
wished  to  drive  the  enemy  from  under  the 
walls  of  a  town  which  they  were  preparing 
to  storm,  and  finally  to  harass  and  wound 
the  men  in  the  enemy's  works.  This  weapon, 
in  fact,  together  with  the  bow  and  arrow, 
may  be  numbered  among  the  primitive  arms 
of  mankind. 

Fronde,  Civil  Wars  of  the.  These  oc- 
curred in  France  in  the  minority  of  Louis 
XIV.  (ltJ48-5;5),  during  the  government  of 
the  queen,  Anne  of  Austria,  and  Cardinal 
Mazarin,  between  the  followers  of  the  court 
and  the  nobility,  and  the  Parliament  and 
the  citizens.  The  latter  were  called  Fron- 
denrs  {siinffers),  it  is  said,  from  an  incident 
in  a  street  quarrel. 

Front.  A  word  of  command  signifying 
that  the  men  are  to  face  to  their  proper 
front ;  also  to  cast  their  eyes  to  the  front 
after  dressing. 

Front.  The  foremost  rank  of  a  battalion, 
squadron,  or  any  other  body  of  men.  T\\Q 
front  nf  a  gun  is  the  direction  in  which  the 
muzzle  points ;  but  when  a  field-piece  is 
limbered,  its  front  is  the  direction  in  which 
the  pole  points.  The  front  of  a  work  or  forti- 
fication is  the  side  it  presents  to  the  enemy. 
The  front  of  an  army,  except  in  retreating, 
is  the  side  towards  the  enemy.  A  column  is 
said  to  be  right  in  front  when  it  is  formed 
by  facing  or  wheeling  to  the  right. 

Front,  Bastioned.  A  curtain  connecting 
two  half  bastions. 

Front  of  Operations.     See  Stratkgy. 

Frontal.  A  front  piece;  something  worn 
on  the  forehead  or  face;  or  the  metal  face- 
guard  of  a  soldier. 

Frotited.  Formed  with  a  front ;  as, 
fronted  brigades. 

Frontier.  That  part  of  a  country  which 
fronts  or  faces  another  country ;  the  marches ; 
the  border,  confines,  or  extreme  part  of  a 
country,  bordering  on  another  country; 
hence,  a  fortified  or  guarded  position.  Also, 
lying  on  the  exterior  part ;  as,  a  frontier 
town.  Acquired  on  a  frontier;  as,  frontier 
exjierience. 

Frontiera.  A  town  of  Portugal,  in  the 
provinceof  Alemtejo,  lomiles  from  F^stremos. 
The  Spaniards  were  defeated  here  in  1(363  by 
the  Portuguese  under  Schomberg. 

Froschweiler.     See  Worth. 

Frumentarius.     A  Roman  soldier,  whose 


FUEL 


178 


FUNERAL 


duty  was  to  bring  supplies  of  provisions  to 
the  army,  and  the  earliest  notice  of  all  hostile 
movements.  They  were  also,  under  the 
Eoman  empire,  officers  who  acted  as  spies 
in  the  provinces,  and  reported  to  the  emperor 
whatever  seemed  worthy  of  note.  They 
appear  to  have  derived  this  appellation  from 
their  gathering  news  in  the  same  way  that 
the  Frumentarii  or  purveyors  collected  corn. 

Fuel.  The  matter  or  aliment  of  fire  ;  any- 
thing capable  of  ignition.  There  is  a  certain 
allowance  of  fuel  made  by  government  to 
regiments  and  companies.  Officers  in  the 
U.  S.  army,  at  the  present  time,  buy  their 
fuel ;  in  other  countries  it  is  furnished. 

Fuente-la-Higuera.  A  city  of  Spain,  in 
the  province  of  Valencia.  At  this  place 
Jourdan,  Soult,  and  Suchet,  after  the  rout 
of  Salamanca,  met  with  their  retreating 
forces,  and  held  a  council  how  best  to  get 
back  into  France,  when  Ballesteros,  by  re- 
fusing to  obey  Wellington's  order,  opened 
the  way  for  them  to  Madrid,  in  October, 
1812. 

Fuehterabia.  A  very  ancient  city  of 
Spain,  in  the  province  of  Guipuzcoa.  The 
Prince  of  Conde  was  repulsed  here  by  the 
admiral  of  Castile,  1638.  In  1794  the  French 
completely  dismantled  the  place. 

Fuentes  de  Onore.  A  small  town  of 
Spain,  16  miles  from  Ciudad  Rodrigo.  It 
was  the  scene  of  some  sharp  fighting  in  May, 
1811,  between  the  French  and  the  British. 

Fugitive.  One  who  flees  from  his  station 
or  duty ;  a  deserter ;  one  who  flees  from 
danger.  One  who  has  fled  or  deserted  and 
taken  refuge  under  another  power,  or  one 
who  has  fled  from  punishment. 

Fugleman  (an  incorrect  method  of  pro- 
nouncing Jiiigelmon).  A  well-drilled  intel- 
ligent soldier  advanced  in  front  of  the  line, 
to  give  the  time  in  the  manual  and  platoon 
exercises.  The  word  fugel  is  derived  from 
the  Germans,  and  signifies  a  wing  ;  the  man 
having  been  originally  posted  on  the  right 
wing. 

Fulcrum.  A  cast-iron  post  at  the  breech 
of  large  cannon  used  as  a  support  for  an  iron 
bar  in  giving  elevations  ;  called  also  ratchet 
post. 

Full  Charges.  The  charges  of  powder 
required  in  actual  service. 

Full  Pay.  The  full  amount  of  an  officer's 
regimental  pay.  When  an  officer  receives 
that  he  is  said  to  be  on  full  pay. 

Full  Pay,  Retired.  In  the  British  ser- 
vice, an  officer  of  30  years'  full  pay  is  per- 
mitted to  retire  on  the  full  pay  of  his  regi- 
mental rank,  with  a  rank  one  step  higher 
than  that  which  he  holds  by  brevet  or 
otherwise. 

Full  Sap.     See  Sap. 

Full  Uniform.     See  Dress  Uniform. 

Fulminate.  A  salt  of  fulminic  acid. 
Fulminate  of  mercury  is  the  most  useful. 
It  explodes  readily  by  percussion,  by  a  heat 
of  367°  Fahr.,  when  touched  with  strong 
sulphuric  or  nitric  acid,  by  sparks  from  flint 
and  steel  and  by  the  electric  spark.     It  is 


used  for  percussion-caps,  primers,  fuzes,  etc. 
From  its  peculiar  power  to  produce  detona- 
tions it  is  the  detonating  agent  for  modern 
blasting  powders,  containing  nitro-glycerine, 
also,  for  gun-cotton.  Detonating  caps,  or  ex- 
ploders,  are  copper  caps  containing  from  3  to 
25  grains  of  the  fulminate.  In  ordinary 
blasting,  where  the  tube  fuze  is  used,  the 
cap  is  placed  on  the  end  of  the  fuze  and 
crimped  around  it.  The  cap  is  then  buried 
a  short  distance  in  the  blasting  charge,  or 
cartridge.     See  Explosives. 

Fumigation.  To  correct  and  purify  an 
infectious  or  confined  atmosphere,  such  as  is 
often  found  in  transports,  fumigations  are 
necessary.  The  materials  recommended  for 
the  purpose  are  brimstone  with  saw-dust; 
or  nitre  with  vitriolic  acid  ;  or  common  salt 
with  the  same  acid. 

Fund.  There  are  several  kinds  of  funds 
in  the  U.  S.  service,  viz. :  post  fund,  which 
is  constituted  by  the  troops  baking  their  own 
bread  and  thereby  saving  33^  per  cent.,  the 
difference  between  bread  and  flour  ;  the  post 
trader  also  pays  an  assessment  of  10  cents  a 
month  for  every  officer  and  soldier  in  the 
garrison,  which  is  carried  to  the  credit  of 
the  fund.  This  fund  is  used  to  defray  ex- 
penses of  the  post  bakery,  garden,  school, 
library  and  reading-room,  chapel,  printing- 
press,  etc.  Fifty  per  cent,  of  the  post  fund, 
after  deducting  expenses  of  the  bakery,  is  set 
aside  and  transferred  to  the  regimental 
treasurer  ;  this  constitutes  a  regimental  fund, 
which  is  appropriated  exclusively  for  the 
maintenance  of  a  band,  and,  when  a  regi- 
ment does  not  have  access  to  a  post  library, 
for  the  purchase  of  books  and  papers.  The 
savings  arising  from  an  economical  use  of 
rations  of  the  company  (excepting  the  sav- 
ings of  flour)  constitute  the  company  fund, 
which  is  kept  in  the  hands  of  the  company 
commander,  and  disbursed  by  him  exclusively 
for  the  benefit  of  the  enlisted  nieti  of  the  com- 
pany, as  follows :  For  enlisted  men's  mess, 
for  garden  seeds  and  utensils,  for  purchase 
of  books,  papers,  etc.,  when  the  company 
does  not  have  access  to  a  post  library  or 
reading-room,  and  for  such  exercise  and 
amusements  as  may  be,  in  the  judgment  of 
the  commanding  officer,  for  the  benefit  or 
comfort  of  the  enlisted  men  of  the  company. 

Funeral  Honors.  If  an  officer  dies  when 
on  duty  with  his  regiment,  or  engaged  on 
staff  employ,  he  is  buried  with  military 
honors.  His  hat,  epaulettes,  and  sword  are 
placed  upon  the  coffin,  soldiers  support  it, 
and  officers  bear  the  pall ;  the  troops  march 
at  a  slow  and  solemn  pace,  with  arms  re- 
versed ;  the  drums  are  muffled  ;  the  band 
plays  the  dead  march  ;  and  after  the  body 
has  been  lowered  into  the  grave,  a  party  of 
infantry,  cavalry,  or  artillery,  fire  three  vol- 
leys over  it,  and  then  retire.  The  strength 
of  the  funeral  party,  as  it  is  called,  depends 
upon  the  rank  of 'the  deceased.  Artillery 
officers  are  sometimes  honored  by  discharges 
of  cannon.  When  a  cavalrj'  officer  is  buried 
his  horse  follows  the  cortege.     When  the  fu- 


FURL 


179 


FUSILS 


norul  of  un  officer  entitled,  when  living,  to  a 
salute,  takes  place  at  or  near  a  military  post, 
minute-guns  are  fired  while  the  remains  are 
hcing  borne  to  the  place  of  interment;  but 
the  number  of  such  guns  is  not  to  exceed 
that  which  the  officer  was  entitled  to  as  a 
salute  when  living.  After  the  remains  are 
deposited  in  the  grave,  a  salute  correspond- 
ing to  the  rank  of  the  deceased  officer  will 
be  fired, — three  salvos  of  artillery,  or  three 
volleys  of  musketry. 

In  the  event  of  a  flag-officer  of  the  navy, 
whether  of  the  United  States  or  of  a  foreign 
country,  dying  afloat,  and  the  remains  are 
brought  ashore,  minute-guns  are  fired  from 
the  ship  while  the  b<idy  is  being  conveyc^d 
to  the  shore.  If  it  be  in  the  vicinity  of  a 
military  post,  the  flag  of  the  latter  is  dis- 
played at  half-staft",  and  minute-guns  are  fired 
from  the  pest  while  the  procession  is  moving 
from  the  landing-place.  These  minute-guns 
are  not  to  exceed  in  number  that  which  the 
officer  was  entitled  to,  as  a  salute,  when 
living.  During  the  funeral  of  a  civil  func- 
tionary entitled,  when  living,  to  a  salute,  the 
flag  is  displayed  at  half-staff,  and  minute- 
guns  fired  as  before  ;  but  neither  salutes  nf)r 
salvos  are  fired  after  the  remains  are  de- 
posited in  the  grave.  On  the  death  of  an 
officer  at  a  military  post,  the  flag  is  displayed 
at  half-stafl',  and  kcfit  so,  between  the  hours 
of  reveille  and  retreat,  until  the  last  salvo 
or  volley  is  tired  over  the  grave,  or  if  the  re- 
mains are  not  interred  at  the  post,  until  they 
are  removed  therefrom.  Funeral  honors  are 
likewise  accorded  to  enlisted  men.  During 
the  funeral  of  an  enlisted  man,  the  flag  is 
displayed  at  half-staf^',  and  is  hoisted  to  the 
top  after  the  final  volley  or  gun  is  tired.  All 
military  posts  in  sight,  or  within  d  miles  of 
each  other,  display  their  flags  at  half-staff 
uru^n  the  occasion  of  either  one  doing  so. 
Tne  same  rule  is  observed  toward  a  vessel-of- 
war. 

On  all  occasions  where  the  flag  is  displayed 
at  half-staft",  it  is  lowrrrd  to  that  position 
from  the  top  of  the  staff.  It  is  afterwards 
hoisted  to  the  top  before  being  finally  low- 
ered. 

Furl,  To.  In  regard  to  military-  colors,  is 
opposed  to  their  exposure  ;  and  is  used  to 
express  the  act  of  folding  them  so  as  to  be 
cased. 

Furlough.  The  term  is  usually  applied 
to  the  absence  with  leave  of  non-commis- 
sioncd  officers  and  other  enlisted  men,  and 
may  be  granted  at  the  discretion  of  the  com- 
manding officer. 

Furlough.  To  furnish  with  a  furlough ; 
to  grant  leave  of  altsence. 

Furnace.  In  mining,  signities  a  hollow 
or  excavation  which  is  made  in  the  earth 
and  is  charged  with  gunpowder,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  blowing  up  a  rock,  wall,  or  anv  part 
of  a  fortification. 

Furnish.  To  provide;  to  equip;  as,  to 
ftirni>h  one  with  arms  for  defense. 

Furniture.  In  a  military  sense,  applies 
to  certain  articles  which  arc  allowed  in  bar- 


racks, to  which  are  added  household  utensils, 
etc.  Horse  furniture,  are  ornaments  and 
embellishments  which  are  adopted  by  mili- 
tary men  when  they  are  mounted  for  service 
or  parade,  consisting  chiefly  of  housings, 
saddle-cloth,  etc. 

Furruckabad.  A  fortified  town,  and  capi- 
tal of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  in  the 
province  of  Agra,  Hindustan,  about  a  mile 
from  the  Ganges.  Lord  Lake  defeated  Hol- 
kar  at  this  place  in  1H04. 

Fiirth.  A  town  of  Franconia,  situated  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Kezat  and  Pcgiiitz,  4 
miles  northwest  from  Nuremberg.  In  10.T2 
a  battle  was  fought  here  between  Gustavus 
Adoli)hus  and  \Vallenstein,  in  which  the 
latter  had  the  advantage. 

Fuse.     See  Fuzk. 

Fusil.  A  light  musket;  a  steel  which 
strikes  fire  out  of  a  flint;  a  tinder-box;  the 
piece  of  steel  which  covers  the  pan  of  a  fire- 
arm. 

Fusil  k.  Chevalets.  A  species  of  fusils 
upon  rests,  which  was  recommended  by  Mar- 
shal Vauban,  to  be  used  at  the  commence- 
ment of  a  siege,  about  50  or  100  toises  in 
front  of  the  glacis,  at  the  entrances  of  nar- 
row passages,  etc. 

Fusiliers.  In  the  British  service,  were 
formerly  soldiers  armed  with  a  lighter  fusil 
or  musket  than  the  rest  of  the  army  ;  but  at 
present  all  regiments  of  foot  carry  the  same 
rifle.  Fusilier  is  therefore  simply  a  histori- 
cal title  borne  by  a  few  regiments.  The  royal 
regiment  of  Scotch  Fusiliers  was  raised  in 
1078  ;  the  royal  regiment  of  Welsh  Fusiliers 
was  raised  in  KiSo,  and  another  royal  regi- 
ment of  Welsh  Fusiliers  was  raised  in  1688-89. 
It  is  always  presumed  that  these  corps  like 
the  guards  possess  an  esprit  de  corps,  which 
is  peculiar  to  themselves.  The  Fusilier  regi- 
ments never  had  any  ensigns,  their  junior 
officers  ranked  as  second  lieutenants,  taking 
precedence  of  all  ensigns,  and  the  7th  or 
Koyal  Fusiliers  have  no  second  lieutenants, 
so  that  their  junior  officers  rank  with  the 
rest  of  the  army  according  to  the  date  of 
their  several  commissions,  as  lieutenants. 
Fusilier  regiments  wear  a  bear-skin  head- 
dress. Among  the  French  when  pikes  were 
in  use,  each  regiment  had  only  4  fusiliers, 
exclusive  of  10  grenadiers,  who  carried  the 
fusil  or  musket.  Among  the  French  there 
was  a  distinct  regiment  of  fusiliers  under  the 
immediate  command  of  the  master  of  the 
ordnance. 

Fusillade.  A  simultaneous  discharge  of 
fire-arms  in  a  military  exercise;  as,  a  grand 
fusillade.  To  shoot  down  by  a  simultaneous 
discharge  of  fire-arms.  "  Fusillade  them 
all." 

Fusils  k  I'Eppe  (Fr.).  Fusils  with  long 
bayonets,  shaped  like  a  cut-and-thrust  sword. 
These  weapons  were  recommended  as  ex- 
tremely useful  in  the  rear  rank  of  a  battalion, 
or  in  detached  bodies  that  are  stationed  for 
the  defense  of  baggage,  etc. 

Fusils,  Mousquets  ( Fr. ).  A  sort  of  fusil 
which  was    invented   bv   Marshal  Vauban, 


FUSTUARIUM 


180 


FUZES 


and  wliich  was  so  contrived  that  in  case  the 
flint  did  not  strike  fii-e,  the  powder  might  be 
inflamed  by  means  of  a  small  match  which 
was  fixed  to  the  breech. 

Fustuarium.  In  Roman  antiquity,  a 
method  of  inflicting  capital  punishment 
upon  any  soldier  guilty  of  theft,  desertion, 
or  similar  crimes.  "When  the  accused  had 
been  found  guilty  he  was  made  to  stand  in 
front  of  the  legion  to  which  he  belonged. 
One  of  the  tribunes  then  touched  him  lightly 
with  a  stick,  and  all  the  soldiers  immediately 
rushed  upon  the  criminal  and  beat  him  to 
death  with  clubs  (fustes).  If  he  escaped — 
as  he  was  allowed  to  do  if  he  could,  but 
which  was  rarely  if  ever  possible — he  was 
forbidden  ever  to  return  to  his  native  coun- 
try, and  his  nearest  relatives  were  not  al- 
lowed to  receive  him  into  their  houses.  This 
method  of  capital  punishment  continued  to 
be  enforced  even  under  the  empire, 

Futtehghur.  A  town  of  Hindostan,  Brit- 
ish district  of  Furruckabad,  on  the  western 
bank  of  the  Ganges.  In  the  vicinity  is  the 
British  military  cantonment.  Holkar,  the 
Mahratta  chief,  appeared  before  the  place  in 
1804,  and  was  preparing  for  the  assault  of 
the  fort,  when  the  arrival  of  the  British 
army  under  Lord  Lake  drove  him  into  pre- 
cipitate flight. 

Fuyard  {Fr.).  A  runaway;  a  coward. 
Un  corps  fuyard,  a  regiment  that  has  been 
in  the  habit  of  running  away. 

Fuze.  In  gunnery,  is  a  contrivance  for 
igniting  the  bursting  charge  in  a  hollow 
projectile  at  any  point  of  its  flight.  The 
simplest  classification  of  fuzes  is  the  time 
fuze,  the  percussion  fuze,  and  the  concussion 
fuze,  which  are  usually  defined  as  follows : 

Fuze,  Concussion.  Is  a  fuze  that  is 
operated  by  the  shock  of  discharge,  or  the 
shock  of  impact,  excluding  direct  percussion 
effects.  It  is  especially  applicable  to  hollow 
spherical  projectiles.  The  usual  dift'erence 
between  the  concussion  and  percussion  fuze 
is,  that  the  former  explodes  no  matter  what 
point  of  the  projectile  strikes,  whereas  the 
latter  requires  the  projectile  to  strike  at  or 
near  the  front  end  ;  but  these  are  exceptions 
to  the  rule. 

Fuze,  Percussion.  As  shown  below,  is 
a  fuze  that  receives  no  flame  from  the  charge 
in  the  gun,  but  at  the  moment  of  impact  a 
flame  is  generated  by  means  of  fulminates, 
which  produces  the  explosion  of  the  charge 
in  the  shell.  Most  varieties  of  this  fuze 
consist  essentially  of  a  brass  or  pewter /wze- 
plug,  or  case  which  contains  an  iron  or  steel 
pluyiger  terminating  in  a  nipple  which  car- 
ries a  common  percussion-cap ;  the  pluyiger 
is  held  in  its  place  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
fuze-plug  by  a  collar-screw,  wire,  or  other 
device;  when  the  projectile  strikes  the 
plunger  breaks  loose,  and  by  its  inertia  is 
driven  forward  with  such  force  as  to  explode 
the  cap  and  ignite  the  charge.  This  form 
of  fuze  is  used  for  rifle-shells. 

Fuze,  Time.  This  fuze  is  composed  of  a 
case  of  paper,  wood,  or  metal,  inclosing  a 


column  of  burning  composition  ignited  by 
the  charge  in  the  gun  ;  it  burns  for  a  certain 
time,  at  the  end  of  which  the  flame  is  com- 
municated to  the  bursting  charge  of  the 
projectile.  This  fuze  is  used  for  both  shells 
and  case-shot. 

Fuze,  Blasting.  A  fuze  used  to  fire 
charges  in  mines  and  quarries.  It  consists 
usually  of  a  flexible  tube  filled  with  a  slow- 
burning  composition.  The  tube  is  made  of 
various  materials,  and  is  usually  waterproof. 
In  Beckford's  fuze  the  composition  is  en- 
cased in  flax,  which  is  covered  with  gutta- 
percha, and  wound  with  varnished  tape.  This 
fuze  is  used  extensively  in  England. 

Fuze-Composition.  See  Laboratory 
Stokes. 

Fuze,  Electric.  A  fuze  ignited  by  the 
passage  of  an  electric  current.  It  is  used 
for  firing  torpedoes,  for  the  simultaneous 
discharge  of  guns  and  charges  in  mining. 
The  principle  used  is  the  heating  of  the 
wire  by  the  current  at  a  point  of  resistance. 
The  point  of  resistance  is  called  the  bridge. 
Being  surrounded  by  a  priming  of  powder 
or  other  explosive,  its  sudden  heating  causes 
ignition  in  the  fuze.  The  bridge  is  made  in 
various  ways, — by  connecting  the  current 
wires  by  a  fine  platinum  wire;  by  passing 
the  current  through  a  chemical  mixture 
rendered  conducting  by  containing  a  salt  of 
copper ;  also  by  filing  the  main  wire  nearly 
in  two,  and  rubbing  the  cut  with  a  lead- 
pencil. 

Fuze-implements.  Are  the  fuze-cutter, 
fuze-setter,  fuze-mallet,  fuze-saw,  etc.  See 
Implements. 

Fuze,  Safety.  A  name  given  to  a  blast- 
ing fuze  filled  with  quick-burning  composi- 
tion, but  sufficiently  long  to  be  ignited  at  a 
safe  distance  from  the  charge. 

Fuze,  Tape.  So  called  from  its  shape. 
May  be  quick  or  slow  burning. 

Fuzes,  Combination.  Are  fuzes  com- 
bining the  principles  of  the  simple  fuzes. 
The  term  is  specially  applied  to  time-percus- 
sion fuzes,  which  are  so  arranged  as  to  burst 
either  at  the  end  of  a  certain  time  or  upon 
striking  the  object.  No  very  exact  classifi- 
cation of  fuzes  has  ever  been  made.  If  we 
consider  all  the  operations  necessary  to  the 
action  of  the  fuze,  only  certain  time  fuzes 
can  be  considered  simple.  Concussion  fuzes 
usually  depend  for  their  action  upon  some 
operation  which  takes  place  between  the 
discharge  and  the  time  of  impact,  which  be- 
stows a  character  of  sensitiveness  which 
would,  if  existing  at  the  time  of  loading, 
make  them  too  dangerous  to  handle.  Per- 
cussion fuzes,  also,  must  have  a  similar  sup- 
plementary operation,  but  this  usually  takes 
place  at  the  time  of  discharge,  or  upon  im- 
pact. It  is  by  this  means  that  the  safety- 
pin,  screw,  or  wire  holding  the  plunger 
is  removed  or  broken.  For  these  reasons 
these  fuzes  are  ordinarily  time-concussion  and 
concussion-percussion,  respectively.  A  fuze, 
however,  usually  takes  its  name  from  the  im- 
mediate cause  of  the  explosion.   If  this  is  due 


FUZES 


181 


FYROZ 


to  the  explosion  of  a  fulminate  by  a  direct 
blow,  it  is  a  percussion  fuze.  If  tlie  shock 
acts  in  a  different  way,  it  is  called  concussion. 
If  the  explosion  takes  place  at  the  end  of  a 
given  time,  we  have  a  time  fu/.e.  There  arc 
also  fuzes  which  may  be  called  centrtjugal- 
percussion,  eonciission-r/iemical,  concusxion- 
jr*7nc^ion, etc. ,examplesof  which  will  be  given. 
It  is  readily  seen  that  it  is  difficult  to  make 
a  classification  which  will  cover  all  the  in- 
genious devices  which  have  been  invpnted. 

The  simplest  time  fuze  is  one  which  is 
ignited  by  the  flame  of  discharge.  In  the 
U.  8.  field  and  siege  .service  the  paper  fuze 
is  used  for  rifle  projectiles,  both  shells  and 
case-shot,  and  in  the  field  service  the  Bor- 
mann  for  spherical.  For  larger  spherical  pro- 
jectiles, the  jiaper  case  is  inclosed  in  a  hollow 
plug  of  wood,  as  in  mortar-shells,  and  in  a 
brass  ))lug  in  the  sea-coast  service.  In  the 
latter  the  outer  end  of  the  plug  is  closed 
with  a  brass  cap  having  a  crooked  chaunie, 
to  prevent  the  burning  composition  from 
being  extinguished  in  striking  water.  In 
the  U.  S.  service  percussion  fuzes  are  used 
only  for  rifle-shells.  The  fuze  ordinarily 
employed  is,  strictly  speaking,  a  concussion- 
percussion,  since  the  safety  wire  must  be 
ruptured  by  the  shock  of  impact  before  the 
cap  can  be  exploded. 

The  time  fuze  already  described  can  be 
used  in  smooth-bore  guns  and  in  muzzle- 
loading  rifles  ;  but  in  breech-loading  guns 
or  guns  without  windage,  the  fuze  composi- 
tion cannot  be  ignited  directly  by  the  flame 
of  discharge, — one  of  the  strongest  argu- 
ments in  favor  of  muzzle-loaders.  The 
time  fuze  for  breech-loading  guns  is  ignited 
by  an  interior  contrivance,  usually  a  plunger 
and  cap;  it  is,  consequently,  a  pn-cussion- 
iime  fuze.  Such  is  the  nature  of  the  Arm- 
ftrong  time  fuze  and  the  time  fuzes  used  in 
Germany  and  Russia.  Time  fuzes  are  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  the  successful  use  of 
case-shot  or  shrapnel,  which  must  be  burst 
in  the  air.  The  latest  invention  in  time 
fuzes  is  the  substitution  of  clock-work  for 
the  column  of  burning  composition  as  a 
time-keeper, — a  Yankee  idea  which  has  not 
yet  received  any  official  recognition,  or  been 
eubjectcd  to  public  test. 

The  Hoxer  fuze,  used  extensively  in  Eng- 
land, is  a  time  fuze  consisting  of  a  column 
of  composition  driven  in  a  wooden  plug, 
which  is  closed  at  the  lower  end.  In  some 
forms  of  the  fuze  small  longitudinal  chan- 
nels filled  with  rifle-powder  communicate 
with  the  bursting  charge.  The  time-scale 
is  a  row  of  holes  in  the  side  of  the  plug, 
one  of  which  is  bored  through  to  the  com- 
position in  setting  the  fuze.  The  flame 
communicates  with  the  charge  either 
through  the  side  hole  directly,  or  by  the 
side  channels  downwards  through  the  end  of 
the  plug.  Two  kinds  of  fuzes  are  used, — 
the  simple  time  fuze  for  muzzle-loaders, 
and  ihc  percussion-titne  for  breech-loaders. 

The  Splingard  fuze,  invented  by  Captain 
Splingard,  of  the  Belgian  service,  is  a  good 


I  example  of  a  time-concussion  fuze.     It  con- 
I  sists  of  a  column  of  pure    composition  sur- 
I  rounding   a   hollow    spindle    of    f)laster   of 
Paris.     The  compositi<m   is    ignited  by  the 
I  flame  of  discharge,  and  burns  away,  leaving 
the  spindle  unsupported.     "When   the  pro- 
jectile strikes,  the  jiart  of  the  spindle  above 
the   unburnecl  composition   breaks  ofi",  and 
the  flame  fires  the  bursting  charge  through 
the  hole  in  the  stump.     If  the  spindle  fails 
to  break,  the  charge  is  fired  when  the  entire 
column  has  been  consumed.     This  fuze  is 
sjiecially  applicable  to  spherical  projectiles. 

The  concussion  fuze  formerly  used  in 
Prussia  was  a  time-concussion-rhemical  fuze. 
The  burning  of  a  column  of  composition 
left  a  glass  tube  containing  sulj)huric  acid 
to  be  broken,  by  a  lead  ball,  by  the  shock  of 
impact.  The  acid  coming  in  contact  with 
a  mixture  of  chlorate  potash,  sulphur,  and 
white  sugar,  produced  a  flame  which  tired 
the  bursting  charge. 

The  Beebe  concussionfuze  for  spherical  pro- 
jectiles, invented  by  Captain  Beebe,  U.  S. 
Ordnance  Corps,  was  a  concussion-friction 
fuze.  A  contrivance  equivalent  to  a  friction- 
primer  buried  in  the  bursting-charge,  and 
ofl'ering  great  resistance  to  motion  in  the 
powder,  was  fired  by  the  sudden  movement 
of  an  attached  weight  upon  impact.  The 
shock  of  discharge  also  played  a  part  in 
detaching  the  fuze  from  the  fuze-plug. 

The  Oermati  percussion  fuze,  now  com- 
monly used  in  Krupp  guns,  may  be  called 
centrifugal-percussion.  The  safety-pin  passes 
through  a  hole  from  the  outside  of  the  shell. 
This  pin  is  thrown  out  by  the  rotation  of 
the  shot,  leaving  but  slight  resistances  to 
the  motion  of  the  plunger. 

In  the  English  cap-percttssion  fuze  the 
corresponding  safety-pin  is  pulled  out  by  a 
tape  by  hand  just  before  loading. 

The  Pettman  general  service  fuze,  used  in 
England,  is  a  percussion  fuze  of  unusual 
form,  equally  applicable  to  spherical  or  ob- 
long projectiles.  It  consists,  essentially,  of 
a  hollow  screw-plug  containing  a  ball  cov- 
ered with  detonating  composition,  which  is 
freed  from  its  bearings  by  the  shock  of  dis- 
charge, and  exjilodes  the  shell  upon  impact 
by  striking  the  walls  surrounding  it.  The 
detonating  ball  sometimes  fails  in  breech- 
loading  guns,  the  motion  of  the  projectiles 
being  too  steady  to  shake  it  out  of  its  seat. 
For  this  reason  a  plain  ball,  as  it  is  called, 
is  placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  fuze,  and 
held  between  two  disks.  These  separate 
upon  discharge,  and  the  ball  is  thrown  out- 
wards by  the  rotation  opjiosito  an  annular 
groove  in  the  lower  plug  or  disk  filled  with 
fulminate,  which  is  exploded  upon  impact, 
the  lower  plug  being  driven  against  the  ball 
by  its  inertia.  This  fuze  is,  properly,  a 
concussion-percussion  fuze. 

Fyroz,  or  Feroze  (written  also  Feroae, 
Firoz.  Firouz,  /■Vj/joj/i,  and  Firuz).     A  Per- 


word    signifying 


and 


forming  the  name  of  several  ruling  kings 
in  Persia  and  llindoslan. 


GABION 


182 


GALATONE 


G. 


Gabion.  A  kind  of  basket  made  of  osier 
twigs,  of  a  cylindrical  form,  having  different 
dimensions,  according  to  the  purpose  for 
which  it  is  used.  Filled  with  earth,  these 
gabions  serve  in  sieges  to  carry  on  the  ap- 
proaches under  cover,  when  the  assailants 
come  near  the  fortification.  Batteries  are 
often  made  of  gabions,  which  likewise  serve 
for  revetments  in  constructing  parapets  of 
loose  earth. 

Gabionage.  Gabions  when  used  for  for- 
tification. 

Gabionnade.  A  work  hastily  thrown  up  ; 
especially,  one  formed  chiefly  of  gabions. 
A  'parapet  en  gabionnade  is  a  parapet  con- 
structed of  gabions. 

Gabions,  Corrugated  Iron.  Are  gabions 
made  of  corrugated  iron.  For  this  purpose, 
the  corrugated  sheet  should  be  6  feet  long, 
33  inches  wide,  and  of  iron  weighing  three- 
quarters  of  a  pound  to  the  square  foot. 

The  corrugations  running  transversely, 
the  sheet  is  easily  bent  into  a  cylindrical 
form,  in  which  it  is  retained  by  two  clamps, 
the  holes  for  which  are  punched  near  the 
corners  of  the  sheet.  The  chief  advantage 
claimed  for  the  corrugated  over  the  hoop 
gabion  is,  the  readiness  with  which  it  can 
be  put  together  in  the  field.  It  is  also 
rather  more  portable,  and  stakes  are  dis- 
pensed with  ;  but  it  is  inferior  to  the  hoop 
gabion  in  stiifness. 

Gad.  The  point  of  a  spear,  or  an  arrow- 
head ;  a  steel  spike  on  the  knuckle  of  a 
gauntlet. 

Gadaru  {Fr.).  A  very  broad  Turkish 
sabre. 

Gadling.  A  spike  or  sharp-pointed  boss 
on  the  knuckle  of  a  gauntlet ;  a  gad. 

Gaeta.  A  strongly  fortified  maritime 
town  of  the  Neapolitan  proA'ince  of  Terra 
di  Lavoro,  40  miles  northwest  from  Naples. 
It  is  one  of  the  strongest  places  in  the  king- 
dom, and  its  harbor  is  the  same  as  it  was  in 
the  time  of  the  Eomans.  In  1799  and  in 
1806  it  was  taken  by  the  French,  and  in 
1849  Pope  Pius  IX.  sought  an  asylum  here. 
When  Garibaldi  took  possession  of  Naples 
for  Victor  Emmanuel  in  September,  1860, 
Francis  II.,  the  last  Bourbon  king  of  Na- 
ples, took  refuge  in  Gaeta,  and  remained 
until  the  town  was  taken  by  Gen.  Cialdini, 
in  February,  1861,  after  a  siege  of  several 
weeks'  duration. 

Gaetulia.  An  ancient  country  of  Africa, 
situated  south  of  Mauritania  and  Numidia, 
and  embracing  the  western  part  of  the  desert 
of  Sahara.  Its  inhabitants  belonged  to  the 
great  aboriginal  Berber  family  of  North  and 
Northwestern  Africa.     They  were  a  savage 


and  warlike  race,  and  their  first  collision 
with  the  Romans  was  during  the  Jugurthine 
war,  when  they  served  as  light  horse  in  the 
army  of  the  Numidian  king.  Cornelius 
Cossus  Lentulus  led  a  force  against  them, 
and  for  his  success  obtained  a  triumph  and 
the  surname  of  Gcetidicus.  The  ancient 
Gsetulians  are  believed  to  be  represented  in 
modern  times  by  the  Tuaricks. 

Gaffles.  The  steel  lever  with  which  the 
ancients  bent  their  cross-bows. 

Gage.  A  challenge  to  combat ;  that  is,  a 
gauntlet,  glove,  cap,  or  the  like,  cast  on  the 
ground  by  the  challenger,  and  taken  up  by 
the  acceptor  of  the  challenge. 

Gages  (i'>.).  Wages.  Among  the  French 
this  term  signified  the  fruits  or  compensa- 
tions which  were  derived  by  individuals 
from  appointments  given  by  the  crown, 
whether  of  a  military,  civil,  or  judicial  na- 
ture, or  for  service  done  at  sea  or  by  land. 

Gain.  To  conquer  ;  to  get  the  better  ;  as, 
we  gained  the  day,  etc.  To  gain  ground,  im- 
plies to  take  up  the  ground  which  a  retiring 
enemy  vacates. 

Gaine  de  Flamme  {Fr.).  A  sort  of  linen 
sheath  or  cover,  into  which  the  stafl"  of  a 
flag  or  pendant  is  put. 

Gaine  de  Pavilion  {Fr.).  A  cloth  or 
linen  band,  which  is  sewed  across  the  flag, 
and  through  which  the  diflerent  ribbons  are 
interlaced. 

Gaines's  Mill.  In  Hanover  Co.,  Va., 
about  20  miles  northeast  of  Eichmond. 
Here,  on  June  27,  1862,  was  fought  one  of 
the  "  seven  days' contests"  between  the  Con- 
federate forces  under  Gen.  Lee  and  the 
Federals  under  Gen.  McClellan,  in  which 
the  latter  were  victorious. 

Gain-pain.  Bread-gainer;  a  term  applied 
in  the  Middle  Ages  to  the  sword  of  a  hired 
soldier. 

Gaiters.  A  sort  of  cover  for  the  leg,  usu- 
ally made  of  cloth,  and  are  either  long,  as 
reaching  to  the  knee,  or  short,  as  only  reach- 
ing just  above  the  ankle;  the  latter  are 
termed  half-gaiters,  and  are  worn  by  infantry 
soldiers  in  Europe. 

Galatia.  An  ancient  province  of  Asia 
Minor;  in  the  3d  century  B.C.,  the  Gauls 
under  Brennus  invaded  Greece,  crossed  the 
Hellespont,  and  conquered  Troas,  278 ;  were 
checked  by  Attains  in  a  battle  about  239  ; 
and  then  settled  in  what  was  called  after- 
wards Gallogrsecia  and  Galatia.  The  country 
was  ravaged  by  Cn.  Manlius,  189  B.C.,  and 
was  finally  annexed  to  the  Roman  empire, 
25  B.C. 

Galatone.  A  very  ancient  town  in  the 
south  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Otranto, 


GALEA 


183 


GAMBESON 


about  9  miles  northeast  of  Gallipoli.  In  the 
struggle  between  Joanna,  queen  of  Naj)les, 
and  Alfonso,  Galatone  having  declared  for 
the  former,  was  besieged  by  Alfonso,  and  its 
ramparts  destroyed. 

Galea.  Among  the  Romans,  a  light 
casque,  head-piece,  or  morion,  coming  down 
to  the  shoulders,  and  commonly  of  brass; 
though  Camillus,  according  to  Plutarch, 
ordered  those  of  his  army  to  be  of  iron,  as 
being  the  stronger  metal. 

Galeated.     Covered,  as  with  a  helmet. 

Galet  {Fr.).  A  round  stone  thrown  from 
a  sling  or  bow. 

Gaiicia.  A  province  of  Northwest  Spain, 
was  coniiuerecl  by  D.  Junius  Brutus,  13G 
B.C.,  and  by  the  Vandals,  41'J,  and  was  sub- 
dued by  successive  invaders. 

Gaiicia.  A  kingdom  or  province  of  the 
Austrian  empire,  which  formerly  constituted 
a  part  of  Poland.  East  Gaiicia  was  acquired 
by  the  emper(jr  of  Germany  at  the  partition 
in  1772;  and  West  Gaiicia  at  that  of  17'J5. 
The  latter  was  ceded  to  the  grand  duchy  of 
"Warsaw  in  1809;  but  recovered  by  Austria 
in  1815. 

Gall.  To  injure;  to  harass;  to  annoy  ; 
as,  the  troops  were  galled  by  the  shot  of  an 
enemy. 

Gallant.  Noble  in  bearing  or  spirit; 
brave;  high-spirited;  courageous;  heroic; 
magnanimous;  as,  a  gallant  youth;  a  gallant 
officer. 

Gallantly.  In  a  gallant  manner,  spirit  or 
bearing  ;  nobly  ;  bravely  ;  as,  to  fight  gal- 
lantly ;  to  defend  a  jilace  gallantly. 

Gallantry.  Bravery  ;  courageousness  ; 
heroism  ;  intrepidity  ;  as,  the  troops  attacked 
the  fort  with  great  gallantry. 

Gallas.  A  warlike  race  occupjMng  the 
south  and  east  of  Abyssinia.  They  first 
appear  in  history  in  the  Itjth  century,  when 
they  extended  their  conquests  from  the 
interior  of  Africa,  laying  waste  by  constant 
incursions  the  countries  of  Eastern  Africa  to 
the  mountains  of  Abyssinia.  Politically 
they  do  not  form  a  single  nation,  but  are 
divided  into  numerous  tribes,  forming  sepa- 
rate kingdoms  and  states,  which  are  fre- 
quently at  war  with  each  other. 

Gallery.  An  underground  passage, 
whether  cut  in  the  soil  or  built  in  masonry  ; 
it  forms  the  communication  between  the 
inner  and  exterior  works  of  a  fortified  place. 
"When  prepared  for  defense,  it  is  a  defensive 
gallery.  In  military  mines,  galleries  are 
the  underground  passages  leading  to  and 
connecting  the  mine  chambers.  Scarp  and 
counter. Hcarp  galleries  are  covered  passages 
built  in  the  scarp  and  counterscarp  to  give  a 
flanking  fire  in  tlie  ditch. 

Gallery  Descent  of  a  Ditch.  Is  the  term 
applied  when  the  besiegers  cross  the  ditch  by 
an  underground  jiassage. 

Gallet "( Fr. ).     6ce  J  alkt. 

Galling  Fire.  A  sustained  discharge  of 
cannon  or  small-arms,  which  by  its  execution 
greatly  annoys  the  enemy. 

Gallipoli.     An  important  town  and  sea- 


port of  Turkey  in  Europe,  in  the  province  of 
Kumili,  is  situated  on  the  i)eninsula  of  the 
same  name  at  the  northeast  extremity  of  the 
Dardanelles,  and  about  130  miles  west-south- 
west of  Constantinople.  It  was  once  fortified, 
but  its  only  defense  now  is  a  sorry  square 
castle  with  an  old  tower.  In  1357  the  town 
was  taken  by  the  Turks,  and  formed  the 
earliest  Turkish  possessions  in  Europe.  In 
1854  the  allied  armies  of  England  and  France 
occupied  it. 

Gallipoli.    An  important  commercial  sea- 

?ort  of  Italy,  in  the  Neapolitan  province  of 
'erra  di  Otranto.  It  has  a  good  harbor, 
and  in  time  of  war  is  an  important  position, 
being  strongly  protected  by  fortifications  and 
a  castle.  In  450  the  town  was  sacked  by 
the  Vandals  ;  in  1284  it  was  destroyed  and 
almost  depopulated  by  Charles  ofAnjou; 
and  during  subsequent  centuries  sufiered 
severely  from  the  Venetians,  French,  Span- 
iards, and  Turks.  In  1809  it  repulsed  an 
attack  from  the  English  fiotilla. 

Gallop.  A  mode  of  running  by  a  quad- 
rujied,  jiarticularly  by  a  horse,  by  lifting 
alternately  the  fore  feet  and  the  hind  feet 
together,  in  successive  leaps  or  bounds.  A 
word  of  command  in  the  cavalry  service. 

Galloper.  A  carriage  on  which  very  small 
guns  are  conveyed,  having  shafts  on  which 
the  gun  may  be  conveyed  without  a  limber. 
This  carriage  is  no  longer  used. 

Gallowglass.  In  ancient  times,  a  heavy- 
armed  foot-soldier  of  Ireland  and  the  West- 
ern Isles. 

Galway.  A  seaport  town  of  Ireland, 
and  capital  of  Galway  County.  It  was 
originally  surrounded  with  walls.  It  was 
conquered  by  Richard  de  Burgo  in  1232; 
in  lt»90  the  city  declared  for  King  James, 
but  was  taken  by  Gen.  Ginckel  immedi- 
ately after  the  battle  of  Aughrim,  July 
12,  1C)91. 

Gamala.  A  town  and  strong  fortress  in 
Palestine,  frequently  mentioned  by  Jo- 
sephus.  Its  site,  though  so  remarkable  and 
minutely  described,  had  been  forgotten  for 
nearly  18  centuries  ;  but  it  has  latterly  been 
identified  with  El-Ho.fsn,  which  lies  to  the 
east  of  the  Sea  of  Tiberias,  nearly  opposite 
the  town.  In  the  Jewish  rebellion  it  re- 
volted against  Agrippa,  whe  besieged  it  for 
seven  months,  but  without  success.  It  was 
afterwards,  however,  taken  by  Vespasian 
after  a  spirited  resistance,  and  an  indis- 
criminate slaughter  of  the  inhabitants  took 
{ilace,  4000  being  put  to  the  sword,  and  5000 
leing  said  to  have  thrown  themselves  from 
the  walls,  and  to  have  been  dashed  to  pieces 
on  the  rocks  below. 

Gambado.  A  case  of  leather,  formerly 
used  to  defend  the  leg  from  mud,  and  in 
riding  on  horseback. 

Gambeson  (/>.).  A  term  which  the 
French  formerly  applied  to  a  coat  of  mail 
that  was  worn  under  the  cuirass.  It  wjis 
likewise  called  coitr  patnhoi.iie.  It  was  made 
of  two  strong  cloths  interwoven  with  pointed 
worsted. 


GAMELLE 


184 


GARDES 


Gamelle  (Fr.).  A  wooden  or  earthen 
bowl  formerly  used  among  the  French  sol- 
diers for  their  messes.  It  generally  con- 
tained the  quantity  of  food  which  was 
allotted  for  3,  5,  or  7  men  belonging  to  the 
same  room.  The  porridge-pots  of  the  navy 
were  made  of  wood,  and  held  a  certain  al- 
lowance. During  the  monarchy  of  France, 
subaltern  officers  and  volunteers  were  fre- 
quently punished  for  slight  offenses  by  being 
sent  to  the  gnmelle,  and  excluded  from  their 
regular  mess ;  they  were  put  upon  short 
allowance  according  to  the  nature  of  their 
transgression. 

Gantlope  {Fr.).  Corruptly  5rff?^M/^e^,  from 
the  French  gant,  a  glove.  A  military  pun- 
ishment, which  consisted  in  passing  along 
the  whole  line,  and  receiving  a  blow  from 
every  man's  iron  glove  or  gauntlet  {gantelet). 
Whips  and  canes  were  subsequently  used ; 
this  mode  of  punishment  is  now  obsolete. 

Gaol.  A  withe  used  for  binding  fascines 
or  securing  gabions. 

Gap.  An  opening  for  a  passage  or  en- 
trance; an  opening  which  implies  a  breach. 
To  stand  hi  the  gap,  to  expose  one's  self  for 
the  protection  of  something  ;  to  make  defense 
against  any  assailing  danger.  To  atop  a 
gap,  to  secure  a  weak  point ;  to  repair  a 
defect. 

Gap.  A  small  town  of  France,  capital  of 
the  department  Hautes  Alps.  It  was  sacked 
and  almost  wholly  reduced  to  ashes  by  Vic- 
tor Amadeus  of  Savoy  in  1692. 

Gar.  The  general  term  used  by  the  Saxons 
for  a  weapon  of  war. 

Garamantes.  A  Libyan  people  of  the  old 
race  called  Amnzergh,  who  in  ancient  times 
inhabited  the  largest  oasis  of  the  desert  of 
Sahara.  When  the  Romans  became  masters 
of  North  Africa,  they  found  it  necessary  to 
repress  the  barbarian  tribes,  and  accordingly 
Cornelius  Balbus  Gaditanus  the  younger, 
as  pro-consul,  was  sent  against  this  people. 
He  succeeded  in  defeating  them,  and  obtained 
the  honors  of  a  triumph;  but,  owing  to 
their  nomadic  character,  he  was  unable 
thoroughly  to  subdue  them. 

Gar9on-Major  (Fr.).  An  officer,  so 
called  in  the  old  French  service.  He  was 
selected  from  among  the  lieutenants  of  a 
regiment  to  assist  the  aid-majors  in  the  gen- 
eral details  of  duty. 

Garda,  Lake  of.  A  lake  of  Northern 
Italy,  lying  between  the  provinces  of  Lom- 
bardy  and  "Venice.  In  1796  the  battle  of 
Rivoli  was  fought  near  its  eastern  shore,  in 
which  Bonaparte  defeated  Wurmser. 

Gardant.  In  heraldry,  is  said  of  an  ani- 
mal which  is  represented  full-faced,  and 
looking  forward. 

Garde  (Fr.).  Guard.  Garde  de  I'armee, 
the  grand  guard  of  an  army.  Guards  in  the 
old  French  service  were  usually  divided  into 
three  sorts  :  guards  of  honor,  fatigue  guard, 
and  the  general's  guard.  That  was  called  a 
guard  of  honor  in  which  the  officers  and  men 
were  exposed  to  danger.  A  fatigue  guard 
belonging  to  a  garrison  or  camp.     A  gen- 


eral's guard  was  mounted  before  the  door  or        !' 
gate  of  a  house  in  which  the  commanding 
officer  resided. 

Garde-General  d'Artillerie  {Fr.).  An 
officer  was  so  called  under  the  old  govern- 
ment of  France,  who  had  charge  of  all  the 
ordnance  and  stores  belonging  to  his  majesty 
for  the  land  service.  He  gave  receipts  for 
all  ammunition,  etc.,  and  his  bills  were  paid 
by  the  treasurer-general  of  the  army. 

Garde,  Imperiale  [Fr.].  See  Guards, 
Imperial. 

Garde,  Nationale  {Fr.).  See  National 
Guards. 

Garde  Pluie  {Fr.\.  Literally  means  a 
fence,  or  cover  against  rain.  This  machine 
was  originally  invented  by  a  Frenchman, 
and  submitted  to  the  Prussians,  who  adopted 
it  for  the  use  of  their  infantry.  Under  the 
cover  of  them,  the  besieged,  or  the  troops 
stationed  in  the  posts  attacked,  would  be 
able  to  keep  up  a  brisk  and  effective  dis- 
charge of  musketry  during  the  heaviest  fall 
of  rain,  and  thereby  silence  or  considerably 
damp  the  fire  of  the  enemy. 

Gardelegen.  A  small  town  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  situated  about  30  miles  north-north- 
west of  Magdeburg,  on  the  Milde.  It  was 
destroyed  by  Duke  Dervan  in  633,  and  re- 
built about  924.  It  remained  a  free  town 
until  1478. 

Gardens.  In  ancient  military  history, 
places  of  resort  to  practice  military  exercises. 

Gardes  Blancs  {Fr.).  Were  Roman  mil- 
itia, composed  of  picked  men. 

Gardes  Costes,  or  C61es  {Capitaineries), 
Fr.  The  maritime  divisions,  into  which 
France  was  formerly  divided,  were  so  called.  \  i 
Each  division  was  under  the  immediate  su- 
perintendence of  a  captain,  named  capitaine 
gardes-costes,  who  was  assisted  by  a  lieuten- 
ant and  an  ensign.  Their  duty  was  to  watch 
the  coast,  and  to  attend  minutely  to  every- 
thing that  might  affect  the  safety  of  the  di- 
vision they  had  in  charge. 

Gardes  de  la  Porte  (Fr.).  A  company 
so  called  during  the  monarchy  of  France, 
and  of  so  ancient  a  date,  indeed,  with  respect 
to  original  institution,  that  it  appears  to 
have  been  coeval  with  it.  Mention  is  made 
of  the  gardes  de  la  porte  in  the  oldest  ar- 
chives or  records  belonging  to  the  king's 
household,  in  which  service  they  were  em- 
ployed, without  being  responsible  to  any 
particular  treasurer  as  other  companies  were. 
This  company  consisted  of  1  captain,  4 
lieutenants,  and  50  guards.  The  captain  and 
officers  received  their  commissions  from  the 
king.  The  first  took  an  oath  of  fidelity  to 
the  king  in  person,  and  received  the  baton 
from  his  hands.  The  duty  he  did  was  purely 
discretionary,  and  depended  on  his  own  will. 
The  lieutenants  served  by  detachment,  and 
took  their  tour  of  duty  every  quarter.  Their 
specific  service  consisted  in  guarding  the 
principal  gate  belonging  to  the  king's  apart- 
ments. They  were  relieved  at  night  by  the 
body-guards,  and  delivered  the  keys  to  a 
brigadier  belonging  to  the  Scotch  garrison. 


GARDES 


185 


GARTER 


Gardes  du  Corps  (Fr.).  The  body-guards. 
Under  the  old  French  government,  they 
consisted  of  a  certain  number  of  gentlemen 
or  cavaliers  whose  immediate  duty  was  to 
attend  the  king's  person.  They  were  divided 
into  four  companies,  under  as  many  cap- 
tains, whose  tour  of  duty  came  every  quar- 
ter. They  took  rank  above  the  f)ens  d'armes 
and  the  king's  light  cavalry.  The  first  and 
most  ancient  of  the  four  companies  was 
called  the  Scotch  company,  which  was  es- 
tablished by  Charles  VII.  of  France  in  1423. 

Gardes  Fran^aises  (Fr.).  The  French 
guards.  In  15fj3  Charles  IX.,  king  of  France, 
raised  a  regiment  for  the  immediate  protec- 
tion of  the  palace.  The  colonel  of  the  gardes 
Fran(;aise  was  on  duty  throughout  the  year, 
and  was  entitled  to  the  baton  de  commande- 
ment  in  common  with  the  four  captains  of 
the  body-guards.  I'eculiar  privileges  were 
attached  to  every  officer  belonging  to  this 
body.  No  stranger,  not  even  a  native  of 
Strasburg,  Savoy,  Alsace,  or  Piedmont, 
could  hold  a  commission  in  the  French 
guards.  In  the  revolution  of  1789  they 
took  a  very  active  and  leading  part. 

Gardes-magazins  (Fr.).  In  the  old 
French  service  there  were  two  sorts  of  mag- 
azine guards, — one  for  the  military  stores 
and  the  other  for  the  artillery.  The  first 
was  subject  to  the  grand  nuister,  and  the 
second  was  appointed  by  the  secretary  at 
war.  Gardes  particuliers  des  niagazins  (Var- 
tUlei-ie,  officers  appointed  by  the  grand  mas- 
ter of  ordnance  for  the  specific  purpose  of 
attending  to  the  ammunition,  etc.  Their 
pay  was  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of 
stores  with  wiiich  they  were  intrusted. 

Gardes  Suisses  (Fr.).  A  celebrated 
Swiss  corps  in  tlie  French  army,  constituted 
"Gardes"  by  royal  decree  in  1()16.  They 
comprised  upwards  of  2000  men,  were  al- 
ways unswerving  in  their  fidelity  to  the 
Bourbon  kings,  and  are  chiefly  remarkable 
for  their  heroic  end.  On  August  10,  1792, 
thev  withstood  the  Parisian  revolutionary 
mob,  and  defended  the  palace  of  the  Louvre 
till  almost  every  man  was  cut  down.  Dur- 
ing the  resistance  they  otiercd,  the  royal 
family  was  enabled  to  escape  to  such  shelter 
as  the  National  Assembly  aflordod.  Oardes 
Suisses  du  corps  du  Roi,  one  hundred  Swiss 
guards  who  were  immediately  attached  to 
the  king's  person.  They  were  a  select  body 
of  men  who  took  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  the 
king,  and  were  formed  into  a  regular  troop. 
But  in  the  last  period  of  the  nu)narchy  of 
France,  the  principal  duties  of  the  one  hun- 
dred Swiss  guards  consisted  in  domestic  and 
menial  attendance. 

Garigliano.  A  river  in  Southwestern 
Italy.  After  long  waiting  and  refusing  to 
recede  a  step,  the  great  captain  Gonsalvo  de 
Cordova  made  a  bridge  over  this  river  De- 
cember 27,  1503,  and  surprised  and  totally 
defeated  the  French  army.  Gacta  surren- 
dered a  few  days  after. 

Garland.  A  sort  of  chaplet  made  of 
flowers,  feathers,  and  sometimes  of  precious 
13 


stones,  worn  on  the  head  in  the  manner  of 
a  crown.  Both  in  ancient  and  modern  times 
it  has  been  custonuiry  to  present  garlands  of 
ficjwers  to  warriors  who  liave  distinguished 
themselves.  A  beautiful  young  woman  was 
generally  selected  (or  that  purpose. 

Garlasco.  A  market-town  of  Northern 
Italy,  24  miles  from  Novara.  The  Aus- 
triniis,  when  they  invaded  Italy  in  1849, 
crossed  the  Po  near  this  place. 

Garnished.  In  heraldry,  any  charge  is 
said  to  be  garnished  with  the  ornaments  set 
on  it. 

Garnish-nails.  Diamond-headed  nails, 
formerly  used  to  ornament  artillery  car- 
riages. 

Garret.  A  turret  or  battlement.  Now 
obsolete. 

Garreted.  Protected  by  turrets.  Now 
obsolete. 

Garrison.  A  body  of  troops  stationed  in 
a  ft>rt  or  fortified  town  to  defend  it  against 
an  enemy,  or  to  keep  its  inhabitants  in  sub- 
jection. A  strong  place,  in  which  troops  are 
quartered  for  its  security.  In  garrison,  in 
the  condition  of  a  garrison;  doing  duty  in 
a  fort  or  as  one  of  a  garrison.  Garrison 
town,  is  a  strong  place,  in  which  troops  are 
quartered  and  do  duty  for  the  security 
thereof,  keeping  strong  guards  at  each  post, 
and  a  main-guard  in  or  near  the  market- 
place. As  a  verb  it  means  to  place  troops 
in,  as  in  a  fortress,  for  its  defense  ;  to  furnish 
with  soldiers ;  as,  to  garrison  a  fort  or  town. 
To  secure  or  defend  by  fortresses  manned 
with  troops ;  as,  to  garrison  a  conquered 
territory. 

Garrison  Court-martial.  Is  a  legal  tri- 
bunal for  the  exaiiiinatinii  and  punishment 
of  otl'dulcrs  against  martial  law,  or  against 
good  order  and  military  discipline.  It  is 
composed  of  three  members  and  a  judge-ad- 
vocate.    See  Court-martial,  and  Trial  ; 

also  .lUDGK-AUVOCATE. 

Garrison  Gin.  The  largest  size  gin.  See 
Gin. 

Garrison  Guns.  Guns  used  in  fortifica- 
tions.    Fortress  guns. 

Garrison  des  Janissaries  {Fr.).  The 
elite  or  fiuwer  of  the  Janis'iaries  of  Constan- 
tinople was  frequently  sent  into  garrison  on 
the  frontiers  of  Turkey,  or  to  places  where 
the  loyalty  of  the  inhabitants  was  doubted. 
The  Jani-ssaries  did  not  indeed  assist  in  the 
immediate  defense  of  a  besieged  town  or 
fortress,  but  they  watched  the  motions  of  all 
suspected  persons,  and  were  subject  to  the 
orders  of  their  officers,  who  usually  com- 
manded the  garrison. 

Garter,  Order  of  the.  One  of  the  most 
ancient  and  illustrious  of  the  military  orders 
of  knighthood.  It  was  instituted  by  Ed- 
ward III.  of  England,  and  dates  from  about 
the  year  1350,  though  some  writers  say 
1344.  Its  origin  is  variously  related.  In 
Kastel's  "Chronicles"  it  is  stated  that  this 
order  was  devised  by  Richard  I.  at  the  siege 
of  Acre,  when  he  is  said  to  have  caused  26 
knights  to  wear  thongs  of  blue  leather  about 


GAKTER 


186 


GATH 


their  legs.  But  the  common  account  is,  that 
the  Countess  of  Salisbury  happened  at  a  ball 
to  drop  her  garter,  and  that  the  king  took  it 
up  and  presented  it  to  her,  at  the  same  time 
exclaiming,  Honi  soit  qui  inal  y  pense, — 
"  Evil  be  to  him  who  evil  thinks,"  in  refer- 
ence to  the  smiles  which  he  observed  the 
action  had  excited  among  some  of  the  by- 
standers;  adding  "  that  shortly  they  should 
see  that  garter  advanced  to  so  high  an  honor 
and  renown,  as  to  account  them.<elves  happy 
to  wear  it."  It  is  founded  in  honor  of  the 
Holy  Trinity,  the  Virgin  Mary,  St.  Ed- 
ward the  Confessor,  and  St.  George  ;  but  the 
last,  who  had  become  the  tutelary  saint  of 
England,  was  considered  its  special  patron  ; 
and  for  this  reason  it  has  always  borne  the 
title  of  "  The  Order  of  St.  George,"  as  well 
as  of  "  The  Garter,"  and  those  who  wore  it 
were  called  "  Knights  of  St.  George."  The 
number  of  knights  companions  was  origi- 
nally 26,  including  the  sovereign,  who  is 
chief  of  the  order;  but  in  1786  a  statute 
was  passed  to  the  effect  that  this  number 
should  be  irrespective  of  princes  of  the  royal 
family,  and  illustrious  foreigners  on  whom 
the  honor  might  be  conferred.  The  well- 
known  emblem  of  the  order  is  a  dark-blue 
ribbon  edged  with  gold,  bearing  the  motto 
Honi  soit  qui  mal  y  pense  in  golden  letters, 
with  a  buckle  and  pendant  of  gold  richly 
chased,  and  is  worn  on  the  left  leg  below 
the  knee.  The  mantle  is  of  blue  velvet, 
and  on  the  left  breast  a  star  is  embroidered. 
The  hood  and  surcoat  are  of  crimson  velvet, 
and  lined  with  white  taff"eta.  The  hat  is  of 
black  velvet,  with  a  plume  of  white  ostrich 
feathers,  in  the  centre  of  which  there  is  a 
tuft  of  black  herons'  feathers,  all  fastened 
to  the  hat  by  a  band  of  diamonds.  The 
collar  is  of  gold,  and  consists  of  26  pieces, 
each  in  the  form  of  a  garter.  The  "  George" 
is  the  figure  of  St.  George  on  horseback  en- 
countering the  dragon  ;  it  is  worn  to  the 
collar,  and  there  is  a  lesser  "  George"  pend- 
ent to  a  broad,  dark-blue  ribbon  over  the 
left  shoulder. 

Garter  King-of-Arms.  Is  the  principal 
king-of-arms  in  England.  Though  held  by 
the  same  person,  they  are  distinct  offices. 
The  first  was  instituted  for  the  service  of  the 
order  of  the  Garter  (which  see),  not  on  its 
first  foundation,  but  afterwards  by  Henry  V. 
as  sovereign,  with  the  advice  and  consent 
of  the  knights-companions.  The  peculiar 
duty  of  Garter  king-of-arms  is  to  attend 
upon  the  knights  at  their  solemnities,  to  in- 
timate their  election  to  those  who  are  chosen 
by  the  order,  to  call  them  to  be  installed  at 
"Windsor,  to  cause  their  arms  to  be  hung  up 
over  their  stalls,  and  to  marshal  their  funeral 
processions,  and  those  of  royal  personages, 
and  of  members  of  higher  nobility.  In  the 
capacity  of  principal  king-of-arms,  he  grants 
and  confirms  arms,  under  the  authority  of 
the  earl  marshal,  to  whom  he  is  not  subject 
as  Garter  king-of-arms.  All  new  grants  or 
patents  of  arms  in  England  are  first  signed 
and  sealed  by  him,  and  then  by  the  king 


(of  arms)  of  the  province  to  which  the  ap- 
plicant belongs. 

Gas-check.  The  device  used  in  breech- 
loading  cannon  to  prevent  the  gas  from  es- 
caping at  the  breech.  (See  Broadwkll 
Ring  and  Breech-loading.)  Also  a  term 
applied  by  the  English  to  the  soft  metal 
sabot  in  the  rear  of  rifled  projectiles. 

Gasconade.  To  boast;  to  brag;  to  vaunt ; 
to  bluster.  The  term  was  originally  derived 
from  the  Gascons,  or  people  of  Gascony,  in 
France,  who  it  seems  have  been  particularly 
distinguished  for  extravagant  stories. 

Gasconader.  A  great  boaster ;  a  blus- 
terer. 

Gascony.  Formerly  a  district  in  the 
southwest  of  France,  situated  between  the 
Bay  of  Biscay,  the  river  Garonne,  and  the 
Western  Pyrenees.  It  derived  its  name 
from  the  Basques,  or  Vasques  (Lat.  Vas- 
cones),  who,  driven  by  the  Visigoths  from 
their  own  territory  on  the  southern  slope  of 
the  Western  Pyrenees,  crossed  to  the  north- 
ern side,  and  settled  here.  In  602,  after  an 
obstinate  resistance,  the  Vasques  were  forced 
to  submit  to  the  Franks.  They  now  passed 
under  the  sovereignty  of  the  dukes  of  Aqui- 
tania,  who  for  a  time  were  independent  of 
the  crown,  but  were  afterwards  conquered 
by  King  Pepin,  and  later  by  Charlemagne. 
Subsequently  it  became  incorporated  with 
Aquitania,  and  for  a  time  became  part  of 
the  English  possessions,  but  was  afterwards 
reconquered  by  the  French. 

Gastein,  Badgastein,  or  Wilbad-Gas- 
tein.  A  village  of  Austria,  49  miles  south 
of  Salzburg.  On  August  14,  18G5,  a  con- 
vention was  concluded  here  between  Austria 
and  Prussia,  to  make  arrangements  relative 
to  the  government  of  the  duchies  of  Sles- 
wick,  Holstein,  and  Lauenburg,  which  their 
combined  forces  had  wrested  from  Denmark. 

Gate.  A  door  of  strong  planks  with  iron 
bars  to  oppose  an  enemy.  Gates  are  gener- 
ally fixed  in  the  middle  of  the  curtain,  from 
whence  they  are  seen  and  defended  by  the 
two  flanks  of  the  bastions.  They  should  be 
covered  with  a  good  ravelin,  that  they  may 
not  be  seen  or  enfiladed  by  the  enemy.  The 
palisades  and  barriers  before  the  gates  within 
the  town  are  often  of  great  use. 

Gateshead.  A  borough  in  Durham,  on 
the  Tvne,  opposite  Newcastle.  At  Gates- 
headfeU,  William  I.  defeated  Edgar  Athel- 
ing  in  1068. 

Gateway.  The  passage  or  opening  in 
which  a  gate  or  large  door  is  hung.  The 
gateway  being  a  most  important  point  in  all 
fortified  places,  is  usually  protected  by  vari- 
ous devices.  It  is  flanked  by  towers  with 
loop-holes,  from  which  assailants  may  beat- 
tacked,  and  is  frequently  overhung  by  a 
machicolated  battlement,  from  which  mis- 
siles of  every  description  were  poured  upon 
the  besiegers. 

Gath.  One  of  the  five  chief  cities  of  the 
Philistines,  was  situated  on  the  frontiers  of 
Judah,  and  was  in  consequence  a  place  of 
much  importance  in  the  wars  between  the 


GATLING 


187 


GELLIA 


Philistines  and  the  Israelites.  It  formed  in 
fact  the  key  of  both  countries,  and  was 
strongly  fortified. 

Catling  Gun.  Is  a  machine  gun,  the  1 
inch  composed  of  six  and  the  i  inch  of  ten 
rifled  barrels  of  steel,  made  to  revolve  around 
a  central  axis  parallel  to  their  bores,  by  means 
of  a  hand  crank.  As  each  barrel  comes  op- 
posite to  the  hojiper  on  the  left  side  of  the 
cylinder,  a  self-primed  metal  case  cartridge 
falls  into  a  groove  of  the  cartridge-carrier, 
is  pressed  into  the  breech  by  a  plunger,  and 
held  there  until  exploded  by  the  firing-pin. 
The  empty  case  is  withdrawn  from  the  barrel 
by  an  extractor  attached  to  the  cylinder  con- 
taining the  firiiig-i)in.  With  each  revolution 
of  the  crank  the  1-incli  gun  fires  once,  and 
the  ^-inch  gun  three  times.  The  i-inch  gun 
is  reduced  to  caliber  .45  inch,  in  order  to  use 
with  it  the  projectile  of  the  breech-loading 
musket. 

Gaucho.  One  of  the  native  inhabitants 
of  the  pampas  of  La  Plata,  of  Spanish- 
American  descent,  celebrated  for  indepen- 
dence, horsemanship,  and  rude,  uncivilized 
mode  of  life. 

Gaugamela  (now  Knrme/is).  A  village 
in  the  district  of  Aturia,  in  Assyria,  the  scene 
of  the  last  and  decisive  battle  between  Alex- 
ander and  Darius  Codomannus,  331  B.C., 
commonly  called  the  battle  of  Arbela.  See 
Arhkla. 

Gauges.  In  gunnery,  are  brass  rings  with 
handles,  to  find  the  diameter  of  all  kinds  of 
shot  with  expedition.  Also  instruments  of 
various  kind  for  verifying  the  dimensions  of 
cannon  and  projectiles  and  the  various  parts 
of  small-arms.  Modern  small-arms  are  made 
on  the  interchatiffenble  principle,  each  part 
being  accurately  made  to  gauges.  This  prin- 
ciple has  revolutionized  the  manufacture  of 
small-arms.  It  was  first  introduced  at  the 
U.  S.  armory,  at  Harper's  Ferry,  by  Maj. 
Wade,  of  the  Ordnance  Corps. 

Gaul,  or  Gallia.  The  ancient  name  of 
France  and  Belgium.  The  natives,  termed 
by  the  Greeks  (ialata),  by  the  Romans  Galli 
or  Celtae,  came  originally  from  Asia,  and  in- 
vading Eastern  Europe,  were  driven  west- 
ward, and  settled  in  Spain,  North  Italy, 
France  and  Belgium,  and  the  British  Isles. 

Gauntlet  ( Fr^  (/nntelrt).  A  large  glove  of 
mail ;  a  covering  for  the  hand  with  plates  of 
metal  on  the  back,  worn  as  a  part  of  the  de- 
fensive armor  in  ancient  times.  A  long 
fjlove,  covering  the  wrist ;  as,  a  riding-gaunt- 
et.  Tu  take  up  tfie  paimtlet,  to  accept  a  chal- 
lenge. To  throw  down  the.  gnuntUi,  to  oflcr 
or  send  a  challenge  ;  to  defy. 

Gauntlet.  A  kind  of  military  punish- 
ment ;  the  gantelet  used  in  the  expression  to 
run  the  (jniintlct.     See  Ganti.OPK. 

Gauntleted.     Wearing  a  gauntlet. 

Gawelgur.  A  strong  fortress  of  Hindos- 
tan,  in  the  dominions  of  the  Nizam  or  ruler 
of  Hyderabad.  It  was  taken  by  (Jen.  Wcl- 
lesley,  December  14,  1803,  after  a  siege  of 
two  days,  but  was  restored  to  the  rajah  on 
the  conclusion  of  peace. 


Gaza.  A  city  of  the  Philistines,  of  which 
Samson  carried  of!"  the  gates,  about  1120  B.C. 
It  was  taken  by  Alexander  after  a  long  siege, 
33'J,  and  near  it  Ptolemy  defeated  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes,  312i».c.  It  was  taken  by  Saladin, 
1170;  by  Bonaparte,  March,  179'J ;  and  by 
the  Egyptians  in  1831. 

Gaze.  In  heraldry,  when  a  beast  of  the 
chase  is  represented  as  affroiite,  or  full-faced, 
it  is  said  to  be  at  (inzr. 

Gazette.  T<»  announce  or  publish  in  a 
gazette  ;  to  announce  officially  ;  as  an  ap- 
pointment either  civil  or  military.  All  com- 
missions in  the  British  army,  nulitia,  fenci- 
ble,  and  volunteer  corps  must  be  gazetted. 

Gazons.  In  fortification,  pieces  of  fresh 
earth,  or  sods,  covered  with  grass,  and  cut 
in  the  form  of  a  wedge,  about  a  foot  long 
and  half  a  foot  thick,  to  line  the  outsides  of 
a  work  made  of  earth,  as  ramparts,  para[)els, 
banquettes,  etc.  The  first  bed  of  gazons  is 
fixed  with  pegs  of  wood,  and  the  second  bed 
is  so  laid  as  to  bind  the  former,  by  being 
placed  over  its  joints,  and  so  continued  till 
the  works  are  finished.  Between  those  it  is 
usual  to  sow  all  sorts  of  binding  weeds  or 
herbs,  in  order  to  strengthen  the  rampart. 

Gear.  Warlike  accoutrements  ;  military 
harness';  equipage. 

Geat.  The  hole  through  which  the  metal 
is  conveyed  to  the  mold  in  casting  ordnance.. 

Gebegis.  Armorers  among  the  Turks- 
were  so  called. 

Gebelis.     A  Turkish  corps  of  picked  men. 

Gebelus.  Every  Timariot  in  Turkey, 
during  a  campaign,  is  obliged  to  take  a  cer- 
tain number  of  horsemen,  who  are  called 
gebelus,  and  to  support  them  at  his  own  ex- 
pense. He  is  directed  to  take  as  many  as 
would  annually  cost  3000  asprea  for  subsist- 
ence. 

Gela.  In  ancient  times,  n  very  important 
city  on  the  southern  coast  of  Sicily.  It  was- 
founded  by  a  Khodian  and  Cretan  colony,  in. 
6!»0  B  c.  In  505  B.C.,  Cleander  made  him- 
self tyrant,  and  the  colony  reached  its  high- 
est pitch  of  power  under  his  brt)ther  Hip- 
pocrates, who  subdued  almost  the  whole  of 
Sicily,  with  the  exception  of  Syracuse. 
Gelon,  the  successor  of  Hippocrates,  pursued 
the  same  career  of  conquest,  and  Syracuse 
itself  fell  into  his  hands,  and  was  even  made 
his  principal  residence,  Gela  being  committed 
to  the  government  of  his  brother  Iliero. 
After  many  vicissitudes  during  the  Cartha- 
ginian war  in  Sicily,  it  ultinuitely  fell  into- 
decay.  Its  ruin  was  completed  by  Phintias, 
tyrant  of  Agrigentum,  who,  a  little  before 
280  B.C.,  removed  the  inhabitants  to  a  town 
in  the  neighborhood  which  he  had  founded, 
and  to  which  he  gave  his  own  name.  It  oc- 
cupied what  is  now  the  site  of  Terra  Nova. 

Gelibach.  A  sort  of  superintendent  or 
chief  of  the  gebegis,  or  armorers,  among  the 
Turks.  He  is  only  subordinate  to  the  iuppi 
bdchi,  or  the  grand  nuister  of  the  Turkish 
artillery. 

Gellia  Gens.  A  plebeian  family;  was  of 
Sumnite   origin    and    afterwards   settled    at 


GEMBLOUX 


188 


GENEEAL 


Rome.  There  were  two  generals  of  this  family 
in  the  Samnite  wars,  Gellius  Status  in  the 
second  Samnite  war,  who  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  305 B.C.,  and  Gellius  Egnatius 
in  the  third  Samnite  war. 

Gembloux.  A  town  of  Belgium,  on  an 
affluent  of  the  Sambre,  11  miles  northwest 
from  Namur.  The  French  gained  a  victory 
over  the  Austrians  near  this  town  in  1794.' 

Genappe.  A  village  of  Belgium,  in  South- 
ern Brabant,  on  the  banks  of  the  Dyle,  18 
miles  southeast  from  Brussels.  Several  mili- 
tary actions  took  place  here  in  181.5,  both  be- 
fore and  after  Waterloo,  between  the  French 
and  the  allied  forces. 

Gendarmes,  or  Gens  d'Armes  (men-at- 
arms).  Originally,  and  up  to  the  time  of  the 
first  French  revolution,the  most  distinguished 
cavalry  corps  in  the  service  of  the  Bourbon 
kings,  to  whom  they  formed  a  sort  of  body- 
guard. Under  existing  arrangements  the 
gendarmes  constitute  a  military  police,  and 
comprise  both  cavalry  and  infantry.  The 
force  consists  principally  of  soldiers  taken 
from  the  army,  generally  on  account  of  intel- 
ligence and  good  conduct.  The  men  receive 
much  higher  pay  than  the  rest  of  the  army, 
of  which,  however,  the  corps  is  a  part,  and 
they  are  liable  in  cases  of  emergency  to  be 
sent  on  active  service. 

Gendarmery  (Fr.  gendarmerie).  The 
body  of  gendarmes  or  gens  d'armes. 

General.  A  term  for  the  roll  of  the 
drum  which  calls  the  troops  together.  To 
"beat  the  general"  is  a  phrase  drawn  from 
the  French  drum  instructors,  ^^  Batire  la 
Generate." 

General.  The  highest  military  title  in 
the  U.  S.  army,  and  the  highest  military 
title  below  that  of  field-marshal  in  Euro- 
pean armies.  A  general  ordinarily  com- 
mands no  body  of  men  less  than  an  army  or 
corps  d'armee. 

General,  Adjutant-.  See  Adjutant- 
Genkkal. 

General,  Brigadier-.  See  Brigadier- 
General. 

General,  Colonel.  An  honorary  title, 
or  military  rank,  which  is  bestowed  in  for- 
eign services.  Thus  the  Prince  of  the  Peace 
in  Spain  was  colonel  general  of  the  Swiss 
guards. 

General  Court-Martial.  See  Court-mar- 
tial. 

General  de  Battaile,  or  General  Major. 
A  particular  rank  or  appointment,  whose 
functions  correspond  with  those  of  a  ci- 
devant  marshal  of  France.  This  situation 
is  intrusted  to  a  general  officer,  and  is  only 
known  among  the  armies  of  Kussia,  and 
some  other  Northern  powers.  He  takes  pre- 
cedence in  the  same  manner  that  our  major- 
generals  do  of  all  brigadier-generals  and 
colonels,  and  is  subordinate  to  lieutenant- 
generals. 

General  des  Galeres  {Fr.).  Commander 
of  the  galleys,  an  officer  of  high  rank  and 
extensive  jurisdiction  in  France. 

General  des  Vivres  {Fr.).      Commissary 


of  stores ;  a  sort  of  chief  commissary  or 
superintendent-general  of  stores,  whose 
functions  were  to  provide  ammunition, 
bread,  and  biscuit  for  the  army. 

Generalissimo.  The  chief  officer  in  com- 
mand of  an  army.  This  word  is  used  in 
most  foreign  languages.  It  was  first  used  to 
designate  the  absolute  authority  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  Avhen  he  went  to  command  the 
French  army  in  Italy. 

General,  Lieutenant-.  The  second  rank 
among  general  officers,  and  next  below  that 
of  general.  The  normal  command  of  a  lieu- 
tenant-general is  that  of  a  division,  but  he 
is  sometimes  intrusted  with  the  command 
of  an  entire  army. 

General,  Major-.  The  rank  next  below 
that  of  lieutenant-general,  and  above  briga- 
dier-general. He  usually  commands  a  di- 
vision ;  a  general  of  division. 

General  Officers.  Are  all  officers  whose 
authority  extends  beyond  the  immediate 
command  of  a  regiment,  and  who  have 
either  separate  districts  or  departments  at 
home,  or  commands  on  foreign  service.  A 
brigade  is  the  smallest  body  of  men  con- 
stituting the  command  of  a  general  officer. 
In  an  army  of  very  large  proportions,  the 
normal  sequence  of  command  would  be  the 
following  :  The  general  commanding-in- 
chief,  generalissimo,  captain-general,  or 
field-marshal  would  command  the  whole 
force ;  the  generals  would  have  separate 
corj)H  d' nrmee ;  the  lieutenant-generals,  wings 
of  those  corps  d'armee ;  the  major-generals, 
divisions  in  the  wings  ;  and  brigadier-gen- 
erals, brigades  in  the  divisions.  In  practice, 
however,  an  army  is  rarely  large  enough  to 
allow  of  this  exact  scheme  of  military  hier- 
archy being  carried  out ;  and  general  officers 
are  also  frequently  assigned  to  high  com- 
mands without  regard  to  seniority.  In  the 
U.  S.  service  there  are  one  general,  one  lieu- 
tenant-general (whose  offices  expire  with  the 
present  incumbents),  three  major-generals, 
and  six  brigadier-generals.  The  President 
is  ex  officio  commander-in-chief  of  the  army. 
In  the  English  service  the  sovereign  is  cap- 
tain-general, and  under  the  sovereign  is  the 
commander-in-chief,  who  takes  rank  as 
field-marshal.  In  the  staff  corps  the  word 
general  is  also  used,  as  surgeon-,  quarter- 
master-, adjutant-general,  etc.,  to  denote 
that  the  holder  of  the  office  has  charge  of 
his  special  department,  and  does  not  neces- 
sarily imply  that  he  is  a  general  officer.  The 
chiefs  of  staff"  departments,  however,  in  the 
U.  S.  service  are  usually  of  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general.  In  the  German  armies, 
and  among  the  sovereigns  of  the  North, 
there  are  certain  generals  of  cavalry,  and 
others  of  infantry,  who  take  rank  of  all 
lieutenant-generals.  In  the.?e  armies  it  is 
usual  for  generals,  lieutenant-generals,  and 
major-generals  to  take  their  routine  of  duty, 
and  rise  progressively  in  the  infantry  or 
cavalry  corps  to  which  they  were  originally 
appointed,  until  they  arrived  at  a  chief  com- 
mand ;  whereas  in  France  and  other  coun- 


OENERAL 


189 


GEOGRAPHICAL 


tries  a  major-general  might  be  employed  to 
take  charge  of  cither  infantry  or  cavalry, 
without  any  regard  being  paid  to  the  partic- 
ular line  <if  service  in  whidi  he  was  bred. 

General  Orders.     See  Okdkks. 

General's  Guard.     See  (Jakdk. 

Generalship.  The  office  of  general ;  the 
exerci.-e  <if  the  functions  of  a  general;  the 
skill  and  conduct  of  a  general  officer;  mili- 
tary skill  in  a  commander. 

Geneva.  A  walled  town  of  Switzerland, 
and  the  capital  of  a  small  canton,  at  the 
western  extremity  of  the  lake  of  the  same 
name.  In  1784  and  17it4  revolutions  took 
place  in  the  city  and  state  of  Geneva;  in 
1798  it  was  taken  by  the  French,  and,  till 
1813,  it  was  the  capital  of  the  department 
Lenuin,  in  the  French  empire,  under  Napo- 
leon I.  In  1814  it  joined  the  Uelvetic  Con- 
federatitm. 

Geneva,  Convention  of.  In  October, 
18t);?,  an  interiuitiotial  convention  was  held 
at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  comprising  14  gov- 
ernments, including  Great  Britain,  France, 
Austria,  Russia,  Prussia  and  Italy,  who 
were  represented  by  delegates,  and  proposi- 
tions were  drawn  up  forming  the  "  Ked 
Cross  Society,"  for  the  succor  of  the  wound- 
ed in  time  of  warfare.  It  gave  aid  to  the 
sick  and  wounded  during  the  Franco-Ger- 
man war,  and  its  flag  is  recognized  by  all 
powers  as  neutral. 

Genius.  In  a  military  sense,  natural  tal- 
ent or  disposition  to  every  kind  of  warlike 
employment,  more  than  any  other  ;  or,  the 
aptitude  a  man  has  received  from  nature  to 
perform  well  and  easily  that  which  others 
can  do  but  indifterently  and  with  a  great 
deal  of  pains. 

Genoa.  A  fortified  maritime  city  in 
Northwestern   Italy,  once  a  celebrated  re- 

Sublic,  now  the  capital  of  a  province  of 
lorthwestern  Italy.  From  thp  11th  to  the 
18th  century  Genoa  was  the  capital  of  a 
flourishing  republic ;  it  was  bombarded  by 
the  French  in  1084,  and  submitted  to  the 
Austrians  in  174(1;  but,  in  consequence  of 
a  citizen  having  been  abused  by  an  Aus- 
trian officer,  the  inhabitants  rose  and 
massacred  most  of  the  soldiery,  and  drove 
away  the  remainder.  The  republic  in  1798 
a.ssunu'd  the  French  form  of  government, 
with  the  title  of  Ligurian  republic,  and  in 
180;j  it  was  annexed  to  the  French  empire. 
In  1815  it  was  ceded  to  the  king  of  Sardinia, 
and  in  1859  the  French  troops  landed  here 
on  their  route  to  oppose  the  Austrian  army, 
which  hiid  invaded  Sardinia. 

Genouillire.  That  part  of  the  parapet  of 
a  battery  which  renniins  above  the  platform 
and  under  the  gun.  after  the  opening  of  the 
embrasure  has  been  made.  The  name  is  de- 
rived from  the  French  (jrnou,  the  knee. 
The  height  of  the  genouillere  is  regulated 
by  that  of  the  gun-carriage,  generally  from 
2  to  :^  foet. 

Gens.  In  Roman  antiquity,  a  clan,  em- 
bracing several  families,  whose  bond  of  alli- 
ance was  a  common  name  and  certain  reli- 


gious rites  performed  in  common.  Persons 
of  the  same  gens  were  called  pentilet,  while 
those  of  the  same  family  were  designated 
ar/nnti. 

Gens  (Fr.).  A  word  in  much  desultory 
use  among  the  French,  signifying,  in  the 
general  acceptation  of  it,  people,  servants, 
soldiers,  etc.  This  word  is  likewise  used  to 
distinguish  bodies  of  men  that  are  in  oppo- 
sition to  each  other. 

Gens  d'Armes.     See  Gkndarme.s. 

Gentilhommes  de  la  Garde  (Fr.).  Gen- 
tlemen of  the  guard.  Commonly  called 
All  bee  de  cor-bin,  or  the  battle-axe,  from  the 
weapon  which  they  carried.  This  company 
went  through  many  alterations  during  the 
monarchy  of  France.  During  the  last 
years  of  "that  government  it  consisted  of  200 
guards,  under  the  command  of  a  captain,  a 
lieutenant,  and  an  ensign.  The  captain  had 
the  power  of  giving  away  the  subaltern  com- 
missions, and  haid,  moreover,  the  entire 
management  of  the  rest ;  every  vacancy 
being  in  his  gift.  They  marched  in  tile, 
each  holding  his  battle-axe,  before  the  king 
on  days  of  public  ceremony.  "When  the 
company  was  first  raised,  its  particular  duty 
was  to  attend  the  king's  person,  and  to  be 
constantly  near  him  on  the  day  of  battle. 

Gentlemen-at-arms  (formerly  called  the 
Gentlemen- Feiisionrm).  The  body-guard  of 
the  British  sovereign,  and,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  yeomen  of  the  guard,  the  oldest 
corps  in  the  British  service.  It  was  insti- 
tuted in  1509  by  Uonry  VIII.,  and  now 
consists  of  1  captain,  1  lieutenant,  1  stand- 
ard-bearer, 1  clerk  of  the  oiieque,  and  40 
gentlemen,  who  must  all  be  retired  military 
officers  of  service  and  distinction.  The  at- 
tendance of  gcntlemcn-at-arms  is  now  rarely 
required,  except  on  the  occasion  of  corona- 
tions and  important  state  ceremonies. 

Geographical  Department,  Commander 
of.  Is  assimilated  to  the  commander  of  a 
separate  army,  with  the  same  powers  and 
duties  in  similar  cases  over  all  the  troops 
within  the  limits  of  the  department.  In  all 
countries  he  derives  his  authority  to  com- 
mand from  the  highest  power  of  the  gov- 
ernment. In  the  United  States  he  i.s  a.ssigned 
by  order  of  the  President,  who  alone  can  re- 
lieve him,  and  who  also  fixes  the  limits  or 
boundaries  of  the  department.  His  duties 
are  mainly  derived  from  customs  of  service. 
The  only  duties  defined  by  statute  relate  to 
general  courts-martial,  which  he  can  con- 
vene, and  his  action  is  final  on  all  cases  tried 
by  such  courts,  except  in  the  case  of  a  gen- 
eral officer,  or  where  the  sentence  of  the 
court  extends  to  the  loss  of  life  or  the  dis- 
missal of  a  commissioned  officer.  In  time 
of  war  he  is  authorized  by  existing  laws  to 
execute  the  death  penalty  in  cases  of  persons 
convicted  »vs  spies,  mutineers,  deserters,  or 
murderers,  and  in  cases  of  guerrilla  maraud- 
ers convicted  in  time  of  war  of  robbery, 
burglary,  arson,  rape,  assault  with  intent  to 
commit  rape,  or  violation  of  the  la^s  of 
war.     See  Dei'aktment,  Military. 


GEOGRAPHICAL 


190 


GERASA 


Geographical  Division,  Military.    In  the 

United  States  a  geographical  militarj'  divis- 
ion consists  of  a  number  of  geographical 
military  departments,  usually  under  the 
command  of  a  general  officer. 

Geometry.  That  branch  of  mathematics 
■which  investigates  the  relations,  properties 
and  measurements  of  solids,  surfaces,  lines, 
and  angles  ;  the  science  which  treats  of  the 
properties  and  relations  of  magnitudes.  Its 
usefulness  extends  to  almost  every  art  and 
science.  It  is  by  the  assistance  of  geome- 
try that  engineers  conduct  all  their  works, 
take  the  situation  and  plans  of  towers,  the 
distances  of  places,  and  the  measure  of  such 
things  as  are  only  accessible  to  the  sight.  It 
is  not  only  an  introduction  to  fortification, 
but  highly  necessary  to  mechanics.  On  ge- 
ometry, likewise,  depends  the  theory  of 
gunnery,  mining,  mechanics,  hydraulics, 
pneumatics,  etc. 

George,  Lake.  A  beautiful  sheet  of  water 
in  the  State  of  New  York.  Its  length  is  36 
miles;  its  breadth  from  1  to  3  miles.  Lake 
George  was  the  scene  of  important  military 
operations  during  the  French  and  Indian 
war  of  1755-59.  Here  stood  Fort  George, 
Fort  William  Henry,  and  other  works. 

George,  St.  Patron  of  England  and  Rus- 
sia, is  reputed  to  have  been  born  in  Palestine 
in  the  3d  century.  According  to  the  legend, 
he  became  a  prince  in  Cappadocia,  and  was 
distinguished  for  his  exploit  of  rescuing  a 
king's  daughter  from  a  dragon.  He  was  a 
Christian,  and  suffered  martyrdom  at  Nico- 
media,  April  2'^,  303,  for  having  torn  down 
the  edict  of  Diocletian  against  Christians, 
the  emperor  himself  being  then  in  the  city. 

George,  St.,  Banner  of.  Is  white  with 
red  cross.  According  to  Sir  N.  H.  Nicolas, 
the  cross  of  St.  George  was  worn  as  a  badge 
over  the  armor  of  every  English  soldier  "  in 
the  14th  and  subsequent  centuries,  even  if 
the  custom  did  not  prevail  at  a  much  earlier 
period,"  to  indicate  that  he  was  in  the  service 
of  the  crown.  On  the  invasion  of  Scotland 
by  Richard  II.  in  1386,  it  was  ordained  that 
every  man  of  the  English  party  should  wear 
a  sign  of  the  arms  of  St.  George  both  before 
and  behind.  Asimilar  ordinance  was  adopted 
by  Henry  V.  for  the  government  of  his  army 
in  France.  The  cross  of  St.  George  forms  a 
part  of  the  British  standard. 

George,  St.,  Knights  of.  See  Garter, 
Ordkr  of  the. 

George,  The.  The  badge  of  the  order  of 
Ihe  Garter  exhibiting  the  figure  of  St.  George 
on  horseback  piercing  the  falling  dragon, 
which  lies  on  a  mount.     See  Garter. 

Georges  Conspiracy.  Took  place  in 
France;  Gens.  Moreau  and  Pichegru,  and 
Georges  Cadoudal,who  was  commonly  known 
l>y  the  name  of  Georges,  and  others  were  ar- 
rested at  Paris,  charged  with  a  conspiracy 
.against  the  life  of  Bonaparte,  and  for  the 
restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.,  February,  1804. 
Pichegru  was  found  strangled  in  prison, 
April  6,  and  12  of  the  conspirators,  includ- 
ing Georges,  were  executed,  and  others  im- 


prisoned, June  22.  Moreau  was  exiled  and 
went  to  America  ;  in  1818  he  was  killed  be- 
fore Dresden. 

Georgia.  Called  by  the  Russians  Grusia, 
a  considerable  country  of  Asia,  situated  be- 
tween the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian,  to  the 
north  of  Armenia,  and  forming  a  govern- 
ment of  Russia.  The  Georgians  are  skilled 
in  the  bow,  and  are  thought  to  be  the  best 
soldiers  in  Asia.  Georgia  was  formerly  one 
kingdom,  the  inhabitants  of  which  were 
Christians ;  but,  in  1639,  when  it  was  con- 
quered by  the  Persians,  the  country  was  di- 
vided betwfien  two  native  princes,  by  them- 
selves called  kings,  but  by  the  Sophia  styled 
governors.  Each  of  these  had  a  guard  of 
Mohammedan  horse  in  their  pay.  In  1802 
it  was  annexed  to  Russia. 

Georgia.  One  of  the  original  States  of 
the  United  States,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Tennessee  and  North  Carolina,  on  the  east 
by  South  Carolina  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
south  by  Florida,  and  west  by  Florida  and 
Alabama.  It  was  named  in  honor  of  King 
George  II.,  who  granted  a  charter  for  estab- 
lishing a  colony  there  in  1732  ;  but  a  perma- 
nent settlement  was  not  made  till  the  follow- 
ing year,  when  Oglethorpe  established  him- 
self at  what  is  now  Savannah.  The  colony 
soon  became  involved  in  several  contests 
with  the  Spaniards  of  Florida,  who  claimed 
the  territory.  In  1739  Oglethorpe  invaded 
Florida,  but  without  much  success.  In  1 742 
the  Spaniards  retaliated  by  invading  Geor- 
gia ;  but  they  also  effected  nothing.  The 
next  noteworthy  event  in  the  history  of  the 
colony  was  a  war  with  theCherokees  in  1761, 
which  was  terminated  by  their  suing  for 
peace,  after  their  country  had  been  laid  waste. 
They  were  afterwards  peaCeable,  and  were 
removed  to  the  Indian  Territory  in  1838. 
In  the  war  of  the  Revolution  Georgia  warmly 
sided  with  the  colonies,  and,  in  consequence, 
suftered  severely  at  the  hands  of  the  British, 
who  overran  the  country,  and  captured  Sa- 
vannah, December  29,  1778.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  (October,  1779)  the  Americans  and 
French  attempted  to  retake  it,  but  were  re- 
pulsed with  severe  loss.  In  the  civil  war 
( 1861-65),  Georgia  took  an  active  part  against 
the  Union,  and  suffered  severely'  in  conse- 
quence. Atlanta  was  captured  September  2, 
1864,  after  which  Gen.  Sherman  marched 
with  his  ami}-  through  the  State  to  the  sea 
over  an  area  extending  from  20  to  60  miles 
in  width,  destroying  railroad  communica- 
tion, etc.,  and  ending  with  the  capture  of 
Savannah,  December  20,  1864.  This  mag- 
nificent military  movement  eflectually  hum- 
bled the  State,  and  in  1866  the  President 
issued  a  proclamation  declaring  it  no  longer 
in  a  state  of  insurrection. 

Gerasa,  or  Jerash.  An  ancient  city  of 
Syria,  whose  site  is  now  marked  by  very  ex- 
tensive and  magnificent  ruins,  situated  about 
35  miles  east  of  the  Jordan,  at  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  land  of  Bashan,  and  on  the 
borders  of  the  great  desert  of  Hauran.  But 
little  of  its  early  history  is  known.     In  the 


6ERBE 


191 


GETTYSBURG 


time  of  the  Antonincs  it  had  arrived  at  the 
height  of  its  splendor  and  prosperity.  It  was 
taken  by  Alexander  Jannajus  in  85  B.C. ;  the 
Jews  burned  it  at  the  commencement  of  their 
last  war  with  the  Koman.s  ;  it  was  taken  and 
plundered  by  Annius,  the  general  of  Ves- 
pasian, and  in  H2'J  its  castle  was  destroyed 
by  Baldwin  II.  of  Jerusalem. 

Gerbe.  An  ornamental  firework.  See 
Pyroteciiny. 

Gerberoi.  In  Normandy,  north  of  France. 
Here  William  the  Conqueror  was  wounded 
in  battle  bv  his  son  Robert,  who  had  joined 
the  French  king,  Philip  I.,  1078. 

Gerit  (/•>.).    A  Turkish  dart  '2i  feet  long. 

Germany  (Lat.  Germnnia).  The  name 
given  to  a  large  portion  of  Central  Europe, 
composed  of  a  number  of  independent  states 
united  together,  and  forming  tlie  German 
empire.  In  the  time  of  Julius  Cac.sar  the 
Germans  were  the  most  formidable  and  war- 
like of  all  the  European  barbarians.  They 
long  withstood  the  attempts  of  the  Romans 
to  subdue  them  ;  and,  although  that  people 
conquered  some  parts  of  the  country,  they 
were  e.vpelled  before  the  close  of  the  3d  cen- 
tury. In  the  5th  century  the  Huns  and 
other  tribes  prevailed  over  the  greater  por- 
tion of  Germany.  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
8th  century  Charlemagnesubdued  theSaxons 
and  other  tribes,  and  was  crowned  emperor 
at  Rome,  December  'JS,  800.  At  the  extinc- 
tion of  his  family  the  empire  became  elective, 
911,  and  was  generally  obtained  by  a  member 
of  the  house  of  Hapsburg  from  1437  to  180(5, 
when  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph  II.  for- 
mally renounced  the  title  of  emperor  of  Ger- 
many, having  assumed  that  of  emperor  of 
Austria  two  years  previously.  The  Confeder- 
ation of  the  Rhine  was  formed  July  12,  180G ; 
the  Germanic  Confederation,  June  8,  1815; 
and  the  North  German  Confederation,  Au- 
gustl8, 18fiG.  In  consequence  of  the  success  of 
the  Prussian  arms  in  the  war  with  France 
(1870-71)  the  new  empire  of  Germany  was 
founded,  and  the  king  of  Prussia  declared 
emperor.  January  IS,  1S71. 

Germinal  Insurrection.  That  of  the  fau- 
bourirs  of  Paris,  supjirossed  on  1 2th  Germinal, 
year  III.  (April  1,  1795). 

Gerona.  A  strong  town  of  Spain,  in  Cata- 
lonia, at  the  confluence  of  the  Oiia  and  Ter, 
the  latter  of  which  flows  through  the  town. 
It  is  built  in  the  form  of  a  triangle,  at  the 
foot  of  a  steep  mountain,  and  is  surrounded 
by  walls  flanked  with  fortilications,  and  cov- 
ered by  a  fort  erected  on  a  hill  to  the  north 
of  the  town.  It  was  besieged  28  times,  and 
taken  6  tinies.  In  June,  1808,  it  success- 
fully resisted  the  French,  but  after  suftering 
much  famine  surrendered  December  12, 1809. 

Gesate,  or  Gessate  {Fr.).  Formerly  a 
Gallic  mercenary  soldier,  who  volunteered 
hie  serviees  beyond  his  native  country.  These 
adventurers,  or  knights-errant,  were  called 

CtfK,  either  on  accoiint  of  the  gese,  or 
^edart,  which  they  carried. or, as  Polybius 
imagines,  on  account  of  the  subsistence  they 
W^-eived,  which  was  called  by  that  name. 


Geserne.  The  Anglo-Norman  term  for 
baltlt-axe. 

Geses  and  Materes.  Were  weapons 
adopted  by  the  Allobroges  (a  body  of  ancient 
Gauls  so  called),  independently  of  the  broad 
cut-and-thrust  sword  which  the  Swiss  still 
wear.  These  instruments  were  only  one 
cubit  long;  half  the  blade  was  nearly  square; 
but  it  terminated  in  a  round  point  that  was 
exceedingly  sharp.  Not  only  the  Romans, 
but  the  Greeks  received  it  into  their  armies. 
The  former  retained  the  full  aitpellation  and 
called  \igeae,  but  the  latter  corrupted  it  into 
ysae.  This  is  the  only  weapon  with  which 
those  soldiers  were  armed  that  escorted  mal- 
efactors, who  were  condemned  to  death,  to 
the  place  of  execution.  The  term  gese  was 
also  applied  to  a  sort  of  a  javelin. 

Gestic.  Pertaining  to  deeds  or  feats  of 
arms  ;  legendary. 

Gettysburg.  Capital  of  Adams  Co.,  Pa., 
situated  near  the  southern  border  of  the  State, 
8  miles  from  "  Ma>on  and  Dixon's  line." 
Here  three  days' severe  fighting  took  place 
on  July  1-3,  1803,  between  the  invading 
Confederate  army  under  Gens.  Lee,  Long- 
street,  and  Ewell,  and  the  Federals  under 
Gen.  George  G.  Meade. 

On  the  morning  of  July  1,  Maj-Gen. 
Reynolds,  in  command  of  the  1st  Corps,  ad- 
vanced on  the  Emmittsburg  road  from  Marsh 
Creek  to  Gettysburg,  arriving  about  10 
o'clock  A.M.,  and  marched  directly  through 
the  town,  and  soon  after  encountered  a  body 
of  the  enemy,  which  were  driven  back  by 
Gen.  Bufords  cavalry,  which  allowed  the 
1st  Corps  to  form  up  in  order  of  battle  on  a 
ridge  northwest  of  the  town,  which  sloped 
to  the  west  into  a  little  open  valley.  Beyond 
this  valley  wsis  a  ridge  of  higher  land  thickly 
wooded.  '  Across  this  valley  the  line  of  Gen. 
Reynolds  advanced  somewhat  hastily,  almost 
before  it  was  well  formed,  and  soon  en- 
countered a  heavy  force  of  the  enemy's  in- 
fantry, and  was  compelled  to  fall  back, 
which  it  did  in  good  order,  and  by  a  move- 
ment of  its  left  centre  against  the  enemy 
while  falling  back  secured  a  large  number 
of  prisoners.  The  Confederate  line  being 
broken  soon  after,  Gen.  Reynolds  again  pre- 
pared to  go  forward.  His  line  advanced  as 
before,  and  drove  the  enemy  from  the  valley 
and  over  the  ridge  at  the  farthest  side,  with 
a  severe  loss  by  the  heavy  fire  of  the  foe. 
While  reconnoitring  on  this  ridge  (ien.  Rey- 
nolds was  killed  by  a  shot  from  the  enemy. 
The  llth  Corps  now  arrived  and  (ien.  How- 
ard took  command  of  the  whole  field,  Gen. 
Schur/,  commanding  the  llth  Corps.  At 
about  half-past  2  p.m.  the  enemy  again  ad- 
vanced in  force  against  the  1st  Corps,  which 
slowly  fell  back  to  its  original  position  north- 
west "of  the  town.  The  Confederate  force 
advanced  across  the  open  space  in  line  of 
battle,  whilst  their  batteries  shelled  the  posi- 
tion of  the  1st  Corps  to  covi-r  the  advance, 
but  it  met  a  fire  so  sharp  and  well  served 
that  it  caused  it  to  reel  and  fall  back ;  <he 
line  was  again   formed  and   reinforced  and 


GETTYSBURG 


192 


GETTYSBURG 


once  more  advanced,  but  with  no  better  suc- 
cess. By  this  time  the  line  was  increased 
by  three  more  of  the  enemy's  divisions,  and 
another  charge  was  made  by  the  whole  force 
of  the  enemy.  Their  superior  numbers  en- 
abled them  to  threaten  both  flanks  of  the 
Federal  force,  and  notwithstanding  a  brave 
resistance  the  1st  Corps  was  compelled  to 
fall  back  to  the  town.  By  this  movement 
the  11th  Corps  was  uncovered,  and  a  heavy 
advance  completely  on  its  right  flank  com- 
pelled it  to  retire.  The  enemy  advanced  and 
took  possession  of  the  town,  while  the  two 
corps  of  the  Union  troops  fell  back  and  oc- 
cupied the  west  slope  of  the  hill  south  of  the 
town,  held  by  Gen.  Steinwehr.  At  dusk  the 
3d  and  12th  Corps  arrived  and  next  morn- 
ing the  5th,  making  in  all  six  corps,  which 
were  placed  in  position  by  Gen.  Meade,  the 
line  stretching  in  a  semicircle,  having  its 
convex  centre  toward  Gettysburg,  with  the 
extreme  toward  the  south  and  west.  The 
heights  on  which  they  were  posted  sloped 
gently  down  from  their  front.  The  key  of 
Gen.  Meade's  position  was  Cemetery  Hill, 
a  little  distance  south  of  the  town,  and  on 
the  northern  slope  of  which  the  town  itself 
is  situated.  The  enemy  having  been  largely 
reinforced  during  the  night  were  prepared 
to  give  battle  on  the  morning  of  the  2d, 
having  formed  line  on  a  ridge  which  ran 
nearly  parallel  to  the  extreme  of  that  on 
which  the  Federal  forces  were  formed,  and 
separated  from  them  by  a  valley  varying  in 
width  from  1  to  2  miles. 

On  the  ridge  occupied  by  Gen.  Meade  100 
guns  were  in  position  facing  the  enemy,  with 
reserve  artillery  in  the  rear  about  equidistant 
from  the  flanks.  The  enemy  had  nearlj'  150 
guns  in  position.  During  the  forenoon  of 
the  2d  no  movement  of  importance  took 
place,  but  about  noon  Gen.  Lee  ordered  a 
general  attack  on  the  Federal  centre  and 
left.  His  movement  being  discovered  by  the 
Union  commanders  they  were  prepared,  and 
the  3d  Corps,  commanded  by  Gen.  Sickles, 
was  advanced  more  to  the  left  and  front  in 
order  to  be  in  a  more  commanding  position 
to  repel  the  Confederate  attack.  He  had 
hardly  got  into  position  when  the  enemy 
attacked.  Having  bravely  resisted  their 
furious  onslaught  for  about  two  hours,  and 
not  receiving  the  expected  reinforcements, 
the  3d  Corps  was  compelled  to  fall  back  to 
its  previous  position,  when  a  most  desperate 
assault  was  made  upon  it  by  Longstreet's 
troops ;  but  this  part  of  the  line  being 
promptly  strengthened  it  repulsed  all  the 
etforts  of  Longstreet,  with  great  loss,  how- 
ever, on  both  sides.  With  the  advance  of 
Longstreet  a  part  of  the  enemy  advanced  on 
the  centre  of  the  Union  line,  and  meeting 
with  stubborn  resistance  the  battle  grew 
fearful.  The  enemy  pressed  forward  un- 
restrained. Gens.  Sickles,  Hancock,  and 
Gibbon  were  wounded.  The  1st  and  2d 
Corps  wavered  and  the  enemy  pressed  up  to 
the  very  guns  of  the  batteries,  which  were 
exposed  to  capture ;   but  the  6th  Corps,  al- 


though wearied  with  marching,  hurried  up 
with  shouts  to  the  support,  and  the  enemy 
staggered  and  drifted  slowly  back,  and  being 
pushed  on  their  left  flank  by  a  strong  force 
of  the  Federals,  they  retired.  At  this  time  a 
desperate  dash  was  made  by  the  Confederates 
on  the  extreme  right,  which  had  been  weak- 
ened to  support  the  centre  and  left.  For  a 
short  time  the  attack  was  furious,  but  the 
Federals  being  speedily  supported  the  enemy 
were  kept  in  check,  and  finally  retired  about 
9  o'clock  p.M  ,  having  lost  the  day  in  every 
quarter. 

The  battle  commenced  again  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  3d  by  an  artillery  fire  from  the 
Confederate  lines,  and  an  aggressive  move- 
ment of  the  right  of  the  Federal  forces  un- 
der Gen.  Slocum  to  drive  Gen.  Ewell  farther 
back.  This  attack  met  with  a  prompt  re- 
sponse from  the  latter,  but  Gen.  Slocum 
having  been  reinforced  by  part  of  the  3d 
and  5th  Corps,  the  struggle  was  evenly  con- 
tested for  some  time,  when  additional  re- 
inforcements having  arrived,  the  tide  of  bat- 
tle was  turned  in  favor  of  the  Union  troops, 
causing  the  enemy  to  retire,  and  at  11 
o'clock  A.M.  a  general  quiet  prevailed.  The 
movements  of  the  morning  against  Gen. 
Meade  thus  far  had  been  made  to  cover  up 
the  designs  of  the  Confederates.  The  battle 
of  the  jirevious  day  had  demonstrated  that 
the  issue  of  the  struggle  turned  on  the  occu- 
pation of  Cemetery  Hill,  the  key  of  Gen. 
Meade's  position.  To  get  possession  of  this 
spot  was  therefore  the  object  of  the  enemy. 
Therefore  Lee  massed  about  115  guns  so  as 
to  subject  the  artillery  on  Cemetery  Hill  to 
more  than  a  half  circle  of  cross-fires.  At 
about  1  o'clock  P.M.  the  signal-gun  was  fired 
and  the  cannonading  commenced.  The  fire 
of  the  enemy  was  concentrated  on  the  posi- 
tion held  by  the  2d  and  11th  Corps.  It  drew 
a  most  terrific  response  from  the  Federal 
batteries,  and  as  has  been  described  by  a 
spectator  in  the  Confederate  army,  the  almost 
simultaneous  discharge  of  over  200  guns 
"  made  the  air  hideous  with  most  discordant 
noise.  The  very  earth  shook,  and  the  hills 
and  rocks  seemed  to  reel  like  a  drunken  man. 
For  one  hour  and  a  half  this  most  terrific 
fire  was  continued,  during  which  time  the 
shrieking  of  shell,  the  crush  of  fallen  tim- 
bers, the  fragments  of  rocks  flying  through 
the  air,  shattered  from  the  clifls  by  solid 
shot,  the  heavy  muttering  from  the  valley 
between  the  opposing  armies,  the  splash  of 
bursting  shrapnel,  and  the  fierce  neighing 
of  wounded  artillery  horses,  made  a  picture 
terribly  grand  and  sublime."  At  the  ter- 
mination of  the  tiring,  the  left  of  the  Union 
line  was  assaulted  twice,  which  were  hand- 
somely repulsed  with  severe  loss  to  the  Con- 
federates. And  thus  ended  the  memorable 
battle  of  Gettysburg.  The  forenoon  of  the 
4th  was  devoted  to  the  burial  of  the  dead, 
and  in  the  afternoon  the  Confederate  forces 
commenced  to  retreat,  leaving  the  Federal 
forces  in  possession  of  the  hard-fought  field, 
which  covered  the  Union  troops  with  the 


GHAUT 


193 


GLN 


highest  honor  and  cjlory,  but  at  a  terrible 
gacriiice.  During  the  tlireedays  the  Confed- 
erate losses  were  18,000  killed  and  wounded, 
and  13,000  missintj,  a  large  part  of  the 
latter  prisoners;  making  a  total  of  31,000. 
The  Union  losses  were  10,500  killed  and 
wounded,  and  fJGOO  missing,  chiefly  prison- 
ers captured  on  the  first  and  second  days, 
making  a  total  loss  of  not  less  than  23,000  — 
Extracts  from  D.  Appleton'n  ^^  History  of  the 
Rebellion,"  hi/  Tennei/,  ^'  Lijypincott's  Ga- 
zetteer," and  "  Hdijdn's  Dates." 

Ghaut,  or  Gh&t.  A  term  in  India  signi- 
fying a  pass  through  a  range  of  hills ;  also  a 
flight  of  stairs  descending  to  the  rivers  for 
the  accommodation  of  bathers,  and  as  land- 
ing-places for  boats. 

Ghent  (Fr.  Gand).  An  ancient  fortified 
city  of  Belgium,  capital  of  East  Flanders, 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Lys  and 
Scheldt.  It  commenced  to  acquire  impor- 
tance in  the  12th  century,  when  its  fortifica- 
tions were  completed.  In  the  14th  century, 
having  revolted  against  the  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, it  was  subdued  after  seven  defeats, 
in  some  of  wliich  it  suffered  a  fearful  slaugh- 
ter of  its  citizens.  It  again  revolted  against 
Charles  V.  in  the  10th  century,  was  again 
subdued,  made  to  fiay  a  heavy  fine,  and 
forced  to  pay  for  the  erection  of  a  citadel  to 
keep  it  in  subjection.  The  French  became 
masters  of  (ihent  in  1078,  1708,  174^,,  1792, 
and  again  in  1705.  The  city  was  united  to 
the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  after  the 
peace  of  Paris  (1814),  and  is  now  a  rich  and 
populous  city  of  Belgium.  In  this  city  on 
December  24,  1814,  the  terms  of  the  treaty 
were  agreed  on,  between  the  United  States 
and  British  envoys,  which  put  an  end  to  the 
war  of  1812-15. 

Gheriah.  A  town  of  British  India,  in  the 
presidency  of  Bombay.  It  was  the  principal 
post  of  Angria,  a  famous  piratical  prince, 
whose  fort  here  was  taken,  and  his  whole 
fleet  destroyed,  by  Admiral  Watson  and 
Col.  Clive,  in  conjunction  with  the  Mahrat- 
tas  in  1750. 

Ghizni,  or  Ghuznee.  A  fortified  city  of 
Afghanistan,  built  on  a  hill  7720  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  00  miles  from  Cabul. 
It  wius  the  capital  of  a  powerful  empire  of 
the  same  mime,  and  is  sometimes  called  the 
second  Medina,  from  the  great  number  of 
illustrious  persons  who  have  been  interred 
there.  The  old  town  of  Ghuznee  was  de- 
stroyed in  the  12th  century,  and  the  modern 
one  stands  on  a  site  about  3  miles  from  the 
ruins  of  the  other.  It  was  stormed  and 
taken  by  Lord  Keane  in  1830.  In  1842  the 
garrison  surrendered  to  the  Afghans,  from 
whom,  however,  it  was  again  taken  in  the 
same  vear  bv  the  British  forces  under  Gen. 
Nott. 

Ghoor, -Ghore,  or  Ghour.  A  largo  dis- 
trict of  Afghanistan.  Tiiis  was  formerly 
one  of  the  Persian  governments  ;  but  in  the 
12th  century  its  chiefs  became  independent, 
overturned  the(Jbiznian  empire,  and  carried 
their  arms  as   far  as  Benares.     One  of  their 


slaves  founded  the  Mohammedan  kingdom 
of  Delhi  about  1200.  Tbis  country  was 
overrun  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries  by 
the  armies  of  Genghis  Khan  and  Tamerlane. 
Its  capital  is  Ghoor,  which  was  taken  by 
the  king  of  Kharezim,and  was  subsequently 
sacked  by  the  armies  of  Genghis  and  Tamer- 
lane, from  which  it  has  never  recovered,  and 
is  now  scarcely  known. 

Ghorchana.  The  irregular  Sikh  yeomanry 
who  served  in  the  wars  in  the  Punjab  be- 
tween tlie  .Sikhs  and  the  English. 

Ghyretty.  Cantonments  14  miles  from 
Calcutta.  It  is  a  palace  built  by  Mr.  Du- 
pleix,  wliich  the  Britisli  took  by  force  in 
1707,  and  imprisoned  the  principal  French 
colonists  of  Chandernagore  there. 

Giambeux.  (ireaves  ;  armor  for  the  legs, 
in  ancient  times.     See  J  amukl'X. 

Giant  Powder,  or  Dynamite.     See  Dyna- 

MITK. 

Giants,  Battle  of  the.      See  Battle  of 

TIIK  (tIANTS. 

Giberne  \,Fr.).  A  sort  of  bag  in  which 
the  grenadiers  held  their  hand-grenades.  It 
was  worn  like  a  powder-flask. 

Gibraltar.  A  fortified  seaport  town  and 
garrison,  occupying  a  promontory  in  the 
south  of  Spain,  at  the  entrance  from  the 
Atlantic  into  the  Mediterranean,  00  miles 
southeast  from  Cadiz.  It  consists  of  a  high 
and  rocky  mountain  running  from  north  to 
south,  about  3  miles  in  length,  and  three- 
fourths  in  width,  its  highest  point  being 
1430  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
"rock"  was  first  fortified  in  the  modern 
style  in  the  reign  of  Charles  V.  It  was 
surprised  by  the  English  under  Sir  George 
Kooke  in  1704,  soon  after  the  commence- 
ment of  the  "War  of  the  Spanish  Succession, 
and  it  has  been  a  British  dependency  ever 
since.  It  has  been  repeatedly  besieged,  and 
always  without  success,— first  in  1720,  next 
in  1727,  and  lastly  in  1770,  when  it  stood  a 
siege  of  upwards  of  three  years  and  a  half, 
the  French  and  Spaniards  using  their  ut- 
most endeavors  to  capture  it ;  but  every 
effort  was  bravelv  repulsed  by  the  governor, 
Gen.  Elliott. 

Gibraltar  of  America.     See  Quebec. 

Gib-staff.  In  England,  a  staS"  to  gauge 
water,  or  to  pusli  a  boat. 

Gin.  In  military  mechanics,  is  a  machine 
for  raising  great  weights:  it  is  composed  of 
three  long  legs,  one  of  them  being  longer  tban 
the  rest,  and  called  the  pry-pole.  The  other 
two  are  kept  at  a  proper  distance  by  means 
of  two  iron  bars  fixed  on  one  of  the  legs  by 
a  staple  passing  through  a  hole  at  one  end  ; 
the  otber  end  has  a  hook  which  enters  into  a 
staple  fixed  into  the  other  leg  so  as  to  bo 
taken  off  or  put  on  at  pleasure.  At  about 
3  feet  from  the  bottom  is  a  windlass,  uoon 
which  the  cable  is  wound  ;  and  the  three  legs 
are  joined  together  at  the  top  by  an  iron 
bolt,  about  wiiich  they  move  :  to  this  bolt  is 
also  fixed  an  iron  clevis  to  which  is  hooked 
the  blocks  and  fall.  "SVhen  the  gin  stands 
upright  with  legs  at  a  proper  distance,  one 


GINDI 


194 


GLADIATOKS 


end  of  the  cable  is  fastened  to  a  gun,  mor- 
tar, or  other  weight ;  and  the  otlier  passes 
through  the  pulleys  and  about  the  roller, 
which  is  turned  round  by  means  of  hand- 
spikes passing  through  the  holes  in  the  end 
of  the  roller;  whilst  a  man  holds  the  cable 
tight,  the  gun  is  raised  to  the  height  re- 
quired, so  that  the  carriage  may  be  put  under 
it.  The  modern  gin  has  a  windlass  with 
pawl  and  ratchet  attachments.  There  are 
three  different  kinds  of  gins, — the  field  and 
siege,  the  garrison,  and  the  casemate  gins ; 
and  they  only  differ  in  their  size  and  weight. 

Gindi.  Turkish  horsemen,  who  perform 
extraordinary  feats. 

Gingals,  Ginjauls,  or  Gingauls.  Large 
muskets  used  in  India  by  the  natives,  with 
a  rest,  somewhat  similar  to  those  invented 
by  Marshal  Vauban  for  the  defense  of  forts. 

Gingee.  A  strong  town  on  the  coast  of 
Coromandel,  once  the  capital  of  a  kingdom 
of  the  same  name,  85  miles  from  Madras. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  18th  century,  the 
Great  Mogul  unsuccessfully  besieged  this 
place  for  a  period  of  three  years.  In  1750 
it  was  taken  by  the  French,  who,  in  1761, 
ceded  it  to  the  British. 

Gionules  [Fr.).  Turkish  volunteer  cav- 
alry, renowned  for  their  bravery. 

Girandole  {Fr.).  Any  firework  turning 
upon  a  wheel  ;  a  wheel  whose  circumference 
is  studded  with  rockets. 

Girandole  {Fr.).  In  fortification,  several 
chambers  in  mines  connected  for  the  defense 
of  the  place  of  arms  of  the  covered  wa}'. 

Girondists.  An  important  party  during 
the  French  revolution,  principally  composed 
of  deputies  from  the  Gironde.  At  first  they 
were  ardent  republicans,  but  after  the  cruel- 
ties of  August  and  September,  1792,  they 
labored  to  restrain  the  cruelties  of  the  Moun- 
tain party,  to  which  they  succumbed.  Their 
leaders,  Brissot,  Vergniaud,  and  many  oth- 
ers were  guillotined  October  31,  1793,  at  the 
instigation  of  Kobespierre. 

Gironne,  or  Gyronne.  A  term  used  in 
heraldry  to  indicate  that  the  field  is  divided 
into  six,  eight,  or  more  triangular  portions 
of  different  trenches,  the  points  of  the  tri- 
angles all  meeting  in  the  centre  of  the  shield. 

Gisarm.  A  scythe-shaped  weapon,  with 
a  pike  projecting  from  one  side,  formerly 
borne  by  foot-soldiers  on  the  end  of  a  long 
staff.  It  was  used  as  late  as  the  battle  of 
Flodden.     SccGuisarme. 

Gisors.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Eure,  23  miles  from  Rouen. 
Here  a  battle  took  place  October  10,  1198, 
between  the  French  and  English,  in  which 
the  former  were  completely  defeated.  Rich- 
ard I.,  who  commanded  the  English,  gave 
as  the  "  parole,"  or  watch-word  of  the  day, 
Dieu  et  mon  droit  (God  and  my  right),  and 
ever  since  the  expression  has  been  the  motto 
to  the  royal  arms  of  England. 

Gistes.  Pieces  of  wood  which  are  made 
use  of  in  the  construction  of  platforms  to 
batteries,  and  upon  which  the  madriers  or 
broad  planks  are  placed. 


Gitschin.  A  walled  town  of  Bohemia, 
about  50  miles  northeast  of  Prague.  It 
was  captured  by  the  Prussians  after  a  severe 
conflict  with  the  Austrians,  June  29,  1866. 
Near  Gitschin,  the  same  evening,  the  crown- 
prince  of  Prussia  was  victor  in  another 
engagement. 

Giurgevo.  A  town  and  river-port  of 
Wallachia,  opposite  Rustchuk,  and  about  40 
miles  southwest  from  Bucharest,  of  which 
it  is  the  port.  In  1773  the  Turks  were  de- 
feated here  by  the  Russians,  who  took  it  in 
1811,  and  again  in  1829,  when  its  defenses 
were  leveled  with  the  ground.  In  1854  the 
Russians  were  defeated  in  its  neighborhood 
by  the  Turks. 

Givet.  A  fortified  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Ardennes,  on  the  Belgian 
frontier.  This  place  was  fortified  by  Vau- 
ban ;  the  chief  defensive  works  are  Charle- 
mont,  the  citadel,  and  the  forts  Notre  Dame 
and  St.  Ililaire. 

Glabrio.  A  family  name  of  the  Acilla 
gens  at  Rome.  The  Acilii  Glabriones  were 
plebeian,  and  first  appear  on  the  consular 
annals  in  191  B.C.,  from  which  time  the  name 
frequently  occurs  to  a  late  period  of  the 
empire.  M.  Acilius  Glabrio,  the  most  dis- 
tinguished of  the  family,  became  consul  in 
191  B.C.  In  that  year  Rome  declared  war 
against  Antiochus  the  Great,  king  of  Syria. 
Glabrio  was  sent  against  him,  and  with 
the  aid  of  his  ally,  Philip  II.,  king  of  Mace- 
donia, he  speedily  reduced  to  obedience  the 
whole  district  between  the  Cambunian  moun- 
tain-chain and  Mount  CEta.  Antiochus, 
alarmed  at  Glabrio's  progress,  intrenched 
himself  strongly  at  Thermopylse ;  but,  al- 
though his  iEtolian  allies  occupied  the  passes 
of  Mount  (Eta,  the  Romans  broke  through 
his  outposts,  and  cut  to  pieces  or  dispersed 
his  army.  Glabrio  was  engaged  in  the 
siege  of  Amphissa,  when  his  successor,  L. 
Cornelius  Scipio,  arrived  from  Rome  and 
relieved  him  from  command.  He  was  unan- 
imously granted  a  triumph  on  his  return  to 
Rome. 

Glacis.  A  slope  of  earth,  usually  turfed, 
which  inclines  from  the  covered  way  towards 
the  country.  Its  object  is  to  bring  assail- 
ants, as  they  approach,  into  a  conspicuous 
line  of  fire  from  the  parapet  of  the  fortress, 
and  also  to  mask  the  general  works  of  the 
place. 

Gladiators.  Were  men  who  fought  with 
swords  in  the  amphitheatre  and  other  places 
for  the  amusement  of  the  Roman  people. 
They  are  said  to  have  been  first  exhibited 
by  the  Etruscans,  and  to  have  had  their  ori- 
gin from  the  custom  of  killing  slaves  and 
captives  at  the  funeral  pyres  of  the  deceased. 
The  first  exhibition  of  gladiators  at  Rome 
occurred  in  204  B.C.  They  were  at  first  con- 
fined to  public  funerals,  but  afterwards 
fought  at  the  funerals  of  most  persons  of 
consequence.  Combats  of  gladiators  were 
also  exhibited  at  entertainments.  They 
consisted  either  of  captives,  slaves,  and  con- 
demned malefactors,  or  of  free-born  citizens 


GLADSMUIR 


195 


GLOUCESTER 


who  fought  voluntarily.  But  it  was  in  the 
am  phi  theatre  that  the  combats  of  f,'hi(liators 
most  frequently  took  place.  Notice  of  the 
exhibition  being  given  beforehand,  thou- 
sands flocked  to  witness  the  spectacle. 
When  a  gladiator  was  vanquisheii  by  his 
antagonist,  his  fate  depended  upon  tlie  peo- 
ple, who  by  a  sign  indicated  wliether  they 
wished  him  to  be  put  to  death  or  saved. 
Shows  of  gladiators  were  abolished  by  Con- 
stantine,  but  appear,  notwithstanding,  to 
have  been  generally  exhibited  till  the  time 
of  Honorius,  by  whom  they  were  finally 
euppn^ssed. 

Gladsmuir.  A  parish  in  Scotland,  in  the 
county  of  Haddington,  in  which  the  battle 
of  Ghi(l>iiuiir,  or  Prestonpans,  was  fought. 

Glaire.  A  broadsword  or  a  falchion  fixed 
on  a  pike. 

Glais,  Militaire  (F?-.).     A  military  com- 

Slimeiit  which  wijs  paid  to  the  remains  of  a 
eceased  general.  It  consisted  in  a  dis- 
charge of  ordnance.  It  also  signifies  the 
funeral  procession  of  a  sovereign.         * 

Glaive.  Sword  ;  a  large  blade  fixed  on 
the  end  of  a  pole,  whose  edge  was  on  the 
outside  curve;  a  light  lance  with  a  long 
sharp-pointed  head.  Also  a  knight,  fully 
armed,  with  his  squire.  A  kind  of  sword 
worn  by  peers  in  France  in  full  dress. 

Glaize.  A  kind  of  halbert,  so  called  by 
the  Saxons. 

Glanders.  A  contagious  and  very  de- 
structive disease  of  the  mucous  membrane 
in  horses,  characterized  by  a  constant  dis- 
charge of  sticky  matter  from  the  nose  and 
an  enlargement  and  induration  of  the  glands 
beneath  and  within  the  lower  jaw. 

Glarus.  A  canton  in  the  northeast  of 
Switzerland.  In  the  earliest  times  Glarus 
was  reckoned  sometimes  as  a  part  of  Rhoetia, 
sometimes  as  a  part  of  Swabia,  and  was  peo- 
pled by  German  settlers.  After  various 
changes  it  pa.<sed  into  the  possession  of  the 
dukes  of  Austria,  but  ultimately  secured  its 
independence  by  the  victories  of  Nafels  in 
ISiVi  and  1388,  when  it  joined  the  Swiss 
Confederation. 

Glastonbury.  A  town  of  England,  in 
Somersetshire,  25  miles  from  the  city  of 
Bath.  It  was  anciently  called  Avalonia,  or 
the  Isle  of  Avalon,  and  no  person  what- 
ever, not  even  a  bishop  or  prince,  was  al- 
lowed to  enter  without  leave  from  the  abbot, 
to  whom  this  power  was  granted  by  Canute 
the  Dane.  There  were  til  abbots" of  Gla.s- 
tonbury,  who  sat  among  the  barons  in  Par- 
liament, and  governed  it  successively  for 
nearly  COO  years.  Richard  Withing",  the 
last,  was  condemned  at  Wells  for  refusing 
to  surrender  his  abbey  to  King  Henry 
VIII.,  and  acknowledge  his  supremacy, 
and  carried,  with  two  of  his  monks,  on  a 
hurdle,  to  Tor  Hill,  a  bleak  hill  clo.se  to  the 
town,  where  he  was  hanged  in  his  robes. 

Glatz.  A  town  of  Prussia,  capital  of 
Glatz  district;  built  on  both  sides  of  the 
Neisse,  and  is  strongly  fortified.  This  place 
•urrendered  to  the  Prussians  in  1742,  and 


was  taken  by  the  Anstrians  in  1759,  but  re- 
stored at  the  peace  of  17G3.  It  was  taken 
by  Wiirtemberg  and  Bavarian  troops  m 
1807.  The  celebrated  Baron  Trenck  was 
confined  in  its  fortress,  but  made  his  escape 
by  leaping  from  the  walls. 

Glave.     See  (Jk.mvk. 

Glazing  Powder.     See  Gunpowder. 

Glencoe.  A  valley  of  Scotland,  in  Ar- 
gyleshire,  noted  for  the  military  execution 
of  its  unsuspecting  inhabitants,  the  Mac- 
donalds,  by  a  party  of  English  soldiers,  in 
1(;!J2,  in  consequence  of  an  order  signed  by 
William  III.  in  council  for  that  purpose, 
and  issued  contrary  to  the  faith  of  a  royal 
proclamation.  Many  of  the  inhabitants 
had  been  in  arms  for  James  II.  during  his 
attempts  to  recover  the  crown  of  England. 

Glendale,  Battle  of.  Also  known  as  the 
battle  of  Frazier's  Farm,  and  White  Oak 
Swamp,  and  Charles  City  Cross-roads,  Vir- 
ginia, one  of  the  "seven  daj's'  contests," 
was  fought  June  30,  18()2,  between  the 
Army  t>f  the  Potomac  under  Gen.  McClel- 
lan,  on  its  retreat  towards  the  James  River, 
and  the  Confederate  forces  under  Gen.  L<mg- 
street.  The  battle  commenced  in  the  after- 
noon, and  continued  with  furv  well  into 
the  night,  the  Confederate  loss  being  about 
2000  men,  and  the  Union  loss  about  1500. 
By  next  morning  McClellan  had  his  whole 
army  in  position  on  ^lalvern  Hill,  and  com- 
munication with  the  James  River  was  se- 
cured. 

Glissade  (Fr.).  A  term  formerly  ap- 
plied to  the  forward  or  backward  movement 
of  the  pike. 

Globe  Sight.  A  form  of  front  sight  used 
specially  on  target  rifles.  It  consists  of  a 
pin  with  a  small  ball  on  the  end  of  it,  or  a 
disk  with  a  hole  in  it.  For  protection  it  is 
set  in  a  tube  open  at  both  ends. 

Gloire  ( Fr. ).  An  artificial  firework  which 
resembles  a  large  sun. 

Glorious  Virgin,  or  St.  Mary  the  Glorious, 
Order  of  the.  An  order  of  knightluwd  in 
Venice,  founded  by  Bartholomew  of  Vicenza 
in  1262.  This  institution  was  ecclesiastical 
as  well  as  military  ;  its  objects  were  the  pro- 
tection of  widows  and  orphans,  and  the 
furtherance  of  the  peace  of  Italy.  The 
badge  was  a  purple  cross  between  certain 
stars,  and  the  costume  a  white  surcoat  on  a 
russet  cloak.  An  order  of  knighthood  of 
St.  Mary  the  Glorious  also  existed  in  Rome 
in  the  17th  century,  whose  purpose  was  the 
suppression  of  the  Barbary  corsairs  who  in- 
fested the  Mediterranean. 

Glory,  Military.  Honor,  reputation,  and 
fame  acquired  by  military  achievements. 
That  precarious  sjdendor  which  jilays  around 
the  brows  t>f  a  warrior,  and  has  been  col- 
lected by  hard  service,  extraordinary  genius, 
and  unblemished  integrity  ;  but  which  may 
de.'sert  the  greatest  hero  through  one  unfor- 
tunate failure,  occasioned  by  the  fatality  of 
human  imperfection. 

Gloucester.  A  city  and  the  capital  of  a 
county  of  the  same  name  in  England.     It 


GLOUCESTERSHIKE 


196 


GOLDBERG 


became  a  Roman  station  under  the  name  of 
Colonia  Glcvium,  and  an  important  town  in 
Mercia  under  the  Saxons,  by  whom  it  was 
called  Glean-Ceasie?-, — whence  its  present 
name.  Here  the  celebrated  single  combat 
between  Edmund  Ironsides  and  Canute  is 
said  to  have  taken  place.  It  was  repeatedly 
visited  by  William  I. ;  afforded  a  refuge  and 
support  to  Queen  Matilda  in  her  contest 
with  Stephen ;  saw  Henry  III.  crowned, 
and  Parliaments  held  under  Richard  II  and 
Henry  IV.,  and  sided  successfully  with  the 
Parliament  in  the  civil  war  against  Charles  I. 

Gloucestershire.  A  county  of  England, 
which,  previous  to  the  Roman  invasion,  was 
inhabited  by  a  tribe  called  the  Dobuni ;  and 
after  that  event,  the  county,  or  the  greater 
part  of  it,  was  included  in  the  province 
named  Flavia  Ccesarienes.  From  the  earli- 
est of  the  Danish  invasions  down  to  the 
battle  of  Tewkesbury,  in  1471,  and  to  the 
civil  wars  between  the  crown  and  Parlia- 
ment, Gloucestershire  has  been  the  scene  of 
many  and  disastrous  encounters.  There  are 
traces  of  British,  Saxon,  and  Danish  works 
in  the  county. 

Glove.  A  cover  for  the  hand,  or  for  the 
hand  and  wrist,  with  a  separate  sheath  for 
each  finger.  To  throw  the  glove,  an  old  ex- 
pression which  formerly  meant  to  challenge 
to  single  combat. 

Gliickstadt.  A  town  of  the  German  em- 
pire, capital  of  the  duchy  of  Holstein,  on 
the  Elbe,  32  miles  below  Hamburg.  It  was 
founded  in  1620  by  Christian  IV.  of  Den- 
mark, and  fortified.  During  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  it  successfully  withstood  three 
sieges ;  its  fortifications  were  demolished  in 
1815. 

Glycerine,  Nitro-.     See  Explosives. 

Glyoxiline.     See  Explosives. 

Go.  The  verb  "to  go"  is  variously  used 
in  a  military  sense  ;  as,  to  march  in  a  hostile 
or  warlike  manner.  To  go  off  implies  to  de- 
part from  any  post.  To  go  on  is  to  make  an 
attack.  To  go  over  is  to  revolt.  To  go  out, 
to  go  upon  any  expedition,  etc.  It  was 
likewise  frequently  used  to  signify  the  act  of 
fighting  a  duel;  as,  he  went  out  with  so 
and  so. 

Goa.  A  town  of  Hindostan,  on  the  Mala- 
bar coast.  It  was  formerly  the  capital  of 
the  Portuguese  dominions  in  India.  This 
place  was  taken  by  the  Portuguese  under 
Albuquerque  in  1510;  and  by  the  English 
April  2,  1756. 

Gobille  (Fr.).  A  small  copper  ball,  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  several  of 
which  are  put  into  a  revolving  cask  for  the 
purpose  of  more  intimately  incorporating 
the  ingredients  of  powder,  carcass,  and 
rocket  composition. 

Gobisson,  or  Gambasson  {Fr.).  A  quilted 
and  padded  dress  worn  under  the  habergeon. 

Godesberg.  A  village  of  Rhenish  Prus- 
sia, on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  4  miles 
south  of  Bonn.  In  1582,  Gebhard,  the  de- 
posed archbishop,  took  refuge  here,  and  in- 
trusted the  castle  to  a  Dutch  garrison.     It 


was,  however,  soon  after  taken  possession  of 
by  his  successor,  on  which  occasion  it  sus- 
tained much  injury.  During  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  it  was  alternately  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  Swedes  and  the  Imperialists, 
and  .was  finally  almost  demolished  by  the 
French. 

Godolo.  A  market-town  in  Hungary. 
It  was  near  here  that  the  combined  armies 
of  Austria  under  Prince  Windischgriitz  and 
Count  Jellachich  were  defeated  in  two  bloody 
battles  by  the  Hungarians  under  Gorgei. 
On  the  eve  of  victory,  Governor  Kossuth 
held  a  conference  with  the  generals  Gorgei, 
Klapka,  and  Damjanich  for  laying  down 
the  principles  of  the  famous  declaration  of 
independence,  issued  April  14,  1849.  It  was 
this  declaration  which  served  the  emperor 
of  Russia  as  a  pretext  for  the  invasion  of 
Hungary. " 

Gohud.  A  fortified  town  of  Hindostan, 
in  the  territory  of  Gwalior;  or  possessions  of 
the  Scindia  family.  This  place  was  taken 
from  Bheem  Singh  by  the  Mahrattas  about 
1761.  When  this  nation  lost  the  battle  of 
Paniput,  the  rannah  of  Gohud  attempted  to 
shake  oft'  their  yoke,  but  was  conquered  by 
Ragoonauth  Row  in  1766,  and  compelled  to 
continue  tributary.  On  a  subsequent  rup- 
ture Gohud  was.  taken  by  Scindia  in  1784. 
Relinquished  to  Scindia  by  a  treaty  with 
Great  Britain  subsequent  to  1804. 

Goito.  A  small  town  in  Lombardy,  15 
miles  northwest  from  Mantua.  In  1630  this 
place  was  carried  by  assault  by  the  Imperial- 
ists, who  entered  Mantua  on  the  same  night, 
and  took  it  by  surprise.  During  the  War 
of  the  Spanisia  Succession  in  1701,  it  was 
alternately  captured  by  the  allies  and  the 
Imperialists;  and  in  1796  the  French  took 
it,  but  were  expelled,  after  a  brief  tenure, 
by  the  Austrians.  In  1814,  a  severe  engage- 
ment took  place  here  between  the  Aus- 
trian and  Italian  troops ;  and  during  the 
war  of  independence  in  1848,  it  became  the 
theatre  of  two  other  battles  between  the 
same  powers,  to  which  it  owes  its  modern 
celebrity. 

Goladar,  or  Goldar.  An  East  Indian 
term  signifying  a  store-keeper,  or  store-house 
keeper. 

Golandaazee,  or  Golandauzee.  The  In- 
dian term  of  an  artilleryman. 

Golconda.  A  town  of  Hindostan,  strongly 
fortified  by  nature  and  art,  standing  on  a 
hill  5  miles  northwest  from  Hyderabad.  It 
was  once  noted  for  its  diamonds.  Golconda 
was  once  the  capital  of  an  extensive  kingdom 
which  arose  on  the  dissolution  of  the  Bha- 
menee  dynasty,  and  was  governed  by  native 
Hindoo  princes ;  but  being  taken  by  Au- 
rungzebe  by  treachery  in  1687,  after  a  siege 
of  seven  months,  the  whole  territory  became 
incorporated  with  the  empire  of  Delhi. 

Goldberg.  A  town  in  Prussian  Silesia, 
on  an  afliuent  of  the  Oder,  12  miles  south- 
west from  Liegnitz.  The  French  were  de- 
feated by  the  Prussians  near  this  place  in 
1813. 


GOLD  COAST 


197 


GORGONS 


Gold  Coast  Corps.    A  corps  in  the  British  , 
Bcrvice    formed    of    drilled    Afrieuris,    und  j 
officered    from    the   West   India  regiments.   ; 
It  is  kept  up  for  the  purpose  of  protecting 
the  possessions  of  Sierra  Leone  and  Gambia. 

Gold  Stick.  A  title  given  to  the  captain 
of  the  gentlemen-at-arms,  or  body-guard  of 
the  British  sovereign,  and  to  colonels  of  the 
Life  Guards.  "When  either  of  the  regiments 
of  Life  Guards  is  given  to  an  officer,  he  is 
presented  by  the  .sovereign  with  the  gold 
stick.  The  colonels  of  the  two  regiments 
are  in  attendance  on  the  sovereign  alter- 
nately month  and  month.  The  one  thus  on 
duty  is  called  gold  stick  in  waiting ;  and  all 
orders  relating  to  the  Life  Guards  are  trans- 
mitted through  him.     See  Silvkk  Stick. 

Golden  Fleece.  A  celebrated  order  of 
knighthood  in  Austria  and  Spain,  founded 
bp  I'hilip  III.,  duke  of  Burgundy  and  the 
Isetherlands,  at  Bruges,  January  10,  142U. 
The  order  was  instituted  for  the  protection 
of  the  Homan  Catholic  Church,  and  ranks 
next  after  the  order  of  the  Garter.  The  in- 
signia of  the  Austrian  order  are  a  golden 
fleece  hanging  from  a  gold  and  blue  enameled 
flint-stone  emitting  llame,  and  borne  in  its  ; 
turn  by  a  ray  of  tire.  On  the  enameled  j 
obverse  is  inscribed  Preiuitn  laburum  nan 
vile.  The  Spanish  decoration  differs  slightly 
from  the  Austrian. 

Golden  Horde.  A  name  given  to  the 
Mongolian  Tartars,  who  established  an  em- 
pire in  what  is  now  Southeast  Russia  about 
lT2-i,  their  ruler  being  Baton,  grandson  of 
Genghis  Khan.  They  invaded  liussia,  and 
made  Alexander  Newski  grand  duke  in  1252. 
At  the  battle  of  Bielawlsch,  in  1481,  they 
were  crushed  by  Ivan  111.  and  the  Nogay 
Tartars. 

Gollette  {Fr.).  A  shirt  of  mail  formerly 
worn  by  foot-soldier.*. 

Gonfalon,  or  Gonfanon.  An  ensign  or 
standard  ;  colors. 

Gonfalonier.  A  Turkish  general  and 
standard-keeper  who  always  precedes  the 
grand  scignor  during  war. 

Gong.  An  Indian  and  Chinese  instru- 
ment of  percu.ssion,  made  of  a  mixture  of 
metals,  which  produces  a  very  loud,  piercing 
sound  on  being  struck  by  a  wooden  mallet. 
It  is  used  by  the  Chinese  as  an  instrument  of 
martial  niiiMc. 

Gong  Wallas.  Militia  in  India;  so  called 
from  ;ii>)iii,  a  village,  and  wallas,  a  man. 

Goniometer.  A  general  name  for  angle- 
measuring  instruments. 

Good-conduct  Pay.  Given  in  the  British 
service  us  a  stimulus  to  soldiers  to  conduct 
themselves  with  jjropriety.  Soldiers  who 
have  not  figured  in  the  defaulters'  book  arc 
entitled  to  extra  pay,  which  goes  on  increas- 
ing at  intervals  upon  the  same  condition  of 
"good  conduct."  To  mark  the  soldiers  so 
distinguished,  badges  are  given  them  in  the 
form  of  rin^s  of  white  lace,  worn  on  the 
right  arm.  The  receipt  of  good-conduct  pay 
uninterruptedly  for  some  years  influences  the 
amount  of  pension. 


Goojerat.  A  village  in  the  Punjab,  India, 
the  scene  of  the  last  stand  made  by  the  Sikh 
army  against  tin;  British  under  Lord  Gough, 
in  184'J.  In  this  action  tlie  Sikhs  lost  53 
guns,  and  their  army  of  00,000  men  was 
entirely  broken  up  and  dispersed.  The 
whole  of  the  Punjab  then  fell  under  the 
British  yoke. 

Gordian  Knot.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
made  of  the  thongs  that  served  as  harness  to 
the  wagon  of  Gordius,  a  husbandman,  after- 
wards king  of  Phrygia.  Whosoever  loosed 
this  knot,  the  ends  of  which  were  not  dis- 
coverable, the  oracle  declared  should  be  ruler 
of  Persia.  Alexander  the  Great  cut  away 
the  knot  with  his  sword  until  he  found  the 
ends  of  it,  and  thus,  in  a  military  sense  at 
least,  interpreted  the  oracle,  330  u.c. 

Goree.  A  town  and  snuill  island,  or 
rather  rock,  oft'  the  coast  of  Africa,  a  little 
more  than  a  mile  from  Cape  Verd.  This 
island  was  first  occupied  by  the  Dutch,  and 
afterwards  taken  by  the  French,  to  whom  it 
was  finally  ceded  by  the  treaty  of  Nimeguen, 
1G78.  It  is  now  the  bulwark  of  the  posses- 
sions of  the  French  in  Africa.  Goree  was 
taken  by  the  British  in  1758,  1779,  1800,  and 
1804. 

Gorey.  A  town  in  the  southeast  of  Ire- 
land. Near  here  the  king's  troops  under 
Col.  Walpole  were  defeated,  and  their  leader 
slain  by  the  Irish  rebels,  June  4,  1798. 

Gorge.  The  entrance  into  any  piece  of  a 
fortification,  which  consists  of  the  distance 
orspace  between  the  inner  extremities  of  the 
two  faces;  as,  between  the  faces  of  a  half- 
moon,  redoubt,  bastion,  redan,  lunette,  etc. 

Gorge,  Demi-.     See  Demi-ooroe. 

Gorge  of  a  Bastion.  In  fortification,  is 
usually  an  open  space  between  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  flanks  of  the  bastion.  The  larger 
this  gorge  is,  the  better  is  the  defense  ;  for 
when  the  ruined  bastion  is  about  to  fall  by 
siege  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  the  de- 
fenders can  construct  defensive  works  or  dig 
small  ditches  in  the  gorge  of  the  abandoned 
bastion.  Such  resistance  sometimes  drives 
the  besiegers  to  the  necessity  of  battering  in 
breach  the  curtain. 

Gorge  of  Mountains.  Is  the  passage, 
more  or  less  compressed,  between  two  moun- 
tains, which  is  used  as  a  passage-way  into 
valleys.  Gorges  arc  important  military 
points.  If  they  lead  to  an  intrenched  camp, 
it  is  necessary  to  fortify  them,  and  there 
post  grand  guards ;  tliese  positions  are  the 
principal  theatres  for  affairs  of  posts. 

Gorged.  In  heraldry,  when  an  animal  is 
represented  with  a  crown  round  its  neck,  it 
is  said  to  be  gorged. 

Gorgerin  (Fr.).  In  ancient  times,  that 
part  of  the  armor  which  covered  the  neck  of 
a  num.     Hence  our  word  gurgrt. 

Gorget  (Itnl.  gorgirtta,  from  gorga,  a 
throat).  That  part  of  ancient  armor  which 
defended  the  neck.  Also  a  crescent-shaped 
ornament  formerly  worn  by  military  officers 
on  the  breast. 

Gorgons.     In  military  antiquity,  a  war- 


GOTHAKD 


198 


GRAIN 


like  female  nation  of  Lybia,  in  Africa,  who 
had  frequent  quarrels  with  another  nation 
of  the  same  sex,  called  Amazons. 

Gothard,  St.  The  pass  of  St.  Gothard  is 
one  of  the  best  and  most  frequented  routes 
across  the  Alps.  On  the  northern  slope  is 
the  celebrated  Devil's  Bridge  across  the 
Euess.  The  French  and  Russians  had  sev- 
eral combats  here  in  1799. 

Gothland.  An  island  in  the  Baltic  Sea. 
It  was  conquered  by  the  Teutonic  ivnights, 
1397-98;  given  up  to  the  Danes,  1.5-24;  to 
Sweden,  1645;  conquered  by  the  Danes,  1677, 
and  restored  to  Sweden,  1(579. 

Goths.  A  warlike  nation  that  inhabited 
the  country  between  the  Caspian,  Pontus, 
Euxine,  and  Baltic  Seas.  They  entered 
Moesia,  took  Philippopolis,  massacring  thou- 
sands of  its  inhabitants',  defeated  and  killed 
the  emperor  Decius,  251  ;  but  were  defeated 
by  Claudius,  320,000  being  slain.  Aurelian 
ceded  Dacia  to  them  in  272  ;  but  they  long 
troubled  the  empire.  After  the  destruction 
of  the  Roman  empire  by  the  Heruli,  the 
Ostrogoths,  under  Theodoric,  became  mas- 
ters of  the  greater  part  of  Italy,  where  they 
retained  their  dominion  till  553,  when  they 
were  finally  conquered  by  N arses,  Justinian's 
general.  TheVisigoths  settled  in  Spain,  and 
founded  a  kingdom,  which  continued  until 
the  country  was  subdued  by  the  Saracens. 

Gotthard,  St.  Near  the  river  Raab,  Hun- 
gary. Here  the  Turks  under  the  grand 
vizier  Kupruili  were  totally  defeated  by  the 
Imperialists  and  their  allies,  commanded  by 
Montecuculli,  August  1,  1664.  Peace  fol- 
lowed this  great  victory. 

Goudrons  {Fi\).  Small  fascines,  or  fagots, 
which  are  well  steeped  in  wax,  pitch,  and 
glue,  and  then  are  lighted  for  the  purpose 
of  setting  fire  to  beams,  planks,  traverses, 
galleries,  pontons,  etc.  They  are  likewise 
used  in  various  shapes  and  ways,  to  convey 
light  into  the  ditches,  or  upon  the  ramparts. 

Goujat  (Fr.).  A  soldier's  boy.  It  like- 
wise signifies  an  ignorant,  good-for-nothing 
fellow. 

Gourdin  (Fr.).  A  flat  stick,  two  fingers 
in  breadth,  which  was  used  by  the  French 
to  punish  galley-slaves. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  provides  that  Congress  shall 
make  rules  for  the  government  and  regula- 
tion of  armies.  Bj'  government  is  under- 
stood not  only  the  body  of  fundamental 
laws  of  a  state,  but  also  the  body  of  persons 
charged  with  the  management  of  the  execu- 
tive power  of  a  country  ;  direction,  power  or 
authority  which  rules  a  community  ;  admin- 
istration ;  rule;  management.  Government 
of  the  military  is  that  branch  of  the  code 
which  embraces  the  creation  and  regulation 
of  the  military  hierarchy,  or  the  gradual  dis- 
tribution of  inferior  authority.  The  power 
of  making  rules  of  government  is  that  of  sm- 
preme  command,  and  from  this  living  prin- 
ciple proceed  the  localization  of  troops,  their 
organization  and  distribution  ;  rules  for  re- 
wards and  punishments ;  and  generally,  all  i 


rules  of  government  and  regulation  whatso- 
ever, which  the  legislature  may  judge  neces- 
sary to  maintain  an  efficient  and  well-disci- 
plined army.  All  authority  over  the  land 
forces  of  the  United  States  must,  therefore, 
be  derived  from  Congress.  For,  although 
the  President  is  the  commander-in-chief, 
yet  his  functions,  as  such,  must  be  regulated 
by  Congress,  under  the  17th  clause  of  Sec.  8 
of  the  Constitution,  as  well  as  under  the 
general  authority  of  Congress  to  make  rules 
for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the 
land  forces.  The  President  cannot  be  di- 
vested of  power  which  Congress  may  assign 
to  any  inferior  military  commander,  because 
the  authority  of  the  greater  includes  that  of 
the  less.  But  all  the  authority  over  the 
land  and  naval  forces,  save  the  appointment 
of  the  commander-in-chief,  rests  with  Con- 
gress, and  no  authority  can  be  exercised  not 
delegated  by  Congress,  except  such  as  may 
be  fairly  deduced  from  powers  given  for  the 
eftective  discharge  of  the  duties  annexed  to 
his  office. 

Government's  Island.  See  Rock  Island. 

Governor.  An  officer  placed  by  royal 
commission  in  the  military  command  of  a 
fortress,  not  only  over  the  garrison  but  over 
the  inhabitants.  In  time  of  war  it  is  an 
office  of  great  responsibility,  and  at  all  times 
requires  considerable  experience  and  military 
information.  Also,  in  the  United  States,  one 
who  is  invested  with  supreme  authority  in  a 
State. 

Governor's  Island.  An  island  in  New 
York  harbor,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  south 
of  the  City  Hall.  It  belongs  to  the  United 
States,  and  is  strongly  fortified  by  Fort 
Columbus,  Castle  Williams,  and  a  battery 
commanding  the  entrance  to  Buttermilk 
Channel,  the  channel  which  separates  the 
island  from  Brooklyn.  The  ordnance  de- 
partment has  a  depot  here.  It  is  now  the 
headquarters  of  the  military  division  of  the 
Atlantic. 

Gowrie  Conspiracy.  One  of  the  most 
singular  events  in  the  history  of  Scotland 
took  place  in  August,  1600.  John  Ruthveii, 
earl  of  Gowrie,  and  others  entered  into  a 
conspiracy  to  possess  themselves  of  the  king's 
(James  VI.)  person,  to  convey  him  to  Eng- 
land and  to  administer  the  government  in 
the  interest  of  the  Presbyterian  leaders  at 
home.  They  succeeded  in  enticing  the  king 
to  the  Gowrie  House  at  Perth,  and  after  they 
had  held  him  as  a  prisoner  were  almost  suc- 
cessful in  dismissing  his  attendants  without 
exciting  suspicion  ;  but  the  king  crying  out 
for  assistance  his  voice  was  instantly  recog- 
nized ;  his  attendants  hastened  to  the  rescue, 
and  quickly  dispatched  the  earl  and  his 
brother  Alexander. 

Grade.  Synonymous  with  rank  ;  peculi- 
arly applicable  to  the  different  ranks  among 
officers,  beginning  from  an  ensign  to  the 
commander-in-chief  of  an  army. 

Gradivus.  A  surname  of  Mars  (which 
see). 

Grain.     See  Forage. 


GRAINOIR 


199 


GRAVELINES 


Grainoir,  or  Gr6noir  (Fr.).  A  term  used 
in  the  French  artillery  to  signify  a  sort  of 
sieve,  in  which  there  are  small  round  holes 
for  moist  powder  to  be  passed  through,  in 
order  to  make  the  grains  j)erfeetly  round. 

Gran.  A  town  of  Hungary,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Danube,  25  miles  northwest  of 
Pesth.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  of 
Hungary,  was  formerly  fortified,  and  has 
undergone  assaults  and  sieges  almost  with- 
out number. 

Granada.  A  city  of  Southern  Spain, 
founded  by  the  Moors  in  the  8th  century. 
It  formed  at  first  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Cordova.  In  1230,  Mohammed-al-Hamar 
made  it  the  capital  of  his  new  kingdom  of 
Granada,  which  wassubjugatudby  the  "great 
captain,"  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  in  1492. 
Granada  was  taken  by  Marshal  Soult  in  1810, 
and  held  till  1812. 

Granada,  New.  The  name  formerly  given 
to  the  ri'ipublic  now  known  as  the  United 
States  of  Colombia  (which  see). 

Grand.  This  word  is  frequenth'  used, 
both  in  French  and  English,  to  indicate 
superiority  of  position,  force,  or  display  ;  as 
gi-and  master,  grand  army,  grand  march, 
grand  parade,  etc. 

Grand  Division.  A  battalion  or  regiment 
being  told  otl"  by  two  companies  to  each 
division,  is  said  to  be  told  oft"  in  grand  di- 
visions ;  hence,  grand-division  firing  is  when 
the  battalion  tires  by  two  companies  at  the 
same  time,  and  is  commanded  by  one  officer 
only. 

Grand  Guard.  The  main  guard  of  an 
army  ;  the  guard  covering  the  army  or  camp 
from  an  attack  by  the  enemy  ;  other  guards 
are  called  iufrrior  guards. 

Grand  Master.  The  title  of  the  head  of 
the  military  orders,  the  Hospitallers,  the 
Templars,  and  the  Teutonic  knights. 

Grand  Master  of  Cross-bows.  The 
personnel  of  the  French  artillery  was  for  a 
long  time  prior  to  1420  retained,  together 
with  the  engineers,  under  the  general  di- 
rection of  an  otficcr  who  was  titled  "grand 
master  of  cross-bows."  In  1420  the  master- 
general  of  artillerv  was  made  independent 
of  thisutlicer. 

Grand  Rounds.    See  Rounds. 

Grand  Tactics.     See  Ta(;tic8. 

Granicus.  A  river  in  Northwestern  Asia 
Minor,  near  which,  on  May  22,  334  H.c, 
Alexander  the  Great  signally  defeated  the 
Persians.  The  Macedonian  'troops  (30,000 
foot  and  5000  horse)  crossed  the  Granicus  in 
the  face  of  the  Persian  army  (tJOO,000  foot 
and  20,000  horse).  Sardis  capitulated,  Mile- 
tus and  Halicarnassus  were  taken  by  storm, 
and  other  great  towns  submitted  to  the  con- 
queror. 

Granson,  or  Grandson.  A  town  of  Swit- 
lerland,  canton  of  Vaud,  on  the  southwest 
shore  of  the  Lake  of  Neutchati-1,  20  miles 
north  of  Lausanne.  Near  it  the  Hurgun- 
dians  under  Charles  the  Rash  were  defeated 
by  the  Swiss  with  great  loss,  March  3.  1476. 

Granville.     A  fortified  seaport  of  France, 


in  the  department  of  La  Manche,  on  a  rocky 
peninsula  12  miles  northwest  from  Avran- 
ches.  In  It/JS  this  place  was  burned  by  the 
English,  and  in  1793  it  was  besieged  by  the 
Vendeans. 

Grape-shot.  A  certain  number  of  iron 
balls,  usually  nine,  put  together  by  means  of 
two  cast-iron  plates,  two  rings,  and  one  pin 
and  nut.  Each  plate  has  on  the  inside  three 
beds  for  the  shot,  of  a  depth  equal  to  half 
the  thickness  of  the  jilate  and  of  the  form 
of  ft  spherical  segment,  the  curvature  of 
which  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  shot.  An 
iron  pin  riveted  to  the  bottom  iron  plate 
pa.sses  through  the  centre  and  also  through 
the  top  plate,  where  tlie  whole  is  secured  by 
a  nut  and  screw.  In  the  United  States  the 
use  <jf  these  shot  for  field-pieces  has  been  dis- 
continued, canister  answering  the  purpose. 
(See  Canister-shot.)  In  the  old  pattern, 
the  balls  were  placed  in  tiers  around  an  iron 
pin  attached  to  an  iron  tamj)ion  at  the  bot- 
tom, put  into  a  canvas  bag,  and  then  quilted 
around  with  a  strong  cord. 

Grapple.  To  seize;  to  contend  in  close 
fight ;  to  attach  one's  self  as  if  by  a  grapple, 
as  in  wrestling  ;  hence  to  grapple  with,  to 
enter  into  contest  with,  resolutely  and  cour- 
ageously. 

Grappling.  A  laying  fast  hold  of;  also, 
that  by  which  anything  is  seized  and  held. 

Grasp.  The  handle  of  a  sword,  and  of 
an  oar.  Also,  the  small  part  of  the  stock  of 
a  musket. 

Grass-cutters.  Followers  of  cavalry  regi- 
ments in  India,  whose  duty  it  is  to  go  forth 
and  collect  green  forage  for  the  horses. 

Grassin  (Fr.).  An  ancient  name  for  mi- 
litia ci'ni|iosed  of  light  troops. 

Gratification.  I  n  a  general  acceptation  of 
the  term,  this  word  meant ,  among  the  French, 
certain  rewards  which  generals  gave  to  the 
troops,  after  a  severe  engagement,  in  testi- 
mony of  their  valor  and  good  conduct. 
These  rewards  were  distributed  according  to 
rank.  This  custom  was  prevalent  in  the 
most  ancient  times.  IJy  gratification  was 
likewise  meant  the  accumulation  of  a  certain 
sum,  which  was  deposited  for  the  specific 
purpose  of  burying  a  deceased  soldier.  This 
term  also  meant  a  certain  allowance  in 
money  allotted  to  prisoners  of  war. 

Gratuity.  An  allowance  to  ofiicers  of  the 
British  service  in  the  Indian  army,  varying 
with  their  rank.  This  and  other  allowances, 
such  as  batta,  tentage,  etc.,  had  been  granted 
for  the  purpose  of  augmenting  an  officer's 
emoluments  in  India,  without  giving  him  a 
claim  to  a  higher  rate  of  net  paper  when  on 
furlough  in  England.  Gratuities  arc  allowed 
to  officers  in  the  French  service  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  campaign. 

Gravelines.  A  small  fortified  town  and 
seaport  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Nord, 
12  miles  southwest  of  Dunkirk.  Here  Count 
d'Egmont  obtained  a  victory  over  the  French 
army  commanded  by  Marshal  de  Thermes  in 
1558.  Ten  years  later,  it  was  taken  by  Louis 
XIV.,  who  had  it  fortified  by  \'auban. 


GEAYELOTTE 


200 


GRENADA 


Gravelotte,  Battle  of.  Also  called  the 
tattle  of  Rezonville,  the  bloodiest  battle  of 
the  Franco-German  war,  took  place  August 
18,  1870.  It  was  gained  by  the  German  ar- 
mies, commanded  by  the  king  in  person,  after 
twelve  hours'  hard  fighting.  The  most  des- 
perate struggle  took  place  on  the  slopes  over 
Gravelotte,  which  the  Germans  gained  by 
nightfall,  after  repeated  charges,  the  fortune 
of  the  day  being  long  in  suspense.  But  the 
right  of  the  French  had  been  outflanked, 
they  fell  back  fighting  to  the  last,  and  retired 
under  cover  of  Metz.  The  French  are  said 
to  have  lost  19,000,  including  officers  and 
men,  besides  a  large  number  of  prisoners  ; 
and  the  Germans,  25,000. 

Graveurs  {Fr.).  Persons  employed  and 
paid  by  the  founders  of  cannon  for  repairing 
damaged  pieces  of  artillery.  Some  individ- 
ual, however,  was  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  graveur  de  Vartlllerie  (engraver  to  the 
artillery),  and  was  permitted  by  the  grand 
master  of  the  ordnance  to  exhibit  over  his 
shop  door  the  arms  of  the  royal  artillery. 

Gravimetric  Density  of  Gunpowrder.  Is 
the  weight  of  a  measured  quantity. 

Gravity.  Is  the  tendency  of  all  bodies 
towards  the  centre  of  the  earth.  The  force 
of  gravity  is  in  the  inverse  proportion  to  the 
square  of  the  body's  distance  from  the  centre 
of  the  earth.  The  specific  gravity  of  a  body 
is  the  ratio  of  the  weight  of  a  body  to  that 
of  an  equal  volume  of  some  other  body  as- 
sumed as  a  standard,  usually  pure  distilled 
water  at  a  certain  temperature  for  solids  and 
liquids,  and  air  for  gases. 

Graze.  The  point  at  which  a  shot  strikes 
and  rebounds  from  earth  or  water.  Grazing- 
fire,  that  which  sweeps  close  to  the  surface  it 
defends. 

Great  Britain,     See  Britain,  Great. 

Great-coat.  A  soldier's  overcoat  is  so 
called. 

Great  Fortification.  One  of  the  divisions 
of  the  first  systems  of  Vauban.  It  consists 
in  a  fortification  whose  exterior  side  is  from 
185  to  260  toises,  or  from  370  to  520  yards, 
and  is  seldom  adopted  but  towards  a  river 
or  a  marsh. 

Great  Radius.  In  fortification,  the  whole 
oblique  radius. 

Greaves.  Were  a  kind  of  armor  for  the 
legs,  worn  both  by  the  Greek  and  Roman 
soldiers ;  the  latter  having  adopted  them 
from  the  former.  They  were  made  of  brass, 
copper,  tin,  or  other  metals.  The  sides  were 
closed  about  the  ankles  with  buttons  of  gold, 
silver,  etc.  This  kind  of  defensive  armor 
was  at  first  peculiar  to  the  Grecians.  The 
Etruscans  had  them,  apparently  of  rough 
hides,  fastened  behind  by  a  single  ligature 
near  the  middle  of  the  calf;  these  subse- 
quently gave  way  to  buskins.  Servius  Tul- 
lius  introduced  the  Etruscan  greaves  among 
the  Romans ;  but  from  the  time  of  the  re- 
public the  word  ochren  applied  to  the  laced-up 
boots,  which  succeeded  them. 

Greece,  or  Hellas,  Kingdom  of.  The 
ancient  Graecia,  a  maritime  country  in  the 


southeast  of  Europe.  In  the  early  ages  the 
Greeks  were  governed  by  monarchs  ;  but  the 
monarchical  power  gradually  decreased,  and 
the  love  of  liberty  led  to  the  establishment 
of  the  republican  form  of  government.  No 
part  of  Greece,  except  Macedonia,  remained 
in  the  hands  of  an  absolute  sovereign.  The 
expedition  of  the  Argonauts  first,  and,  in 
the  succeeding  age,  the  wars  of  Thebes  and 
Troy,  gave  opportunity  to  their  warriors, 
who  afterwards  ranked  as  heroes  and  demi- 
gods, to  display  their  valor  in  the  field  of 
battle.  The  spirit  of  Greece,  however,  was 
crushed  by  the  Romans ;  and  in  1718  she 
became  a  Turkish  province.  In  1821  the 
ancient  spirit  seemed  to  have  revived  in  the 
modern  Greeks,  and  they  determined  to  be 
free.  The  struggle  was  severe  and  protracted ; 
but,  by  the  interference  of  the  great  Euro- 
pean powers,  the  Turks  were  forced  to  ac- 
knowledge Greece  an  independent  state  in 
1829. 

Greek  Fire.  A  combustible  composition 
(now  unknown,  but  thought  to  have  been 
principally  naphtha),  thrown  from  engines 
said  to  have  been  invented  by  Callinicus,  an 
ingenious  engineer  of  Heliopolis,  in  Syria, 
in  the  7th  century,  in  order  to  destroy  the 
Saracens'  ships,  which  was  effected  by  the 
general  of  the  fleet  of  Constantine,  Pogo- 
natus,  and  30,000  men  were  killed.  A  so- 
called  "Greek  fire,"  probably  a  solution  of 
phosphorus  in  bisulphide  of  carbon,  was 
employed  at  the  siege  of  Charleston,  U.  S., 
in  September,  18(33.  Greek  fire,  as  now  un- 
derstood, is  simplj'  a  solid,  highly  combusti- 
ble composition,  consisting  of  sulphur  and 
phosphorus  dissolved  in  the  bisulphide  of 
carbon,  to  which  occasionally  some  mineral 
oil  is  added,  with  the  view  of  increasing  its 
incendiary  powers.  When  the  liquid  is 
thrown  on  any  surface  exposed  to  the  air 
the  solvent  evaporates,  leaving  a  film  of  the 
phosphorus  or  sulphide  of  phosphorus,  which 
then  inflames  spontaneously.  The  proper 
mode  of  extinguishing  such  a  fire  is  to  throw 
damp  sand,  ashes,  sawdust,  or  lime,  wet  sack- 
ing or  carpeting ;  in  short,  any  material 
which  will  exclude  the  air  from  the  fire. 
No  attempt  should  be  made  to  remove  the 
covering  for  some  time  after  the  flame  has 
been  extinguished.  The  place  should  after- 
wards be  thoroughly  washed  by  a  powerful 
jet  of  water  forced  upon  it. 

Greener's  Bullet.  One  of  the  first  at- 
tempts to  make  a  bullet  take  the  grooves  by 
the  expanding  actiort  of  the  powder  was  by 
Mr.  Greener,  an  English  gunsmith,  in  1836. 
He  used  a  conical  pewter  wedge,  which  was 
driven  into  a  cavity  in  the  base  of  the  bullet 
by  the  powder  and  forced  the  outer  walls  of 
the  bullet  into  the  grooves. 

Grenada.  An  island  in  the  West  Indies 
belonging  to  the  Windward  group.  It  was 
discovered  by  Columbus  in  the  j'ear  1498. 
It  was  originally  settled  by  the  French,  but 
was  taken  by  the  British  'in  1762,  to  whom 
it  was  confirmed  by  the  peace  of  Paris  in 
1763. 


GRENADE 


201 


GROMMET 


Grenade.  In  gunnery,  is  a  shell  thrown 
from  the  lumd,  or  in  barrels  from  mortars  of 
large  caliber,  and  ignited  as  other  shells  by 
means  of  a  fuze.  There  are  hand-grenades 
and  rampart-grenades  ;  old  (j-poundi-r  spher- 
ical-case may  be  used  for  the  former,  and 
shells  of  any  caliber  for  the  latter.  Grenades 
are  useful  in  the  defense  of  works,  the 
smaller,  thrown  by  hand  into  the  head  of  a 
sap,  trenches,  covered  way,  or  upon  the  be- 
siegers mounting  a  breach  ;  the  larger  kinds 
are  rolled  over  the  parapet  in  a  trough. 
Hand-grenades  are  intended  to  be  used 
against  the  enemy  when  he  has  reached 
such  parts  <sf  the  defenses  (the  bottom  of 
I  the  ditch  for  example)  as  are  not  covered 
I  by  the  guns,  or  the  muskets  of  the  infantry 
posted  on  the  banquettes.  After  the  enemy 
has  passed  the  abatis  and  jumped  into  the 
ditch,  hand-grenades  will  be  used ;  and  then 
if  he  mounts  the  parapet,  he  must  be  met 
there  with  the  bayonet.  Ketchum's  hand- 
grenade  is  a  small  oblong  percussion  shell 
which  explodes  on  striking  the  object. 

Grenadier.  Originally  a  soldier  who  was 
employed  in  throwing  hand-grenades,  but  in 
some  modern  armies  a  member  of  the  first 
company  of  every  battalion  of  foot,  in  which 
the  tallest  and  finest  men  of  the  regiment 
are  placed. 

Grenadier  Guards.  The  first  regiment 
of  foot  guards  in  the  British  Household 
Brigade  of  Guards,  and  generally  considered 
the  finest  corps  in  the  armj-.  It  comprises 
2697  officers  and  men,  divided  into  three 
battalions.  The  officers  of  this  fashionable 
corps  are  usually  from  the  families  of  the 
nobility,  or  more  distinguished  landed  gen- 
try. The  1st  Foot  Guards,  under  which 
name  the  regiment  was  originally  known, 
■was  first  raised  in  10(50.  The  Grenadier 
Guards  distinguished  themselves  in  the 
Peninsula,  at  Waterloo,  and  in  the  Crimea. 

Grenadiers  Auxiliaries  (Fr.).  Au.xiliary 
grenadiers.  During  a  siege,  and  when  a 
place  was  closely  invested,  a  certain  number 
of  grenadiers  were  chosen  out  of  the  bat- 
talions beUmging  to  the  trenches,  for  the 
purpose  of  making  head  against  the  besieged, 
•whenever  they  might  risk  a  sally,  or  assault 
the  works.  It  was  the  peculiar  duty  of  these 
men  to  stand  forward  on  every  t)ccasion,  to 
set  fire  to  the  gabions  attached  to  the  bat- 
teries, and  to  crush  every  attempt  which 
might  be  made  by  the  garrison  to  annoy  the 
men  that  were  j^osted  in  the  trenches,  etc. 

Grenadiers,  Horse.-  Called  by  the  French 
grenndins  lUans,  or  flying  grenadiers,  are 
such  as  are  mounted  on  horseback,  but  fight 
both  on  foot  and  on  horseback.  They  w-ere 
first  established  in  France  by  Louis  XIV.  in 
1670,  and  formed  in  squadrons. 

Grenade.  The  ancient  term  for  a  live 
shell. 

Grenoble.  A  fortified  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  the  Isere.  The  town 
is  surrounded  with  fortifications,  and  the 
heights  which  command  the  town  are  also 
fortified.  This  was  the  first  place  which 
14 


openly  received   Napoleon   I.  on   his  escape 
from  Elba,  in  181o. 

Gribeauval's  System  of  Artillery.  About 
17G5  various  improvements  were  introduced 
into  European  artillery  by  Gen.  Gribeauval. 
He  separated  AeW  from  .siVr/e  artillery,  light- 
ened and  shortened  field-guns  and  dimin- 
ished the  charges.  He  adopted  elevating 
screws  and  tangent  scales,  strengthened  the 
carriages,  and  introduced  neater  uniformity 
in  the  dimensions,  enabling  spare  parts  to 
be  carried  for  repairs. 

Grices.  In  heraldry,  are  young  wild 
boars. 

Griffe  (Fr.).  Means  literally  a  claw  ;  but 
in  a  military  sense,  as  accepted  by  the  French, 
it  signifies  an  iron  instrument  which  is  made 
like  a  hook,  and  is  used  by  miners  to  pick 
out  the  small  stones  that  are  incorporated 
with  cement,  etc. 

Griffin.  A  fabulous  animal,  usually  repre- 
sented in  henildry  with  the  body  and  hind 
legs  of  a  lion,  and  the  beuk,  wings,  and 
claws  of  an  eagle. 

Griffin  Gun.  A  name  sometimes  given 
to  the  3-inch  rifle  used  in  the  U.  S.  field 
service  from  its  inventor,  Mr.  Griffin,  of  the 
Phoenixville  Iron-AVorks,  Pa.,  where  the 
gun  was  made. 

Grip.     The  handle  of  a  sword. 
Grisons.     The  largest  of  all  the  cantons 
of  Switzerland.     The  country  was  anciently 
inhabited  by  the  Khietii ;  it  was  conquered 
by  the  Koman  emperor  Constantius  in  the 
4th  century,  and  his  camp  [Curia,  C/iur,  or 
Ciiire,  the  name  of  the  present  capital)  was 
planted  on  the  Rhine.     In  the  10th  century 
the  country  of  the  Grisons  was  added  to  the 
German  empire,  and  remained  till  I'iOS  sub- 
ject to  the  Swabian  dukes.     With  the  decay 
of  the  imperial  authority  it  came  to  be  op- 
pressed by  a  numerous   nobility,  the  ruins 
j  of  whose   castles   still    crown    the    heights. 
I  Against  them  the  people  began,  in  the  end 
of  the  14th  century,  to  form  leagues  in  the 
different  valleys.     In   1472,   these   separate 
unions  entered  into  a  general  confederation, 
which   then   formed   an   alliance   with   the 
Swiss  cantons,  but  it  was  not  till  1803  that 
i  it  was  admitted  into  the  Swiss  Confederation 
j  as  the  fifteenth  canton.     Grisons  wsis  over- 
1  run  by  the  French  in  1798  and  1799. 
i       Grochow.     Near    Prague,    a    suburb    of 
I  Warsaw.     Here  took  place  a  desperate  con- 
j  flict  between  the  Poles  and  Russians,  Fcbru- 
I  ary  19-20,  1831,  the  former  remaining  mas- 
!  ters  of  the    field   of  battle.     The    Russians 
j  shortly  after  retreated,  having   been  foiled 
in  their  attempt  to  take  Warsaw.     They  are 
said  to  have  lost  7000  men,  and  the  Poles 
2000. 

Grog^nard  {Fr.).  Grumbler;  an  old  sol- 
dier of  the  French  empire  was  so  called. 

Groma  (Fr.).  A  Roman  measuring-rod, 
20  feet  long,  used  for  setting  ott" distances  in 
a  camp. 

Grommet.  Consists  of  a  ring  of  rope- 
yarn,  with  two  pieces  of  strong  twine  tied 
across  at  right  angles  to  each  other.     Grora- 


GROOM 


202 


GUANCHES 


mets  are  used  as  wads  for  cannon.  The  size 
of  the  ring  is  the  full  diameter  of  the  bore  of 
the  piece,  in  order  that  it  may  fit  tight,  and 
stop  the  windage.  They  increase  the  ac- 
curacy of  fire,  and  are  to  be  preferred  when 
the  object  of  the  wad  is  merely  to  retain  the 
projectile  in  its  place,  as  in  firing  at  a  de- 
pression. They  stop  the  windage  best  when 
placed  behind  the  projectile. 

Groom.  One  of  several  officers  of  the 
English  royal  household,  chiefly  in  the  lord 
chamberlain's  department;  as  the  groom  of 
the  chamber ;  groom  of  the  stole,  or  robes. 

Groom-porter.  An  officer  in  the  house- 
hold of  the  king  of  England,  who  succeeded 
the  master  of  revels,  and  gave  directions  as 
to  sports. 

Grooved  Ball.    See  Projectile. 

Grooved  Bullet.     See  Bullet. 

Grooves.  Spiral  grooves  or  "  rifles"  cut 
into  the  surface  of  the  bore  of  fire-arms,  have 
the  eifect  of  communicating  a  rotary  motion 
to  a  projectile  around  an  axis  coincident  with 
its  flight.  This  motion  increases  the  range 
of  the  projectile,  and  also  corrects  one  of  the 
causes  of  deviation  by  distributing  it  uni- 
formly around  the  line  of  flight.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  twist  used, — uniform  and  in- 
creasing. Increasing  twists  are  supposed  to 
give  greater  accuracy,  and  are  well  adapted 
to  expanding  projectiles  which  have  but 
short  bearing  in  the  grooves.  They  are  also 
used  for  stud  projectiles.  The  uniform  twist 
is  generally  applicable  and  has  many  advan- 
tages. In  small-arms  at  the  present  time 
the  bullet  used  has  such  a  long  bearing  in 
the  grooves  that  an  increasing  twist  is  not 
desirable.  The  ordinary  twist  is  right- 
handed,  giving  a  drift  to  the  right.  The 
gras,  the  oflScial  arm  of  France,  has  a  left- 
handed  twist.  In  regard  to  number  and 
form  of  grooves  authorities  differ.  The 
polygroove  (or  many  small  grooves)  system 
has  given  very  accurate  results,  especially  in 
breech-loading  cannon.  It  is  in  great  favor 
on  the  continent  of  Europe.  The  French 
system,  also  used  in  a  modified  form  in 
"Woolwich  and  Elswick  guns,  consists  of  a 
few  deep  grooves  in  which  the  studs  of  the 
projectile  move.  The  objection  to  this  sys- 
tem is  the  weakening  of  the  gun  and  the 
great  strain  when  fired.  For  expanding 
projectiles,  experiment  shows  that  broad  and 
shallow  grooves  with  a  moderate  twist  give 
range,  endurance,  accuracy  of  fire,  and  facil- 
ity in  loading  and  cleaning  the  bores.  The 
proper  twist  to  be  given  to  the  grooves  de- 
pends on  the  length,  diameter,  and  initial 
velocity  of  the  projectile  used ;  the  most 
suitable  twist  is  best  determined  by  experi- 
ment. Other  things  being  equal,  the  longer 
the  projectile  the  more  rapid  the  rotation 
necessary  to  steady  it;  the  greater  the  di- 
ameter the  less  rapid  the  rotation.  As  the 
initial  velocity  is  increased,  the  rotation 
must  be  increased.  The  farther  forward  the 
centre  of  inertia  of  the  projectile,  the  less  the 
tendency  to  tumble.  The  tendency  in  mod- 
ern small-arms  is  to   shorten  the  twist  on 


account  of  large  charges  and  long  bullets. 
Grooved  bullets  are  best  suited  to  broad  shal- 
low grooves ;  patched  bullets  to  a  greater 
number  of  sharp-edged  grooves. 

Gros  (Fr.).  A  body  of  soldiers;  a  de- 
tachment. The  French  frequently  say,  Un 
gros  de  cavalerie,  a  body  of  cavalry  ;  un  gros 
d'infanterie,  a  body  of  infantry. 

Gros  Ventres  Indians.  A  tribe  of  abo- 
rigines living  in  Dakota  and  Montana. 
They  received  their  name  Gros  Ventres, 
"  Big  Bellies,"  from  the  Canadian  voT/c/^ewrs 
of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  They  are 
peaceably  disposed,  and  are  mostly  located 
at  Fort  Berthold  agency,  Dakota,  and  at 
Fort  Peck,  Montana.  See  Indians  and 
THEIR  Agencies. 

Groton.  A  village  of  New  London  Co., 
Conn.,  on  the  east  side  of  Thames  liiver,  op- 
posite New  London.  It  is  famous  as  being  the 
scene  of  the  massacre  perpetrated  by  British 
troops  under  Arnold.  Old  Fort  Griswold, 
commanded  by  the  brave  Ledyard,  who  was 
barbarously  slain  with  his  own  sword  after 
he  had  surrendered,  is  still  standing  on 
Groton  Heights ;  and  a  granite  obelisk  has 
been  erected  to  commemorate  the  patriotism 
of  those  who  perished. 

Ground.  In  a  military  sense,  the  field  or 
place  of  action.  To  take  groutid ;  a  battalion 
or  company  is  said  to  take  ground  when  it 
extends  in  any  given  direction.  This  term 
is  likewise  used  in  dueling;  as,  they  took 
their  ground  at  eight  or  ten  paces  from  each 
other. 

Ground  Arms.  An  old  word  of  command, 
on  which  the  soldiers  laid  down  their  arms 
upon  the  ground. 

Ground-work.    See  Foundation. 

Grynia,  or  Grynium.  A  very  ancient 
fortified  city  on  the  coast  of  the  Sinus  Ela- 
iticus,  in  the  south  of  Mysia.  Parmenio,  the 
general  of  Alexander,  destroyed  the  city  and 
s(.)ld  the  inhabitants  as  slaves,  after  which 
the  place  seems  to  have  decayed. 

Guadaloupe.  An  island  in  the  West 
Indies,  and  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
valuable  of  the  Leeward  group.  This  island 
was  first  discovered  bj'  Columbus.  It  was 
taken  possession  of  by  the  French  in  1635, 
who  drove  the  natives  into  the  mountains. 
In  1759  it  was  taken  by  a  British  squadron, 
and  was  restored  to  France  at  the  peace  of 
1763.  It  was  again  taken  by  the  British  in 
1794;  but  was  retaken  by  the  French  in  1795. 
In  1810  the  British  once  more  took  possession 
of  it,  and  in  1814  restored  it  to  the  French, 
to  whom  it  now  belongs. 

Guad-el-ras.  In  Northwestern  Africa. 
Here  the  Spaniards  signally  defeated  the 
Moors,  March  23,  1860,  after  a  severe  con- 
flict, in  which  Gen.  Prim  manifested  great 
bravery,  for  which  he  was  ennobled. 

Guanches.  The  original  inhabitants  of 
the  Canary  Islands,  who  were  supposed  to 
have  come  from  the  adjoining  coast  of  Africa. 
In  the  15th  century  many  of  these  people 
fell  in  opposing  the  Spanish  invasion;  many 
were  sold  by  the  conquerors  as  slaves,  and 


GUARANTEE 


203 


GUASTALLA 


many  conformed  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith,  and  intermarried  witli  the  S[)aniards; 
80  that  all  trace  of  them  as  a  distinct  race  is 
lost.  They  were  celebrated  for  their  tall 
stature,  and  were  styled  by  Humboldt  the 
Patagonians  of  the  Old  \V()rld. 

Guarantee  Association,  The  British.  An 
association  whicli,  for  a  small  pi-rcentage, 
undertakes  to  vouch  for  the  prudence  and 
fidelity  of  such  public  officers  (military)  as 
paymasters,  ordnance  store-keepers,  commis- 
saries, statT-officers  of  pensions,  barrack- 
masters,  etc.  The  government  accepts  the 
guarantee  of  this  particular  office  in  prefer- 
ence to  that  offered  by  private  individuals. 

Guard.  A  bodj'  of  men  whose  duty  it  is 
to  secure  an  army  or  place  from  being  sur- 
prised by  an  enemy.  In  garrison  the  guards 
are  relieved  every  day.  On  pinrd  is  being 
engaged  on  guard  duty. 

Guard,     Advanced.       See     Advanced 

GUAKD. 

Guard,  Baggage.  A  guard  who  has  the 
care  of  ihc  l):iL,^i^:igeon  a  march. 

Guard-chamber.     A  guard-room. 

Guard,  Counter-.  See'CouNTER-GUARDS. 

Guard,  Detail.  The  men  from  a  company, 
regiment,  or  other  organization  detailed  for 
guard  duty. 

Guard,  Dismounting.  The  act  of  coming 
off  guard. 

Guard,  Forage.  A  detachment  sent  out 
to  secure  foragers.  They  are  posted  at  all 
places  where  either  the  enemy's  party  may 
come  to  disturb  the  foragers,  or  where  they 
may  be  spread  too  near  the  enemy,  so  as  to 
be  in  danger  of  being  taken.  This  guard 
consists  both  of  horse  and  foot,  who  must 
remain  on  their  posts  till  the  foragers  arc  all 
come  off  the  ground. 

Guard,  Grand.  The  main  guard  of  a 
camp  or  army.     See  Grand  Guard. 

Guard-house.  A  building  occupied  by 
the  guard.  The  prisoners  being  kept  in  the 
building,  it  is  frequently  used  as  a  synonym 
for  prison-room  or  lock-up.  To  take  one  to 
the  ffunrd-hoiise,  is  to  confine  him. 

Guard,  Magazine-.     See  Gardes-maga- 

ZINK. 

Guard,  Main.  Is  that  from  which  all 
other  guards  are  detached,  and  constitutes 
the  chief  guard  of  a  garrison. 

Guard  Mess.  Is  the  table  which  is  kept 
for  the  officers  of  the  Life  and  Foot  Guards 
in  St.  James'  Palace.  The  sum  of  £4000  per 
annum  is  allowed  for  the  mess. 

Guard  Mounting.  The  act  of  going  on 
guard.  The  military  ceremony  of  marching 
on  guard. 

Guard  of  Honor.  A  gUard  drawn  up  to 
receive  finincnt  j>er«onages,  as  a  mark  of 
respect,  or  to  accompany  them. 

Guard,  Picket.  An  outpost  guard  for  the 
purpose  of  [in-venting  a  surprise. 

Guard,  Police.  The  interior  guard  of  a 
camp  or  army  in  charge  of  arms,  profierty, 
tents,  etc.  Also  a  guard  in  charge  of  pris- 
onerscngaged  in  policing  a  camp  or  garrison. 

Guard,  Provost-.    See  Provo8T-<30ard. 


Guard,   Quarter.       The  guard  which    is 

posti-d  in  front  of  a  camp. 

Guard,  Rear-.  The  guard  posted  in  rear 
of  a  camp..  It  also  means  the  body  of  troops 
which,  when  troops  are  on  the  march,  bring 
up  the  rear,  and  hold  a  pursuing  enemy  in 
check. 

Guard  Report.  The  report  which  the 
non-commissioned  officer  or  officer  in  charge 
of  the  guard  sends  in  on  dismounting.  It 
contains  a  statement  of  duties  performed, 
of  hours  at  which  the  guard  was  visited  by 
the  officer  of  the  day  or  field-officer,  a  list  of 
government  property  and  its  condition,  and 
also  of  the  prisoners  handed  over  to  the 
guard,  with  the  charge  against  each,  together 
with  the  name  of  the  officer  by  whom  the 
prisoniT  was  confined. 

Guard  Tent.    Tent  occupied  bj'  the  guard. 

Guardable.  Capable  of  being  guarded  or 
protected. 

Guardiagrele.  An  old  town  of  Southern 
Italy,  in  the  province  of  Chieti.  Belisarius 
surrounded  it  with  a  turreted  wall  as  a 
defense  against  the  Goths.  It  wiis  often 
besieged  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  in  1799 
was  mercilessly  sacked  and  burned  by  the 
French. 

Guards.  In  the  British  service  constitute 
in  time  of  peace  the  garrison  of  London, 
and  the  guard  of  the  sovereign  at  Windsor. 
The  Guards  compose  what  is  called  the 
Household  Brigade,  and  include  in  cavalry 
the  1st  and  2d  Life  Guards,  and  the  Royal 
Horse  Guards ;  and  in  infantry  the  Grenadier 
Guards,  the  Coldstream  Guards,  and  the 
Scots  Fusilier  Guards.  The  officer  of  the 
regiments  of  Foot  Guards  hold  higher  army 
rank  than  that  they  bear  regimentally, — that 
is,  ensigns  rank  with  lieutenants  of  other 
regiments,  lieutenants  with  captains,  and  so- 
on. 

Guards,  Imperial.  The  name  of  a  body 
of  select  troojis  organized  by  the  French  em- 
peror. Napoleon  I.,  which  greatly  distin- 
guished themselves  at  Austerlitz. 

Guards'  Institute.  An  establishment  \n 
London ;  it  consists  of  reading-,  lecture- 
rooms,  etc.,  for  all  officers  and  soldiers  in  the 
metropolis.  It  was  inaugurated  by  the  Duke 
of  Cambridge,  .July  11,  18ti7. 

Guards,  The  Horse  Grenadier.  Formerly 
a  body  of  horse  guards  in  the  British  service; 
the  first  troop  was  raised  in  lt)93,  and  the 
second  in  1702.  This  corps  was  reduced  in 
1783,  the  officers  retiring  on  full  pay. 

Guastadours  (Fr.).  Turkish  pioneers. 
Armenians  and  (ireeks  are  general!^  em- 
ployed in  the  Turkish  armies  to  do  the 
iatngue-work  that  is  necessary  for  the  forma- 
tion of  ft  camp,  or  for  cf>nducting  a  siege. 

Guastalla.  A  city  in  Northern  Italy,  near 
which  the  imperial  army,  commanded  by  the 
king  of  Sardinia,  was  defeated  by  the  French, 
September  19,  1734.  The  ancient  district  of 
that  name,  long  held  by  the  dukes  of  Man- 
tua, was  seized  by  the  emperor  of  Germany, 
174G,  and  ceded  to  Parma,  1748.  After  bar- 
ing been  comprised  in  the  Italian  republic, 


GUATEMALA 


204 


GUIDES 


1796,  and  subjected  to  other  changes,  it  was 
annexed  to  Parma,  1815,  and  to  Modena, 
1847. 

Guatemala.  A  republic  in  Central  Amer- 
ica, declared  independent  March  21,  1847. 
A  war  between  Guatemala  and  San  Salvador 
broke  out  in  January,  18G3,  and  on  June  16 
the  troops  of  the  latter  were  totally  defeated. 
Guatuso  Indians.  A  tribe  of  aborigines 
living  on  the  Rio  Frio,  in  Central  America. 
They  are  said  to  be  a  brave  and  warlike  race. 
Gubbio  (anc.  Iguviicm).  A  city  of  Cen- 
tral Italy,  27  miles  south  of  Urbino,  on  the 
southern  declivity  of  the  Apennines.  It 
bore  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  beginning  of 
the  civil  war  between  Ctesar  and  Pompey, 
when  it  was  occupied  by  the  prsetor  Minucius 
Thermus  with  five  cohorts  ;  but  on  the  ap- 
proach of  Curio  with  three  cohorts,  Ther- 
mus, who  was  apprehensive  of  a  revolt  of 
the  citizens,  abandoned  the  town  without 
resistance. 

Gudda.  An  Indian  term  for  a  fool ;  also 
a  small  fort  erected  upon  a  hill  or  eminence. 
Guelphs  and  Ghibellines.  Names  given 
to  the  papal  and  imperial  factions  who  de- 
stroyed the  peace  of  Italy  from  the  12th  to  the 
end  of  the  15th  century  (the  invasion  of 
Charles  VIII.  of  France  in  1495).  The  ori- 
gin of  the  names  is  ascribed  to  the  contest 
for  the  imperial  crown  between  Conrad  of 
Hohenstaufen,  duke  of  Swabia,  lord  of  Wib- 
lingen  (hence  Ghlbelin),  and  Henrv,  nephew 
of  Wolf,  or  Guelf,  duke  of  Bavaria,  in  1138. 
The  former  was  successful;  but  the  popes 
and  several  Italian  cities  took  the  side  of 
his  rival.  Hie  Guelf  and  Hie  Ghibelin  are 
said  to  have  been  used  as  war-cries  in  1140, 
at  the  battle  before  Weinsberg,  in  Wiirtem- 
berg,  when  Guelf  of  Bavaria  was  defeated 
by  the  emperor  Conrad  IV.,  who  came  to 
help  the  rival  duke,  Leopold.  The  Ghibel- 
lines were  almost  totally  expelled  from  Italy 
in  1267,  when  Conrad,  the  last  of  the  Hohen- 
staufens,  was  beheaded  by  Charles  of  Anjou. 
Guelph  is  the  name  of  the  present  royal 
family  of  England. 

Guelphs,  Order  of.  An  order  of  knight- 
hood for  Hanover,  instituted  by  George  IV., 
when  regent,  on  August  12,  1815.  It  is 
both  a  military  and  civil  order,  unlimited  in 
number,  and  consisted  originally  of  three 
classes, — Knights  Grand  Cross,  Command- 
ers, and  Knights;  but  in  1841  another  class 
of  simple  members  was  added  to  the  order. 

Guerite  {Fr.).  A  sentry-box,  small  tur- 
ret. In  fortified  towns  there  are  several 
smalltturrets  of  this  denomination,  which 
are  sometimes  made  of  wood,  and  sometimes 
built  with  stones.  They  are  generally  fixed 
to  the  acute  points  of  bastions,  and  sentinels 
are  posted  within  them  for  the  purpose  of 
watching  the  ditch,  and  of  preventing  any 
surprise  in  that  quarter. 

Guerre  {Fr.).  War;  warfare;  art  of 
war  ;  dissension  ;  strife.  En  guerre,  at  war  ; 
in  action;  ready  for  action;  a  piece  of  ord- 
nance unlimbered,  trunnions  shifted,  and 
everything  made  ready  for  firing. 


Guerrillas  {Sp.guer^-a,  "war").  The  name 
given  to  armed  bands,  who  on  occasion  of 
foreign  invasion  or  civil  wars,  carry  on  an 
irregular  warfare  on  their  own  account. 
The  name  was  first  applied  in  Spain  to  ir- 
regular soldiery.  From  1808  to  1814  they 
were  regularly  organized  against  the  French, 
and  being  favored  by  the  character  of  the 
country  which  they  fought  in,  were  success- 
ful on  many  occasions.  In  our  late  civil 
war  many  bands  were  organized  in  the  Bor- 
der States,  and  were  a  great  annoyance  to 
both  armies.  If  guerrillas  are  taken  captive 
in  open  warfare,  they  should  be  treated  ac- 
cording to  the  usual  customs  of  war,  unless 
they  are  known  to  have  been  guilty  of  acts 
not  tolerated  in  civilized  warfare.  In  the 
Franco-German  war,  however,  we  find  that 
the  Germans  refused  to  recognize  as  soldiers, 
or  extend  the  privileges  of  war,  to  the 
frnncs-tireurs,  a  body  of  French  volunteer 
sharpshooters,  who,  to  a  great  extent, 
adopted  this  system  of  guerrilla  warfare. 

Guerrillero  {Sp.).  An  irregular  soldier; 
a  member  of  a  guerrilla  band  or  party ;  a 
partisan. 

Guet  {Fr.).  This  term  was  particularly 
attached  to  those  persons  belonging  to  the 
French  body-guard,  who  did  duty  during 
the  night.  It  also  signified  rounds,  or  those 
duties  of  a  soldier,  or  patroJing  party,  which 
are  prescribed  for  the  security  of  a  town,  etc., 
and  to  prevent  surprises.  It  is  also  used  in 
a  military  sense  in  conjunction  with  other 
words ;  as  guet  a  pied,  foot  patrol ;  guet  a, 
cheval,  horse  patrol,  etc. 

Gueux  (jP?-.).  "Beggars."  A  name  ap- 
plied by  the  Count  of  Barlaimont  in  1566  to 
the  confederated  nobles  and  others  of  the 
Low  Countries  who  opposed  the  tyrannies 
of  Philip  II.  The  malcontents  at  once 
adopted  the  title,  and  calling  themselves 
gueux,  for  many  years  opposed  the  Spanish 
king  by  sea  and  land  with  varying  success. 
Guichet  {Fr.).  A  small  door  or  outlet, 
which  is  made  in  the  gates  of  fortified 
towns.  It  is  generally  4  feet  high,  and  2 
broad,  so  that  a  man  must  stoop  to  get 
through.  In  garrison  towns  the  guichet 
was  left  open  for  the  space  of  one-quarter  of 
an  hour  after  the  retreat,  in  order  to  give  the 
inhabitants  time  to  enter. 

Guides.  Generally  the  country  people  in 
the  neighborhood  where  an  army  encamps. 
They  give  intelligence  concerning  the  coun- 
try, and  the  roads  by  which  the  enemy  may 
approach.  In  time  of  war,  particularly  in 
the  seat  of  it,  the  guides  invariably  accom- 
pany headquarters.  Of  late  years  it  has 
been  customary  to  form  them  into  regular 
corps  with  proper  officers  at  their  head. 

Guides.  The  name  given  to  the  noil- 
commissioned  officers,  or  other  enlisted  men, 
who  take  positions  to  mark  the  pivots, 
marches,  formations,  and  alignments  in 
modern  discipline  ;  the  French  call  them 
jalo)ieu7-s,  {rom  jalon,  a  post. 

Guides,  Corps  des  {Fr.).  The  corps  of 
guides.     This  body   was  originally  formed 


GUIDON 


205 


GUN 


in  France  in  1756,  and  consisted  of  1  cap- 
tain, 1  first  lieutenant,  2  second  lieutenants, 
I  2  sergeants,  2  corporals,  1  ansjiessade,  and 
20  privates,  caWcd  fusilicrs-fjuulrs.  Another 
corps  of  {guides  was  also  l^ormed  in  1796. 
This  corps  now  forms  part  of  the  imperial 


gua 


rd. 


Guidon.  A  small  flag  or  streamer,  as 
that  carried  by  cavalry,  which  is  broad  at 
one  end,  nearly  pointed  at  the  otlier,  and 
usually  of  silk  ;  or  that  used  to  direct  the 
movements  of  infantry,  or  to  make  signals  at 
sea.  In  the  U.  S.  service,  each  company  of 
cavalry  has  a  guidon. 

Guidon.  One  who  carries  a  flag.  Also, 
one  of  a  community  of  guides  established  at 
Kome  by  Charlemagne  to  accompany  pil- 
grims t"  the  Holy  Land. 

Guienne,  or  Guyenne.  An  old  province 
in  the  sotiilnvcst  of  France,  lying  to  the 
north  of  Gascony.  It  was  part  of  the  do- 
minions of  Henry  II.  Philip  of  France 
seized  it  in  12!)8,  which  led  to  war.  It  was 
alternately  held  by  England  and  France  till 
1453,  when  John  Talbot,  earl  of  Shrews- 
bury, in  vain  attempted  to  take  it  from  the 
latter. 

Guilford  Court-house  was  situated  about 
6  miles  northwest  of  Greensboro',  N.  C. 
Here  an  engagement  took  place  between 
I  the  British  troops  under  Cornwallis,  and 
I  the  American  forces,  chiefly  composed  of 
inexperienced  militia,  under  Gen.  Greene, 
on  March  15,  1781.  The  fight  resulted  in  a 
partial  victory  for  the  royal  troops,  owing 
principally  to  the  disorganization  and  flight 
of  the  North  Carolina  militia.  Gen.  Greene, 
not  wishing  to  risk  the  annihilation  of  liis 
army,  retreated  to  Speedwell's  iron-works, 
10  miles  distant.  Cornwallis,  however,  did 
not  attempt  to  pursue  him,  but  fell  back 
himself  to  Cross  Creek  (Fayetteville). 

Guillotine.  The  instrument  of  decapita- 
tion introduced  during  the  French  revolu- 
tion by  the  Convention,  and  nametl  after  its 
supjvosod  inventor,  J.  I.  (iuillotin.  It  is 
composed  of  two  upright  posts,  grooved  on 
the  inside,  and  connected  on  the  top  by  a 
cross-beam.  In  these  grooves  a  sharp  iron 
blade,  placed  obliquely,  descends  by  its  own 
weight  on  the  neck  of  the  victim,  who  is 
bound  to  a  board  laid  below.  The  invention 
of  machines  of  this  kind  is  ascribed  to  the 
Persians.  In  Italy,  from  the  13th  century, 
it  was  the  privilege  of  the  nobles  to  be  put 
to  death  by  a  nuiihine  of  this  kind,  which 
was  called  inaimaia.  Machines  of  similar 
kind  were  used  in  Scotland  and  Holland  for 
the  purpose  of  decapitation. 

Guinegate,  Battle  of.  Or  more  famil- 
iarly, the  "  Hattleof  the  Spurs,"  was  fought 
at  (iuincguti',  not  far  from  Tournai,  in  the 
province  of  Ilainault,  August  16,  1513,  be- 
tween the  English  under  Henry  VIII., 
assisted  by  a  considerable  body  of  troops 
headed  by  the  eniperor  Maximilian,  and  the 
French  under  the  Due  de  Longueville.  The 
latter  were  defeated.  The  battle  received 
its  familiar  designation    from  the   circum- 


stance of  the  French  knights  having  made 
I  better  use  of  their  .syj(//-.s  than  of  iha'w nwords. 
[  Guisarme,  or  Gisarme  {/>>.).  An  offen- 
sive weapon  formerly  used  in  France  ;  it 
]  was  a  two-edged  axe  mounted  upon  a  long 
handle,  and  sometimes  called  roM/ywe.  There 
were  three  kinds  ;  ih&  glaive  giwrme  liad  a 
sabre-blade  with  a  spike,  the  bill  f/inarme  a, 
blade  like  a  hedging-bill,  and  the  hand  gia- 
arme  was  a  kind  of  bill  with  a  serrated 
back. 

Guisarmiers  {Fr.).  Were  French  foot- 
soldiers  {pietons)  of  the  free  archers,  armed 
with  the  guisarme. 

Gujerat,  or  Guzerat.  A  walled  town  of 
the  Punjab,  on  the  right  side  of  the  Chenab, 
about  8  miles  from  tbe  stream.  It  is  a  place 
of  some  military  importance,  being  on  the 
great  route  between  Attock  and  Lahore. 
Here  on  February  21,  1849,  a  Sikh  army  of 
60,000  men  was  utterly  defeated  by  a  British 
force  decidedly  inferior  in  point  of  numbers. 

Gules.  The  term  by  which  the  color  red 
is  known  in  hersildry.  In  engraving  it  is 
marked  by  perpendicular  lines  traced  from 
the  top  of  the  shield  to  the  bottom.  It  is 
supposed  to  indicate  valor,  magnanimity, 
and  the  like,  and  is  regarded  as  the  most 
honorable  heraldic  color. 

Gun.  In  its  most  general  sense,  a  gun  is 
a  machine,  having  the  general  shape  of  a 
hollow  cylinder  closed  at  one  end,  and  used 
for  the  purpose  of  projecting  heavy  bodies  to 
great  distances  by  means  of  gunpowder. 
Technically,  it  is  a  heavy  cannon,  distin- 
guished by  its  great  weight,  length,  and  ab- 
sence of  a  chamber.  It  is  used  for  throwing 
projectiles  with  large  charges  of  powder  to 
long  distances,  with  great  accuracy  and  pen- 
etration. Guns  came  into  use  in  the  14th 
century,  and  were  first  fired  from  supjwrts, 
and  in  reality  were  artillery.  Shortly  after, 
they  took  the  form  of  a  clumsy  hand-guji, 
called  an  arquebuse,  which  was  portable, 
but  discharged  from  a  forked  rest.  The  next 
modification,  which  came  into  use  about  the 
end  of  the  14th  century,  was  called  the 
matchlock.  The  piece  was  discharged  by  a 
lighted  match  brought  down  on  the  juiwder- 
pan  by  the  action  of  a  trigger.  This  was 
superseded  in  1517  by  the  wheel-lock,  the 
fire  being  produced  by  the  action  of  a  toothed 
wheel  upon  flint  or  iron  pyrite.^.  Almost 
contemporary  with  this  was  the  snaphance 
gun,  in  which  sparks  were  generated  by  the 
concussion  of  flint  on  the  ribbed  top  of  the 
powder-pan.  About  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century  the  flint-lock  began  to  be  employed. 
This  was  a  combination  of  the  two  latter 
weapons,  but  much  superior  to  either.  It 
continued  universally  in  use  until  the  earlj 
part  of  the  present  century,  when  the  per- 
cussion-lock was  invented,  which  by  1840 
(the  time  of  its  adoption  by  the  British  gov- 
ernment), had  completely  superseded  it.  As 
the  lock  improved,  and  the  rapidity  of  fir- 
ing increased,  the  weight  of  the  piece  di- 
minished; the  old  tripod  first  used  as  a  rest 
i  gave  way  to  one  stake,  and  finally,  in  tbe 


GUN 


206 


GUN-COTTON 


18th  century,  was  abandoned  altogether. 
The  weapon  was  then  the  smooth-bore 
musket,  which  continued  in  use  with  vari- 
ous modifications  until  the  middle  of  the 
19th  century,  when  it  was  partially  super- 
seded by  the  rifle.  (See  Small-arms.)  In 
their  earlier  stages  cannon  went  by  various 
names,  as  bombards,  culverins,  petronels, 
and  later  on  were  reduced  to  the  three  de- 
nominations, technically,  of  guns,  howitzers, 
and  mortars.  For  the  two  latter,  see  How- 
itzer and  Mortar.  Guns  are  subdivided 
in  the  U.  S.  service  according  to  their  use, 
into  field,  siege,  and  sea-coast  guns.  The 
field-guns  consist  of  two  rifle  pietes ;  the 
3-inch  rifle,  adopted  in  1861,  and  the  3^-inch 
rifle,  adopted  in  1870  (see  Ordnance,  Con- 
struction of),  and  the  Napoleon  gun,  a 
12-pounder  smooth-bore,  adopted  in  1857. 
(See  Napoleon  Gun.  )  The  only  siege  gun 
adopted  by  the  United  States  is  a  4i-inch 
rifle.  The  30-pounder  Parrott,  so  exten- 
sively employed  in  our  service  for  siege  pur- 
poses, is  not  a  regulation  gun.  The  sea-coast 
guns  consist  of  13-,  15-,  and  20-inch  smooth- 
bores, and  10-  and  12-inch  rifles.  An  8-inch 
rifle  has  been  constructed  by  converting  the 
10-inch  smooth-bore  according  to  the  Pal- 
liser  or  Parsons  method.  The  13-inch 
smooth-bore  and  the  10-  and  12-inch  rifles 
are  regarded  as  experimental  guns.  The 
guns  principally  in  use  for  the  land  and  sea 
forces  of  the  United  States  are  those  known 
as  the  Columbiad,  or  Rodman,  Dahlgren, 
Gatling,  Hotchkiss,  Napoleon,  Parrott.  (For 
particular  descriptions,  see  appropriate  head- 
ings.) In  the  British  service  they  are  the 
Armstrong,  Palliser,  Woolwich,  or  Fraser, 
and  the  Lancaster,  Mackay,  and  Whitworth ; 
the  three  latter  being  now  very  little  used. 
(See  appropriate  headings. )  The  only  breech- 
loader in  general  use  in  Europe  is  the 
Krupp,  which  is  largely  employed  for  all 
purposes  by  Germany  and  Eussia.  See 
Krupp  Gun. 

Gun,  Curricle.  Is  a  small  piece  of  ord- 
nance, mounted  upon  a  carriage  of  two 
wheels,  and  drawn  by  two  horses.  The  ar- 
tilleryman is  seated  on  a  box,  and  the  whole 
can  be  moved  forward  into  action  with  as- 
tonishing rapidity.  The  tumbrils  belonging 
to  curricle  guns  carry  60  rounds  of  ball 
cartridges.  This  gun  is  no  longer  in  gen- 
eral use. 

Gun  Factories,  Royal.  Are  government 
establishments  in  England,  at  Woolwich, 
and  Elswick,  near  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  for 
the  construction  of  great  guns  for  the  use  of 
the  British  army  and  navy. 

Gun-barrel.  The  barrel  or  tube  of  a  gun. 
Gun-barrels  were  formerly  made  on  the 
coiled  principle,  and  this  method  is  still 
largely  followed  in  thin  barrels  like  those 
of  shot-guns.  The  superior  kinds  of  shot- 
gun barrels  are  known  as  stub^  stub-twist, 
wire-twist,  laminated,  etc. 

Stub-iron  is  made  from  horseshoe  nails 
cleaned  by  tumbling  and  mixed  with  a  small 
proportion  of  steel  scrap.     It  is  then  pud- 


dled and  put  through  various  processes, 
which  end  in  the  production  of  a  flat  bar 
called  a  skelp. 

Twist  is  the  term  applied  to  coiled  barrels. 
The  iron  or  steel  is  made  into  a  ribbon,  which 
is  wound  spirally  around  a  mandrel  and 
welded. 

Stub-twist  is  stub-iron  coiled. 

Wire-twist  is  made  by  welding  iron  and 
steel  bars  together,  or  two  qualities  of  iron, 
and  drawing  the  compound  bar  into  a  rib- 
bon, which  is  coiled  as  before  described.  The 
term  is  specially  applied  to  coiled  barrels 
made  from  small  ribbons. 

Damascus  iron  is  made  by  twisting  com- 
pound bars  of  steel  and  iron,  welding  sev- 
eral of  the  twisted  bars  together  and  forming 
a  ribbon  from  the  mass. 

Laininated  is  the  term  applied  to  barrels 
made  from  compound  bars. 

In  twist-barrels,  the  ribbon  is  several 
yards  long,  about  half  an  inch  wide,  and 
thicker  at  the  breech  than  at  the  muzzle  end. 
It  is  heated  to  redness,  wound  on  the  mandrel, 
then  removed  and  heated  to  the  welding- 
point  slipped  over  a  rod  with  a  shoulder  at 
the  lower  end.  The  rod  is  then  dropped 
vertically  several  times  on  a  block  of  metal, 
which  welds  the  spiral  edges  together.  This 
is  c&Wq^  jumping .  The  welding  is  completed 
by  hammering. 

Rifle-barrels  and  the  cheaper  kinds  of 
shot-gun  barrels  are  made  directly  from  the 
skelp,  which  is  passed  between  rollers,  which 
first  bend  the  plate  longitudinally  and  af- 
terwards convert  it  into  a  tube.  The  tube 
is  then  heated  to  a  welding  heat,  a  mandrel 
is  pushed  into  it,  and  it  is  passed  through  the 
welding  rolls,  which  weld  the  edges  and  at 
the  same  time  taper  and  lengthen  the  tube. 
The  boring  and  turning  are  done  in  lathes. 

Gun-carriage.     See  Carriage. 

Gun-carriage,  Barbette.  See  Barbette 
Carriage. 

Gun-carriage,  Field.  See  Fielb-car- 
riage. 

Gun-carriage,  Flank  Casemate.  See 
Flank  Casemate  Carriage. 

Gun-carriage,  Mountain.  See  Ord- 
nance, Carriages  for. 

Gun-carriage,  Prairie.  See  Ordnance, 
Carriages  for. 

Gun-carriage,  Sea-coast.  See  Ord- 
nance, Carriages  for. 

Gun-carriage,  Siege.  See  Ordnance, 
Carriages  for. 

Gun-cotton,  or  Pyroxyle.  Gun-cotton 
was  discovered  by  Schonbein  in  1846,  and 
was  first  made  by  treating  ordinary  cotton 
with  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids. 
The  product  resembles  ordinary  cotton  in 
appearance,  but  in  color  is  slightly  tinged 
with  yellow,  and  is  very  much  heavier.  It 
explodes  with  great  violence,  but  is  unfit  for 
most  military  purposes  on  account  of  its  lia- 
bility to  spontaneous  explosion,  its  corroding 
residue,  and  the  irregular  character  of  its 
explosion.  Baron  von  Lenk,  of  the  Aus- 
trian service,  however,  succeeded  to  some 


GUNDERMUK 


207 


GUNNEK'S 


extent  in  regulating  the  suddenness  of  the 
explosion  by  twisting  it  into  ropes,  and 
weaving  it  into  clotli,  but  it  never  came 
much  into  favor  for  military  purposes.  As 
first  made,  the  length  of  time  necessary  for 
its  manufacture  was  about  two  or  three 
months,  but  Mr.  Abel,  of  the  British  war 
oflBce,  has  by  a  series  of  experiments  mate- 
rially decreased  the  time  neco.ssary  for  its 
manufacture,  and  greatly  increased  the 
safety  and  certainty  of  the  product.  At 
Fave.sham  the  manufacture  of  a  peculiar 
kind  of  gun-cotton,  known  as  tonite,  is  con- 
ducted on  a  large  scale.  The  process  con- 
sists in  intimately  mixing  the  ordinary  gun- 
cotton  with  about  an  equal  weight  of  nitrate 
of  baryta.  This  compound  is  then  com- 
pressed into  candle-shaped  cartridges,  formed 
with  a  recess  at  one  end  for  the  reception  of 
a  fulminate  of  mercury  detonator.  It  con- 
trasts favorably  with  soft,  plastic  dynamite 
from  the  fact  of  its  being  easily  fastened  to 
the  safety-fuze.  Among  its  advantages, 
said  to  be  due  to  the  use  of  the  nitrate,  are 
that  it  contains  a  great  amount  of  ox\'gen 
in  a  very  small  volume,  and  that  it  is  very 
ready  under  the  detonator,  while  its  great 
density  makes  it  slow  to  the  influence  of  or- 
dinary combustion.  It  is  30  per  cent, 
stronger  than  ordinary  gun-cotton,  and  takes 
up  but  two-thirds  of  its  space,  or  the  same 
space  as  dynamite.  The  cartridges  are  gen- 
erally made  water-proof.  The  projectile 
force  of  gun-cotton,  when  used  with  mod- 
erate charges,  is  equal  to  about  twice  its 
weight  of  the  best  gunpowder.  Its  explosive 
force  is  in  a  high  degree  greater  than  that  of 
gunpowder,  and  in  this  respect  its  nature 
assimilates  much  more  to  the  fulminates 
than  to  gunpowder.  It  evolves  little  or  no 
smoke,  as  the  principal  residue  of  its  com- 
bustion is  water  and  nitrous  acid.  Recently, 
by  the  mixture  of  nitre  and  cane-sugar  its 
quickne-ss  in  action  has  been  reduced  so  as  to 
make  it  available  for  use  in  small-arms. 
The  nitrous  acid,  however,  will  soon  corrode 
the  barrel  if  the  piece  is  not  carefully  wiped 
after  tiring.  Other  explosive  substances  anal- 
ogous to  gun-cotton  may  be  prepared  from 
many  organic  bodies  of  the  cellulose  kind, 
by  immersing  them  in  the  same  bath  as  for 
gun-cotton  ;  among  these  may  be  mentioned 
paper,  tow,  sawdust,  calico,  and  wood  tibre. 

Gundermuk.  A  village  f)f  Afghanistan, 
28  miles  west  from  JelJalabad.  Here  the 
remnant  of  the  British  force,  consisting  of 
100  soldiers  and  800  camp-followers,  were 
massacred  in  1842,  while  retreating  from 
Cabul  (('abooD.  only  one  man  escaping. 

Gun-fire.  The  hour  at  which  the  morn- 
ing or  evening  gun  is  tired. 

Gun-lift.  Tiie  gun-lift  recently  devised 
by  Col.  Laidlcy,  of  the  V .  S.  Ordnance  Corps, 
is  a  most  coinjilcteand  rapid  means  for  mov- 
ing and  dismounting  heavy  guns.  In  it  the 
hydraulic  jack  is  placed  upon  a  stand  over  j 
the  gun,  whereby  the  building-up  of  the  j 
crib-work  of  blocks,  which  serves  as  a  base 
for  the  jack  to  stand  on,  is  dispensed  with,  | 


and  the  position  'of  the  jack  haff  not  to  be 
changed  during  the  operation  of  raising  or 
lowering  a  gun.  The  ordinary  carpenter's 
horse  or  trestle  is  taken  as  the  basis  of  the 
hoisting  apparatus.  The  cap  of  the  trestle, 
having  to  sustain  the  weight  of  the  gun  sus- 
pended at  a  distance  of  more  than  2  feet  from 
the  jxtints  of  support,  is  a  large,  strong,  and 
heavy  piece  of  timber,  and  the  legs  of  the 
trestle  have  to  be  strongly  braced.  The 
bolster,  a  strong  piece  of  oak  on  tf>p  of  the 
cap  of  the  trestle,  has  two  mortices  cut  in  it, 
one  for  a  hoisting-bar  to  pnnit  throiii/h,  and 
the  other  for  the  fulcrum-post  to  i-est  in. 
The  fulcrum-post  has  a  recess  cut  on  the  top 
to  receive  the  end  of  a  lever  and  keep  it  in 
place.  The  lever  has  a  mortice  through 
which  the  hoisting-bar,  already  mentioned, 
passes;  the  latter  is  perforated  with  a  series 
of  holes  through  which  a  pin  passes,  by 
which  the  end  of  the  lever,  under  which  the 
hydraulic  jack  works,  can  be  fastened  to  the 
hoisting-bar.  The  hoisting-bar  has  a  hook 
on  its  lower  end  to  which  the  weight  to  be 
raised  is  fastened  by  means  of  a  sling. 

Gun-metal.  An  alloy  of  nine  parts  of 
copper  and  one  part  of  tin,  used  for  brass 
cannon,  etc.  (See  Bronzk).  The  name  is 
also  given  to  certain  strong  mixtures  of  cast 
iron. 

Gunner.  A  soldier  employed  to  manage 
and  discharge  great  guns  ;  an  artilleryman. 
In  the  U.  S.  service  there  is  with  each  piece 
a  gunner,  who  gives  all  the  executive  com- 
mands in  action.  He  is  answerable  that  the 
men  at  the  piece  perform  their  duties  cor- 
rectly. 

Gunner's  Calipers.  Are  made  of  sheet- 
brass,  with  steel  points.  The  graduations 
show  diameters  of  guns,  shot,  etc. 

Gunner's  Elevating  Arc.  See  Elevat- 
ing Arc. 

Gunner's  Level,  or  Gunner's  Perpen- 
dicular. Is  an  instrument  made  of  sheet- 
brass  ;  the  lower  part  is  cut  in  the  form  of 
a  crescent,  the  points  of  which  are  made  of 
steel  ;  a  small  spirit-level  is  fastened  to  one 
side  of  the  plate,  parallel  to  the  line  joining 
the  points  of  the  crescent,  and  a  slider  is 
fastened  to  the  same  side  of  the  plate,  per- 
pendicular to  the  axis  of  the  piece.  This 
instrument  is  used  to  mark  the  points  of 
sight  on  pieces.  By  means  of  the  bubble 
the  feet  or  points  of  the  crescent  are  placed 
on  a  horizontal  line  on  the  base-ring  or  base- 
line, the  slider  pushed  down  until  the  point 
rests  on  the  base-ring  or  line,  and  its  jx)sition 
marked  with  chalk. 

Gunner's  Pincers.  Are  made  of  iron 
with  steel  jaws,  which  have  on  the  end  of 
one  a  claw  for  drawing  nails,  etc. 

Gunner's  Plummet.  A  simple  line  and 
bob  for  pointing  mortars. 

Gunner's  Quadrant.  Is  a  graduated 
quarter  of  a  circle  of  slieet-brass  of  6  inches 
radius,  attached  to  a  brass  rule  22  inches 
long.  It  has  an  arm  carrying  a  spirit-level 
at  its  middle  and  a  vernier  at  its  movable 
end.    To  get  a  required  elevation,  the  vernier 


GUNNERY 


208 


GUNPOWDER 


is  fixed  at  the  indicated  degree,  the  brass 
rule  is  then  inserted  in  the  bore  parallel  to 
the  axis  of  the  piece ;  the  gun  is  then  ele- 
vated or  depressed  until  the  level  is  hori- 
zontal. There  is  also  a  graduated  quadrant 
of  wood,  of  6  inches  radius,  attached  to  a 
rule  23.5  inches  long.  It  has  a  plumb-line 
and  bob,  which  are  carried,  when  not  in  use, 
in  a  hole  in  the  end  of  the  rule,  covered  by 
a  brass  plate. 

Gunnery.  The  art  of  using  fire-arms  ; 
but  the  term  is  commonly  understood  as 
being  restricted  to  the  use  or  application  to 
the  purposes  of  war  of  the  larger  pieces  of 
ordnance,  as  cannon,  mortars,  and  howitzers. 
In  its  practical  branch  gunnery  includes  a 
just  knowledge  of  the  construction  of  the 
several  pieces  of  artillery,  and  of  the  strength, 
tenacity,  and  resisting  power  of  the  materials 
of  which  they  are  formed  ;  of  the  method 
of  mounting  them  upon  strong,  eflicient, 
well-proportioned,  and  conveniently  con- 
structed carriages ;  of  the  proportions  due 
to  the  strength  of  the  powder  and  projectiles 
they  should  carry ;  of  the  force  and  efl'ect, 
and  also  of  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder; 
and,  generally,  of  all  such  mechanical  ar- 
rangements and  appliances  as  may  facilitate 
the  movements  and  working  of  the  guns, 
etc.,  when  prepared  for  action.  But  gun- 
nery takes  a  yet  far  more  extensive  range  ; 
for  it  may  be  said  to  be  based  upon  nearly 
every  branch  of  the  mathematical  and  phys- 
ical sciences,  and  may  be  itself  considered 
as  a  science  requiring  the  most  intricate 
combinations  of  human  knowledge  and  me- 
chanical ingenuity  fully  to  comprehend  and 
perfect.  It  particularly  requires  an  ac- 
quaintsince  with  all  experiments  which  may 
have  been  made  to  ascertain  the  impetus  of 
projection,  the  momentum  of  bodies  in  mo- 
tion, and  the  range  and  time  of  flight  of 
projectiles  with  given  charges  of  gunpowder, 
— with  the  effect  of  the  resistance  of  the 
atmosphere  upon  projectiles  propelled  with 
different  velocities,  and  the  laws  of  gravita- 
tion as  afiecting  falling  bodies ;  and  with 
the  various  causes,  mechanical  and  other- 
wise, of  the  usual  deflection  of  projectiles  in 
their  course,  when  fired  from  a  gun.  See 
Projectiles  and  Velocity. 

Gunning.  The  act  of  hunting  or  shooting 
game  with  a  gun. 

Gun-pendulum.  A  contrivance  for  ob- 
taining initial  velocities  of  projectiles.  The 
gun  is  suspended  from  a  frame-work  with 
its  axis  horizontal.  The  velocity  of  the  shot 
is  deduced  from  the  arc  described  in  the  re- 
coil.    The  apparatus  is  now  nearly  obsolete. 

Gun-platform.     See  Platform. 

Gunpowder.  A  well-known  explosive 
mixture,  who.se  principal  employment  is  in 
the  discharge,  for  war  or  sport,  of  projectiles 
from  fire-arms,  and  for  mining  purposes. 
The  ingredients  in  gunpowder  are  saltpetre, 
charcoal,  and  sulphur.  Slightly  dift'erent 
proportions  are  employed  in  dift'erent  coun- 
tries. In  the  United  States  the  proportions 
are  75  to  76  saltpetre,  14  to  15  charcoal,  and 


10  sulphur.  Charcoal  is  the  combustible 
ingredient;  saltpetre  furnishes  the  oxygen 
necessary  to  support  a  rapid  combustion 
and  to  change  the  whole  mass  into  gas,  and 
sulphur  adds  consistency  to  the  mixture  and 
intensity  to  the  flame,  besides  rendering  the 
powder  less  liable  to  absorb  moisture;  in- 
creases the  volume  of  gas  by  preventing  the 
formation  of  a  solid  potassium  carbonate, 
and  by  increasing  the  temperature. 

In  the  manufacture  of  ordinary  powder, 
the  operations  usually  employed  are  pulver- 
izing the  ingredients,  incorporation,  compres- 
sion, gra7iulatio7i,  glazing,  drying,  and  dust- 
ing. 

The  ingredients  &ve  pulverized  by  placing 
each  separately  in  barrels  which  contain 
bronze  or  zinc  balls,  and  which  are  revolved 
rapidly  for  several  hours. 

Incorporation  or  thorough  mixing  is  ef- 
fected partially  by  the  use  of  a  rolling  barrel, 
and  completed  in  the  rolling-mill.  This 
consists  of  two  cast-iron  cylinders  rolling 
round  a  horizontal  axis  in  a  circular  trough 
with  a  cast-iron  bottom.  The  cylinders  are 
very  heavy,  and  give  a  grinding  motion, 
which  is  very  eff'ective  in  bringing  about  a 
thorough  mixture  of  the  three  ingredients. 
A  wooden  scraper  follows  the  rollers  and 
keeps  the  composition  in  the  middle  of  the 
trough.  •  The  charge  in  the  trough  is  moist- 
ened with  2  or  3  per  cent,  of  water  before 
the  rollers  are  started.  A  little  water  is 
added  from  time  to  time  as  required.  This 
is  the  most  important  operation  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  powder.  The  time  required  is 
about  one  hour  for  each  50  pounds  of  com- 
position. When  finished  the  composition  is 
called  mill-cake. 

Com.pressing. — This  is  next  taken  to  the 
press-house,  slightly  moistened  and  arranged 
between  brass  plates,  and  then  subjected  to 
hydraulic  pressure  of  about  70  tons  (English 
tons)  per  square  foot.  Each  layer  is  thus 
reduced  to  a  hard  cake. 

Granulation. — The  cake  is  broken  up  into 
grains  by  means  of  toothed  rollers  revolving 
in  opposite  directions,  the  cake  being  passed 
between  them.  The  different-sized  grains 
are  separated  by  sieves  between  the  different 
sets  of  rollers. 

Glazing  is  effected  by  moistening  the 
grains  and  revolving  them  in  a  rolling 
barrel. 

Dn/i7ig  is  done  on  sheets  in  a  room  heated 
to  146°-160°. 

Dusting. — The  dust  is  removed  by  revolv- 
ing the  powder  in  rolling  barrels  covered 
with  coarse  canvas.  The  dust  is  caught  by 
an  outside  case. 

There  are  five  kinds  of  grain  powder  used 
in  the  U.  S.  service,  distinguished  as  mam- 
7noth,  ea7mon,  7nortar,  musket,  and  ri-fle 
powder,  all  made  in  the  same  manner,  of 
the  same  proportion  of  materials,  and  difl'er- 
ing  only  in  the  size  of  the  grain.  Mammoth 
is- employed  for  the  heaviest  sea-coast  guns ; 
cannon  "for  smaller  sea-coast  guns  ;  mortar 
for  mortars  and  field-  and  siege-pieces  ;  mus- 


GUNPOWDER 


209 


GUNPOWDER 


Fossano   powder,    made   in    Italy,    1871, 
gramilated  by  hand,  is  a  slow-burning  pow- 


ket  for  rifle-muskets;  and  rifle  for  pistols. 
In  addition  to  the  above  we  have  the  follow- 
ing: 

Meal  powder,  a  fine  dust  containing  the 
ingredients  of  ordinary  gunpowder,  but  in 
which  the  relative  proportions  of  these  in- 
gredients vary,  according  to  the  rate  of  burn- 
ing desired,  and  the  object  for  which  the 
powder  is  to  be  used.  Used  principally  in 
])yrotechny,  and  in  mortar  tire  to  communi- 
cate the  flame  from  the  charge  to  the  shell. 
Also  "  G'c;-mrtM"  or  '■'^  Americmi"  "  White 
Gunpowder,"  more  powerful  than  ordinary 
gun{»owder,  but  more  expensive;  acts  upon 
iron,  and  is  very  little  used  in  gunnery. 

Pebble  potvder,   an    irregular   large-grain 
powder,  very  similar  to  American  "  Mam- 
moth," which  preceded  it,  was  made  in  Eng- 
land, 18G5,  by  breaking  ordinary  yj/ess-ca/ce 
with  copper  hammers 
'ssano    po 
ulated  by 
der,  used  in  large  guns,  notably  in  the  100- 
j  ton  guns,  one  of  which  was  recently  burst, 

1880,  by  a  charge  of  552  pounds  of  this  pow- 
I  der.     Lately  the  grains  of  this  powder  have 

been  given  a  regular  form. 

Amons;,  regular  grain  powders  made  with- 
out molding  are  cubical,  an  English  powder, 
!  extensively  used  in  all  their  large  guns,  the 

!  largest  being  2  inches  on   the  edge.      This 

I  18  made  by  passing  the  cake  between  fluted 

I  rollers,  which  cut  it  into  strips,  and  then  these 

;  strips    endways    between   a    second   set   of 

rollers. 

Schaghticoke,  made  at  Hart's  Falls,  N.  Y., 
is  a  cubical  powder  made  very  much  like  the 
English, — the  lines  of  fracture  are,  however, 
simply  scratched  on  the  cake  (both  sides), 
which  is  afterwards  broken  in  the  ordinary 
way. 

Afolded  Powder. — The  ingredients  are  the 
same  as  those  of  ordinary  gunpowder,  but 
each  grain  is  separately  molded. 

Gen.  Rodman  was  the  first  to  propose  the 
manufacture  of  these  powders  in  \\\i  perfo- 
rated cake,  1800;  the  object  being  to  cause 
the  powder  to  burn  on  an  increasing  surface, 
thus  lessening  tiie  strain  on  the  gun  in  the 
first  moments  of  combustion.  His  powder 
after  a  few  e.\perinients  was  allowed  to  fall 
into  disuse  in  the  United  States,  but  the  in- 
vention was  carried  to  Europe  and  developed 
with  a  smaller  grain  into  prismatic  powder, 
used  in  Europe,  and  especially  in  Germany 
and  Russia,  and  particularly  adapted  to 
breech-loading  cannon  ;  the  grain  is  a  hex- 
agonal prism  in  form  and  contains  six  cylin- 
drical orifices  passing  entirely  through  it 
parallel  to  the  axis,  and  symmetrically  ar- 
ranged with  respect  to  it.  '  The  cartridge  is 
so  made  timt  the  cylindrical  orifices  pass 
through  the  entire  length. 

Hexagonal  Powder. — This  is  the  powder 
principally  used  in  the  United  States;  the 

trains  have  the  shape  which  would  be  given 
y  joining  the  larger  bases  of  two  frustrums 
of  equal  six-sided  pyramids,  and  vary  in  size 
according  to  the  piece  in  which  the  powder 


is  to  be  used.  This  powder  is  believed  in  the 
United  States  to  give  the  best  results,  and 
can  be  adapted  to  cannon  of  any  caliber. 

Hintory  of  Gunpowder. — The  origin  of 
gunpowderasanexplosive,  and  its  application 
to  the  projection  of  missiles  of  war,  are  lost 
in  the  mists  of  obscurity.  Its  use  in  Europe 
can  be  traced  only  to  the  middle  or  early 
part  of  the  14lh  century.  It  is  believed  by 
many  that  certain  experiments  by  Schwartz, 
a  German  monk,  led  to  its  introduction  in 
war,  but  the  better  theory  seems  to  be  that  the 
knowledge  was  obtained  from  the  Saracens. 
It  is  j)robable  that  the  invention  arose  in 
Central  Asia  in  the  regions  where  saltpetre 
occurs  as  an  eft'ervescence  of  the  soil.  The 
Chinese  appropriated  the  discovery  at  a  very 
early  period,  and  fireworks  were  common  in 
that  country  when  Europe  was  roamed  by 
the  primitive  savage.  WhenGhengis  Khan 
invaded    China,    B.C.    1219,    fire-arms   of  a 

frimitive  form  appear  to  have  been  used, 
"assages  in  old  writers  seem  also  to  show 
that  when  Alexander  invaded  India,  327  B.C., 
he  encountered  tribes  that  used  similar 
wcapcms.  The  i)eople  of  India  doubtless  ob- 
tained their  knowledge  from  China.  Wars 
and  migrations  of  tribes  gradually  dissemi- 
nated a  knowledge  of  gunpowder  over  Asia 
and  Northern  Africa.  The  use  of  gunpow- 
der is  mentioned  in  Arabic  writings  in  the 
13th  century.  The  Moors  used  it  in  .Spain 
in  1312.  In  1331  the  king  of  Granada  em- 
ployed it  in  sieges.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
used  by  the  English  in  the  battles  of  Crecy, 
1316.  'The  Venetians  employed  it  in  1380 
against  the  Genoese.  From  that  time  to  the 
present  fire-arms  have  gradually  supplanted 
other  weapons.  • 

For  a  long  time  after  its  introduction  gun- 
powder was  used  in  the  form  of  dust  or 
"  meal  powder."  Granulation  was  attempted 
to  get  rid  of  the  difficulties  in  handling  the 
dust,  but  the  grained  form  proved  too  strong 
for  tlie  arms  used,  and  "  meal  powder"  con- 
tinued in  general  use  till  improvements  in 
the  weapons  about  the  close  of  the  IGth  cen- 
tury admitted  of  the  other  form.  The  granu- 
latit)n  was  at  first  very  crude.  This  was 
remedied  in  time  by  the  introduction  of  ma- 
chinery or  coruing-viills  in  the  manufacture. 
Though  ditferent-sized  grains  were  at  first 
used  in  large  and  small  guns  the  principles 
involved  were  not  studied,  and  afterwards 
one  uniform  size — large  musket  powder — 
was  employed  in  all  fire-arms.  This  step 
backwards  may  have  been  caused  by  the  im- 
purity of  the  ingredients  and  bad  numufac- 
ture,  which  made  the  large  grains  too  weak. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  present  century  a 
classification  of  grains  was  revived  under 
the  two  general  names  of  mu.fket  and  cannon 
powder.  The  invention  of  the  mercunj  den- 
simeter rendered  practicable  an  accurate  de- 
termination of  the  specific  gravity  of  jiowder 
and  its  relation  to  quickness  of  burning,  but 
tiic  importance  of  size  and  t'orm  of  grain  was 
first  appreciated  by  Gen.  Rodman,  who,  in 
1869,  began  experiments  which  led  at  once 


GUNPOWDER 


210 


GUY 


to  the  introduction  of  mammoth  powder  for 
large  guns,  and  later  to  the  invention  of  per- 
forated cake.  The  introduction  of  the  pow- 
erful ordnance  now  existing  in  Europe  has 
been  rendered  possible  by  improvements  in 
this  direction  based  upon  the  principles  first 
formulated  by  Rodman.  The  latest  idea  on 
the  subject  is  "compensating  powder"  (pro- 
posed by  Lieut.  C.  A.  L.  Totten,  of  the  4th 
U.  S.  Artillery),  a  spherical  grain  of  gun- 
powder inclosing  a  smaller  sphere  of  gun- 
cotton.  This  powder  remains  to  be  made 
and  experimented  with,  but  it  opens  a  field 
of  research  which  must  lead  to  valuable  re- 
sults. 

Gunpowder,  Absolute  Force  of.  See  Ab- 
solute Force  of  Gunpowder. 

Gunpowder  Pile-driver.  A  pile-driver 
operated  by  the  explosive  force  of  gunpow- 
der. The  hammer  is  arranged  as  usual  to 
slide  in  vertical  guides.  It  has  a  piston  on 
its  lower  end,  which  enters  a  cylindrical  hole 
in  the  pile-cap.  In  this  hole  the  cartridge 
is  placed,  and  is  exploded  through  the  com- 
pression of  the  air  by  the  piston  of  the  ham- 
mer, when  the  latter  falls.  The  explosion 
drives  down  the  pile  and  raises  the  hammer 
at  the  same  blow.  The  powder  ordinarily 
used  is  a  mixture  of  chlorate  of  potash  and 
bituminous  coal. 

Gunpowder  Plot,  A  conspiracy  entered 
into  by  a  few  Roman  Catholics  to  destroy 
the  king,  lords,  and  commons  on  the  meet- 
ing of  JParliament  on  November  5,  1605. 
On  the  evening  of  the  4th,  the  famous  Guy 
Fawkes,  who  was  to  be  the  leader  and  agent 
of  the  conspirators,  was  detected  under  the 
vaults  of  the  House  of  Lords  preparing  the 
train  for  being  fired  the  next  day  ;  and  on 
the  morning  of  the  5th,  a  little  after  mid- 
night, he  was  arrested,  examined,  and  tor- 
tured. He  confessed  his  own  guilt,  but 
would  not  discover  his  associates.  However, 
all  of  them  were  either  killed  on  being  cap- 
tured, or  died  on  the  scaftbld,  except  one. 
The  memorj'  of  this  plot  has  survived  in 
England,  and  the  name  of  Guy  Fawkes  is 
detested. 

Gunpowder-mill.  See  Mill,  Gunpow- 
der-. 

Gunreach.  The  reach  or  distance  to 
which  a  gun  will  shoot;  gunshot. 

Giins.  A  town  of  Hungary,  situated  on 
the  river  of  the  same  name,  about  57  miles 
south-southeast  of  Vienna.  It  is  famous  for 
its  noble  defense  of  its  fortifications  for 
twenty-eight  days  against  the  Turks  under 
Solyman  in  1532,  thus  enabling  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  time  to  assemble  a  force  strong 
enough  to  oppose  them. 

Gunshot.  The  distance  of  the  point- 
blank  range  of  a  cannon-shot.  The  distance 
to  which  shot  can  be  thrown  from  a  gun  so 
as  to  be  effective ;  the  reach  or  range  of  a 
gun. 

Gunshot.  Made  by  the  shot  of  a  gun  ; 
as,  a  gunshot  wound. 

Gun-sling.     See  Sling. 

Gunsmith.     A  maker  of  small-arms  :  one 


whose  occupation  is  to  make  or  repair  small 
fire-arms  ;  an  armorer. 

Gunsmithery.  The  business  of  a  gun- 
smith ;  the  art  of  making  small  fire-arms. 

Gunster.  A  gunner.  This  term  is  now 
rare.      ' 

Gunstick.  A  stick  to  ram  down  the  charge 
of  a  musket,  etc. ;  a  rammer  or  ramrod.  This 
term  is  now  rare. 

Gunstock.  The  stock  or  wood  in  which 
the  barrel  of  a  gun  is  fixed. 

Gunstone.  A  stone  used  for  the  shot  of 
cannon.  Before  the  invention  of  iron  balls, 
stones  were  used  for  shot,  but  are  now  alto- 
gether superseded. 

Gunter's  Chain  (from  Edmund  Gunter, 
the  inventor).  The  chain  commonly  used 
by  military  engineers  for  measuring  land. 
It  is  4  rods,  or  66  feet  long,  and  is  divided 
into  100  links. 

Gunter's  Line.  A  logarithmic  line  on 
Gunter's  scale,  used  for  performing  the  mul- 
tiplication and  division  of  numbers  mechan- 
ically by  the  dividers ; — called  also  line  of 
lines,  and  line  of  numbers ;  also  a  sliding 
scale  corresponding  to  logarithms,  for  per- 
forming these  operations  by  inspection,  with- 
out dividers  ; — called  also  Gunter's  sliding 
rule.     This  is  used  by  military  engineers. 

Gunter's  Scales.  A  wooden  rule  2  feet 
long,  on  one  side  of  which  are  marked 
scales  of  equal  parts,  of  chords,  sines,  tan- 
gents, rhombs,  etc.,  and  on  the  other  side,  of 
logarithms  of  these  various  parts,  by  means 
of  which  many  problems  in  surveying  and 
navigation  may  be  solved  mechanically,  by 
the  aid  of  the  dividers  alone.  This  instru- 
ment is  used  by  military  engineers. 

Gurges,  or  Gorges.  A  charge  in  heraldry 
meant  to  represent  a  whirlpool.  It  takes  up 
the  whole  field,  and  when  borne  proper  is 
azure  and  argent. 

Gurries.  Mud  forts  made  in  India  are  so 
called.  These  forts  are  sometimes  sur- 
rounded with  ditches. 

Gurwal.  A  state  of  Northern  Hindo- 
stan,  under  the  protection  of  the  British 
government,  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya 
Mountains.  Gurwal  was  subdued  by  the 
Nepaulese  about  the  year  1803,  when  Pur- 
dumin  Shah,  the  rajah,  at  the  head  of  12,000 
men,  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Gurudwara. 
The  country  was  conquered  by  the  British 
in  1814,  and  partly  restored  to  the  rajah's 
son. 

Gusset.  Was  at  first  a  piece  of  chain,  and 
afterwards  of  plate-armor,  intended  as  a  pro- 
tection to  the  vulnerable  point  where  the 
defenses  of  the  arm  and  breast  left  a  gap.  In 
heraldry  it  is  one  of  the  abatements,  or 
marks  of  disgrace  for  unknightly  conduct. 
It  is  represented  by  a  straight  line  extending 
diagonally  from  the  dexter  or  sinister  chief 
point  one-third  across  the  shield,  and  then 
descending  perpendicularly  to  the  base. 

Guy.  A  rope  used  to  swing  any  weight, 
or  to  keep  steady  any  heavy  body,  and  pre- 
vent it  from  swinging,  while  being  hoisted 
or  lowered. 


GUZERAT 


211 


HADDINGTON 


Guzerat.  A  state  in  India,  founded  by 
Maliriioiid  the  Guznevide,  uLout  lO'JO;  was 
conquered  by  A i< bur  in  1572;  and  becunie 
subject  to  the  Mahrattas,  1732  or  1752.  At 
the  battle  of  Gu/.erat,  February  21,  1849, 
Lord  (ioui^b  totally  defeated  the  Sikhs,  and 
captured  the  city  of  Guzerat. 

Gwalior.  Capital  of  the  state  of  the  same 
name,  in  Central  India.  Its  nucleus  is  a 
completely  isolated  rock  of  about  800  feet 
in  height,  perpendicular,  either  naturally  or 
artificially,  on  all  sides;  and  as  it  measures 
H  miles  by  300  yards,  it  can  accommodate 
ap^rrison'of  15,000  men.  It  is  thus  virtu- 
ally impregnable  against  an}'  native  force. 
The  spot  is  understood  to  have  been  occu- 
pied as  a  stronghold  for  more  than  a  thou- 
sand years. 

Gyongyos.    A  town  of  Ilungary,  43  miles 


northeast  from  Pesth.  The  Austrians  were 
defeated  here  by  the  Hungarians  in  1840. 

Gythcum,  or  Gythium  (now  Pahropolis, 
near  Marat/iomai).  An  ancient  town  on  the 
east  coast  of  Laconia,  founded  by  the  Achaj- 
ans,  near  the  head  of  the  Laconian  Bay, 
southwest  of  the  mouth  of  the  river  Eurotas. 
It  served  as  the  harbor  of  Sparta,  and  wius 
important  in  a  military  point  of  view.  In 
the  Persian  war,  the  Laceduimonian  fleet 
was  stationed  at  Gytheum,  and  here  the 
Athenians  under  Tolmides  burned  the  Lace- 
da3monian  arsenal,  455  n.c.  After  the  bat- 
tle of  Leuctra  (370)  it  was  taken  by  Epam- 
inondas.  In  195  it  was  taken  by  Flamini- 
nus,  and  made  independent  of  Nabis,  tyrant 
of  Sparta,  whereupon  it  jcjined  the  Achaean 
league. 

Gyves.     Fetters  ;  old  word  for  handcuffs. 


«^^ 


H, 


Haarlem,  or  Haerlem.  A  city  of  the  I 
Netherlands,  in  the  province  of  Northern  | 
Holland,  on  the  Spaarne.  It  is  an  ancient  [ 
town,  and  was  once  the  residence  of  the  i 
counts  of  Holland;  was  taken  by  the  Duke  j 
of  Alva  in  .July,  1573,  after  a  siege  of  seven 
months.  He  violated  the  capitulation  by  I 
butchering  half  the  inhabitants.  | 

Habeas  Corpus.    A  writ  of  habeas  corpus 
is  an  order  in  writing,  signed  by  the  judge 
who  grants  the  same,  sealed  with  the  seal  of 
the  court  of  which  he  is  a  judge,  and  issued 
in  the  name  of  a  sovereign  power  where  it  is  I 
erantcd,  by  such  a  court  or  a  judge  thereof  | 
Having  lawful  authority  to  issue  the  same,  ; 
directed  to  any  one  having  a  person  in  his  j 
custody  or  under  his  restraint,  commanding 
him  to  produce  such  person  at  a  certain  time 
and  place,  and  to  state  the  reason  why  he  is 
held  in  custody  or  under  restraint. 

Habergeon.  A  short  coat  of  mail,  con- 
sisting of  u  jacket  without  sleeves.  In  early 
times  the  habergeon  was  composed  of  chain- 
mail  ;  but  in  the  14th  century  a  habergeon  of 
plate-armor  was  worn  over  the  hauberk. 

Habiliments  of  War.  In  ancient  statutes 
signify  armor,  harness,  utensils,  etc.,  with- 
out which  it  is  supposed  there  can  be  no 
ability  to  maintain  a  war. 

Habsburg,  or  Hapsburg,  House  of.  An 
ancient  sovereign  family  of  Austria,  which 
derives  its  name  from  the  castle  of  Habsburg, 
in  Switzerland.  The  tirst  member  of  the 
family    who   acquired    great   celebritv 

electea  em  pi 

tria  and  other  provinces  by  conquest,  and 
founded  the  dynasty  which  now  reigns  over 
the  Austrian  empire,  and  which,  since  1736, 


ily  who  acquired  great  celebritv  was 
iolph  of  Habsburg,' born  in  1218,  and 
ted  emperor  in  127'3.     He  obtained  Aus- 


has  been  styled  the  house  of  Habsburg- Lor- 
raine. 

Hach6e  (Fr.).  Ignominious  punishment 
of  carrying  a  saddle  or  dog,  to  which  soldiers 
were  formerlv  subject  in  France. 

Haches  d'Armes  (Fr  ).  Pole-  or  battle- 
axes.  A  /tarhe  fl'arnie  is  an  axe  with  a 
narrow  handle  armed  with  a  sliarj)  blade  in 
the  form  of  a  crescent  very  much  curved, 
terminating  in  two  points  approaching  the 
handle  on  one  side;  the  other  side  terminat- 
ing in  a  point  or  hammer;  when  both  sides 
were  armed  with  a  blade  it  was  called  hcsapne. 

Hack.  To  cut  irregularly,  without  skill 
or  definite  purpose  ;  to  notch  ;  to  mangle  by 
repeated  strokes  of  a  cutting  instrument. 
"  My  sword  hacked  like  a  handsaw." 

Hack-bush.    Formerly  a  heavy  hand-gun. 

Hacquet  Wagen.  A  four-wheeled  wagon 
used  in  the  Prus-iian  service  to  carry  pontons. 
The  under-frame  of  this  carriage  is  built  like 
that  of  a  chariot,  by  which  means  it  can  turn 
without  difficulty. 

Hacqueton.  '  A  stuffed  coat  or  cloak, 
generally  of  leather,  mounted  with  metal, 
formerly  worn  in  France  by  certain  knights 
of  the  king's  guards  called  "  Gnrdr.s  de  la 
Mnuche."  \i  came  into  use  during  the  reign 
of  Charles  V.,  and  was  di.scarded  during  the 
revolution  of  1789. 

Haddington.  A  royal  burgh  of  Scotland, 
and  county  town  of  Haddingtonshire,  or 
East  Lothian.  It  was  burnt  in  12K)  by  an 
invading  army  under  John,  king  of  England. 
Having  been  rebuilt,  it  was  again  burnt  to 
the  ground  in  1244.  In  1355  it  was  retluced 
to  ashes  for  the  third  time  by  Edward  III. 
of  England.  The  year  after  the  battle  of 
Pinkie,   1548,  Haddington   was  seired  and 


HADRUMETUM 


212 


HALF-HITCH 


strongly  furtified  by  the  English.  An  allied 
army  of  Scotch  and  French  laid  siege  to  it, 
and,  after  a  memorable  defense,  it  was  evac- 
uated by  the  English  in  October,  1549. 

Hadrumetum.     See  Adrumktum. 

Hagbut,  or  Haguebut  ( Fr.  haquebute). 
An  arquebuse,  of  which  the  butt  was  bent  or 
hooked,  in  order  that  it  might  be  held  more 
readily. 

Hagbutar.  The  bearer  of  a  fire-arm  for- 
merly used. 

Hagg.     An  arquebuse  with  a  bent  butt. 

Hague.  A  little  hand-gun  of  former 
times. 

Haguebut,  or  Hague-but.  The  same  as 
hagbut  (which  see). 

Haguenau.  A  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Bas-Rhin,  formerly  a  free 
town  of  Germany  and  a  strong  forti'ess,  sit- 
uated on  the  Moder,  18  miles  north-north- 
east of  Strasburg.  It  was  founded  in  1164 
by  Frederick  Barbarossa.  It  successfully 
withstood  many  sieges,  especially  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  War;  but  on  its  occupation 
in  1675  by  the  Imperialists,  its  fortifications 
were  destroyed.  On  October  17  and  De- 
cember 22,  1793,  bloody  battles  took  place 
here  between  the  French  and  Austrians,  in 
which  the  former  were  the  victors. 

Haik.  A  large  piece  of  woolen  or  cotton 
cloth  worn  by  the  Arabs  over  the  tunic,  being 
itself  covered  in  foul  weather  by  the  bur- 
noose.     This  word  is  also  written  fiT/ke. 

Hail.  To  accost ;  to  call ;  to  salute.  A 
sentinel  hails  any  one  approaching  his  post 
with,  "  Who  comes  there?" 

Hail-shot.     Grape-shot. 

Hainburg.  A  town  of  Austria,  on  the 
Danube,  28  miles  southeast  from  Vienna. 
The  Magyars,  or  Hungarians,  gained  a  great 
victory  here  over  the  Germans  in  907. 

Hair.  A  spring  or  other  contrivance  in  a 
rifle  or  pistol  lock,  which,  being  unlocked 
by  a  slight  pressure  on  the  trigger,  strikes 
the  tumbler-catch,  and  unlocks  the  tumbler. 

Hair-cloth.  A  species  of  cloth  made  of 
horse-hair,  laid  upon  the  floors  of  magazines 
and  laboratories  to  prevent  accidents.  It  is 
usually  made  up  in  pieces  14  feet  long  and 
11  feet  wide,  each  weighing  36  pounds. 

Hair-line.  A  line  made  of  hair  ;  a  very 
fine  line.  This  line  is  used  in  military  en- 
gineering. 

Hair-trigger.  A  trigger  so  constructed 
as  to  discharge  a  fire-arm  by  a  very  slight 
pressure,  as  by  the  touch  of  a  hair.  It  is 
connected  with  the  tumbler-catch  by  a  de- 
vice called  a  hair. 

Hajduk,  Haiduk,  or  Hayduk.  The  Mag- 
yar inhabitants  of  the  district  of  Hajdu 
Kerulet,  in  Eastern  Hungary.  The  Hajduk 
are  direct  descendants  of  those  warriors, 
who,  during  the  long  and  bloody  contest  be- 
tween the  house  of  Hapsburg  and  the  Prot- 
estant insurgents  of  Hungary,  formed  the 
nucleus  of  Prince  Stephen  Bocskay's  valiant 
armies.  They  formerly  enjoyed  the  privi- 
leges of  the  nobility,  and  were  free  from 
taxation. 


Hake.  An  old  term  for  a  hand-gun. 
Halberd,  or  Halbert.  A  weapon  borne 
up  to  the  close  of  the  18th  century  by  all 
sergeants  of  foot,  artillery,  and  marines,  and 
by  companies  of  halberdiers  in  the  various 
regiments  of  the  English  army.  It  consisted 
of  a  strong  wooden  shaft  about  6  feet  in 
length,  surmounted  by  an  instrument  much 
resembling  a  bill-hook,  constructed  alike  for 
cutting  and  thrusting,  with  a  cross-piece  of 
steel,  less  sharp,  for  the  purpose  of  pushing  ; 
one  end  of  this  cross-piece  was  turned  down 
as  a  hook  for  use  in  tearing  down  works 
against  which  an  attack  was  made. 

"old  Halberd  is  a  familiar  term  formerly 
used  in  the  British  army,  to  signify  a  person 
who  had  gone  through  the  ditferent  grada- 
tions, and  risen  to  the  rank  of  a  commis- 
sioned ofiicer. 

Halberdier.  One  who  is  armed  with  a 
halberd. 

Hale's  Rocket.    See  Rocket. 
Half  Bastion.     A  demi-bastion.      That 
half  of  a  bastion  cut  off  by  the  capital,  con- 
sisting of  one  base  and  one  front. 

Half  Caponniere.     A  communication  in  a 
dry  ditch  with  one  side  prepared  for  defense. 
Half  Merlens.     The  merlens  at  the  ends 
of  a  parapet. 

Half-batta.  An  extra  allowance  which 
was  granted  to  the  whole  of  the  officers  be- 
longing to  the  British  East  Indian  army,  ex- 
cept Bengal,  when  out  of  the  company's  dis- 
trict in  the  province  of  Oude.  In  the  upper 
provinces  double  batta  was  allowed.  AH 
above  full  was  paid  by  the  native  princes,  as 
the  troops  stationed  in  that  quarter  wer« 
considered  as  auxiliaries.  Batta  is  equal  to 
full  pay.     See  Batta. 

Half-brigade.     A  demi-brigade. 
Half-cock.     The  position  of  the  cock  of  a 
gun  when  retained  by  the  first  notch.    Also, 
to  set  the  cock  at  the  first  notch. 

Half-companies.  The  same  as  subdivis- 
ions, and  equal  to  a  platoon. 

Half-distance.  Is  half  the  regular  inter- 
val or  space  between  troops  drawn  up  in 
ranks  or  standing  column. 

Half-face.  Is  to  take  half  the  usual  dis- 
tance between  the  right  or  left  face,  in  order 
to  give  an  oblique  direction  to  the  line,  or 
to  fill  up  a  gap  at  the  corner  of  a  square. 

Half-file  Leader  (Fr.  chef  de  demi-file). 
The  foremost  man  of  a  rank  entire. 

Half-files.  Is  half  the  given  number  of 
any  body  of  men  drawn  up  two  deep.  They 
are  so  called  in  cavalry  when  the  men  rank 
off  singly. 

Half-'full  Sap.  When  the  sappers  have 
only  a  flank  fire  (coming  in  a  direction  nearly 
perpendicular  to  that  of  the  sap)  to  fear, 
the  sap-roller  may  be  dispensed  with.  The 
first  sapper  then  covers  himself  with  the  last- 
filled  gabion  whilst  placing  and  filling  the 
new  one.  This  species  of  sap  is  called  the 
half-full  sap. 

Half-hitch.  Pass  the  end  of  a  rope  round 
its  standing  part,  and  bring  it  up  through 
the  bight. 


HALF-MOON 


213 


HAMMER-WRENCH 


Half-moon  (Fr.  demi-lunc).  In  fortifica- 
tion, is  an  outwork  that  has  two  faces  which 
form  a  salient  anj^le,  tlie  gori^e  of  which  re- 
semhlcs  a  crescent.  It  owes  its  original  in- 
vention to  the  Dutch,  who  used  it  to  cover 
the  points  of  their  bastions.  This  kind  of 
fortification  is,  however,  defective,  because  it 
is  weak  on  its  flanks.  Half-moons  are  now 
called  ravelins,  which  species  of  work  is  con- 
structed in  front  of  the  curtain. 

Half-pay.  An  allowance  given  in  the 
Hritish  army  and  navy  to  commissioned  of- 
ficers not  actively  employed.  It  was  first 
granted  by  William  111."  in  IfJttS.  In  the 
U.  S.  service  officers  receive  half-pay  only 
when  on  leave  of  absence  for  a  longer  period 
than  that  for  which  full  ])ay  on  leave  is  al- 
lowed, namely,  thirty  days  in  each  year. 
Sec  Aii.sK.vcK,  Leavk  ok. 

Half-pike.  A  short  pike,  which  was  for- 
merly carried  by  othccrs. 

Half-sunken  Battery.     See  Battery. 

Half-sword.  A  light  within  half  the 
length  of  a  sword  ;  a  close  fight. 

Haliartus  (now  M<izi).  An  ancient  town 
in  Hccotia,  on  the  south  of  the  Lake  Copais. 
It  was  destroyed  by  Xerxes  in  his  invasion 
of  Greece,  480  B.C.,  but  was  rebuilt,  and  ap- 
pears as  an  important  place  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war.  Under  its  walls  Lysander  lost 
his  life,  39-5;  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Ro- 
mans (171)  because  itsupported  Perseus,  king 
of  Macedonia,  and  its  territory  was  given 
to  the  Athenians. 

Halicarnassus  (now  Boudroum).  A 
Greek  city  of  Asia  ilinor,  situated  on 
the  Ceramian  Gulf.  It  was  founded  by  a 
colony  from  Troezene,  and  was  one  of  the 
cities  of  (he  so-called  Doric  Hexapolis.  Dur- 
ing the  Persian  conquests  it  readily  yielded 
to  the  dominion  of  the  conquerors,  and  re- 
mained faithful  to  Persian  interests.  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  provoked  by  the  obstinacy 
with  which  the  city  held  out  against  him, 
commanded  that  it  should  be  destroyed  by 
fire;  but  the  inhabitants  took  refuge  in  the 
citadel,  which  successfully  resisted  his  arms. 

Halidon  Hill.  Is  situated  about  a  mile 
to  the  northwest  of  the  town  of  Berwick, 
England,  in  the  fork  formed  by  the  Whit- 
adder  and  the  Tweed.  It  was  the  scene  of 
a  bloody  conflict  between  the  English  and 
Scots,  July  19,  133.3,  when  the  latter  were 
defeated,  and  lost  upwards  of  14,000  slain, 
among  whom  were  the  regent  Douglas  and 
a  largo  number  of  the  nobility,  while  a 
comparatively  small  number  of  the  English 
suffered. 

Hallecret.  See  Allecrete. 
Halluc.  A  small  river  in  Northern 
France,  which  empties  into  the  Somme 
above  Amiens.  Near  here,  at  Pont  a  Noy- 
elles,  a  seven  hours'  battle  took  place  Decem- 
ber 23, 1870,  between  the  German  army  under 
Gen.  .Manleuttcl  and  the  French  Army  of 
the   North   under  Gen.    Faidherbe.       Both 

fartios  claimed  the  victory.     Next  day  the 
"r'-nch  general  retreated. 
Halt  (Fr.   halte).     The  discontinuance  of 


the  march  of  any  body  of  men,  armed  or 
unarmed,  under  military  direction.  Fre- 
quent halts  are  necessary  for  the  purpose  of 
resting  trnops  during  their  progress  through 
a  country,  or  to  render  them   fresh  and  ac- 


tive previous  to  any  warlike    undertaking, 
command  in  famil- 


ive  previous  to  any  wi 
t  is  likewise  a  word  of 


iar  use.     See  .March. 

Halting  Days.  Are  the  days  in  the  week 
usually  allotted  for  repose,  when  troops  are 
upon  the  march,  and  there  is  not  any  par- 
ticular necessity  for  exertion  or  dispatch. 

Halyard.  The  rope  for  hoisting  and  low- 
ering a  flag.      Written  also  hnUinrd. 

Halys.  A  river  in  Asia  Minor,  near 
which  a  battle  was  fought  between  the  Ly- 
dians  and  Medes.  It  was  interrupted  by  an 
almost  total  eclipse  of  the  sun,  which  led  to 
peace  May  28,  585  n.c.  Others  give  the 
date  584,  603,  and  (JlO  n.c.  This  eclipse  is 
said  to  have  been  predicted  many  years 
before  by  Thaies  of  Miletus. 

Ham.  A  town  and  fortress  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  Somme,  situated  on 
the  river  of  that  name,  36  miles  east-south- 
east from  Amiens.  It  is  of  ancient  origin, 
and  was  erected  in  1407  into  a  duchy,  which 
was  held  by  the  families  of  C(^urcy,  Orleans, 
Luxemburg,  and  Vendome.  Its  old  for- 
tress was  built  by  Constable  de  St.  Pol  in  1470, 
and  is  now  used  as  a  state  prison.  Its  walls 
are  39  feet  thick,  and  its  principal  tower  is  108 
feet  in  height,  and  the  same  in  diameter. 
Louis  Napoleon,  late  emperor  of  the  French, 
was  confined  here  from  1840  till  1846. 

Hamburg.  A  famous  free  city  of  Ger- 
many, and  one  of  the  most  important  com- 
mercial {)orts  in  Europe,  is  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  about  70  miles  from 
its  mouth.  It  is  said  to  have  been  founded 
in  the  8th  century  by  Charlemagne.  In  the 
13th  century  it  joined  Lubeck  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Hanseatic  League.  It  was  occu- 
pied by  the  French  from  1806  to  1809,  and 
was  annexed  to  France  in  1810.  The  Ru.s- 
sians  became  masters  of  it  in  1813,  but  the 
French  regained  possession  of  it  in  the  same 
year,  and  Marshal  Davoust  sustained  a 
memorable  siege  here  in  1813-14.  In  1871 
Hamburg  became  a  member  of  the  German 
empire. 

Hames.  The  wooden  or  iron  curved 
pieces  fitting  the  collar  of  draught  harness 
to  which  the  traies  are  attached. 

Hamlets,  Tower.  A  district  in  the  county 
of  ^liddlesex,  England,  under  the  command 
of  the  constable  of  the  Tower,  or  lieutenant 
of  the  Tower  Hamlets,  for  the  service  and 
preservation  of  the  Tower  of  London. 

Hammer.  An  instrument  with  an  iron 
head,  for  driving  nails,  etc.  The  term  is  also 
applicable  to  that  part  of  a  gun-lock  which 
strikes  the  percussion-cap  or  firing-pin. 

Hammering.  A  heavy  cannonade  at  close 
quarters. 

Hammer-spring.  The  spring  on  which 
the  hammer  <.>f  a  gun-lock  works. 

Hammer-wrench.  A  combination  ham- 
mer and  wrench  ;  culled  also  monkey-wrench. 


HAMPTON 


214 


HANGER 


Hampton.  A  small  village  on  the  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  in  Virginia,  giving  its  name  to 
Hampton  Koads,  a  southerly  branch  of  Ches- 
apeake Bay,  and  mouth  of  James  River, 
defended  by  Forts  Monroe  and  Calhoun. 
These  roads  were  the  scene  of  important 
events  in  the  American  Revolution,  the  war 
of  1812,  and  the  late  civil  war,  especially  the 
first  naval  battle  between  ironclad  vessels, 
the  "  Merrimac"  and  the  "  Monitor." 

Hanapier,  or  Hanepier  {F>-.).  The  front 
part  of  a  cuirass,  or  iron  breastplate  worn 
by  light-armed  soldiers. 

Hanau.  A  town  of  Germany,  the  capital 
of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  in  Hesse- 
Cassel,  on  the  Kinzig,  12  miles  from  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main.  In  1792,  Hanau  was  at- 
tacked by  the  French,  and  occupied  by  them 
in  1796,  1797,  and  1805. 

Hand.  A  measure  4  inches  in  length. 
The  height  of  a  horse  is  computed  by  so  many 
hands  and  inches. 

Hand-barrow.  A  frame  which  is  carried 
around  by  two  men,  instead  of  being  rolled 
forward  like  a  wheel-barrow.  Those  em- 
ployed in  the  ordnance  department  are  very 
useful  in  the  erection  of  fortifications,  as  well 
as  carrying  shells  and  shot  along  the  trenches. 
They  generally  weigh  about  19  pounds. 

Hand-cart.  It  consists  of  a  light  body 
with  shafts,  mounted  on  two  wheels.  The 
shafts  are  joined  together  at  the  ends,  and 
supported  immediately  in  front  of  the  body 
by  iron  legs.  It  weighs  181  pounds,  and  is 
used  for  the  transportation  of  light  stores  in 
siege  and  garrison  service. 

Handcuff.  A  listening  consisting  of  an 
iron  ring  around  the  wrist,  usually  connected 
by  a  chain  with  one  on  the  other  wrist ;  a 
manacle.  Men  who  have  deserted  the  ser- 
vice are  usually  manacled  in  this  manner 
when  removed  from  place  to  place. 

Handful.  Used  figuratively,  in  a  military 
sense,  to  denote  a  comparatively  small  num- 
ber ;  as,  "a  handful  of  men." 

Hand-gallop.  A  slow  and  easy  gallop, 
in  which  the  hand  presses  the  bridle  to  hinder 
increase  of  speed. 

Hand-grenades.  Are  small  iron  shells, 
from  2  to  3  inches  in  diameter,  filled  with 
powder,  which  being  lighted  by  means  of  a 
fuze,  were  formerly  thrown  by  the  grena- 
diers among  the  enemy,  in  storming  a  fortress. 
See  Grenades. 

Hand-gun.  An  old  term  for  a  small-arm 
in  the  times  of  Henry  VII.  and  VIII. 

Handle  Arms.  Formerly  a  word  of  com- 
mand (  when  the  men  were  at  ordered  arms  ), 
by  which  the  soldier  was  directed  to  bring 
his  right  hand  briskly  up  to  the  muzzle  of 
his  firelock,  with  his  finger  bent  upwards. 

Handles.  Bronze  guns  were  formerly 
furnished  with  handles  placed  over  the  centre 
of  gravity ;  from  their  shape  they  were  called 
dolphins. 

Hand-mallet.  A  wooden  hammer  with 
a  handle,  to  drive  fuzes,  or  pickets,  etc.,  in 
making  fascines  or  gabion  batteries. 

Hand  Sling-cart^     Is  a  two-wheeled  car- 


riage made  entirely  of  iron,  except  the  pole, 
which  is  of  oak.  The  axle-tree  is  arched  to 
make  it  stronger,  and  connected  with  the  pole 
by  strong  wrought-iron  straps  and  braces. 
In  the  rear  of  the  axle  a  projection  is  welded, 
to  receive  the  end  of  a  strong  hook.  The 
end  of  the  pole  terminates  in  a  ferule  and  an 
eye.  The  eye  is  for  the  purpose  of  attaching 
to  the  cart,  when  necessary,  a  limber  or  a 
horse.  The  diameter  of  the  wheel  is  6  feet. 
The  hand  sling-cart  is  used  in  siege  and  gar- 
rison service  for  transporting  artillery  short 
distances.  It  should  not  be  used  habitually 
for  heavier  weights  than  about  4000  pounds, 
but  in  case  of  necessity,  a  24-  or  32-pounder 
gun  may  be  transported  on  it.  For  heavier 
guns  or  material,  the  large  sling-cart  drawn 
by  horses  or  oxen  should  be  used.  jTAiscart 
is  wooden  throughout,  and  the  diameter  of 
the  wheels  8  feet. 

Hand-spike.  Is  a  wooden  or  iron  lever, 
flattened  at  one  end  and  tapering  towards 
the  other,  used  in  raising  heavy  weights,  or 
in  moving  guns  to  their  places  after  being 
reloaded. 

Manceuvring  hand-spike^  for  garrison  and 
sea-coast  carriages  and  for  gins,  is  66  inches  ; 
for  siege  and  other  heavy  work,  it  is  made 
84  inches  long  and  12  pounds  weight. 

Roller  hand-spike,  for  casemate  carriages. 
The  latter  is  made  of  iron  1  inch  round,  the 
point  conical ;  whole  length  34  inches. 

Shod  hand-spike  is  particularly  useful  in 
the  service  of  mortars,  and  of  casemate  and 
barbette  carriages. 

Trail  hand-spike,  for  field-carriages,  is  53 
inches  in  length. 

Truck  hand-spike,  for  casemate  carriages 
(wrought  iron). 

Hand-staff.     A  javelin. 

Hand-to-hand.  A  close  fight ;  the  situ- 
ation of  two  persons  closely  opposed  to  each 
other. 

Handy-fight.  A  fight  with  the  hands ; 
boxing. 

Hang  Fire.  Fire-arms  and  trains  are 
said  to  hang  fire  when  there  is  an  unwonted 
pause  between  the  application  of  fire  to  the 
gunpowder  and  its  ignition. 

Hang  Upon,  To.  To  hover  ;  to  impend. 
Thus,  to  hang  upon  the  flanks  of  a  retreating 
enemy,  is  to  follow  the  movements  of  any 
body  of  men  so  closely  as  to  be  a  perpetual 
annoyance  to  them ;  to  harass  and  perplex 
him  in  a  more  desultory  manner  than  what 
is  generally  practiced  when  pressing  upon 
his  rear. 

Hanged,  Drawn  and  Quartered.  In 
Great  Britain,  the  description  of  the  capital 
sentence  on  a  traitor,  which  consisted  of 
drawing  him  on  a  hurdle  to  the  place  of  exe- 
cution, and  after  hanging  him,  dividing  the 
body  into  quarters.  This  punishment  was 
substituted  by  the  stat.  54  Geo.  III.  c.  146, 
for  the  ancient  and  more  barbarous  sentence 
of  disemboweling  alive ;  but  the  crown  has 
power  to  reduce  the  sentence  to  simple 
hanging. 

Hanger.     That   which  hangs   or   is  sus- 


HANGIER 


215 


HARPE 


pended ;  specifically,  a  short  broadsword, 
incurvuted  towards  the  point. 

Hangier.  A  Turkish  poniard,  formerly 
worn  by  the  Janissaries. 

Hango  Head.  A  promontory  on"  the 
north  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Finlandf.  It  was 
at  this  place,  durin/jj  the  war  with  Russia,  in 
1855,  that  the  unarmed  crew  of  an  English 
man-of-war's  boat,  with  a  tlag  of  truce  flying, 
was  treacherously  fired  upon  by  Russian 
grenadiers,  when  all  the  IJritish  sailors  in  the 
Doiit  wore  either  killed  or  wounded. 

Hanover.  A  kingdom  in  the  north  of 
Germany,  and  since  ISflC)  a  province  of 
I'russia.  It  was  originally  peopled  by  the 
Cherusci,  the  Chauci,  and  the  Lungobardi, 
afterwards  known  as  Lombards.  In  the  time 
of  Charlemagne  it  was  occupied  by  Saxon 
tribes,  and  continued,  even  after  its  conquest 
by  that  monarch,  to  be  governed  by  Saxon 
dukes.  From  1714  till  1837,  Hanover  was 
governed  by  the  kings  of  England,  without. 
However,  forming  part  of  that  kingdom. 
The  French  occupied  it  in  1803;  but,  two 
years  afterwards,  ceded  it  to  Prussia.  In 
1807,  however,  they  took  possession  of  it, 
and  held  it  till  1813 

Hanover  Court-house.  A  town  in  East 
Virginia.  Here  on  May  27,  18(52,  a  severe 
action  took  place  between  the  armies  of  the 
North  and  South,  which  resulted  in  a  victory 
for  the  former.  The  loss  on  the  Northern 
■ido  was  54  killed  and  194  wounded  and 
missing;  and  on  the  Southern  side,  between 
200  and  300  killed  and  wounded,  and  about 
500  taken  prisoners. 

Hanse  Towns.  The  Hanseatic  League 
(from  /lansn,  association),  formed  by  port 
towns  in  Germany  against  the  piracies  of 
the  Swedes  and  Danes,  began  about  1140, 
and  was  signed  in  1241.  At  first  it  consisted 
only  of  towns  situated  on  the  coasts  of  the 
Baltic  Sea,  but  in  1370  it  was  composed  of 
66  cities  and  44  confederates.  They  pro- 
claimed war  against  Waldemar,  king  of 
Denmark,  about  the  year  1348,  and  against 
Eric  in  1428,  with  40  ships  and  12,000  regu- 
lar troops,  besides  seamen.  The  Thirty 
Years'  War  in  Germany  (1018-48)  broke  up 
the  strength  of  this  association.  In  1G30  the 
only  towns  retaining  the  name  were  Lubeck, 
Hamburg,  and  Bremen. 

Hansy.  A  town  of  Ilindostan,  in  the 
Britisii  district  of  Hurreeana,  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  lieutenant-governor  of  the 
northwest  provinces.  It  is  a  very  ancient 
town ;  was  taken  by  the  Mohammedans 
early  in  1035,  and  has  experienced  many 
revolutions. 

Hante  (/•'/•.).  An  ornamental  pike,  hav- 
ing a  banner  attached. 

Haquebut.     See  IIaohut. 

Har.  A  syllable  used  in  composition 
nsually  as  a  prefix,  and  signifying  army ; — 
occurring  in  various  forms,  as  Vin/e,  her,  and 
kere ;  as,  harisvalt,  leader  of  an  army. 

Haranes  (/■>.).  Hungarian  militia  are 
io  called. 

Harangue.     A  speech  addressed  to  a  large 


public  assembly;  a  popular  oration  ;  a  loud 
address  to  a  multitude  ;  as,  a  general  makes 
a  harangue  to  his  troops  on  the  eve  of  a 
battle. 

Harass.  To  annoy ;  to  perplex,  and  in- 
cessantly turmoil  any  body  of  men  ;  to  hang 
upon  the  rear  and  flanks  of  a  retreating 
army,  or  to  interrupt  operations  at  a  siege  by 
repeated  attacks  ufion  the  besiegers. 

Harboring  an  Enemy.  See  Appendix, 
Aktki.ks  ok  Wak,  45. 

Harcarrah.  In  India,  a  messenger  em- 
ployed to  carry  letters,  and  otherwise  in- 
tru.«ted  with  matters  of  consequence  that  re- 
quire secrecy  and  punctuality.  They  are 
very  often  Brahmins,  well  acquainted'  with 
the  neighboring  countries;  they  are  sent  to 
gain  intelligence,  and  are  used  as  guides  in 
the  field. 

Hard-fought.  Vigorously  contested  ;  as, 
a  hard-fought  battle. 

Hardihood.  Boldness,  united  with  firm- 
ness and  constancy  of  mind  ;  dauntless  brav- 
ery ;   intrepidity  ;  audaciousness. 

Hardiment.  Hardihood;  courage;  bold 
or  energetic  action  ;  contest ;  struggle. 

Hard-labor.  A  military  punishment  fre- 
quently awarded  by  courts-martial. 

Hard-tack.  Sea-bread.  Hard-tack  is  also 
used  by  U.  S.  troops  while  campaigning; 
large  crackers. 

Harfleur.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Lower  Seine,  situated  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Seine  and  the  Lezarde,  a 
mile  from  the  sea,  and  3  miles  northeast  from 
Havre.  Harfleur  was  formerly  fortified,  and 
an  important  place.  It  was  besieged  by  the 
English  under  Henry  V.  in  1415,  and  this 
monarch  succeeded  in  taking  it,  after  being 
before  it  fortv  davs.  It  was  again  taken  by 
the  English  fn  1440. 

Hariaw.  A  township  of  Scotland,  in  Ab- 
erdeenshire, situated  4  miles  southwest 
from  old  Meldrum,  near  the  confluence  of 
the  Ury  and  Don,  memorable  for  a  sangui- 
nary battle  fought  in  1411  between  the  High- 
landers under  Donald,  the  Lord  of  the  Isles, 
and  the  royal  forces  under  the  Earl  of 
Mar. 

Harmostes.  A  city  governor  or  prefect 
appointi'd  by  the  Spartans  in  the  cities  sub- 
jugated by  them. 

Harness.  The  iron  covering  or  dress 
which  a  soldier  formerly  wore,  and  which 
was  fastened  to  the  body  by  straps  and  buck- 
les ;  coat  of  mail ;  also,  the  whole  accoutre- 
ments, olTensive  and  defensive  ;  armor  of  a 
knight  or  soldier;  the  armor  of  a  horse. 
Also  the  equipments  of  a  draught-horse. 

Harness.  To  dress  in  armor;  to  equip 
witii  armor  for  war,  as  a  horseman.  To 
equip  or  furnish  for  defense. 

Harol.  An  Indian  term  signifying  the 
officer  who  commands  the  van  of  an  army. 
It  sometimes  means  the  van-guan.1  itself. 

Harpe.  A  species  of  drawbridge  used 
among  the  ancients,  and  deriving  its  name 
from  Its  resemblance  to  the  musical  instru- 
ment.    This   bridge,  which   consisted  of  a 


HARPER'S  FERRY 


216 


HATJBERK 


wooden  frame,  and  hung  in  a  perpendicular 
direction  against  the  turrets  that  were  used 
in  those  times  to  carry  on  the  siege  of  a  place, 
had  a  variety  of  ropes  attached  to  it,  and  was 
let  down  upon  the  wall  of  a  town  by  means 
of  pulleys.  The  instant  it  fell,  the  soldiers 
left  the  turret,  and  rushed  across  the  tempo- 
rary platform  upon  the  rampart. 

Harper's  Ferry.  A  town  of  Jefferson 
Co.,  W.  Va.,  situated  at  the  junction  of  the 
Shenandoah  and  Potomac  Rivers,  about  107 
miles  north  from  Richmond.  In  October, 
1859,  John  Brown,  the  leader  of  the  anti- 
slavery  party,  and  his  followers  entered  the 
town,  and  seized  and  held  for  a  short  time 
the  armory  and  arsenal  located  here.  In 
April,  1861,  the  Federal  troops  evacuated 
the  public  buildings  here,  and  they  were 
immediately  taken  possession  of  by  the 
Confederates,  who  destroyed  them  and  evac- 
uated the  place  in  June,  following.  The 
town  was  again  taken  by  the  Confederates 
in  September,  1862,  but  was  soon  after  re- 
captured by  the  Federal  forces,  who  from 
that  time  retained  possession  of  it. 

HarponuUy.  A  district  in  the  south  of 
India.  The  rajah  of  this  district  was  trib- 
utary to  the  kings  of  Benjanagur  and  Be- 
japore,  to  the  Moguls,  and  the  Mahrattas ; 
in  1774  he  became  tributary  to  Hyder,  and 
in  1786  he  was  completely  subdued  by  Tip- 
poo,  and  sent  prisoner  to  Seringapatam.  On 
the  capture  of  that  city,  HarponuUy  was 
assigned  to  the  nizam  as  a  portion  of  his 
division  of  Tippoo's  territory,  and  by  him 
assigned  to  the  British  in  1800. 

Harpy.  A  fabulous  creature  in  Greek 
mythology,  considered  as  a  minister  of  the 
vengeance  of  the  gods.  In  heraldry  it  is 
represented  as  a  vulture,  with  the  head  and 
breast  of  a  woman. 

Harquebuse.     See  Arqtjebuse. 

Harquebusier.     See  Arquebu.sier. 

Hartlepool.  A  seaport  of  England,  in 
the  county  Durham,  a  few  miles  north  of 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Tees.  It  is  men- 
tioned as  a  harbor  of  some  consequence  as 
early  as  1171.  In  the  13th  century  it  be- 
longed to  the  Bruces  of  Annandale,  in  Scot- 
land. Hartlepool  suflered  severely  from  the 
Scots  in  1312,  and  again  in  1315,  a  year 
after  the  battle  of  Bannockburn.  It  was 
seized  by  the  insurgents  in  the  northern  re- 
bellion under  the  Earls  of  Northumberland 
and  Westmoreland,  in  the  time  of  Eliza- 
beth. During  the  civil  war  it  was  taken  by 
the  Scottish  army  in  1644,  and  retained  by 
them  till  1647. 

Hastaire  (F/-.).     Pikeman  ;  spearman. 

Hastati.  From  the  Latin  word  hnsta,  a 
spear,  so  that  they  may  literally  be  called 
spearmen.  A  body  of  Roman  soldiers  who 
were  more  advanced  in  age,  and  had  ac- 
quired a  greater  reputation  in  arms  than  the 
velites  possessed,  were  distinguished  by  this 
appellation.  They  wore  a  complete  set  of 
armor,  and  always  carried  a  buckler,  made 
convex,  measuring  2^  feet  in  breadth  and  4 
feet  in  length.     The  longest  measured  about 


4  feet  9  inches,  or  a  Roman  palm.  The 
buckler  was  made  of  two  boards  glued  to- 
gether. These  were  covered  in  the  first  in- 
stance with  a  broad  piece  of  linen,  which 
was  again  covered  over  with  sheep-skin.  The 
edges,  both  at  top  and  bottom,  were  fenced 
with  iron,  to  enable  them  to  meet  the  broad- 
sword and  sabre,  and  to  prevent  them  from 
rotting  when  planted  on  the  ground.  The 
convex  part  was  further  covered  over  with 
iron  plates,  to  resist  the  impression  of  hard 
blows,  and  to  withstand  the  violent  concus- 
sion of  stones,  etc.  The  hastati  commonly 
formed  the  first  line  in  the  order  of  battle; 
the  principes  were  placed  in  the  second  line ; 
whilst  the  oldest  and  best  legionaries,  classed 
under  the  name  of  triarii,  constituted  a 
reserve  or  third  line. 

Hastings.  A  town  of  England,  in  the 
county  of  Surrey,  33  miles  northeast  from 
Brighton,  and  one  of  the  Cinque  Ports. 
Near  this  place,  in  1066,  was  fought  the  de- 
cisive battle  of  Hastings,  which  wrested  the 
crown  of  England  from  Harold,  and  gave 
it  to  William  the  Conqueror. 

Hatchet.  A  small,  light  sort  of  axe,  with 
a  bazil  edge  on  the  left  side,  and  a  short 
handle.  It  is  used  by  soldiers  for  cutting 
wood  to  make  fascines,  gabions,  pickets,  etc. 
To  take  up  the  hatchet,  among  the  Indians, 
to  declare  war,  to  commence  hostilities,  etc. 
To  bury  the  hatchet,  to  make  peace. 

Hatchment.  An  ornament  on  the  hilt  of 
a  sword.  In  heraldry,  a  hatchment  is  the 
funeral  escutcheon,  usually  placed  in  front 
of  the  house  of  a  deceased  person,  setting 
forth  his  rank  and  circumstances.  It  is  in 
the  form  of  a  lozenge,  and  in  its  centre  are 
depicted  the  arms  of  the  deceased,  single  or 
quartered. 

Hatras.  A  town  of  Hindostan,  in  the 
northwest  provinces,  33  miles  to  the  north 
of  Agra.  As  a  place  of  some  strength,  it 
was  at  one  time  prominent  in  the  wars  of 
the  Doab  ;  but  on  falling,  in  1817,  into  the 
possession  of  the  British,  it  was  immedi- 
ately dismantled. 

Hattrass.  A  fortress  of  India,  taken  by 
siege  and  storm  by  the  troops  under  the 
Marquis  of  Hastings  during  the  Mahratta 
war. 

Haubergier  {Fr.).  An  individual  who 
held  a  tenure  by  knight's  service,  and  was 
subject  to  the  feudal  system  which  formerly 
existed  in  France,  and  by  which  he  was 
obliged  to  accompany  the  lord  of  the  manor 
in  that  capacity  whenever  the  latter  went  to 
war.  He  was  called  fief  de  haubert,  and 
had  the  privilege  of  carrying  a  halbert.  All 
vassals  in  ancient  times  served  their  lords- 
paramount  as  squires,  haubergiers,  lance- 
men,  bow-men,  etc. 

Hauberk.  A  twisted  coat  of  mail,  some- 
times extending  only  as  high  as  the  neck, 
but  more  generally  continued  so  as  to  form 
a  coif,  leaving  only  the  face  of  the  knight 
who  bore  it  exposed.  In  early  times  the 
sleeve  of  the  hauberk  sometimes  terminated 
at  the  elbow,  but  in  the  13th  and  14th  cen- 


HAUL 


217 


HAZAREE 


turies  it  came  down  to  the  wrist,  and  very 
geneniUy  descended  over  the  hand  in  the 
form  of  a  glove,  either  one-tingered  or  di- 
vided. In  tlie  11th  century  the  hauberk 
was  worn  under  plate-armor. 

Haul.  To  pull  or  draw  with  force  or 
violence  ;  to  transport  by  drawing  ;  to  drag; 
to  cniupcl  to  move  or  go. 

Hausse,  Pendulum.  Is  a  scale  of  sheet- 
brass,  the  i^raduations  of  which  are  the  sines 
of  each  (piarter  of  a  degree  to  a  radius  equal 
to  the  distance  between  the  muzzle-sight  of 
the  piece,  and  the  axis  of  vibration  of  the 
hausse,  which  is  one  inch  in  rear  of  the  base- 
ring.  At  the  lower  end  of  the  scale  is  a 
brass  bulb  tilled  with  lead.  The  slider  which 
marks  the  divisions  on  the  scale  is  of  thin 
bra.ss,  and  is  clamped  at  any  desired  division 
on  the  scale  by  means  of  a  screw.  The  scale 
passes  through  a  slit  in  a  piece  of  steel,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  a  screw,  forming  a 
pivot  on  which  the  scale  can  vibrate  later- 
ally. This  piece  of  steel  terminates  in 
pivots,  by  means  of  which  the  pendulum  is 
supported  on  the  seat  attached  to  the  gun, 
and  is  at  liberty  to  vibrate  in  the  direction 
of  the  axis  of  the  piece.  The  sent  is  of 
metal,  and  is  fastened  to  the  base  of  the  i 
breech  by  screws,  so  that  the  centres  of  the 
steel  pivots  of  vibration  shall  be  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  axis  of  the  piece  equal  to  the 
radius  of  the  base-ring. 

Hausse-col  (Fr.).  An  ornamental  plate 
similar  to  tin;  gorget.  It  was  formerly  worn 
by  infantry  ofHcers. 

Hautes-payes  (Fr.).  "Were  soldiers  se- 
lected by  the  captains  of  companies  to  attend 
them  personally,  for  which  service  they  re- 
ceived something  more  than  the  common 
pay.  Ilaute-paye  became  afterwards  a  term 
to  signify  the  subsistence  which  any  body 
of  men  superior  to,  or  distinguished  from 
the  private  soldier  were  allowed  to  receive. 

Haut-le-pied  {Fr.).  A  term  used  to  dis- 
tinguish such  persons  as  were  formerly  em- 
ployetl  in  the  French  armies  without  having 
any  permanent  appointment.  G»nmissaires 
hauts-lc-pied  were  known  in  the  artillery 
during  the  monarchy  of  France.  They 
were  usually  under  the  quartermaster-gen- 
eral. 

Havana  (Sp.  Habana).  The  capital  of 
the  island  of  Cuba,  on  its  north  coast,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Lagida.  The  harbor 
is  one  of  the  best  in  the  world,  being  capable 
of  holding  1000  ships  with  ease;  but  it  has 
so  narrow  a  channel  that  only  one  vessel  can 
enter  at  a  time.  This  channel  is  strongly 
fortified  ;  the  city  is  also  surrounded  with 
defensive  works,' all  furnished  with  heavy 
artillery.  Havana  has  been  frequently  at- 
tacked ;  it  was  captured  in  153r,  by  a  French 
pirate,  and  partially  de.«troycd  ;  it  was  sub- 
sequently taken,  at  different  times,  by  the 
English,  by  the  French,  and  by  the  bucca- 
neers. In  1702  the  British  took  possession 
of  it,  but  restored  it  in  1763. 

Havelock.     A   light  cloth   covering   for 
the  head  and  neck,  used  by  soldiers  as  a  pro- 
15 


tection  from  sunstroke.  This  covering  de- 
ri  ved  its  name  from  Havelock,  a  distinguished 
English  general. 

Haverfordwest  (Welsh,  Hwlfford).  A 
seaport  of  Wales,  in  Pembrokeshire,  and 
the  capital  of  that  county.  It  was  at  one 
time  stron!;ly  fortified,  and  was  possessed  of 
a  strong  castle,  which  was  built  by  Gilbert 
de  Clare,  first  earl  of  Fi-mbrnke.  In  the 
insurrection  of  Owen  Glendowcr,  it  was 
successfully  defended  against  the  French 
troops  in  the  Welsh  service.  In  the  civil 
war  of  the  17th  century  it  was  held  by  the 
royalists. 

Haversack.  A  strong,  coarse,  linen  bag, 
in  which,  on  a  nuirch,  a  soldier  carries  his 
rations.  It  is  bi;rne  on  the  left  side,  sus- 
pended by  a  strap  passing  over  the  right 
shoulder.  The  name  is  also  given  to  the 
leather  bag  used  in  artillery  to  carry  car- 
tridges from  the  ammunition-chest  to  the 
piece  in  loading. 

Havildar.  A  non-commissioned  oflBcer 
or  sergeant  among  the  Sepoys.  He  ranks 
next  to  the  jemadar,  or  native  lieutenant. 

Havildar-raajor.  The  native  sergeant- 
major  in  a  native  infantry  regiment. 

Havoc.  Wide  and  general  destruction  ; 
devastation  ;  waste.  Also,  to  waste;  to  de- 
stroy ;  to  lay  waste. 

Havock.  A  cry  originally  used  in  hunt- 
ing, but  afterward  in  war  as  the  signal  for 
indiscriminate  slaughter. 

Havre  Le,  or  Havre  de  Grace.  An  im- 
portant and  strongly  fortified  commercial 
town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  the 
Lower  Seine,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Seine 
into  the  English  Channel.  Havre  was  taken 
by  the  British  in  1502,  and  bombarded  by 
them  in  1750,  1794,  and  179.5. 

Hawaii.     See  Owyhke. 

Haxo-casemate.  A  vault  of  masonry 
thrown  over  a  gun,  but  not  over  its  embra- 
sure. It  is  open  at  the  rear,  and  acts  as  a 
traverse. 

Hayti,  Haiti,  St.  Domingo,  or  Hispani- 
ola.  The  largest  island  in  the  West  Indies, 
with  the  exception  of  Cuba.  It  was  discov- 
ered by  Christopher  Columbus  in  1495. 
Until  1665  Spain  kept  po.ssession  of  the 
island  ;  but  in  that  year  the  French  obtained 
a  footing,  and  retained  their  position  for  ujv- 
wards  of  a  century  and  a  quarter.  In  18(X) 
the  independence  of  Hayti  was  proclaimed 
by  the  negro  population,  and  the  French 
finally  quitted  the  island  in  1803.  Since 
that  time  various  revolutions  have  occurred, 
and  a  kind  of  military  elective  government 
has  prevailed  under  different  leaders.  In 
1849  the  former  French  portion  of  the  island 
was  proclaimed  an  empire  under  it.s  presi- 
dent, Solouque,  who  took  the  title  of  Faustin 
I.  The  sable  emperor  was,  however,  de- 
posed in  1858,  and  a  republic  was  again  pro- 
claimed. 

Hazaree.  An  Indian  term  signifying  the 
commander  of  gun-men.  It  is  derived  from 
haznr,  which,  in  its  literal  interpretation,, 
signifies  a  thousand. 


HAZE 


218 


HELENA 


Haze,  To.  To  punish  a  man  by  making 
him  do  unnecessary  work. 

Head.  In  gunnery,  the  fore  part  of  the 
cheeks  of  a  gun  or  howitzer  carriage.  To 
head^  is  to  lead  on,  or  he  the  leader  of  a  party. 
Head  of  a  wo7'k,  in  fortification,  is  the  front 
next  to  the  enemy,  and  farthest  from  the 
place  ;  as  the  front  of  a  horn-work  is  the  dis- 
tance between  the  flanked  angles  of  the  demi- 
bastions.  The  head  of  a  double  tenaille  is 
the  salient  angle  in  the  centre  and  the  two 
other  sides  which  form  the  re-entering  angles. 
Head  of  an  army,  or  body  of  men,  is  the 
front,  whether  drawn  up  in  lines  or  on  a 
march,  in  column,  etc.  Head  of  a  camp,  is  the 
ground  before  which  an  army  is  drawn  up. 

Head,  Bridge.  Is  the  end  of  a  bridge, — 
also  the  work  defending  it. 

Header.  In  a  revetment,  is  a  brick,  stone, 
or  sod  laid  with  its  end  outwards. 

Headless.     Destitute  of  a  chief  or  leader. 

Head-man.     A  chief;  a  leader. 

Head-piece.  Armor  for  the  head  ;  a  hel- 
met ;  a  morion. 

Headquarters.  The  place  where  the  offi- 
cer commanding  any  army  or  independent 
body  of  troops  takes  up  his  residence.  The 
quarters  or  place  of  residence  of  the  chief 
officer;  hence,  the  centre  of  authority  or 
order. 

Headstall.  That  part  of  a  bridle  which 
encompasses  the  head. 

Heaume  (F>\).  A  word  derived  from  the 
German,  which  formerly  signified  casque,  or 
helmet.  The  heaume  has  been  sometimes 
called  among  the  French  salade,  armet,  and 
celate  from  the  Latin  word  which  means  en- 
graved, on  account  of  the  diflerent  figures 
which  were  represented  upon  it.  The  heaume 
covered  the  whole  of  the  face,  except  the 
eyes,  which  were  protected  by  small  iron 
bars  laid  crosswise.  It  serves  as  an  orna- 
ment or  helmet  in  coats  of  arms  and  armorial 
bearings ;  it  is  still  preserved  in  heraldry, 
and  is  a  distinguishing  mark  of  nobility. 

Heaver.     A  bar  used  as  a  lever. 

Heavy.  Strong;  violent;  forcible;  as,  a 
heavj"  cannonade. 

Heavy  Artillery.  Troops  who  serve  heavy 
guns.  The  term  is  specially  applied  to  troops 
in  charge  of  siege  guns  or  guns  of  position. 
Also  large  guns  themselves. 

Heavy  Cavalry.  European  cavalry  is  di- 
vided into  light  and  heavy  cavalry,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  men  and  horses  and 
the  character  of  the  equipment. 

Heavy  Fire.  A  continuous  cannonading  ; 
a  continuous  discharge  of  musketry. 

Heavy  Marching  Order.  An  expression 
applied  to  troops  equipped  for  permanent  field 
service  with  arms,  accoutrements,  knapsacks, 
canteens,  and  haversacks. 

Heavy  Metal.  Large  guns  carrying  balls 
of  a  large  size ;  also,  large  balls  for  such 
guns. 

Heavy  Ordnance.  Ordnance  of  great 
weight  and  caliber.  In  the  United  States  the 
term  is  restricted  in  the  land  service  to  sea- 
coast  ordnance.     See  Ordnance. 


Hebrides,  or  Western  Islands.  A  series 
of  islands  oti"  the  west  coast  of  Scotland, 
consisting  of  two  principal  groups.  In  an- 
cient times  they  were  subject  to  the  kings  of 
Norway,  but  were  annexed  to  the  crown  of 
Scotland  in  1264.  From  that  time  they  were 
held  by  various  native  chieftains  in  vassalage 
to  the  Scottish  monarch,  until  they  came 
under  the  sway  of  one  powerful  chief,  who 
assumed  the  title  of  "  Lord  of  the  Isles"  in 
1346,  and  eflfected  entire  independence  of 
Scotland.  In  1748  all  hereditary  jurisdic- 
tions were  abolished,  and  for  the  first  time, 
under  a  just  and  powerful  government,  the 
peace  of  the  islands  was  secured. 

Hebron.  A  place  in  Palestine,  about  20 
miles  a  little  west  of  south  from  Jerusalem, 
and  one  of  the  oldest  existing  cities  in  the 
world.  The  Maccabees  recovered  it  from  the 
Edomites,  who  had  taken  it  after  the  Cap- 
tivity. It  was  burned  by  an  officer  of  Ves- 
pasian just  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem. It  was  taken  by  the  Arabs  in  637,  and 
by  the  Crusaders  about  1100;  andeversince 
1187  has  been  in  the  hands  of  its  present 
masters,  the  Mohammedans. 

Hedge.  To  surround  for  defense  ;  to  for- 
tify ;  to  guard  ;  to  protect ;  to  hem.  To  sur- 
round so  as  to  prevent  escape. 

Hedjrah.     See  Hegira. 

Heel.  That  part  of  a  thing  corresponding 
in  position  to  the  human  heel;  the  lower 
back  part,  or  part  on  which  a  thing  rests. 
In  a  small-arm  it  is  the  corner  of  the  butt 
which  is  upwards  in  the  firing  position. 

Heel-piece.     Armor  for  the  heels. 

Hegemony.  Leadership ;  preponderant 
influence  or  authority ;  usually  applied  to 
the  relations  of  a  government  or  state  to  its 
neighbors  or  confederates. 

Hegira,  or  Hedjrah  ( from  the  Arabic 
hajara,  to  desert).  A  Mohammedan  epoch, 
dating  from  the  expulsion  or  flight  of  Mo- 
hammed from  Mecca  to  Medina,  July  16,  622. 
This  flight  was  fixed  as  the  great  Moslem 
epoch  by  the  caliph  Omar,  seventeen  years 
later. 

Heidelberg.  A  city  of  Germany,  in  Baden, 
situated  on  the  Neckar,  which  is  possessed 
of  a  celebrated  university.  This  town  has 
been  besieged  several  times  ;  it  was  taken  by 
Tilly  in  1622,  and  by  Turenne  in  1674. 

Helder.  A  town  of  Northern  Holland, 
on  the  North  Sea,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mars- 
diep,  which  separates  it  from  the  island  of 
Texel.  Near  this  place  a  naval  battle  was 
fought  between  the  English  and  the  Dutch 
in  1653,  in  which  Van  Tromp  was  killed.  It 
was  taken  by  the  English  under  Sir  Ralph 
Abercrombie  in  1799;  was  afterwards  re- 
taken by  Brewe,  and  subsequently  rendered 
a  first-class  fortress  by  Napoleon  I.  It  is 
connected  with  Amsterdam  by  the  famous 
Helder  Canal. 

Helena,  Saint.  An  island  in  the  At- 
lantic Ocean,  which  presents  to  the  sea, 
throughout  its  whole  circuit,  an  immense 
wall  of  perpendicular  rock,  from  600  to  1200 
feet  high.     This  island  was  discovered  by  the 


HELEPOLIS 


219 


HELOTS 


Portuguese  in  1502,  and  belonged  to  the 
Dutch  from  IfJlO  to  lr,'M,  when  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  British.  It  is  chief!}' 
famous  for  having  been  the  place  in  whicli 
Najioleon  I.  was  confined  by  the  allied  pow- 
ers after  his  final  overthrow  at  the  battle  of 
Waterloo.  Here  he  lived  at  Long  wood, 
from  November,  1815,  till  his  death  in  1821. 
His  remains  »lso  lay  here  till  1840,  when,  by 
the  permission  of  the  English  government, 
they  were  conveyed  to  France. 

Helepolis.  In  the  ancient  art  of  war,  a 
machine  for  battering  down  the  walls  of  a 
place  besieged.  The  invention  of  it  is  as- 
cribed to  Demetrius  Poliorcetes.  Diodorus 
Siculus  .says  that  each  side  of  the  helepolis 
was  450  cubits  broad,  and  90  in  height ;  that 
it  had  nine  stages,  or  floors,  and  was  carried 
on  four  strong  solid  wheels,  8  cubits  in  di- 
ameter ;  that  it  was  armed  with  huge  batter- 
ing-rams, and  had  two  roofs  capable  of  sup- 
porting them  ;  that  in  the  lower  stages  there 
were  different  sorts  of  engines  for  casting 
stones,  and  in  the  middle  they  had  large 
catapults  for  launching  arrows. 

Heligoland.  A  small  island  in  the  North 
Sea,  situated  about  46  miles  northwest  from 
the  mouths  of  the  Elbe  and  Weser.  It  was 
taken  from  the  Danes  by  the  British  in  1807, 
and  became  a  depot  for  merchandise  intended 
to  be  smuggled  into  the  continent  during 
Napoleon's  continental  blockade.  At  the 
peace  of  1814  it  was  retained  by  England, 
and  is  of  importance  as  an  outpost  in  time  of 
war. 

Heliography.    See  Lookixo-olass  Sig- 

NAI.I.VO. 

Hellespont.    See  Dardanelles. 

Hellin  ^anc.  Ilununi).  A  royal  town  of 
Spain,  in  the  province  of  Murcia.  This 
town  was  sacked  by  the  French  under  Mont- 
brun,  and  was  the  point  where  Joseph  and 
Soult  united  with  Suchet  after  Marmont's 
rout  at  Salamanca. 

Helmet.  A  piece  of  defensive  armor  or 
covering  for  the  head.  Among  the  early 
nations  of  antiquity  the  helmet  forms  a 
prominent  feature  in  all  military  costume, 
and  is  often  of  very  great  utility  in  distin- 
guishing the  age  or  country  of  the  wearer. 
The  Egyptian  kings  had  them  of  brass, 
while  the  soldiers  wore  linen  ones  thickly 
padded.  The  crests  of  the  royal  E";yptian 
helmet  were  the  heads  of  the  lion,  bull,  or 
dragon.  The  Milyans  had  helmets  of  skins  ; 
those  of  a  fox  formed  the  early  Thracian  hel- 
met;  and  this  ancient  fashion  of  the  heroic 
ages  appears  in  the  galcrufs  of  the  Roman 
light  troops.  The  Phrygian  bonnet  was  a 
skull-can,  with  a  bent  j)cak  projecting  in 
front,  like  the  bust  of  a  bird,  with  an  arched 
neck  and  head.  It  is  certainly  the  most 
ancient  form  of  helmet.  Strabo  says  the 
ancient  Persians,  and  probably  their  oriental 
neighbors,  wore  modern  turbans;  in  war,  a 
cap  cut  in  the  form  of  a  cylinder  or  tower. 
This  Asiatic  fashion  e.vtended  itself  widely. 
The  helmet  of  the  Grecian  soldier  was  usually 
made  of  brass,  and  sometimes  of  the  skins 


of  beasts,  with  the  hair  still  on  ;  and  to  ren- 
der them  more  terrible,  the  teeth  were  often 
placed  in  a  grinning  manner.  The  crc^t 
was  made  of  horse-hair  or  feathers,  and  was 
curiously  ornamented.  In  the  early  period 
of  the  Greeks,  hehnets  had  been  composed 
of  the  skins  of  quadrupeds,  of  which  none 
were  more  common  than  the  dog.  After 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  common 
soldiers  had  only  small  crests;  chieftains, 
{)lumes  or  two  crests.  The  helmet  of  the 
Komans  was  a  head-piece  of  brass  or  iron, 
which  left  the  face  uncovered,  and  descended 
behind  as  far  as  the  shoulders.  Upon  the 
top  was  the  crest,  in  adorning  wliich  the 
soldiers  took  great  pride.  The  usual  orna- 
ment was  horse-hair  or  feathers  of  divers 
colors  ;  but  the  helmets  of  the  officers  were 
sometimes  very  splendid,  and  adorned  with 
gold  and  silver.  Helmets  occur  with  cheek- 
pieces  and  m(jvable  visors.  Singular  hel- 
mets, with  aigrettes,  plumes,  wings,  horns, 
double  crests,  double-cheek  pieces  (some  of 
which  are  seen  on  the  Hamilton  vases),  and 
others,  with  fantastical  additions  and  over- 
loaded crests,  are  either  barbarian,  or  subse- 
quent to  the  removal  of  the  seat  of  empire  to 
Constantinople.  The  Gauls  wore  helmets  of 
brass,  with  monstrous  appendages  for  osten- 
tation, as  the  shapes  of  birds,  beasts,  etc.  In 
the  Middle  Ages  the  knights  of  Europe  were 
distinguished  by  helmets  adorned  with  the 
figure  of  a  crown,  or  of  some  aninnil.  The 
king  wore  a  helmet  of  gold,  or  gilt ;  his  at- 
tendants of  silver  ;  the  nobility  of  steel ;  and 
the  lower  orders  of  iron.  In  European 
armies  helmets  are  worn  by  the  horse-guards 
and  heavy  cavalry.  In  the  United  States, 
helmets  made  of  felt  and  adorned  with  horse- 
hair plumes  are  worn  by  light  artillery  and 
cavalry  troops. 

Helmet-shap«d.  Shaped  like  a  helmet ; 
galoate. 

Helmless.  Destitute  of  a  helmet ;  with- 
out a  helm. 

Helos.  In  ancient  geography,  the  name 
of  several  towns,  so  called  from  their  position 
among  or  near  fens.  The  most  important 
town  of  this  name  was  in  Laconia,  ^it  the 
mouth  of  the  Eurotas,  in  a  plain  close  to  the 
sea.  In  the  Dorian  C(mquest  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus Helos  was  taken,  and  its  inhabitants 
carried  off  to  Sparta  and  reduced  to  slavery. 
Their  name  is  said  to  have  been  applied  by 
their  masters  generally  to  all  the  bondsmen 
or  helots  that  fell  into  their  power. 

Helots.  The  lowest  class  of  the  popula- 
tion of  ancient  Sparta,  which  was  formed  of 
serfs  or  slaves.  They  are  suppt>sed  to  have 
formed  the  original  population  of  the  coun- 
try, and  to  have  been  reduced  to  bondage 
by  their  Dorian  conquerors.  In  war,  they 
served  as  light  troops,  each  free-born  Spartan 
who  bore  heavy  armor  being  accompanied 
to  battle  by  a  number  of  them,  sometimes  as 
many  as  seven.  In  order  to  keep  their  num- 
bers Within  bounds  the  Spartans  organized 
secret  companies,  who  went  abroad  over  the 
country  armed  with  daggers,  and  both  by 


HELSINGFOKS 


220 


HEEACLEA 


night  and  day  assassinated  the  unfortunate 
Helots,  selecting  as  their  special  victims  the 
strongest  and  most  vigorous  of  the  oppressed 
race. 

Helsingfors.  A  fortified  town,  and  sea- 
port in  Finland,  on  a  peninsula  in  the  Gulf 
of  Finland.  It  has  a  good  harbor,  and  is 
defended  by  the  almost  impregnable  citadel 
and  fortifications  of  Sweaborg,  which  stand 
on  a  number  of  rocky  islands  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  harbor.  This  town  was  burnt 
in  1741,  during  the  war  between  Sweden 
and  Russia.  In  1855,  Sweaborg  was  bom- 
barded for  two  days  by  the  allied  English 
and  French  fleet,  when  some  damage  was 
done  to  the  interior  defenses  of  the  place. 

Helvetian  Republic.  Switzerland  hav- 
ing been  conquered  by  the  French  in  1797, 
a  republic  was  established  in  1798  with  this 
title. 

Helvetii.  A  Celtic  people  inhabiting,  ac- 
cording to  Cajsar,  the  region  between  the 
mountains  of  Jura  on  the  west,  the  Rhone 
on  the  south,  and  the  Rhine  on  the  east 
and  north,  the  region  corresponding  pretty 
closely  with  modern  Switzerland.  The  great 
and  fatal  event  in  their  history  is  their  at- 
tempted irruption  into  and  conquest  of 
Southern  Gaul,  in  which  they  were  repulsed 
by  Cffisar  with  frightful  slaughter  in  58  B.C., 
and  compelled  to  return  to  their  own  country, 
where  they  became  subjects  to  the  Romans. 
In  the  commotions  which  followed  the  death 
of  Nero,  the  Helvetians  met  with  another 
terrible  catastrophe.  Remaining  faithful  to 
Galba,  they  were  fallen  upon  by  Cacina,  a 
general  of  Vitellius,  who  gave  them  up  to 
the  rapacity  of  his  legions,  and  from  this 
time  they  scarcely  appear  in  history  as  a  dis- 
tinct people. 

Helvoetsluys.  A  fortified  town  of  Hol- 
land, on  the  south  shore  of  the  island  of 
Voorn,  17  miles  southwest  from  Rotterdam. 
At  this  place  the  Prince  of  Orange,  after- 
wards William  III.,  embarked  for  England 
in  1688.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  in 
1798,  and  evacuated  by  them  in  1813. 

Hem  In.  To  surround  an  enemy,  whether 
on  land  or  sea. 

Hertierodromi.  In  Grecian  antiquity, 
were,  as  the  name  imports,  runners  or  cou- 
riers, who  could  keep  running  all  day.  In 
a  country  like  Greece,  where  the  roads  were 
few  and  bad,  the  hemerodromi  were  indis- 
pensable for  the  rapid  diflusion  of  important 
news.  Every  Greek  state  made  a  point  of 
training  a  number  of  these  men  who  could 
travel  great  distances  in  an  incredibly  short 
space  of  time,  and  at  every  dangerous  crisis 
they  were  stationed  on  commanding  points 
to  observe  and  report  at  headquarters  what 
it  was  necessary  for  the  authorities  to  know. 
In  the  service  of  the  Persian  kings,  these 
men  were  called  angoroi,  and  the  service 
a/igereioji.  Among  the  Romans  these  cou- 
riers were  known  as  cursores;  they  traveled 
sometimes  on  foot,  sometimes  on  horseback. 
It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  running  foot- 
men attended  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  in 


his  wars  in  the  Low  Countries  and  in  Ger- 
many. In  the  Byzantine  empire  they  were 
employed  as  sentinels  at  the  gates  of  towns. 
When  the  gates  were  opened  they  were 
obliged  to  patrol  round  the  outskirts  of  the 
town  during  the  whole  day.  Frequently, 
indeed,  they  advanced  considerably  into  the 
country,  in  order  to  discover  whether  any 
hostile  body  of  men  was  apgroaching  ia 
order  to  surprise  the  garrison. 

Henery  Isle.  A  small  island  lying  due 
south  from  Bombay.  In  1790  it  belonged 
to  Ragojee  Angria,  and  was  a  principal 
rendezvous  of  pirate  vessels,  though  within 
sight  of  Bombay.  Near  it  is  another  small 
island  named  Kenery,  which  is  also  fortified, 
and  of  considerable  strength.  It  was  taken 
possession  of  and  fortified  by  Sevajee  in  1C79. 
In  1790  it  belonged  to  the  Peshwa,  and  was 
also  the  haunt  of  pirates. 

Heneti.  An  ancient  people  in  Paphla- 
gonia,  dwelling  on  the  river  Parthenius; 
fought  on  the  side  of  Priam  against  the 
Greeks,  but  had  disappeared  before  the  his- 
torical times.  They  were  regarded  by  many 
ancient  writers  as  the  ancestors  of  the  Veneti 
in  Italy. 

Hengestdown.  In  Cornwall,  England. 
Here  Egbert  is  said  to  have  defeated  the 
Danes  and  West  Britons  in  835. 

Hennebon.  A  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Morbihan,  on  the  Blavet.  It 
was  formerly  a  very  strong  place,  and  was 
successfully  defended  by  the  Countess  of 
Montfort,  when  it  was  besieged  by  Charles 
de  Blois,  in  1342. 

Henry  Rifle.     See  Magazine  Guns. 

Hephestion,  or  Hephaestion.  A  Mace- 
donian courtier  and  commander,  the  son  of 
Amyntor  of  Pella ;  became  a  favorite  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  whom  he  followed  in 
the  invasion  of  Persia  and  India.  In  the 
return  of  this  expedition,  Hephestion  and 
Craterus  commanded  a  separate  part  of  tlje 
army.     He  died  in  325  B.C. 

Hep-pah,  or  Hippa.  A  New  Zealand  fort, 
or  space  surrounded  with  stout  palisades. 

Heptarchy.  A  government  of  seven ; 
said  to  have  been  established  by  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  in  England  before  the  reign  of  Eg- 
bert (800-836  A.D.).  Under  Egbert,  Wessex 
rose  to  be  supreme,  and  virtually  swallowed 
up  the  others.  The  common  idea  is  that 
these  seven  kingdoms  were  contemporaneous ; 
but  all  that  can  be  safely  asserted  is,  that 
England  in  this  time  was  peopled  by  various 
tribes,  whose  leading  occupation  was  war; 
and  that  sometimes  one  was  conquered,  some- 
times another.  At  no  time  was  there  a 
counterpoise  of  power  among  seven  of  them, 
so  that  they  could  be  said  to  have  a  separate, 
much  less  an  independent  existence.  Still, 
seven  names  do  survive,  so  as  to  use  the 
term  Heptarchy. 

Heraclea.  In  ancient  geography,  a  large 
and  important  city  of  Magna  Grsecia.  It 
was  situated  in  Lucania,  between  the  small 
streams  Siris  and  Aciris,  a  little  way  inland 
from  the  shore  of  the  Tarentine  Gulf.     It 


HERACLEA 


221 


HERCOTECTONIQUE 


seems  to  have  been  colonized  about  432  n.c. 
In  the  wars  with  Pyrrhus  it  sided  with 
Tarentum  against  Rome  ;  but  it  afterwards 
abandoned  its  parent  state  and  became  an 
ally  of  the  Roman  people.  It  suflered  se- 
verely during  the  Social  war,  but  still  re- 
tained a  considerable  measure  of  importance 
and  prosperity.   It  afterwards  fell  into  decay. 

Heraclea.  8urnamcd  Minoa  ;  in  ancient 
geogriijihy,  a  Greek  city  of  Sicily,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Ilalycus  (now  the  Plafnni),  20 
miles  northwest  from  Agrigentum.  The  sur- 
name seems  to  have  been  originally  the  name 
of  the  town,  which  is  first  mentioned  in 
history  as  a  colony  of  Selinus.  About  the 
end  of  the  0th  century  it  was  recolonized  by 
the  Spartans,  and  had  attained  to  great  pros- 
perity and  power,  when  it  was  destroyed  by 
the  jealousy  of  the  Carthaginians.  After 
renuiining  in  their  power  for  about  200  j'ears 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Agathocles,  and  then 
of  Pyrrhus.  It  was  next  recovered  by  the 
Carthaginians,  who  retained  it  to  the  end  of 
the  first  Punic  war,  when  the  whole  of  Sicily 
was  made  over  to  the  Romans.  In  the  second 
Punic  war  it  reverted  to  the  Carthaginian 
sway,  but  was  finally  attached  to  the  Roman 
empire  by  Marcellus,  shortly  after  the  fall 
of  byracuse.  After  the  servile  war,  Heraclea 
was  repeopled  by  the  Romans,  and  continued 
to  flourish  till  the  time  of  Cicero.  It  after- 
wards sunk  into  decay,  and  at  this  day  its 
very  ruins  can  hardly  be  traced. 

Heracleidae.  This  term  means,  in  its 
•widest  sense,  all  the  descendants  of  Heracles 
(Hercules),  of  whatever  time,  and  in  what- 
ever district  of  Greece ;  but  is  specially 
applied  to  those  adventurers  who,  founding 
their  claims  on  their  supposed  descent  from 
the  great  hero  (to  whom  Zeus  had  promised 
a  portion  of  the  land),  joined  the  Dorians  in 
the  conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus.  There 
were  five  different  expeditions,  the  last  and 
greatest  occurring  eighty  years  after  the 
Trojan  war.  The  story  of  the  return  of  the 
Heracleida?  touches  on  the  historical  period, 
and  though  there  is  much  of  fable  and  tra- 
dition, yet  there  seems  to  be  also  a  large  sub- 
stratum of  truth  in  the  records  of  the  Greek 
historians. 

Heracleum.  A  place  near  Gindarus,  in 
the  Syrian  province  of  Cyrrhestice,  where 
Ventidius,  the  legate  of  M.  Antony,  gained 
his  ijrcut  victory  over  the  Parthians  under 
Pucorus  in  38  B.C. 

Herald.  An  officer  in  the  European 
courts,  whose  duty  consists  in  the  rogulaticm 
of   armorial    bearings,    the    marshaling    of 

rirocessions.and  the  superintendence  of  pub- 
ic ceremonies.  In  the  Middle  Ages  heralds 
were  highly  honored,  and  enjoyed  important 
privileges;  their  functions  also  included  the  i 
bearing  of  messages  between  royal  person- 
ages, and  registering  all  chivalric  exercises  ; 
the  computation  of  the  slain  after  battle; 
and  the  recording  of  the  valiant  acts  of  the 
falling  or  surviving  combatants.  The  office 
of  herald  is  probably  as  old  as  the  origin  of 
coat-armor.     In  England  the  principal  her- 


aldic officers  are  designated  kings-of-arms,  or 
kings-at-arms,  and  the  novitiates  or  learners 
are  styled  pursuivants.  There  are  in  Eng- 
land three  kings-at-arm«,  named  by  their 
offices  Garter,  Clarencienx,  and  Norroy ; 
six  heralds,— Somerset,  Chester,  \Vindsr)r, 
Richmond,  Lancaster,  and  York;  and  four 
pursuivants,  called  Rouge  Dragon,  P<jrtcul- 
iis,  Blwi  Mantle,  and  Rouge  Croix.  In 
Scotland  the  principal  heraldic  officer  is  the 
Lyon  king-at-arms  ;  and  there  are  six  her- 
alds,— Snowdoun,  Albany,  Ross,  Rothesay, 
Marchmont,  and  Hay  ;  and  five-pursuivants, 
— Unicorn,  Carrick,  Kintyre,  Ormond,  and 
Bute.  Ireland  has  one  king-at-arms,  Ul- 
ster; two  heralds,  Cork  and  Dublin;  and 
two  pursuivants,  of  whom  the  senior  bears 
the  title  of  Athlone,  and  the  other  is  called 
the  pursuivant  of  St.  Patrick. 

Heraldry.  The  science  of  armorial  bear- 
ings. The  practice  of  wearing  devices  on 
the  shields  of  knights  whs  originated  in  the 
middle  of  the  12th  century,  and  ever  since 
families  bear  on  their  shield  the  arms  of 
their  progenitors,  which  at  first  had  been 
adopted  either  arbitrarily  or  suggested  by 
some  striking  episode  in  the  life  of  the 
bearer. 

Herald's  College,  or  College  of  Arms. 
A  collegiate  body,  founded  by  Richard  III. 
in  1483,  consisting  of  the  heraldic  officers  of 
England,  who  were  assigned  a  habitation  in 
the  parish  of  Allhallows-the-Le.ss,  in  Lon- 
don. Various  charters  confirmed  the  privi- 
leges of  the  College  of  Anns,  and  it  was  re- 
incorporated by  Philip  and  Mary  in  1o;j4. 
The  presidency  of  the  college  is  vested  in 
the  earl  marshal,  an  office  hereditary  in  the 
family  of  Howard,  duke  of  Norfolk.  He  nom- 
inates the  three  kings-of-arms,  six  heralds, 
and  f(jur  pursuivants,  who  are  the  members  of 
the  collegiate  chapter.  The  members  of  the 
college  have  salaries,  but  derive  their  prin- 
cipal income  from  fees  charged  for  assistance 
in  tracing  pedigrees  and  titles,  and  for  the 
granting  and  registration  of  arms.  In  Scot- 
land the  corresponding  functions  belong  to 
the  Lyon  court.    See  Lvox  King-at-.\kms. 

Herat.  A  city  of  Afghanistan,  the  capi- 
tal of  an  independent  state,  situated  in  a 
plain  near  the  Hury  River,  3'>0  miles  west 
from  Cabul.  This  place  has  often  been  rav- 
aged by  various  concjuerors,  who  have 
claimed  and  won  the  empire  of  Asia.  In 
1220  it  was  taken  bj-  Genghis  Khan,  and  in 
1308  by  Tamerlane.  It  was  subsequently 
united  to  Persia  ;  but  the  Afghans  took  pos- 
session of  it  in  171").  Nadir  Shah  n'took  it 
in  1737,  and  Ahmed  Khan,  an  Afghan,  and 
one  of  Nadir's  generals,  added  it  to  .\fghan- 
istan,  after  the  assassination  of  Nadir  Shah, 
in  1747.  Mohammed  Shah  marched  against 
Herat  in  183fi,  and,  after  a  long  siege,  the 
Persians  were  forced  to  withdraw.  In  1855 
the  Persians  again  made  an  attempt  to  get 
possession  of  Herat ;  but,  after  a  short  war 
with  England,  desisted. 

Hercotectonique  ( Fr.).  A  term  in  forti- 
fication signifying  that  branch  of  military 


HERCULEAN 


222 


HERSE 


architecture  which  specifically  points  out 
the  best  means  of  defense  and  the  surest 
method  of  providing  stores.  This  word  is 
derived  from  the  Greek. 

Herculean.  Very  great,  difficult,  or 
dangerous ;  such  as  it  would  require  the 
strength  or  courage  of  Hercules  to  encoun- 
ter or  accomplish. 

Hercules,  Pillars  of.  The  name  given 
by  the  ancients  to  the  two  rocks  forming  the 
entrance  to  the  Mediterranean  at  the  Strait 
of  Gibraltar.  Their  erection  was  ascribed 
by  the  Greeks  to  Hercules,  on  the  occasion 
of  his  journey  to  the  kingdom  of  Geryon. 

Herefare.  An  old  term  from  the  Saxon, 
signifj'ing  the  same  as  warfare. 

Hereford.  The  chief  town  of  Hereford- 
shire, England,  on  the  Wj'e.  During  the 
Saxon  era,  the  Welsh  inflicted  considerable 
damage  on  this  city  ;  it  also  suffered  greatly 
in  the  wars  of  the  barons,  and  under  the 
Plantagenets.  During  the  civil  war  it  held 
loyally  to  the  cause  of  the  king,  and  was 
one  of  the  last  places  that  yielded  to  the 
Parliament. 

Heregeld.  A  term  derived  from  the 
Saxon,  signifying  a  tax  which  was  formerly 
levied  for  maintaining  an  army. 

Herera.  In  Aragon.  Here  Don  Carlos 
of  Spain,  in  his  struggle  for  his  hereditary 
right  to  the  throne,  'at  the  head  of  12,000 
men,  encountered  and  defeated  (August  24, 
1837)  Gen.  Buerens,  who  had  not  much 
above  half  that  number  of  royal  troops. 

Hereslita,  or  Heresilia.  A  term  derived 
from  the  Saxon,  signifying  a  soldier  who 
abandons  his  colors,  or  deserts  the  service. 

Heretoch,  or  Heretog.  The  leader  or 
commander  of  an  army;  also,  a  constable; 
a  marshal. 

Heretum.  A  court  in  which  the  guards 
or  military  retinue  that  usually  attended 
the  old  British  nobility  and  bishops  were 
accustomed  to  parade  or  draw  up. 

Hergate.  A  term  derived  from  the  Saxon, 
signifying  a  tribute  which  was  paid  in  an- 
cient times  to  the  lord  of  the  soil,  to  enable 
him  to  carry  on  a  war. 

Herisson.  A  formidable  hedge  or  che- 
vaux-de-frise  ;  made  of  one  stout  beam  fenced 
by  a  number  of  iron  spikes,  and  which, 
being  fi.xed  upon  a  pivot,  revolves  in  every 
direction  upon  being  touched,  always  pre- 
senting a  front  of  pikes. 

Hermandad  (Sp.).  "  Brotherhood."  An 
association  of  the  principal  cities  of  Castile 
and  Aragon,  bound  together  by  a  solemn 
league  and  covenant  for  the  defense  of  their 
liberties  in  seasons  of  trouble.  The  most 
noteworthy  (called  Santa  Hermandad,  or 
Holy  Brotherhood)  was  established  in  the 
middle  of  the  13th  century  in  Aragon,  and 
in  Castile  about  thirty  years  later;  while  in 
129-5,  35  cities  of  Castile  and  Leon  formed  a 
joint  confederacy,  and  entered  into  a  com- 
pact, by  which  they  pledged  themselves  to 
take  summary  vengeance  on  every  noble 
who  had  either  robbed  or  injured  a  member 
of  their  association,   and   refused   to   make 


just  atonement  for  the  wrong;  or  upon 
any  one  who  should  attempt,  even  by  the 
order  of  the  king,  to  levy  an  unjust  tax. 
Isabella  of  Castile,  seeing  the  beneficial 
effects  which  an  extension  of  the  institution 
was  capable  of  producing,  obtained  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  Cortes  for  its  thorough  reorgani- 
zation and  extension  over  the  whole  kingdom 
in  1496.  In  1498,  the  objects  of  the  Herman- 
dad  having  been  obtained,  and  public  order 
established  on  a  firm  basis,  the  brotherhood 
was  disorganized  and  reduced  to  an  ordinary 
police,  such  as  it  has  existed,  with  various 
modifications  of  form,  to  the  present  century. 

Herminia  Gens.  A  very  ancient  patri- 
cian house  at  liome,  which  appears  in  the 
first  Etruscan  war  with  the  republic,  506 
B.C.  ;  vanishes  from  history  in  448. 

Hermunduri.  One  of  the  most  powerful 
nations  of  Germany  ;  belonged  to  the  Sue- 
vie  race.  They  were  for  a  long  time  the 
allies  of  the  Romans  ;  but  along  with  the  other 
German  tribes  they  assisted  the  Marcomanni 
in  the  great  war  against  the  Romans  in  the 
reign  of  M.  Aurelius.  After  this  time  they 
are  rarely  mentioned  as  a  separate  people, 
but  are  included  under  the  general  name  of 
Suevi. 

Hernici,  A  people  in  Latium  ;  belonged 
to  the  Sabine  race.  They  inhabited  the 
mountains  of  the  Apennines  between  the 
Lake  Fucinus  and  the  river  Trerus.  They 
were  a  brave  and  warlike  people,  and  long 
offered  a  formidable  resistance  to  the  Ro- 
mans. They  were  finally  subdued  by  the 
Romans  in  806  B.C. 

Hero.  A  man  of  distinguished  valor, 
intrepidity,  or  enterprise  in  danger;  a  prom- 
inent or  central  personage  in  any  remark- 
able action  or  event  ;  hence,  a  great,  illus- 
trious, or  extraordinary  person. 

Hero.  In  mythology,  an  illustrious  man, 
supposed  by  the  populace  to  partake  of  im- 
mortality, and  after  his  death  to  be  placed 
among  the  gods. 

Heroic,  Pertaining  to,  or  like,  a  hero  or 
heroes  ;  as,  heroic  valor.  Becoming  a  hero  ; 
bold  ;  daring  ;  illustrious  ;  as,  heroic  action ; 
heroic  enterprises. 

Heroic  Age.  The  age  when  the  heroes, 
or  those  called  the  children  of  the  gods,  are 
supposed  to  have  lived. 

Heroically.  In  the  manner  of  a  hero ; 
with  valor  ;  bravely  ;  courageously  ;  intrep- 
idly ;  as,  the  town  was  heroically  defended. 

Heroine.  A  female  hero  ;  a  woman  of  a 
brave  spirit.  The  principal  female  person 
who  figures  in  a  remarkable  action. 

Heroism.  The  qualities  of  a  hero  ;  brav- 
ery ;  courage  ;  intrepidity. 

Heroship.     The  character  of  a  hero. 

Herrings,  Battle  of  the.  Fought  on 
February  12,  1429,  when  the  English  were 
besieging  Orleans.  It  obtained  its  name 
from  the  Due  de  Bourbon  attempting  to  in- 
tercept a  convoy  of  salt  fish  on  the  road  to 
the  English  camp  before  Orleans,  and  in 
which  he  was  defeated. 

Herse  (from  the  Fr.  herlse).     In  fortifica- 


HERSILLON 


223 


HIGHLANDERS 


tion,  a  grated  door,  formed  by  strong  pieces 
of  wood  joined  crosswise,  and  stucit  full  of 
iron  spikes.  It  is  usually  hung  by  a  rope, 
and  fastened  to  a  moulinct,  which  is  cut  in 
case  of  a  surprise,  or  when  the  first  gate  is 
forced  by  a  petard,  so  that  it  may  fall  like  a 
portcullis  and  stop  the  passage  of  a  gate  or 
other  entrance  of  a  fortress. 

Hersillon.  A  strong  beam,  whose  sides 
are  stuck  full  of  spikes,  which  is  thrown 
across  the  breach  made  by  an  enemy  to  ren- 
der it  impassable. 

Hertford.  The  capital  of  Hertfordshire, 
England,  on  the  Lee.  It  is  a  very  ancient 
town:  the  castle  was  founded  in  90!t.  In 
the  reign  of  John  it  was  seized  by  the  French 
dauphin,  and  under  Edward  III.  the  kings 
of  F" ranee  and  Scotland  were  secured  in  it. 

Heruli.  An  ancient  German  tribe,  first 
mentioned  among  the  Gothic  nations  when 
these  latter  had  established  themselves  on 
the  north  coast  of  the  Euxine,  in  the  reigns 
of  Gallienus  and  Claudius.  In  the  reign  of 
Valentinian  they  are  mentioned  as  being  in 
the  service  of  Rome,  fighting  against  the 
Alemanni.  In  the  5th  century  they  allied 
themselves  with  the  other  German  tribes, 
and  under  Odoacer,  in  47*3,  they  overthrew 
the  Western  empire. 

Hesse.  A  territory  in  Western  Germany, 
the  seat  of  the  Catti ;  formed  part  of  the  em- 
pire of  Charlemagne ;  from  the  rulers  of  it 
in  his  time  the  present  are  descended.  It 
Mras  joined  to  Thuringia  till  about  12(53, 
when  Henry  I.  became  landgrave  of  Hesse. 
The  most  remarkable  of  his  successors  was 
Philip,  who  signed  the  Augsburg  Confession 
in  1530,  and  the  League  of  Sinalcakl  in  1531. 
At  his  death  Ilesse  was  divided  in  Hesse- 
Cassel  and  Hesse-Darmstadt,  and  in  1803 
the  former  became  an  electorate,  and  the 
hitter  a  grand  duchy.  Hesse-Cassel  was  in- 
corporated with  Prussia  in  18fif>,  and  Hesse- 
Diirnistadt  became  a  part  of  the  North  Ger- 
miin  Confederation  in  1867,  and  as  such  it 
took  part  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war  in 
1870. 

Hessians.  Troops  belonging  to  Hesse- 
C»s.<!el,  Prussia.  They  have  been  frequently 
hired  by  Great  Britain,  particularly  in  the 
war  of  American  independence,  when  they 
were  sold  at  £40  sterling  a  bead,  £0  of  which 
was  to  be  repaid  if  they  returned  alive. 

Hetman,  or  Ataman.  A  word  derived 
from  the  (ierman,  which  signifies  the  chief 
of  a  troop.  The  chief  general  of  the  old 
Polish  armies  was  called  Hefninn  Wielki, 
and  tlie  second  general  Hetman  Polnv.  The 
chief  or  general  of  the  Cossacks  is  likewise 
invested  with  this  title  by  the  czar  of  Russia. 

Heurtequins  (Fr.).  Two  pieces  of  iron 
resembling  a  knocker,  which  are  placed  over 
the  trunnions,  or  axis  of  a  cannon. 

Heuse  (/•>.).  An  iron  shoe,  sometimes 
called  prifinijr,  attached  to  the  greaves  of 
•  ncient  armor,  having  an  iron  sole,  and  the 
Upper  comjiosed  of  tnail. 

Hexagonal  Powder.     See  GrNPOWPKR. 

Hexham.    A  town  of  England,  in  North- 


umberland, situated  a  little  below  the  con- 
fluence of  the  north  and  south  Tyne,  21 
miles  west  from  Newcastle.  This  town  is 
chiefly  remarkable  for  the  antiquities  with 
which  it  is  surrounded,  and  the  historical 
events  connected  with  it.  The  neighbor- 
hood abounds  with  ruined  castles,  monu- 
ments of  battles  and  heroes  ;  with  Roman 
relics,  altars,  inscriptions,  etc.  The  cathe- 
dral, or  priory  church  of  Hexham,  wa.s 
founded  in  G74,  and  was  destroyed  by  the 
Danes.  In  14f)3,  a  battle  was  fought  in  the 
neighborhood  between  the  houses  of  York 
and  Lancaster,  in  which  the  Yorkists  gained 
the  victory.  As  an  interesting  historical 
event,  it  may  be  remarked  tliat  it  was  in  fly- 
ing from  tbis  field  that  Queen  Margaret 
threw  herself  on  the  protection  of  a  robber, 
and  the  cave  in  which  she  concealed  herself 
and  the  Prince  of  Wales  is  still  pointed  out. 

Hibernia,  Ibernia,  Ivernia,  and  lerne. 
The  names  by  which  Ireland  is  designated 
in  the  classical  writers.     See  Ireland. 

Hibernian  Royal  School.  A  scIkjoI  es- 
tablished in  (ireat  Britain  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  350  children  of  military  officers 
who  are  supported  and  educated  at  this 
school,  at  an  expense  of  £7000  per  annum  to 
the  country. 

Hierarchy,  Military.  The  essential  ele- 
ment for  the  government  and  service  of  an 
army  is  a  military  hierarchy,  or  the  creation 
of  difl'erent  grades  of  rank,  to  which  difler- 
ent  functions  and  powers  are  assigned,  the 
lower  in  regular  subordination  to  the  next 
higher  in  the  ascending  scale.  It  should  be 
founded  on  the  principle  that  every  one  acts 
in  an  army  under  the  orders  of  a  superior, 
who  exercises  his  authority  only  within  the 
limits  established  by  law.  This  authority 
of  the  superior  should  be  greater  or  less  ac- 
cording to  rank  and  position,  and  be  pro- 
portioned to  his  responsibilities.  Orders 
should  be  executed  without  hesitation  ;  but 
responsibilities  should  be  confined  to  him 
who  gives  orders  in  virtue  of  the  superior 
authority  with  which  he  is  invented;  to  him 
who  takes  the  initiative  in  an  order  ;  to  him 
who  does  not  execute  an  order  that  he  has 
received  ;  and  to  him  who  usurps  a  com- 
numd,  or  continues  illegally  to  exercise  its 
functions.  The  military  hierarchy  is  deter- 
mined and  consecrated  within  its  sphere  of 
action  by  grades  of  rank  created  by  military 
laws,  by  other  laws  regulating  the  exorcise 
of  rank,  by  military  insignia,  by  military 
honors,  and  by  the  military  oath. 

High  Treason.  Treason  against  the 
state,  being  the  highest  civil  ollense.  See 
Tkkason-. 

Highlanders.  Properly  speaking,  are  the 
Celtic  inhabitants  of  the  Highlands  of  Scot- 
land. In  the  army  of  Great  Britain,  it  de- 
notes the  eight  regiments  who  are  uniformed 
in  the  Highland  dress,  including  a  distinctive 
tartan,  and  are  as  follows:  42d  (see  HLxrK 
Watch),  71st,  72d,  74th,  78th,  70th.  92d, 
and  03d.  These  regiments  are  recruited  in 
the  Highlands. 


HILT 


224 


HOHENSTAUFEN 


Hilt.  The  handle  of  anythins^,  efspecially 
of  a  cutting  instrument,  as  a  knife  or  sword. 

Hiked.  Havingahilt.  Also  a  term  used 
in  heraldry  to  indicate  the  tincture  of  the 
handle  of  a  sword. 

Hilton  Head.  A  village  on  an  island  of 
the  same  name,  forming  part  of  Beaufort 
District,  S.  C,  at  the  mouth  of  Broad  Kiver. 
It  was  taken  from  the  Confederates  by  the 
U.  S.  forces  after  a  severe  naval  engagement 
in  November,  1861. 

Himera.  A  celebrated  city  on  the  north 
coast  of  Sicily.  Here  the  Carthaginians 
were  defeated  with  great  slaughter  by  the 
united  forces  of  Theron  and  Gelon  of  Syr- 
acuse, 480  B.C.  It  assisted  Syracuse  against 
the  Athenians  in  415  B.C.  In  409  b.c.  it  was 
taken  by  Hannibal,  the  son  of  Gisco,  who, 
to  revenge  the  great  defeat  which  the  Car- 
thaginians had  suflered  before  the  town, 
leveled  it  to  the  ground,  and  destroyed  al- 
most all  the  inhabitants. 

Hindostan.     See  India. 

Hircarrah,  or  Hircarra.  An  Indian  term 
for  a  messenger,  guide,  footman,  or  spy. 

Hiring  of  Duty.  See  Appendix,  Arti- 
cles OF  War,  36,  37. 

Hirpini.  An  inland  people  of  Italy  who 
inhabited  the  southern  portion  of  Samnium. 
In  the  early  history  of  Rome  the  Hirpini 
are  found  identifying  themselves  with  their 
Samnite  neighbors  against  their  common 
foes.  They  seem  to  have  been  subdued  in 
the  early  part  of  the  3d  century  B.C.  They 
appear  as  an  independent  people  in  the  sec- 
ond Punic  year.  Kevolting  from  their  old 
conquerors,  they  joined  the  Carthaginian 
invaders,  and,  though  they  were  unable  to 
recapture  their  stronghold  of  Beneventum, 
they  remained  faithful  to  Hannibal  till  the 
defeat  at  the  Metaurus  restored  the  empire 
of  Italy  to  his  opponents.  In  the  year  of 
that  event  the  Hirpini  made  their  peace  with 
their  old  masters  by  betraying  into  their 
hands  the  garrisons  of  their  allies.  From 
this  time  till  the  outbreak  of  the  Social  war, 
the  Hirpini  seem  to  have  continued  stead- 
fast m  their  allegiance.  On  that  occasion, 
however,  they  set  the  example  of  revolt  to 
the  allies,  and  might  have  become  formid- 
able enemies,  had  not  the  rapid  successes  of 
Sulla  induced  them  to  repair  their  error  by 
complete  submission.  After  the  close  of  the 
war  the  Hirpini  do  not  appear  in  history  as 
an  independent  people. 

Hispalis.     See  Seville. 

Histiaea.  An  ancient  city  of  Euboea.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Athenians  during  the  Per- 
sian wars,  but  they  revolted  from  that  people, 
and  was  again  subdued,  the  old  inhabitants 
of  the  city  were  expelled,  and  2000  Athenian 
colonists  "settled  in  their  stead,  and  its  name 
changed  to  Oreus.  In  the  war  between 
Philip  and  the  Greeks,  Oreus  was  frequently 
contested,  and  in  200  B.C.  it  was  stormed  by 
the  Romans. 

History,  Military.  A  narrative  of  mili- 
tary transactions,  campaigns,  battles,  sieges, 
marches,   etc.,   of   an    army.      It    likewise 


means  a  relation  of  the  heroic  actions  of 
great  generals,  etc. 

Hit.  To  reach  with  a  stroke  or  blow  ;  es- 
pecially, to  reach  or  touch  an  object  aimed 
at,  as  a  mark  ;  to  strike  or  touch,  usually 
with  force.  Also  a  striking  against;  the 
collision  of  one  body  against  another ;  the 
stroke  or  blow  that  touches  anything. 

Hitch.  A  knot  or  noose  in  a  rope  for 
fastening  it  to  a  ring  or  other  object;  as,  a 
clove  hitch,  a  timber  hitch. 

Hivites.  A  Canaanitish  people,  who  in 
the  time  of  Jacob  are  found  occupying  the 
uplands  of  Ephraim,  and  later  the  slopes  of 
Hermon  and  region  westward  towards  Tyre. 
They  were  conquered  by  the  Hebrews,  and 
they  became  menial  subjects  of  Solomon. 

Hobeliers.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  a  species 
of  light  horsemen,  chiefly  intended  for  re- 
connoitring, carrying  intelligence,  harassing 
troops  on  a  march,  intercepting  convoys,  and 
pursuing  a  routed  army;  the  smallness  of 
their  horses  rendering  them  unfit  to  stand 
the  shock  of  a  charge.  Spelman  derives  the 
name  from  hobby,  a  small  horse.  Camden 
used  the  word  Hoblers  for  certain  light  liorse- 
men,  who  were  bound  by  the  tenure  of  their 
lands  to  maintain  a  light  horse,  for  giving 
notice  of  any  invasion  made  by  enemies,  or 
such  like  peril  towards  the  sea-side. 

Hobits.  Small  mortars  of  6  or  8  inches 
bore  mounted  on  gun-carriages ;  they  were 
in  use  before  the  howitzer. 

Hochebos  {Fr.).  Certain  soldiers  among 
the  ancients,  who  were  so  called  from  their 
brandishing  the  pike.  This  word  has  like- 
wise been  applied  to  the  pike  itself. 

Hochkirch.  A  village  of  Saxony,  7  miles 
southeast  of  Bautzen.  Here  Frederick  the 
Great  was  completely  defeated  by  the  Aus- 
trians  under  Daun,  October  14,  1758.  A 
conflict  between  the  Russians  and  Prussians 
and  the  French,  in  which  the  latter  were  vic- 
torious, took  place  here  May  22,  1813. 

Hochstadt.  A  town  of  Bavaria,  situated 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube.  It  is  noted 
for  a  battle,  generally  known  as  the  battle  of 
Blenheim  (which  see),  in  which  the  French 
and  Bavarians  were  defeated  by  the  Duke  of 
Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene,  and  which 
took  place  between  this  town  and  Blenheim 
in  1704.  In  1800,  the  French  under  Moreau 
totally  defeated  the  Austrians  near  here. 

Hohenlinden.  A  village  of  Bavaria.  It 
is  noted  for  the  defeat  of  the  Austrian  army 
in  1800,  by  the  French  under  Moreau. 

Hohenstaufen.  A  celebrated  family  of 
German  princes,  which  kept  possession  of 
the  imperial  throne  from  1138  to  1254,  and 
died  out  in  1268.  The  first  of  the  line  was 
Friedrich  von  Biiren,  who  received  the  name 
on  account  of  having  removed  his  dwell- 
ing from  a  valley  auf  den  Staufen  ("  up  the 
hill"  or  "mountain").  His  son  Friedrich 
von  Staufen,  or  Hohenstaufen,  served  under 
Henry  IV.,  and  distinguished  himself  greatly 
in  the  battle  of  Merseburg,  for  which  the 
king  awarded  him  the  duchy  of  Swabia. 
He  also  fought  against  the  pope  in   Italy, 


HOHENZOLLERN 


225 


HOLY 


while  holdintj  the  position  of  regent  of  Ger- 
many.    Died  in  1105. 

HohenzoUern.     The  nume  of  an  ancient 

Crinceiy  (Jerinan  family,  from  which  the 
ins;s  of  Prussia  are  descended.  The  name 
is  derived  from  the  castle  of  Zollern,  in  Swa- 
bia,  which  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  Tas- 
sillnn  or  Thasilio  about  800. 

Hoist.  To  raise;  to  lift,  or  bear  upward 
by  means  of  tackle,  as  a  flag,  etc.  The  per- 
pendicular height  of  a  flag,  as  opposed  to  the 
fu,  or  breadth  from  the  staff  to  the  outer 
edge. 

Hold.  A  place  of  security;  a  fortified 
place;  a  fort  ;  a  castle;  often  called  a  «<rc»n</- 
hoU. 

Hold.  To  keep  one's  self  in  a  given  po- 
sition or  condition  ;  to  renuiin  fixed  ;  as,  not 
to  move  ;  to  halt ;  to  stop.  Not  to  give  way ; 
not  to  part  or  become  separated  ;  to  remain 
unbroken.  To  huld  one's  oivn,  to  keep  up; 
not  to  lose  ground  or  be  left  behind. 

Hold  Out,  To.  To  maintain  any  place, 
ground,  etc.,  rcsoluteh'  against  an  enemy. 

Hold-all.  A  portable  case  for  holding 
small  articles  required  by  soldiers,  marines, 
etc. 

Holland.  A  kingdom  in  Northwest  Eu- 
rope, the  chief  part  of  the  Northern  Nether- 
lands, composed  of  land  rescued  from  the  sea, 
and  defended  by  immense  dykes.  It  was  in- 
habited by  the  Batavi  in  the  time  of  Ca?sar, 
who  made  a  league  with  them.  It  became 
part  of  Gallia  Uelgica,  and  afterwards  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Austria.  From  the  10th  to  the 
15th  century  it  was  governed  by  counts 
under  the  Gorman  emperors.  It  was  con- 
quered by  the  Frencli  in  1795,  and  subse- 
quently brought  into  the  condition  of  a  prov- 
ince of  France  under  Napoleon  ;  the  em- 
gror's  brother,  Louis,  being  created  king  of 
olland.  It  was  delivered  from  the  French 
yoke  in  1813.     See  Netherlands. 

Hollow  Projectile.  Shell,  case-shot,  etc. 
See  Pko.ikctii.ks,  etc. 

Hollow  Square.  The  form  in  which  a 
body  of  foot  is  drawn  up  with  an  empty  space 
in  the  middle  for  the  colors,  drums,  baggage, 
etc.  A  body  of  troops  formed  into  a  square 
to  resist  the  charge  of  cavalry  on  critical  oc- 
casions. 

Hollow  Tower.  A  rounding  made  of  the 
remainder  of  two  brisures,  to  join  the  cur- 
tain to  the  orillon,  where  the  small  shot  are 
placed,  that  they  may  not  be  so  much  ex- 
posed to  the  view  of  the  enemy. 

Hollow  Way.  Any  pass  or  road,  both 
sido<  of  which  are  commanded  by  heights. 

Holstein.  An  extensive  duchy  of  Ger- 
many, formerly  a  dependency  of  Dcnnuirk. 
The  kin;;  of  Denmark  had  originally  a  seat 
at  the  German  Diet  on  account  of  his  Hol- 
stein jK>9sessions,  but  in  180»),  on  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  this 
privilege  was  lost;  but  in  1815  he  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Germanic  Confederation. 
In  1848  this  duchy,  with  Schleswig,  at- 
tempted to  gain  its  independence;  but,  after 
•ome  severe  fighting,  it  was  reduced  to  obe- 


dience in  1850.  In  18G3  the  struggle  was 
renewed  ;  and,  under  the  pretext  of  sepa- 
rating this  duchy,  together  with  that  of 
Schleswig,  from  Denmark,  and  of  annex- 
ing it  to  the  Germanic  Confederation,  an 
allied  Austrian  and  Prussian  army  invaded 
the  country  and  drove  out  the  Dunes,  after 
a  short  but  desperate  struggle.  It  was  an- 
nexed to  Prussia  after  the  Pru.ssian- Austrian 
war  (18';i>),  and  now  forms  a  part  of  the 
North  German  Confederation. 

Holsters.  Leathern  cases  for  pistols, 
aflBxfd  to  the  pommel  of  the  saddle.  They 
are  frequently  covered  with  wool  or  fur,  to 
prevent  injury  to  the  rider  in  the  event  of 
his  being  thrown  forward  upon  them.  They 
are  also  worn  on  a  belt. 

Holstered.  Bearing  holsters ;  as,  a  bol- 
stered steed. 

Holy  Alliance.  A  league  formed  after 
the  fall  of  Napoleon  by  the  sovereigns  of 
Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  nominally  to 
regujate  the  relations  of  the  states  of  Chris- 
tendom by  the  princij>les  of  Christian  char- 
ity, but  really  to  preserve  the  j>ower  and 
influence  of  the  existing  dynasties.  Most 
of  the  other  European  rulers  acceded  to  it, 
and  the  treaty  was  made  public  February 
2,  1816.  A  special  article  of  the  treaty  ex- 
cluded forever  the  members  of  the  Bona- 
parte family  from  any  European  throne. 
But  after  the  secession  of  England  and 
France  the  alliance  became  practicalh'  ob- 
solete. 

Holy  Ghost,  Order  of  the.  A  Roman 
Catholic  orderconsisting  of  hospital  knights, 
which  was  founded  in  the  I'Jth  century,  and 
ceased  to  exist  as  a  kniirhtly  order  in  1700. 

Holy  Island,  or  Lindisfarne.  An  island 
off  the  coast  of  Northumberland,  8  miles 
southeast  from  Berwick-on-Tweed,  and  i3 
connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  narrow 
isthmus  or  neck  of  sand.  On  the  south  of 
the  island  lies  the  town,  and  near  it  are  the 
ruins  of  an  old  abbey  which  the  Danes  de- 
stroyed in  900. 

Holy  League.  A  name  applied  to  sev- 
eral combinations  of  sovereigns  or  princes 
of  Europe  fi>r  warlike  or  defensive  pur- 
poses. The  first  was  organized  in  1510  by 
the  pope,  Venice  and  Spain  against  Louis 
XII.  of  France.  But  the  most  important 
of  all  was  Ihe  h<>hi  Icnffiie,  so  called  by  way 
of  eminence,  which  was  organized  at  Per- 
rone  in  1576,  and  lasted  till  159.3,  to  prevent 
the  accession  of  Ilenry  IV.  of  France  to 
the  throne. 

Holy  Sepulchre,  Knights  of  the.  An 
order  of  knighthood  instituted  probably  by 
Pope  Alexander  VI.,  for  the  guardianship 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  the  relief  and 
protection  of  pilgrims.  The  pope  was  orig- 
inally the  grand  master,  but  he  subsequently 
ceded  his  rights  to  the  Guardian  Father  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre.  The  knights  must,  by 
the  rules  of  the  order,  be  all  of  noble  de- 
scent ;  thev  were  bound  to  hear  mass  daily, 
to  fight,  to"  live,  and  to  die  for  the  Christian 
faith,  etc.     In  return  for  these  duties,  the 


HOLY 


226 


HONVfiD 


knights  had  the  most  unusual  and  extraor- 
dinary privileges  conferred  on  them  ;  they 
were  exempt  from  taxation,  could  marry, 
and  yet  possess  church  property,  legitimize 
bastards,  cut  down  and  bury  the  bodies  of 
criminals  who  had  been  hanged.  On  the 
recapture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Turks,  the 
knights  retired  to  Italy,  and  settled  at  Pe- 
rugia. After  a  temporary  union  with  the 
Hospitallers,  the  order  was  reconstructed  in 
1814  both  in  France  and  in  Poland,  and  is 
still  in  existence  within  a  very  small  circle 
of  knights  elected  by  the  Guardian  Father 
from  the  most  respectable  pilgrims  who  come 
to  Jorusalem. 

Holy  Wars.     See  Crusade. 

Homelden.  In  Northumberland,  Eng- 
land, where  the  Scots,  headed  by  the  Earl 
of  Douglas,  were  defeated  by  the  Percies 
(among  them  Hotspur),  September  14,  1402. 

Home-service.  Consists  in  military  op- 
erations and  arrangements  for  the  immediate 
defense  of  our  own  country,  should  it  be 
threatened  by  invasion,  or  by  domestic  broils 
or  insurrections. 

Homme  d'Armes  (Fr.).  A  military 
phrase  among  the  French,  signifying  a 
gentleman  or  cavalier  who  belonged  to  one 
of  the  old  companies,  was  armed  cap-a-pie, 
and  always  fought  on  horseback.  In  an- 
cient times,  every  man  of  this  description 
was  accompanied  by  two  horsemen  inde- 
pendent of  his  servants.  One  of  the  mounted 
attendants  was  armed  with  a  cross-bow,  and 
the  other  with  a  common  bow  or  battle-axe; 
so  that  100  homines  d'a7-mes  composed  a 
body  of  300  horse.  It  was  a  species  of 
cavalry  which  existed  from  the  reign  of 
Louis  XI.  until  the  reign  of  Henry  II. 

Honduras,  A  republican  state  of  the 
confederation  of  Central  America;  being 
bounded  north  by  the  Caribbean  Sea  and 
Bay  of  Honduras,  southeast  by  the  Mos- 
quito Territory  and  Nicaragua,  south  by 
San  Salvador  and  the  Bay  of  Conchagua, 
on  the  Pacific,  and  west  by  Guatemala. 

Honeycomb.  A  defect  in  guns  resem- 
bling the  cells  of  wax  in  which  the  bee  stores 
her  honey.  These  flaws  in  the  metal  arise 
either  from  careless  or  imperfect  casting,  or 
from  long  disuse  of  a  gun  and  exposure  to 
damp.  A  honeycombed  gun-  is  liable  to 
burst  in  firing. 

Hong-Kong.  An  island  off  the  coast  of 
China;  was  taken  by  Capt.  Elliott,  August 
23,  1839,  and  ceded  to  Great  Britain,  Jan- 
uary 20,  1841. 

Honi  Soit  Qui  Mai  y  Pense  (Fr.).  See 
Garter,  Order  of  the. 

Honor.  In  a  general  acceptation  may  be 
properly  called  a  consciousness  of  worth  and 
virtue  in  the  individual,  and  a  lively  desire 
to  preserve  the  reputation  of  virtue.  As  a 
term,  it  is  variously  used  in  military  life. 
As  a  quality  of  the  mind,  it  cannot  be  too 
much  encouraged  or  too  much  cultivated 
among  military  men  of  all  ranks  and  de- 
scriptions. The  possession  of  it  is  a  guar- 
antee for  good  conduct,  a  bond  of  fidelity, 


and  a  certain  barrier  against  military  cor- 
ruption. Men  are  excited  to  deeds  of  valor 
and  enterprise  by  a  sense  of  honor,  who 
would  otherwise  remain  inactive,  or  only 
perform  the  mere  drudgery  of  service.  This 
term  may  likewise  be  considered  as  esteem, 
reputation,  the  glory  which  is  attached  by 
mankind  to  talents  and  virtues. 

Honor,  Affair  of.  A  transaction  con- 
nected with  a  duel,  or  a  challenge  to  fight 
a  duel ;  a  duel  itself. 

Honor,  Court  of.  Is  a  species  of  board 
of  inquiry,  which  has  not  onlj'  the  power 
of  ascertaining  the  degree  of  guilt  which 
may  be  attached  to  misconduct,  but  of  pro- 
nouncing an  opinion  which  may  or  may  not 
entail  ignominy  upon  the  guilty  persons. 
See  Court  of  Honor. 

Honor,  Debt  of.  An  obligation  which 
among  honorable  men,  especially  ofBcers,  is 
more  binding  than  those  engagements  or 
contracts  that  are  guaranteed  by  law.  The 
reason  is  manifest. 

Honor,  Point  of.  A  nice  discrimination 
in  matters  affecting  one's  honor.  A  delicacy 
of  feeling,  which  is  generally  acquired  by 
education,  and  strengthened  by  intercourse 
with  men  of  strict  integrity  and  good  con- 
duct. It  is  likewise  very  frequently  the  ofl- 
spring  of  peculiar  habits,  received  notions, 
and  established  etiquettes ;  also,  a  minute 
distinction  ;  a  punctilio. 

Honor,  Signatures  upon.  Are  instru- 
ments, such  as  declarations  of  officers  on 
vouchers  for  allowances,  pay,  etc.,  that  are 
guaranteed  by  the  names  of  individuals, 
without  oath. 

Honor,  Word  of.  A  promise  or  engage- 
ment that  is  made  or  entered  into  by  word 
of  mouth,  the  breach  of  which  entails  dis- 
grace upon  the  violator.  To  die  iqyon  the  bed 
of  honor,  is  a  term  particularly  applied  to 
military  men,  who  die  in  battle  fighting  in 
their  country's  cause. 

Honors  of  War.  A  compliment  granted 
on  capitulation  to  a  garrison  which  has  made 
a  gallant  defense.  The  exact  nature  of  the 
honors  accorded  have  varied  in  different  ages 
and  on  different  occasions.  Ordinarily  they 
are  as  follows :  The  garrison  marches  out 
through  the  gap  in  the  breach,  if  there  is 
one,  with  arms  and  personal  baggage.  The 
drums  beat,  the  colors  fly,  officers  carry  their 
swords  drawn,  and  the  men  their  bayonets 
fixed.  A  certain  number  of  guns — ordinarily 
two — accompany  the  force,  and  formerly  the 
gunners  carried  lighted  matches.  On  reach- 
ing the  glacis  the  garrison— unless  it  is  one 
of  the  stipulations  that  it  is  to  join  the  main 
army — forms  up  and  grounds  arms,  only 
the  officers  retaining  their  swords,  and  is 
marched  off  under  escort. 

Honved.  The  name  given  in  Hungary 
under  the  earlier  kings  to  the  national 
champions.  With  the  disappearance  of 
these,  the  word  too  disappeared  ;  but  in  the 
summer  of  1848  it  was  revived,  and  applied 
first  to  those  Hungarian  volunteers  dis- 
patched to  the  south  against  the  Servians, 


HOOD 


227 


HORSE 


and  subsequently,  when  the  war  with  Aus- 
tria really  commenced,  to  the  wh<>le  |)atriotic 
army.  Still,  in  common  parlance,  the  term 
honved  i.s  used  only  with  reference  to  the 
Ilunfjarian  infantry. 

Hood  (Sp.  tdpndera).  A  leather  cover  for 
the  stiiTU|)  of  a  saddle. 

Hooghly.  A  town  of  BenG;al,  and  the 
capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  situ- 
ated on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hooj^hly  Uiver, 
27  miles  north  from  Calcutta.  This  place  is 
supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Portu- 
puese  about  1;>58,  and  after  their  expulsion  in 
lt;32  by  the  Mo<?ul  troops,  it  became  the 
imperial  port  of  the  Moi^ul  empire.  In  1757 
it  was  taken  by  the  Uritish  ;  it  was  retaken 
shortly  after  by  Surajah  Dowlah,  but  ulti- 
mately fell,  after  a  few  months,  into  the 
hands  of  the  British  under  Lord  Clive. 

Hooks.  Pieces  of  bent  iron  fixed  to  the 
transom  jilates  of  a  lield-carriatje  are  so 
called.  They  serve  to  fix  the  bricoles  or 
ropes  for  drawing  it  occasionally  backwards 
or  forwards. 

Hookum.  An  Indian  word,  signifying 
order  or  command. 

Hookummaumeh.  In  India,  signifies  a 
letter  of  instructions,  or  the  paper  that  con- 
tains orders. 

Hoplital  (Fr.  /loplitfs).  Foot-soldiers 
among  the  Greeks,  who  bore  heavy  armor, 
and  engaged  with  broad  shields  and  long 
spears.  These  took  precedence  of  all  other 
foot-soldiers. 

Horde.  A  wandering  troop  or  gang  ;  es- 
pecially a  clan  or  tribe  of  a  nomadic  peo- 
ple possessing  no  fixed  habitations,  but  mi- 
grating from  place  to  place  for  the  sake  of 
pasturage,  plunder,  or  tlie  like  cause. 

Hordearium.  The  money  which  the 
Romans  gave  their  cavalry  for  the  suste- 
nance of  their  horses. 

Horion  (Fr.).  A  term  which  formerly 
signified  a  helmet,  and  which  in  the  vulgar 
Rccej)tation  of  it  now,  among  the  French, 
means  a  blow  upon  the  head. 

Horizon  (Gr.  orizo,  I  bound  or  termi- 
nate). In  astronomy  and  geography,  is  the 
plane  of  the  great  circle  of  the  sphere, 
dividing  the  visible  from  the  invisible  hemi- 
•phere.  The  horizon  is  either  .sensible  or 
rational.  The  sensible  horizon  is  a  plane 
which  is  a  tangent  to  the  earth's  surface  at 
the  jilace  of  the  spectator,  extended  on  all 
sides  till  it  is  bounded  by  the  sky;  the 
rational  horizon  is  a  plane  parallel  to  the 
former,  but  passing  through  the  centre  of 
the  earth.  Both  the  sensible  and  rational 
horizon  are  relative  terms,  and  change  with 
every  change  of  the  spectator's  position  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth  ;  in  all  cases  they  are 
perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  gravity. 

Horizontal  Fire.  The  fire  of  guns  and 
howitzers  urultT  low  amrles  of  elevation. 

Horizontal  Plane.  That  which  is  parallel 
to  the  horizon  ;  a  plane  tangent  to  tne  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  at  the  place. 

Horizontal  Range.  In  gunnery,  is  the 
distance  to  which  a  piece  of  ordnance  will 


project  a  ball  on  a  horizontal  plane.  Sup- 
posing no  resistance  from  the  atmosphere, 
the  greatest  range  would  be  when  the  piece 
is  elevated  at  an  angle  of  4.">°  ;  and  in  all 
other  positions  the  horizontal  range  would 
be  as  the  sine  of  twice  the  angle  of  elevation. 
In  a  resisting  medium  the  maximum  hori- 
zontal range  requires  the  elevation  to  be  less 
than  4o°.  It  is  found  by  experience  that, 
with  the  ordinary  velocity,  a  cannon-shot 
ranges  the  farthest  when  the  elevation  of 
the  piece  is  about  30°. 

Hornwork.  A  kind  of  work  in  advance 
of  a  fortification,  akin  to  a  crown-work,  but 
consisting  of  only  one  curtain  and  two  half- 
bastions. 

Hors  de  Combat.  A  French  military 
phrase,  signifying  that  an  individual  or 
body  of  men  are  so  completely  beaten  as 
not  to  be  able  to  maintain  the  field  of  battle. 
Meftre  hors  de  combed,  to  drive  your  ojipo- 
nent  before  you  ;  to  press  him  so  closely  that 
he  cannot  make  a  stand  against  you  ;  to  put 
him  out  of  the  lists  of  contests.  To  be 
wounded  or  incapable  of  individual  eflbrt, 
is  also  being  hors  de  combat. 

Horse.  A  military  term  for  a  body  of 
cavalry. 

Horse  Artillery.  Is  that  portion  of  the 
artillery  which  usually  serves  with  cavalry, 
and  in  which  the  cannoneers  are  mounted 
on  horseback,  to  enable  them  to  conform 
with  the  rapid  movements  of  that  arm  of  the 
service.  Possessing,  from  their  lighter  con- 
struction and  mounted  detachments,  much 
greater  locomotive  powers  than  other  field- 
batteries,  they  are  especially  adapted  for  fol- 
lowing the  rapid  evolutions  of  cavalry,  for 
sudden  attacks  upon  particular  points,  and 
for  sujiporting  the  advance,  or  covering  the 
retreat  of  an  army. 

Horse,  Associated.  A  body  of  cavalry 
so  called  in  the  days  of  Cromwell.  At  the 
famous  battle  of  Nascby  (June  14,  lt;4.>), 
which  decided  the  fate  of  Charles  I.,  the 
Associated  Horse  were  posted  in  the  rear  of 
the  right  wing  of  the  Republican  army,  and 
formed  a  part  of  the  reserve.  Cromwell 
commanded  the  cavalry  on  the  right  of  the 
whole,  and  the  Associated  Horse  were  under 
j  his  immediate  orders. 

1       Horse,   Cavalry  and  Artillery.      Horses 

■  generally    nuike    in  a    minute,  at  ordinary 

]  pace,    120  steps,  and  they  cover  110  yards; 

at  a  trot,  180  steps,  covering  220  yards  ;  and 

j  at   a  gallop,   100  steps  or  strides,  covering 

.S 52  yards  ;  from  which  it  would  appear  that 

the  length  of  the  stride  at  the  ordinary  pace 

is  about  0.917  yard,  and  that  the  velocity 

I  corresponds  to  about  1.74  yards  per  second; 

'  and  at  a  trot  the  stride  isabout  1.23  yards 

I  and  the  speed  about  3.t')8  yards  per  second; 

I  and  at  a  gallop  the  stride  is  ab<iut  3.')2  yards, 

I  with  a  speed  of  about  5.87  yards  per  second. 

j  A   good   horse    carrying   a   weight   of  225 

pounds,  can  travel,  without  over-exertion, 

25  miles  in  a  day  of  from  seven  to  eight 

hours ;    his    speed    in    this    case    would    be 

I  between    1.75  and    l.-Jo   yards   per  second. 


HOESE 


228 


HOSPITAL 


The  weight  of  an  average-sized  horse  is 
about  from  900  to  1350  pounds.  The  age  of 
the  horse  is  determined  by  the  appearance  of 
the  teeth,  which  vary  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  years  the  animal  has  attained,  and 
may  be  easily  understood  by  a  slight  atten- 
tion to  the  subject ;  the  number,  quality, 
and  size  of  the  teeth  indicating  the  respective 
ages.  The  lower  front  teeth  or  nippers  are 
those  by  which  the  age  of  a  colt  is  usually 
determined.  At  two  years  old  these  teeth 
will  be  complete  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  colt  will 
have  a  full  set,  six  in  number,  of  milch-teeth. 
Between  two  and  three  years  old  the  two 
centre  teeth  are  displaced,  and  two  perma- 
nent teeth  succeed  them,  easily  distinguished 
from  colt's  teeth  by  being  broader,  larger, 
and  having  a  dark  cavity  in  the  centre  of 
the  upper  surface.  At  three  years  old  the 
colt  will  have  in  the  lower  jaw  two  perma- 
nent and  four  colt's  teeth ;  between  the 
third  and  fourth  year  the  next  pair  of  incisor 
teeth  will  be  shed,  and  permanent  ■  teeth 
succeed  them.  At  four  years  old  there  will 
be  four  permanent  teeth  in  the  centre,  and 
two  colt's  teeth  at  each  corner  of  the  lower 
jaw.  Between  the  fourth  and  fifth  year  the 
last  remaining  colt's  nipper,  or  corner  tooth, 
will  be  cast;  and,  if  a  horse  or  gelding,  the 
tushes,  four  in  number,  will  show  them- 
selves, two  in  the  upper  and  two  in  the 
lower  jaw.  At  five  years  old  the  horse  will 
have  a  full  or  complete  set  of  permanent 
teeth  in  the  upper  and  lower  jaws;  for  the 
same  change  that  takes  place  in  the  lower  is 
developed  in  the  upper  jaw  also.  The  colt 
at  this  age  takes  the  name  of  horse,  and  is 
supposed  to  be  equal  to  all  the  laborious 
duties  expected  from  him.  Although  we 
can  no  longer  judge  of  his  age  by  the  shift- 
ing or  shedding  of  his  teeth,  we  can  form  a 
tolerably  correct  conclusion  from  other  ap- 
pearances of  them.  At  six  years  old  the 
dark  oval-shaped  mark  in  the  centre  of  the 
two  front  nippers,  usually  called  by  horse- 
men "the  bean,"  will  be  nearly  or  quite 
worn  away  ;  the  tushes  higher  and  stronger, 
and  the  cavities  of  the  interior  part  of  the 
tooth  more  filled  ;  the  two  corner  nippers 
level  with  the  others,  and  equally  developed. 
At  seven  years  old  the  marks  in  the  second 
pair  of  nippers  are  filled  up,  and  the  tushes 
become  more  round  externally  and  inter- 
nally. At  eight  years  old  the  marks  in  the 
corner  nippers  are  worn  out,  and  the  tushes 
more  round  and  blunt.  From  this  age  the 
animal  is  said  to  be,  in  horse  phraseology, 
"  past  knowledge"  ;  and  although  a  tol- 
erably correct  opinion  may  be  formed  for 
many  years  to  come  by  the  appearance  of 
the  upper  jaw  and  other  prognostics,  still 
they  cannot  be  implicitly  relied  on.  It 
often  occurs  at  a  much  earlier  period  that 
the  best  judges  of  age  are  deceived  by  the 
untimely  structural  alteration  of  the  teeth, 
produced  by  mechanical  or  pathological 
causes,  such  as  crib-biting,  biting  the  rack 
or  manger,  eating  hard  food,  etc.  Horses 
used  for  cavalry  in  the   United  States  are 


selected  with  regard  to  climate,  the  Ameri- 
can horse  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
what  is  known  as  the  Mexican  or  bronco, 
west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  ;  the  power  of 
endurance  of  the  latter  being  much  more 
than  that  of  the  former,  they  are  better 
adapted  to  the  rugged,  arid  country  that  an 
American  cavalry  soldier  has  to  travel  over 
on  the  western  frontier.  For  artillery  large, 
strong  American  horses  are  used.  A  horse 
occupies  a  space  in  the  ranks  of  a  front  of 
40  inches,  a  depth  of  10  feet ;  in  a  stall,  from 
3.}  to  4.V  feet  front;  at  picket  3  feet  by  9. 
Cavalry  horses  usually  charge  at  the  rate  of 
24  miles  per  hour,  or  one  mile  in  2\  minutes. 
See  Pack  and  Draught  Horses. 

Horse  Guards.  The  name  was  applied  to 
a  large  public  ofiice  in  Whitehall,  London, 
appropriated  to  the  departments  under  the 
general-commanding-in-chief,  and  guarded 
by  a  squadron  of  Horse  Guards.  In  1871 
the  headquarters  were  removed  to  Pall 
Mall. 

Horse  Guards,  Royal  (Oxford  Blues). 
Is  the  third  heavy  cavalry  regiment  of  the 
Household  Brigade  (English).  The  regi- 
ment was  raised  in  1G61  from  the  remnants 
of  the  disbanded  army  of  the  late  Common- 
wealth. It  took  part  in  Marlborough's  cam- 
paigns ;  served  under  the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton in  the  Peninsula  and  at  Waterloo,  and 
has  always  been  considered  one  of  the  finest 
heavy  cavalry  corps  in  the  world. 

Horseman.     A  mounted  soldier. 

Horsemanship.  The  act  or  art  of  riding, 
and  of  training  and  managing  horses  ;  ma- 
nege. 

Horse-power.  A  measure  for  the  quan- 
tity of  work  of  which  an  engine  or  motor  is 
capable  in  a  given  time.  It  is  83,000  foot- 
pounds in  one  minute. 

Horse-shoe.  In  fortification,  is  a  small 
round  or  oval  work,  with  a  parapet ;  gen- 
erally made  in  a  ditch,  or  marsh. 

Horse-tail.  A  Turkish  standard.  Com- 
manders are  distinguished  by  the  number  of 
horse-tails  carried  before  them,  or  planted  in 
front  of  their  tents.  Thus,  the  sultan  has 
seven,  the  grand  vizier  five,  and  the  pashas 
three,  two,  or  one. 

Hospital.  A  place  appointed  for  the  sick 
and  wounded  men,  provided  with  physicians, 
surgeons,  nurses,  servants,  medicines,  beds, 
etc. 

Hospital,  Field.  Is  the  staff"  and  appara- 
tus for  the  surgical  treatment  of  the  wounded 
in  the  field,  and  the  locality  assigned  for  the 
resort  of  the  latter  to  obtain  it.  In  the 
United  States  there  is  a  hospital  at  every 
military  post,  under  the  superintendence  of 
the  army  medical  department. 

Hospital,  Regimental.  In  Great  Britain, 
each  regiment  has  a  hospital  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  sick  belonging  to  it.  This  hospi- 
tal is  under  the  immediate  care  of  the  regi- 
mental surgeon,  who  is  subordinate  to  the 
general  medical  board. 

Hospital  Steward.  In  the  U.  S.  ser- 
vice, is   a  non-commissioned   officer  of  the 


HOSPITAL 


229 


HOWITZER 


general  staff,  whose  duty  consists  in  making 
up  prescriptions,  administering  medicines, 
and  in  a  general  supervision  of  the  sick, 
under  the  instructions  of  an  army  medical 
ofllcer. 

Hospital  Tent.  A  large  tent  used  for 
hospilal  purpoi^es.     See  Tknt. 

Hospitallers.  A  celebrated  brotherhood 
foundeii  at  various  times  and  in  difterent 
countries  for  the  care  of  the  sick  in  hospitals. 
The  vow  to  devote  themselves  to  this  work 
of  mercy  is,  in  all  these  brotlierhoods,  super- 
added to  the  ordinary  vows  of  poverty,  chas- 
tity, and  obedience,  which  are  common  to  all 
the  religious  orders  in  the  Jioman  Catholic 
Church.  One  of  the  earliest  recorded  in- 
stances of  a  hosj)ital  served  by  such  a  brother- 
hood is  that  of  Constance,  in  the  13th  cen- 
tury. See  Saint  John  of  Jkrusalkm  and 
Tkutonic  Kniuhts. 

Hospodar.  A  title  borne  by  the  govern- 
ors of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia,  under  the 
Turks.  Althougli  nominated  by  the  porte, 
they  possessed  absolute  power  within  their 
own  dominions.  By  the  treaty  of  Adriano- 
plc  in  1829,  the  principalities  were  placed 
under  Kussian  protection,  and  from  that 
time  till  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  185G,  the  hos- 
podars  were  virtually  the  nominees  of  Kussia. 

Host.  An  army;  any  largo  body  of  men 
assembled  together  in  arms. 

Hostages.  Are  persons  given  in  pledge 
for  the  performance  of  conditions.  When  a 
town  capitulates,  victors  and  vanquished 
usually  give  into  the  custody,  one  of  the  other, 
several  officers,  as  pledges  that  each  party 
will  duly  carry  out  tlie  terms  stipulated. 
When  the  terms  are  fulfilled,  the  hostages  are 
exchanged;  but  if  the  terms  be  evaded,  the 
opposite  side  holds  the  right  to  put  to  death, 
or  otherwise  punish,  the  hostages  in  its  pos- 
session ;  of  late  years  the  practice  is  going 
out  of  use. 

Hostile.  Belonging  to  an  enemy  ;  appro- 
priate to  an  enemy  ;  showing  ill-will  and 
malevolence,  or  a  desire  to  thwart  and  injure  ; 
occupied  by  an  enemy  or  a  hostile  people  ; 
inimical;  unfriendly;  as,  a  hostile  force, 
hostile  country,  etc. 

Hostilities.  A  rupture  between  the  na- 
tives of  ditlerent  countries.  The  first  hostile 
act  tliat  is  committed  by  either  party  is  con- 
sidered the  commencement  of  hostilities. 
Between  nations,  the  first  act  of  hostility  pre- 
supposes a  declaration  of  war. 

Hosting.  An  encounter ;  a  battle.  A 
muster  or  review.  This  terra  is  now  obso- 
lete. 

Hot  Shot.  Shot  made  red-hot  for  the 
purpose  of  setting  fire  to  buildings,  shipping, 
etc.  The  charges  for  hot  shot  are  from  one- 
fourth  to  one-sixth  the  weight  of  the  shot 
With  small  velocities,  the  shot  splits  and 
snlinters  the  wood,  so  as  to  render  it  favor- 
aole  for  burning.  With  great  velocity  the 
ball  sinks  into  tiio  wood,  is  deprived  of  air 
by  the  closing  of  the  hole,  and  chars  instead 
or  burning  the  surrounding  wood.  It  should 
not  penetrate  deeper  than  10  or  12  inches. 


Ked-hot  balls  do  not  set  fire  to  the  wood 
until  some  time  after  their  penetration.  They 
retain  sufficient  heat  to  ignite  wood  after 
having  made  several  ricochets  upon  water. 
The  wads  for  hot  shot  should  be  made  of 
clay  or  hay,  the  latter  to  be  well  soaked  in 
water,  and  before  being  used,  the  water 
pressed  out  of  it.  With  proper  precautions 
in  loading,  the  ball  may  be  permitted  to  cool 
in  the  gun  without  igniting  the  charge. 
The  i)iece,  however,  should  be  fired  with  as 
little  delu}'  as  possible,  as  the  vajior  would 
diminish  the  strength  of  the  powder.  They 
are  heated  by  means  of  furnaces  erected  for 
the  purpose,  which  hold  si.vty  or  more  shot. 
The  shot  being  placed,  and  the  furnace  cold, 
it  requires  one  hour  and  fifteen  minutes  to 
heat  them  to  a  red  heat ;  but  after  the  fur- 
nance  is  once  heated,  a  24-pounder  shot  is 
brought  to  a  red  heat  in  twenty-five  minutes. 
Ked-tiol  shot  is  not  in  general  use. 

Hotchkiss   Projectile.     8ee  Pkojkctile. 

Hotchkiss  Revolving  Cannon.  Consists 
of  five  barrels  grouped  around  a  common 
axis  ;  they  are  revolved  in  front  of  a  solid 
breech-block,  which  has  in  one  part  an  open- 
ing to  introduce  the  cartridges,  and  another 
opening  through  which  to  extract  the  empty 
shells.  The  cartridges  are  fired  after  being 
revolved  and  while  motionless  in  front  of  the 
solid  portion  of  the  breech.  In  exterior  as- 
pect it  resembles  the  Gatling  gun,  but  is 
entirely  different  in  its  interior  mechanism. 
See  Machink  Guns. 

Hotchkiss  Rifle.     See  Magazine  Guns. 

H6tel  des  Invalides  (/*>.).  A  spacious 
building  which  was  erected  by  Louis  XIV. 
in  Paris,  upon  the  river  Seine,  as  a  public 
monument  of  his  charity  and  munificence. 
All  disabled,  infirm,  and  wounded  officers 
and  soldiers  were  received,  lodged,  and  sub- 
sisted during  the  remainder  of  their  lives 
within  its  walls. 

Hotte  (/-v.).  Asort  of  hand-basket,  which 
is  often  made  use  of  in  the  construction  of 
batteries  and  other  works,  and  serves  to  carry 
earth  from  one  place  to  another.  Hence  the 
word  hod,  a,  well-known  machine  for  carry- 
ing bricks. 

Hougines  (Fr.).  Parts  of  ancient  armor 
covering  the  thighs,  legs,  and  arms. 

Hounds.  Are  pieces  of  wood  used  in  the 
construction  of  limbers  for  gun-carriages  to 
connect  the  splinter-bar  with  the  axle. 

Hours  of  Sitting  (Courts-martial).  Seo 
Ari'KNDix,  Aktui.es  of  Wak,  94. 

Household  Troops.     See  Guakds. 

Housing.  Ci)ver  or  cloth  over  or  under  a 
horses  saddle  used  for  cleanliness,  or  as  an 
ornamental  or  military  appendage  ;  a  saddle- 
cloth ;  a  horse-cloth. 

Howitzer  (derived  by  Grimm  and  Littre 
from  the  Bohemian  haujnicc,  "catapult'"). 
A  short,  light  cannon,  having  a  chamber 
intended  to  throw  large  projeitile.s  with  com- 

t)aratively  small  charges.  A  liowitzer  is  of 
argcr  caliber  than  a  gun  of  like  weight;  is 
mounted  in  a  similar  manmr,  and  is  used 
for  shorter  ranges.     It  is  said  to  have  been 


HUALPAIS 


230 


HUNS 


first  introduced  by  the  Dutch  in  the  early 
part  of  the  17th  century,  and  soon  afterward 
came  into  almost  general  use.  The  Russians 
in  1777  introduced  the  licorne,  an  improved 
howitzer.  Howitzers  project  larger  shells 
than  guns  with  which  they  are  associated ; 
are  well  adapted  for  ricochet  fire,  the  de- 
struction of  field-works,  breaking  down 
palisades,  and  setting  fire  to  buildings  ;  and 
the  projectiles  used  are  shells,  spherical-case, 
canister,  grape,  and  carcasses.  Howitzers, 
except  for  siege  and  mountain  service,  are 
no  longer  manufactured  in  the  United  States, 
as  our  present  guns  are  equally  suitable  for 
shell-firing  in  field  or  garrison  service.  The 
ones  now  in  use  in  the  U.  S.  service  are 
8-inch  and  24-pounder  mountain  howitzers. 
The  former  is  used  for  siege  purposes,  and 
for  the  defense  of  ditches  in  fortifications. 
The  24-pounder  flank  defense  howitzer,  now 
out  of  use,  was  formerly  employed  for  this 
purpose.  The  8-inch  howitzer  has,  strictly 
speaking,  no  chamber  ;  the  bore  is,  however, 
terminated  by  a  semi-ellipsoid,  the  axis  being 
6  inches  in  length.  This  piece  weighs  2600 
pounds,  and  the  shell  (not  filled)  45  pounds. 
The  mountain  howitzer  (12-pounder)  is  a 
small,  light,  bronze  piece  about  3  feet  long, 
weighing  220  pounds,  capable  of  being  easily 
removed  from  its  carriage,  and  transported 
upon  the  back  of  a  mule.  The  shell  weighs, 
when  strapped  and  charged,  9.35  pounds, 
and  the  maximum  range  of  the  piece  is 
about  1000  yards.  There  are  two  distinct 
kinds  of  carriage  used  with  it,  one  similar 
to  the  carriage  of  the  ordinary  field-piece, 
but  smaller  and  lighter,  the  other  having 
four  wheels  and  called  the  prairie  carriage. 
This  piece  has  been  extensively  employed  in 
our  numerous  Indian  wars  upon  the  plains 
and  mountains  of  the  West,  and  has  done 
good  service. 

Hualpais,  or  Hualapais  Indians.  A 
tribe  of  aborigines  who  are  located  on  the 
Colorado  River  near  the  Mojaves. 

Hub.  The  hilt  of  a  weapon  ;  as,  to  drive 
a  dagger  into  a  body  up  to  the  hub. 

Hubbardton.  A  village  of  Rutland  Co., 
Vt.,  about  46  miles  south-southwest  of 
Montpelier.  Here  an  American  force  of 
three  regiments  of  Warner,  Francis,  and 
Hale,  numbering  about  1300,  were  defeated 
by  the  British  under  Col.  Eraser,  July  7, 
1777. 

Hubert,  St.,  Order  of.  The  highest  Ba- 
varian order  of  knighthood,  founded  in 
1444. 

Hubertsberg.  A  village  of  Saxony,  24 
miles  east  from  Leipsic.  The  treaty  of 
peace,  by  which  the  Seven  Years'  War  was 
ended,  was  signed  in  the  royal  castle  of  this 
place  in  1763. 

Hue  and  Cry.  In  Great  Britain,  an  ofli- 
cial  gazette,  which  serves  to  advertise  de- 
serters from  her  majesty's  service. 

Huguenots.  A  term  (derived  by  some 
from  the  German  Eidgenossen,  "  confeder- 
ates," by  others  from  Hugues,  a  Genevese 
Calvinist)  applied  to  the  Reformed  party  in 


France,  followers  of  Calvin.  They  took  up 
arms  against  their  persecutors  in  1561.  After 
a  delusive  edict  of  toleration,  a  great  num- 
ber were  massacred  at  Vassy,  March  1,  1562, 
when  the  civil  wars  began,  which  lasted 
with  some  intermission  till  the  edict  of 
Nantes  in  1598  (revoked  in  1685).  The  mas- 
sacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's  day,  August  24, 
1572,  occurred  during  a  truce. 

Huissier  d'Armes(Fr.).  TipstaflT;  an  offi- 
cer formerl}^  so  called  in  France,  who  was 
attached  to  the  royal  household.  They  were 
at  first  distinguished  by  the  name  of  se7-g ens 
d'armes,  or  sergeants-at-arms.  Some  were 
directed  to  bear  the  mace  before  the  king 
during  the  day,  and  obtained  on  that  ac- 
count the  appellation  of  huissie7-s  d'armes; 
in  later  times  they  were  called  the  huissiers, 
or  tipstafl's  of  the  king's  chamber.  Others 
kept  watch  in  the  king's  bed-chamber  during 
the  night,  and  were  sworn  to  expose  their 
lives  for  the  safety  of  his  person,  whence 
they  obtained  the  name  of  archers  de  la 
garde,  which  term  was  changed  to  gardes  du 
corps,  or  body-guards. 

Hulan.     See  Uhlan. 

Hull,  or  Kingston-upon-HuU.  A  sea- 
port town  of  England,  in  Yorkshire,  situ- 
ated on  the  great  inlet  of  the  Humber,  at 
the  point  where  it  is  entered  by  the  river 
Hull.  It  is  a  very  ancient  town  ;  during 
the  civil  war  it  declared  for  the  Parliament,  ' 
and  sustained  two  severe  sieges  by  the  roy- 
alists. 

Humaiti.  A  strong  post  on  the  river 
Paraguay,  defended  by  a  battery  of  300  can- 
non, and  believed  to  be  impregnable  by  Lo- 
pez, the  president  of  Paraguay  ;  was  forced 
by  the  Brazilian  ironclads  February  17, 1868. 
On  the  19th,  Caxias,  the  Brazilian  general, 
stormed  a  work  to  the  north  of  Humaita, 
and  captured  many  stores. 

Hungary.  A  portion  of  the  Austrian  em- 
pire. It  was  a  part  of  the  ancient  Pannonia 
and  Dacia;  was  subjected  to  the  Romans 
about  106,  and  retained  by  them  till  the  3d 
century,  when  it  was  seized  by  the  Goths, 
who  were  expelled  about  376  by  the  Huns, 
under  Attila.  After  his  death  in  453,  the 
Gepidae,  and  in  500  the  Lombards  held  the 
country.  It  was  acquired  by  the  Avars 
about  568,  and  retained  by  them  till  their 
destruction  by  Charlemagne  in  799.  About 
890  the  country  was  settled  by  a  Scythian 
tribe,  named  Vingours,  or  Ungri  (whence 
the  German  name  Ungarn),  and  the  Mag- 
yars of  Finnish  origin.  The  progress  of  the 
Magyars  westward  was  checked  by  their  de- 
feat by  the  emperor  Henry  the  Fowler,  934. 
After  various  changes  of  rulers  it  came  per- 
manently under  the  dominion  of  Austria  in 
1526.  A  revolution  took  place  in  Hungary 
in  1848  under  the  leadership  of  Kossuth. 

Huns.  The  name  of  a  considerable  na- 
tion of  antiquity,  which  from  time  to  time 
made  incursions  on  the  Roman  dominions, 
and  which  eventually,  under  Attila,  the 
most  renowned  of  its  leaders,  brought  in  the 
5th  century  the  Eastern  and  Western  em- 


HUNTERS 


231 


HYDRAULIC 


pires  to  the  verpe  of  destruction.  They 
were  originally  ot"  Asiatic  origin,  iind  prob- 
ably akin  to  the  Scythians  and  Turks.  In 
the  latter  part  of  the  4th  century  they  set- 
tled along  the  Danube,  in  the  territory  aban- 
doned by  the  Goths,  and  subsequently  they 
fressed  onward  towards  further  conquests, 
n  the  5th  century  they  had  acquired  con- 
Biderable  power,  but  after  Attila's  death  it 
was  broken.  Many  of  them  afterwards  took 
service  with  the  Romans ;  others  jt)ined  the 
invaders  from  the  north  and  east  that  were 
attacking  the  moribund  Roman  empire. 

Hunters,  Death-.  Followers  of  an  army, 
who,  after  an  engagement,  look  for  dead 
bodies  in  order  to  strip  them. 

Hurdices.  Ramjiart-s,  scatfolds,  fortifica- 
tions, etc. 

Hurdles.  In  fortification,  twigs  of  wil- 
low or  osiers,  interwoven  close  together,  and 
sustained  by  long  stakes.  They  are  made  in 
the  figure  of  a  parallelogram,  in  length  5  or 
6  feet,  in  breadth  3  or  3i.  The  closer  they 
are  wattled  together  the  better.  They  serve 
to  revet,  or  render  batteries  firm,  or  to  con- 
solidate the  passage  over  muddy  ditches ;  or 
to  cover  traverses  and  lodgments  for  the 
defense  of  the  workmen  against  the  fire- 
works. Hurdles  arc  constructed  in  nearly 
the  same  manner  as  gabions,  excepting  that 
the  pickets  are  placed  in  a  straight  line  in- 
stead of  a  circle. 

Hurkaru.  A  messenger  ;  one  who  brings 
intelligence  ;  a  scout. 

Hurl.  To  send  whirling  or  whizzing 
through  the  air;  to  throw  with  violence; 
to  drive  with  great  force  ;  as,  to  hurl  a  lance, 
«tc. 

Huron  Indians  (also  called  Wyandots). 
A  tribe  of  aborigines  now  almost  extinct, 
who  were  settled  in  Canada  and  in  a  part  of 
the  United  States.  Thev  fought  against  the 
United  States  in  the  war  of  1812-io. 

Hurst.  A  charge  in  heraldry  represent- 
ing a  small  group  of  trees,  generally  borne 
upon  a  mount  in  liase. 

Hurter,  or  Heurtoir.  A  square  beam 
placed  at  the  foot  of  a  parapet  where  there 
18  an  embrasure  to  prevent  the  wheels  of  the 
^un,  when  the  latter  is  run  up,  from  in- 
juring the  interior  slope.  A  short  fascine  or 
military  fagot  is  sometimes  substituted  for 
a  beam.  A  hurter  is  placed  on  the  front 
part  of  a  siege  platform,  under  the  wheels. 
The  motion  of  gun-carriages  is  checked, 
front  and  rear,  by  pieces  of  wood  or  iron 
bolted  to  the  top' rails  called  hurters  and 
counter-hurters. 

Hussar.  A  name  given  to  the  national 
cavalry  of  Hungary  aird  Croatia.  They  were 
first  raised  in  l4o8"  and  received  their  name 
either  from  the  method  in  which  they  were 
called  out,  or  from  the  Tartar  //sirnr, "which 
signifies  cavalry.  In  the  armies  of  modern 
Europe  hussars  are  light  horse,  and  difler 
from  light  dragoons  only  in  some  peculiari- 
ties of  dress  and  equipments. 

Hussites.  Is  the  name  of  the  followers 
of  Huss.     Immediately  after  his  martyrdom 


:  they  arose  in  Bohemia,  and  took  a  frightful 
1  revenge  on  the  priests,  monks,  and  ))relates 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.     M'ences- 
[  laus  succeeded,  however,  in  ai)peasing  the 
storm  by  granting  them  religious  freedom. 
But  when  the  king  died  in"l419,  and   the 
pope  issued  an  order  for  the  conversion  of 
the  Hussites   by  force,   a  civil  war   began. 
j  They  assembled  under  the  leadership  of  John 
:  Ziska,  on  ilount  Tabor,  captured   Prague, 
pillaged  and  burnt  the  momisteries,  and  de- 
feated at  Deutchbrod  in  1422,  and  in  several 
other  minor  encounters,  the  troops  of  Sigis- 
mund,    the   German    emperor   and    heir   of 
Wenceslaus.      Ziska  died   in    1424,  but  his 
successor,   Procopius,  a  former   monk,   was 
still    more  succe.-sful.      He   defeated    Sii^is- 
mund  at  Miess  and  Tachau,  and  carried  the 
war  into  Austria,   Bavaria,  Franconia,  and 
Saxony.     Meanwhile,  the  Hussites  had  sep- 
arated into  two  j)arties,  the  Taborites   and 
Calixtines.     In  the  beginning  they  acted  in 
perfect   concert  with  each   other.      But   in 
1433  the  Council  of  Basle  succeeded  in  com- 
ing to  an  agreement  with  the  Calixtines  and 
in    drawing    them  out   of   the  conte.-t;  the 
I  result  of  which  was  that  the  Taborites  were 
j  totally  defeated  at  Bomishbrod  in  1434.   Tol- 
I  eration  was  granted,  and  Sigismund  entered 
Prague,    August   23,    1430.     The    Hussites 
opposed  his  successor,  Albert  of  Austria,  and 
called  Casiniir  of  Poland  to  the  throne,  but 
were  defeated   in    1438.     A    portion   of  the 
Hussites  existed  in  the  time  of  Luther,  and 
were  called  "  Bohemian  Brethren." 

Hut.  Is  a  wooden  structure,  more  or  less 
rough  in  details,  for  the  housing  of  troops. 
It  is  substituted  very  often  for  the  tent, 
when  the  sojourn  in  a  camp  or  cantonment 
is  likely  to  be  of  consideration,  as,  for  in- 
stance, through  a  winter, — a  hut,  however 
rude,  which  is  wind-  and  water-tight,  being 
as  superior  in  comfort  to  a  tent  as  the  latter 
is  to  the  open  air.  Huts  may  be  made  of 
almost  any  size,  and  are  sometimes  for  one 
officer;  at  others  for  as  many  as  100  men. 
The  quarters  occupied  by  U.  S.  troops  on 
the  American  frontiers  are  very  frequently 
huts  made  by  the  troops. 

Huy.  A  town  of  Belgium,  18  miles 
southwest  from  Liege.  This  tt)wn  has  with- 
stood several  sieges.  Its  fortifications  were 
dismantled  in  1718,  but  in  1815  its  castle 
was  rebuilt. 

Hyccara  (now  Murodi  Carini).  A  town 
of  Sicani,  on  the  north  coast  of  Sicily,  west 
of  Panormus.  It  was  taken  by  the  Athe- 
nians and  plundered,  and  its  inhabitants 
sold  as  slaves,  415  B.C. 

Hydaspes.  A  river  in  India,  where 
Alexander  the  Great  defeated  Porus,  after  a 
severely  contested  engagement,  in  327  n.r. 

Hyd'er.  The  Arabic  term  for  lion.  This 
title  is  frequently  given  to  men  of  rank  in 
India. 

Hydraulic  Jack.  A  powerful  portable 
apparatus  for  moving  heavy  weights  through 
short  distances,  by  an  application  of  the 
principles  of  the  hydrostatic  press.     There 


HYDKAULIC 


232 


HTGROMETEK 


are  two  forms,  the  lifting-  and  piiUing-^&ck. 
Those  used  in  the  American  military  service 
are  of  30  tons  capacity. 

Hydraulic  Loading  Apparatus.  The 
apparatus  used  in  manoeuvring  heavy  turret- 
guns  in  the  English  navy,  invented  by  Mr. 
George  Eendel  (a  member  of  Sir  William 
Armstrong's  firm),  and  first  tested  in  the 
working  of  a  38-ton  gun  on  the  "Thun- 
derer." It  was  determined  to  similarly 
equip  the  "Inflexible,"  with  her  80-ton 
armament.  The  apparatus  was  thoroughly 
tested,  in  working  the  100-ton  guns  delivered 
to  the  Italian  government,  in  experiments 
at  Spezzia,  1876.  The  working  of  the  gun, 
including  all  the  operations  of  loading  and 
sponging,  is  efl"ected  by  means  of  hydraulic 
pumps,  which  are  all  operated  by  one  small 
steam-engine.  The  gun  is  placed  with  its 
trunnions  resting  on  two  heavy  blocks  of 
metal,  which,  being  retained  by  guides,  slide 
on  large  beams  or  girders  built  in  the  floor 
of  the  turret.  In  front  and  rear  of  the 
blocks  are  pistons,  working  in  cylinders  in 
the  direction  of  the  floor-beams.  These 
pistons,  under  the  influence  of  water-pressure, 
move  the  gun  in  and  out  of  battery.  The 
breech  is  raised  and  lowered  by  similar 
means.  When  the  gun  and  trunnion-blocks 
rush  back  under  the  impulse  of  the  recoil 
from  firing,  the  water  in  the  rear  cylinders  is 
forced  out  through  escape-valves,  which  are 
held  down  by  springs  under  a  tension  of  50 
atmospheres.  The  recoil  is  thus  checked 
in  the  space  of  3  or  4  feet.  If  a  larger 
charge  is  used  the  tension  of  the  springs 
can  be  increased.  The  springs  only  come 
into  play  in  resisting  the  desperate  force  of 
recoil.  The  water  pumped  into  the  cylinders 
(a  valve  at  the  rear  opening  outwards  being 
raised)  is  sufficient  to  run  the  gun  forward 
without  displacing  the  recoil-valves,  the 
working-pressure  required  being  less  than 
50  atmospheres. 

When  the  gun  is  to  be  loaded,  it  is  run 
forward  and  the  muzzle  depressed  till  it  is 
in  front  of  an  armored  hood,  which  shields 
an  iron  door  in  the  main  deck.  The  door 
slides  back,  a  sponge  appears  on  the  end  of  a 
stalf,  which  enters  the  bore  and  lengthens 
itself  like  a  telescope  till  the  bottom  is 
reached,  when,  in  obedience  to  the  touch  of 
a  valve,  a  flood  of  water  is  ejected  from  the 
sponge  to  extinguish  fire  and  wash  the  bore. 
The  shot  and  cartridge  next  appear,  lifted 
from  below  on  a  small  truck,  which  is  run 
out  on  a  trap-door.     The  cartridge  is  lifted 


in  front  of  the  muzzle,  the  sponge — now 
converted  into  a  rammer — pushes  it  a  short 
distance  into  the  gun,  is  then  withdrawn,  and 
when  the  shot  rises  pushes  both  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  bore.  The  sponge  is  then  with- 
drawn below  deck  and  the  trap  closes.  Each 
of  these  movements  is  effected  entirely  by 
water-pressure,  the  course  of  the  water  and 
the  corresponding  operation  being  deter- 
mined by  manipulating  the  proper  valve. 
The  power  is  supplied  by  a  small  steam- 
engine  specially  designed  for  the  purpose. 
When  no  manoeuvre  is  to  be  performed,  the 
engine  occupies  itself  in  pumping  water 
from  the  tank  against  the  recoil-valves. 
When  the  pressure  rises  above  50  atmos- 
pheres these  valves  allow  a  small  quantity 
to  escape,  which  runs  back  into  the  tank. 
The  engine  barely  moves  in  this  work. 
When  any  manoeuvre  is  to  be  performed, 
such  as  running  the  gun  forward,  a  handle 
is  touched,  the  cylinder-valves  open  a  passage 
to  the  water,  and,  the  enormous  resistance 
being  removed,  the  engine  rattles  with 
energy,  and  the  gun  moves  forward  as  by 
magic.  The  valve  being  closed  by  the  oper- 
ator, the  engine  returns  to  its  sisyphean 
labor  of  pumping  water  against  the  loaded 
valves  till  some  new  outlet  gives  it  a  specific 
task. 

Every  part  of  this  apparatus,  notwith- 
standing its  provisional  mounting,  worked 
perfectly  in  the  experiments  at  Spezzia. 

The  only  defect  in  the  principle  was  de- 
veloped by  the  bursting  of  one,  the  38-ton 
gun  of  the  "  Thunderer"  (January  2,  1879), 
which  was  worked  by  this  apparatus.  The 
disaster  has  been  generally  attributed  to  the 
presence  in  the  gun  of  a  double  charge  of 
both  shot  and  powder.  This  could  hardly 
have  occurred  in  hand-loading.  Steps  have 
been  taken  to  remedy  the  apparatus  in  this 
regard. 

Hygrometer.  An  instrument  for  meas- 
uring the  degree  of  moisture  of  the  atmos- 
phere. 

Hygrometer,  Daniell's.  A  form  of  hy- 
grometer consisting  of  a  bent  glass  tube  ter- 
minating in  two  bulbs,  the  one  covered  with 
muslin,  the  other  of  black  glass,  and  con- 
taining ether  and  a  thermometer.  Ether 
being  poured  on  the  muslin,  the  black  ball, 
cooled  by  the  evaporation  of  the  ether  within, 
is  soon  covered  with  dew,  at  which  moment 
the  receding  of  the  inclosed  thermometer, 
compared  with  that  of  another  in  the  air, 
gives  the  dew  point. 


lAPYDES 


233 


ILERDA 


I. 


lapydes.  A  warlike  and  biirbarous  peo- 
ple iti  the  iiurth  of  Illyricuiii,  between  the 
rivers  Arsia  and  Tedanius ;  were  a  mixed 
race,  partly  Illyrian  and  partly  Celtic,  who 
tattooed  their  bodies.  Thcj'  were  subdued 
by  Augustus.  Their  country  was  called 
laiydia. 

lazyges.  A  powerful  Sarmatian  people, 
who  orii^inally  dwelt  on  the  coast  of  the 
Pontus  Euxinus  and  the  Palus  M»otis  ;  but 
in  the  reign  of  Claudius  settled  near  the 
Quadi  in  Dacia,  in  the  country  bounded  by 
the  Danube,  the  Theiss,  and  the  Sarmatian 
Mountains.  The  lazyges  wore  in  close  alli- 
ance with  the  Quadi,  along  with  whom  they 
frequently  attacked  the  liomun  dominions, 
especially  Mcesia  and  Pannonia.  In  the  Gth 
century  they  were  conquered  by  the  Goths. 

Ice.  In  high  latitudes,  during  the  win- 
ter, rivers  arc  frequently  covered  with  ice  of 
sufficiuit  thickness  to  sustain  the  heaviest 
loads.'This  means  of  communication  should 
be  used  with  great  circumspection.  A 
change  of  temperature  may  not  only  sud-  | 
denly  destroy  this  natural  bridge,  but  ren- 
der the  river  impassable  by  any  method  for 
a  considerable  time  in  consequence  of  the 
floating  ice. 

The  thickness  of  ice  should  be,  to  allow 
fc'the  passage  of  infantry  in  single  file  on  a 
line  of  planks,  and  2  yards  apart,  2  inches  ; 
cavalry  or  light  guns,  with  intervals,  4 
inches;  12-pounder  field-pieces,  unlimbercd 
and  on  sleds,  5  inehes  ;  12-poundcr  field- 
pieces,  limbered  and  drawn  by  horses,  with 
intervals  between  pieces,  0  to  7  inches.  Ice 
when  10  to  12  inches  thick  bears  the  heaviest 
loads.  Two  tracks  of  planks  laid  on  the  ice 
for  the  carriage-wheels  to  run  on,  may  be 
employed  when  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  its 
strength,  or  the  wagon  may  be  transformed 
into  a  sort  of  sled  by  fastening  two  planks 
under  the  wheels. 

The  thickness  of  the  ice  may  be  increased, 
when  the  temperature  is  low  enough,  by 
throwing  water  on  it. 

When  the  river  is  frozen  on  each  side,  but 
open  in  the  middle  in  consequence  of  the 
velocity  of  the  current,  a  boom  stretched 
across  the  open  space  will  often  check  the 
velocity  sufficiently  to  cause  the  water  to 
freeze. 

Iceni.  A  British  tribe  which  inhabited 
chiefly  Suff'olk  and  Norfolk.  In  61,  headed 
by  Boadicea,  their  queen,  they  marched 
southwards  and  destroyed  Venilam,  Lon- 
don, and  other  places,  with  great  slaughter 
of  the  Komans,  but  were  defeated  by  Sueto- 
nius near  London,  and  their  queen  slain. 
16 


Ich  Dien.  I  serve;  the  motto  under  the 
plume  of  ostrich  feathers  found  in  the  hel- 
met of  the  king  of  Bohemia  after  he  was 
slain  at  the  battle  of  Crecy,  at  which  he 
served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  French  army, 
August  2(j,  1340.  Edward  the  Black  Prince, 
in  veneration  of  his  father,  J^dward  III., 
who  commanded  that  day,  though  the  prince 
won  the  battle,  adopted  this  motto,  which 
has  since  been  borne  with  the  featliers  by 
the  heirs  to  the  crown  of  England  ;  but  not 
as  prince  of  Wales,  which  many  have  erro- 
neously maintained. 

Ichnae,  or  Ischnse.  A  Greek  city  in  the 
north  of  Mesopotamia,  founded  by  the  Mace- 
donians ;  was  the  scene  of  the  first  battle 
between  Crassus  and  the  Parthians,  in  which 
the  former  gained  the  victory.  According 
to  Appian,  the  Parthians  soon  after  defeated 
the  Komans  near  the  same  spot. 

Ichnography.  The  plan  or  representa- 
tion of  the  length  and  breadth  of  a  fortifica- 
tion, the  distinct  parts  of  which  are  marked 
out  either  on  the  ground  itself,  or  on  paper. 
A  plan  upon  the  correct  principles  of  ich- 
nography represents  a  work  as  it  would  ap- 
pear if  it  were  leveled  to  its  foundations,  and 
shows  only  the  expanse  of  ground  on  which 
it  had  been  erected.  The  science  docs  not 
represent  either  the  elevation  or  the  differ- 
ent parts  belonging  to  a  fortification.  This 
properly  comes  under  the  title  "  profile," 
which  does  not,  however,  include  length. 

Iconium  (now  Konieh).  A  town  of  Asia 
Minor,  situated  on  the  shores  of  the  Lake 
Trogitis,  about  120  miles  inland  from  the 
Mediterranean.  In  ancient  times  it  was  fa- 
mous as  the  capital  of  Lycaonia,  and  from 
1087  to  1229  it  was  the  sea't  of  a  Soljuk  sul- 
tanate. In  December,  1832,  a  battle  was 
fought  here,  in  which  Ibrahim  Pasha  com- 
pletely defeated  the  Turkish  army. 

Idaho.  A  Territory  of  the  United  States, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  British  posses- 
sions, on  the  cast  by  Montana  and  Dakota, 
and  on  the  south  by  Nevada  and  Utah.  It 
was  organized  in  1803,  and  has  frequently 
been  the  scene  of  Indian  troubles. 

Idsted.  A  village  of  Selswick.  A  battle 
was  fought  here  in  1850,  between  the  Danes 
and  Schleswig-Holstcincrs,  in  which  the 
latter  were  defeated. 

Ignition  (Lat.  i(jnis,  "fire"').  The  act  of 
setting  fire  to,  or  of  taking  fire  ;  as  opposed 
to  combustion  or  burning,  which  is  a  conse- 
quence of  ignition.  By  ignition  of  gun- 
powder is  understood  the  setting  on  fire  of  a 
particular  point  of  the  charge. 

Ilerda  (now  Lerida).     A  town  of  the  Ilcr- 


ILLINOIS 


234 


IMPEDIMENTA 


getes,  in  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  situated 
on  a  height  above  the  river  Sicoris  (now 
Segre).  It  was  afterwards  a  Roman  colony, 
but  in  the  time  of  Ausonius  had  ceased  to  be 
a  place  of  importance.  It  v^as  here  that 
Africanus  and  Petreius,  the  legates  of  Pom- 
pey,  were  defeated  by  Ciesar,  49  B.C. 

Illinois.  One  of  the  Central  States  of  the 
United  States,  in  the  valley  of  the  Upper 
Mississippi,  and  one  of  the  most  fertile  in 
the  Union,  having  scarcely  any  soil  which 
is  uncultivable.  It  was  originally  settled 
by  the  French,  but  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
English  in  1763,  becoming  the  property  of 
the  United  States  at  the  Pievolution.  It  was 
organized  as  a  State  December  3,  1818,  and 
during  the  civil  war  was  a  staunch  supporter 
of  the  Union. 

Illinois  Indians.  A  confederacy  of  Indian 
tribes,  mostly  of  Algonkin  stock,  who  for- 
merly inhabited  the  State  now  known  by 
their  name.  Very  few  relics  of  these  tribes 
now  exist. 

Illustrious.  Conferring  lustre  or  honor  ; 
brilliant ;  renowned  ;  as,  illustrious  deeds  or 
titles. 

Illyricum,  or  Illyria.  Is  the  Eoman  name 
of  a  country  whose  limits  in  ancient  times 
varied  considerably.  It  was  inhabited  by  a 
savage  tribe,  who  were  much  addicted  to 
piracy  and  robbery.  In  359  B.C.  Philip  of 
Macedon  conquered  the  eastern  portion  of 
the  country,  now  Albania,  and  it  was  incor- 
porated with  Macedonia.  The  Illyrians 
were  brought  into  a  collision  with  the  Ro- 
mans on  account  of  their  piracy,  which  led 
to  their  subjugation  about  two  centuries  be- 
fore the  Christian  era.  They  made  numer- 
ous eftbrts  to  shake  off  the  Eoman  yoke,  but 
were  always  defeated,  and  the  country  be- 
came a  most  important  province  of  the  Ro- 
man empire,  comprising  the  territory  repre- 
sented in  modern  times  by  Croatia,  Dalma- 
tia,  Herzegovina,  Montenegro,  nearly  all 
Bosnia,  and  a  part  of  Albania.  On  the  di- 
vision of  the  Roman  empire,  it  shared  in  the 
vicissitudes  that  followed  that  act.  Adecree 
of  Napoleon,  on  October  14,  1809,  gave  the 
name  of  lUyrian  provinces  to  Carniola, 
Dalmatia,  and  other  countries  from  the 
Adriatic  Sea  to  the  Save,  then  belonging  to 
the  French  empire.  At  his  fall  these  pro- 
vinces were  united  as  a  kingdom  to  the  Aus- 
trian empire,  and  some  alterations  were 
made  in  its  boundaries,  especially  by  the 
restoration  to  Hungary  of  what  had  formerly 
belonged  to  it,  and  the  annexation  of  the 
whole  of  Carinthia. 

Ilmenau.  A  town  of  Saxe-Weimar,  on 
the  Ilm,  18  miles  west  from  Weimar.  A 
battle  was  fought  by  the  united  forces  of  the 
Russians  and  Saxons  against  the  Swedes 
near  this  town  in  1706. 

Imbannered.     Furnished  with  banners. 

Imbellic.  Not  warlike  or  martial.  This 
term  is  now  obsolete. 

Imbody.     See  Embody. 

Imbrued,  or  Embrued.  An  expression 
used  in  hei-aldry  to  signify  bloody,  or  drop- 


ping with  blood.     Weapons  thus  blazoned        ] 
are  drawn  with  drops  of  blood  falling  from 
them. 

Imeritia.  Formerly  an  independent 
Transcaucasian  territory,  now  part  of  the 
government  of  Kutais.  Its  history  as  an  in- 
dependent dominion  commenced  from  about 
the  beginning  of  the  15th  century,  and  was 
long  marked  by  internal  dissensions.  In 
1745,  Solomon  I.  was  proclaimed,  but  his 
nobles  revolting  shortly  after,  and  aided  by 
the  Turks,  dethroned  him.  Solomon  ap- 
plied for  help  to  Russia,  and  in  1769,  Count 
Todtlen,  at  the  head  of  a  Russian  force, 
entered  Emeritia,  restored  the  king,  and 
drove  back  the  Turks.  The  civil  dissensions 
of  this  province,  however,  continued,  and  at 
last,  in  1810,  after  having  long  acknowl- 
edged allegiance  to  Russia,  it  was  formally 
incorporated  in,  and  proclaimed  a  province 
of  that  empire. 

Immailed.  Wearing  mail  or  armor;  clad 
in  armor.     This  term  is  now  obsolete. 

Immartial.  Not  martial;  not  warlike. 
This  term  is  now  obsolete. 

Immortals.     In  antiquity,  the  name  of  a 
body  of  10,000  troops,  constituting  the  guard 
of  the  king  of  Persia  ;  so  called  because  they 
were  always  of  the  same  number  ;  for  as  soon 
as  any  of  them  died,  the  vacancy  was  im- 
mediately  filled    up.      They    were    distin-     ; 
guished   from  all  the  other   troops  by  the     I 
richness  of  their  armor,  and  still  more  by     ! 
their  braverj'.     The  same  term  was  applied 
to  the  life-guards  of  the  Roman  emperors. 

Imola.  A  fortified  town  of  Ravenna,  a 
province  of  Italy,  on  a  small  island  in  the 
river  Santerno ;  it  is  defended  by  a  strong 
castle.  This  town  was  founded  by  the  Lom- 
bards on  the  ruins  of  Forum  Cornelii,  de- 
stroyed by  Justinian,  and  was  afterwards 
successively  held  by  ditterent  chiefs  who 
ruled  in  Central  Italy.  Julius  II.  annexed 
it  to  the  States  of  the  Church,  but  it  was 
delivered  from  the  papal  yoke  when  Ra- 
venna declared  for  annexation  to  Sardinia 
in  1859. 

Impact.  In  gunnery,  the  single  instan- 
taneous blow  or  stroke  of  a  body  in  motion 
against  another  either  in  motion  or  at  rest. 

Impale.  In  heraldry,  to  arrange  two 
coats  of  arms  side  by  side  in  one  shield  di- 
vided per  pale.  It  is  usual  thus  to  exhibit 
the  conjoined  coats  of  husband  and  wife,  the 
husband's  arms  occupj'ing  the  dexter,  or 
right  side,  and  the  wife's  the  sinister,  or  left 
side,  of  the  escutcheon. 

Impedimenta.  The  accompaniments  to 
an  army  received  from  the  Romans  the 
name  of  impedimenta.  They  consist  in 
transportation  of  munitions,  equipments, 
provisions,  hospital  supplies,  tents,  engineer- 
ing tools,  bridge  equipage,  and  boats,  bag- 
gage, cooking  utensils,  etc.,  necessary  for  the 
use  of  an  army  moving  against  an  enemy. 
This  requires  the  use  of  large  numbers  of 
wagons  and  of  draught  animals,  or  sliip- 
ping,  and  necessarily  impedes  the  movement 
of  an  army.     See  Baggage. 


IMPENETRABLE 


235 


IMPLEMENTS 


Impenetrable.  Incapable  of  bein^  pene- 
trated or  pierced,  not  admitting- the  passage 
of  otlicr  l)i)dies,  not  to  be  entered  ;  as,  an  ini- 
peiu'trabie  shield. 

Imperator.  An  old  Roman  title  signify- 
ing cuimnander,  which  was  applied  to  the 
rulers  of  provinces,  consuls,  pro-consuls,  etc., 
or  to  anybody  who  had  an  imprrinm  as- 
sigrled  him.  After  a  victory  the  Roman 
soldiers  frequently  saluted  their  commander 
by  this  tith;. 

Imperial    Guards.      See    Guards,    Im- 

rKlUAI.. 

Imperialists.  This  word  was  chiefly  ap- 
plied to  the  subjects  of,  or  forces  employed 
by  the  house  of  Austria,  when  opposed  to 
the  troops  of  other  German  powers. 

Imperil.     To  bring  into  peril,  to  endanger. 

Impetuous.  Rushing  with  force  and  vio- 
lence, moving  with  impetus,  furious, forcible; 
as,  the  troops  went  pouring  forward  with  im- 
petuous speed. 

Impetus.  In  gunnery,  the  altitude 
through  which  a  heavy  body  must  fall  to 
acquire  a  velocity  equal  to  that  with  which 
a  ball  is  discharged  from  a  piece. 

Implement.  Whatever  may  supply  a 
want,  especially  an  instrument  or  utensil  as 
supplying  a  requisite  to  an  end ;  as,  the  im- 
plements of  war. 

Implements,  Equipments,  and  Ma- 
chines. In  artillery,  tin;  two  former  are 
employed  in  loading,  jiointing,  and  tiring 
cannon,  and  in  the  mechanical  manceuvres 
of  artillery  carriages,  the  latter  to  mount 
and  dismount  cannon  from  their  carriages, 
and  to  transport  artillery  material  from  one 
part  of  a  work  to  another.  The  implements 
for  loading  cannon  are,  (1)  The  rammer- 
heiul,  a  short  cylindrical  piece  of  beech  or 
other  tough  wood,  fixed  to  the  end  of  a  long 
stick  of  ash,  called  a  staff,  employed  to  push 
the  charge  to  its  place  in  the  bore  or  chamber 
of  a  cannon.  (2)  The  sponije,  a  woolen  brush 
attached  to  the  end  of  a  statt",  for  the  pur- 
pose of  cleaning  the  interior  of  cannon  and 
extinguishing  any  burning  frajjjmcnts  of  the 
cartridge  that  may  remain  after  tiring.  In 
the  field  and  mountain  services,  the  rammer- 
head  and  sponge  are  attached  to  the  opposite 
ends  of  the  same  shaft;  in  the  siege  and 
sea-coast  services,  they  are  attached  to  sepa- 
rate staves,  except  for  howitzers,  in  which 
they  are  combined.  (3)  The  ladle,  a  copper 
scoop  attached  to  the  end  of  a  staff'  for  the 
purpose  of  withdrawing  the  projectile  of  a 
loaded  piece.  (4)  The  ivorm,  a  species  of 
double  cork-screw  attached  to  a  start",  used  in 
field  and  siege  cannon  to  withdraw  a  car- 
tridge. (5)  The  fliinner's  haversack  (which 
sec).  (0)  The  pass-liox,  a  wooden  box  closed 
with  a  lid  and  carried  by  a  handle  attached 
to  one  end.  In  siege  and  sea-coast  service, 
where  the  cartridge  is  large,  it  takes  the 
place  of  the  haversack.  (7)  The  iube-pouch 
or  vrimer-pouch,  a  small  leather  pouch  at- 
tached to  the  cannoneer  bv  a  waistbelt.  It 
contains  the  friction-tubes,  lanyard,  priming- 
Wire,  thumb-stall,  etc.     (8)  The  bmlje-barrcl 


(which  see).  (9)  The  priminff-wire,  used  to 
pick  a  hole  in  a  cartridge  for  the  passage  of 
the  Hume  from  the  vent.  (10)  The  tfaimb- 
stull,  a  buckskin  cushion  attached  to  the 
thumb  or  finger  to  close  the  vent  in  sponging 
and  loading.  (11)  The  fuze-setter,  a  brass 
drift  for  driving  a  wooden  fuze  into  a  shell. 
(12)  Thefuze-mallef,  made  of  hard  wood,  and 
used  in  connection  with  the  setter.  (13) 
The  fuze-saiv,  a  10-inch  tenon  saw  for  cutting 
wooden  or  paper  fuzes  to  the  required  length. 
(14)  The  fuzc-c/iinlet,  sometimes  employed 
in  place  of  the  saw  to  open  a  communication 
with  the  fuze  composition,  (lo)  The  fuze- 
aiif/rr,  an  instrument  for  regulating  the  time 
of  burning  of  a  fuze  by  removing  a  certain 
portion  of  the  composition  from  the  exterior. 
For  this  purpose  it  has  a  movable  graduated 
scale,  which  regulates  the  depth  to  which 
the  auger  should  penetrate.  (10)  The  fuze- 
rasp,  a  coarse  file  employed  in  fitting  a  fuze- 
plug  to  a  shell.  (17)  The /uze-pluf/  reamer, 
used  to  enlarge  the  cavity  of  a  fuze-plug 
after  it  has  been  driven  into  a  projectile,  to 
enable  it  to  receive  a  ])aper  fuze.  (18)  The 
shell-plug  screw,  a  wood  screw  with  a  handle, 
used  to  extract  a  plug  from  a  fuze-hole. 
(19)  The  fuze-extractor,  worked  by  a  screw, 
and  is  a  more  powerful  instrument  than  the 
preceding;  it  is  used  for  extracting  wooden 
fuzes  from  loaded  shells.  (20)  The  fuze- 
rcrcnch,  made  in  the  form  of  a  cross  or  T- 
shaped,  to  unscrew  percussion  fuzes.  (21) 
The  mortar-scraper,  a  slender  piece  of  iron 
with  a  spoon  at  one  end  and  a  scraper  at  the 
other,  for  cleaning  the  chamber  of  a  mortar. 
(22)  The  gunner's  sleeves,  made  of  flannel 
or  serge ;  they  are  drawn  over  the  coat- 
sleeves  of  the  gunner  to  prevent  them  from 
being  soiled  while  loading  a  mortar.  (23) 
The  fuutu'l,  made  of  copper,  and  used  in 
pouring  the  bursting  charge  into  a  shell. 
(24)  The  powdcr-nicasnrcs,  made  of  copper, 
of  cylindrical  form,  and  of  various  sizes, 
for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  charges 
of  shells  and  cannon  by  measurement.  (25) 
The  lani/anl,  a  cord,  one  end  of  which  has 
a  small  iron  hook,  and  the  other  a  wooden 
handle.  It  is  used  to  explode  the  friction- 
tubes  with  which  cannon  for  the  land  ser- 
vice are  now  fired.  (2(5)  The  gunner's  gimlet 
and  vent-punch,  used  in  boring  out  the  vent 
when  it  becomes  foul.  (27)  Gunner's  pin- 
cers (which  see).  (28)  The  shell-hooks,  an 
instrument  made  to  fasten  into  the  ears  of  a 
shell,  for  the  purpose  of  lifting  it  to  the 
muzzle  of  the  piece.  (29)  The  itpw-hook,  in 
field  service,  used  in  unpacking  ammunition 
and  taking  projectiles  from  the  chest.  The 
implements  for  pointing  are:  the  gunner's 
level,  gunner's  quadrant,  the  breech-sight,  the 
prndutuni-hausse,  and  elevating  arc.  (See 
appropriate  headings.)  The  tangent-scaU,  a 
brass  plate,  the  lower  edge  of  which  is  cut 
to  the  curve  of  the  base-ring  of  the  piece, 
and  the  up]>or  fi>rmed  into  olTscts  which  cor- 
respond to  diflferenccs  of  elevation  of  a  quar- 
ter of  a  degree."  It  is  used  in  pointing  by 
placing  the  curved  edge  on  the  base-ring, 


IMPLEMENTS 


236 


INCENDIAEY 


with  the  radius  of  the  oflset  corresponding 
with  the  highest  point  of  the  ring,  and 
sighting  over  the  centre  of  the  offset,  and 
the  highest  point  of  the  swell  of  the  muzzle. 
The  principal  manoeuvring  implements  are: 
the  trail  handspike,  the  vianamvring  hand- 
spike, the  shod  handspike,  the  truck  hand- 
spike, the  roller  handsj^ike  (see  Handspike)  ; 
the  prolo7ige,  a  stout  rope  used  to  connect 
the  lunette  of  the  carriage  and  pintle-hook 
of  the  limber  to  move  the  piece  short  dis- 
tances without  limber;  the  sponge-bucket, 
made  of  sheet-iron,  for  washing  the  bore  of 
the  piece  ;  the  tar-bucket,  also  made  of  sheet- 
iron,  for  carrying  grease  for  the  wheels ;  the 
ivatering  bucket,  made  of  sole-leather,  for 
watering  the  horses  ;  the  vjnter-buckets,  made 
of  wood  and  bound  with  iron  hoops.  These 
are  of  two  kinds,— one  for  the  traveling- 
forge,  and  the  other  for  the  service  of  gar- 
rison batteries.  The  drag-rope,  used  when 
necessary  to  employ  a  number  of  men  in 
hauling  loads,  or  extricating  a  carriage  from 
a  difficult  part  of  the  road.  It  has  a  hook 
at  one  end,  a  loop  at  the  other,  and  six 
wooden  handles  placed  about  4  feet  apart. 
The  men's  harness,  similar  to  the  drag-rope, 
except  that  the  rope  is  stouter,  and  the 
handles  are  replaced  by  leather  loops  which 
pass  over  the  shoulders  of  the  men,  to  en- 
able them  to  exert  their  strength  to  advan- 
tage. The  bill-hook,  or  hand-bill,  used  for 
cutting  twigs.  The  screw-jack,  a  lifting- 
machine  composed  of  a  screw  worked  bj'  a 
movable  7iut  supported  on  a  cast-ii'on  stand. 
It  is  used  in  greasing  carriage-wheels.  Ar- 
tillery machines  comprise  ihe  gin  (see  Gin), 
the  sling-cart  (see  Hand-sling-cart),  the 
caseynate  truck,  the  hand-cart  (see  Hand- 
cart), the  lifting-jack,  and  the  lever-jack. 
The  casemate  truck  is  composed  of  a  stout 
frame  of  wood  mounted  on  three  barbette 
traverse-wheels,  and  is  employed  to  move 
cannon  and  carriages  through  posterns  and 
along  casemate  galleries.  The  lifting-jack 
is  a  small  but  powerful  screw,  worked  by  a 
geared  nut.  It  is  useful  when  the  space  for 
manoeuvring  is  small,  and  the  number  of 
men  limited.  If  the  weight  to  be  raised  is 
sv^fficiently  high,  the  lifting  power  is  applied 
at  the  top ;  if  it  be  low,  it  is  applied  at  the 
foot.  The  lever-jack  is  another  but  less 
powerful  apparatus  for  lifting.  It  consists 
of  a  lever  of  wood  resting  on  a  bolt,  which 
passes  through  holes  in  two  uprights.  The 
height  of  the  bolt  is  varied  by  passing  it 
through  diflerent  holes  in  the  uprights  (eight 
in  number),  and  the  power  of  the  lever  is 
regulated  by  a  notched  piece  of  cast  iron 
screwed  to  the  under  side  of  the  lever. 

Implements,  Re-loading,  See  Ke-load- 
■ING  Implements. 

Impregnable.  Not  to  be  stormed,  or  taken 
by  assault;  incapable  of  being  reduced  by 
force  ;  able  successfully  to  resist  attack  ;  as, 
an  impregnable  fortress. 

Impregnably.  In  an  impregnable  man- 
ner ;  in  a  manner  to  defy  force  ;  as,  a  place 
impregnably  fortified. 


Impress.     To  compel  any  person  to  serve. 

Impression.  The  effect  of  an  attack  upon 
any  place  or  body  of  soldiers. 

imprisonment.  Officers  may  be  sentenced 
to  imprisonment  by  a  general  court-martial 
in  any  case  where  the  court  may  have  discre- 
tionary authority.  General,  garrison,  and 
regimental  courts-martial  may  sentence  sol- 
diers to  imprisonment,  solitary  or  otherwise, 
with  or  without  hard  labor,  for  various  of- 
fenses enumerated  in  the  Articles  of  War.  A 
garrison  or  regimental  court-martial,  in 
awarding  imprisonment,  is  limited  to  a  pe- 
riod not  exceeding  thirty  days.  When  a 
court  awards  solitary  imprisonment  as  a  pun- 
ishment, it  is  necessary  that  the  words  "soli- 
tary confinement"  should  be  expressed  in  the 
sentence.  The  legal  imprisonment  in  the 
United  States  is  confinement,  solitary  con- 
finement, and  confinement  on  bread  and 
water  ;  confinement  on  bread  and  water  shall 
not  extend  over  fourteen  days  at  a  time,  with 
intervals  between  the  periods  of  such  con- 
finement not  less  than  such  periods,  and  not 
exceeding  eighty-four  days  in  any  one  year. 

Impulse.  The  act  of  impelling,  or  driv- 
ing onward  with  sudden  force;  impulsion; 
the  action  of  a  force  so  as  to  produce  motion 
suddenly,  or  without  appreciable  loss  of  time. 
Also  sudden  motion  exciting  to  action  ;  hasty 
inclination ;  infiuence  acting  unexpectedly, 
or  with  momentary  force ;  impression  ;  in- 
stigation ;  as,  the  troops  moved  forward  with 
one  impulse. 

In  Battery.  The  position  of  field-guns 
when  unlimbered  and  prepared  for  action. 
Also  applied  to  heavy  guns  when  in  the 
firing  position  ;  also  the  command  for  the 
movement  in  both  cases.  Heavy  guns  are 
"from  battery"  when  in  the  loading  posi- 
tion. 

In  Gear.  A  command  in  the  service  of 
heavy  guns,  to  cause  the  eccentrics  of  the 
truck-wheels  to  be  thrown  in  gear.  Also 
refers  to  the  position  of  the  eccentrics  when 
the  command  is  executed. 

In  Line.  Kefers  to  the  formation  of 
troops  when  posted,  or  marching,  with  ex- 
tended front. 

Inaccessible.  A  general  term  for  any 
distance  or  height  which  cannot  be  ap- 
proached for  any  military  purposes. 

Inactive.  Not  disposed  to  action  or  effort ; 
not  diligent  or  industrious  ;  not  busy;  idle; 
as,  an  inactive  officer. 

Inca.  A  king  or  prince  of  Peru,  before 
the  conquest  of  that  country  by  the  Span- 
iards. 

Incapable.  A  term  of  disgrace,  frequently 
annexed  to  military  sentences,  when  an  offi- 
cer has  been  cashiered  by  the  sentence  of  a 
general  court-martial,  and  rendered  incapa- 
ble of  ever  serving  his  country  in  either  a 
civil  or  military  capacity. 

Incendiary  Compositions.  Used  to  set 
fire  to  buildings,  shipping,  etc.,  Jiave  been 
known  and  used  from  the  earliest  times. 
Greek  fire  (which  see)  was  extensively  used 
in  the  7th  century.     Among  modern  incen- 


INCENDIARY 


237 


INDIAN 


diary  compositions  are  fire  stone,  sometimes 
culled  rock  fire,  and  Valenciennes  composition 
(which  sec). 

Incendiary  Shells.  Are  shells  containing 
inceiKliiiry  coin]i<).-,itions.  Sec  Carcass  for 
modern  example. 

Incensed,  or  Anim6.  An  epithet  applred 
ill  heraldry  to  panthers  or  other  wild  beasts 
borne  with  flames  issuing  from  their  mouth 
and  tais. 

Incidence,  Angle  of.  In  projectiles,  the 
angle  which  the  line  of  direction  of  the  pro- 
jectile makes  with  the  surface  of  the  obstacle 
on  which  it  impinges. 

Inclination.  In  gunnery,  the  inclination 
of  a  plane  is  the  angle  it  makes  with  the 
hori/.tin  either  above  or  below. 

Inclination  of  the  Grooves.  In  a  rifle  is 
the  angle  which  the  tangent  to  the  groove  at 
any  jioiiit  makes  witli  the  element  of  the 
bore  passing  through  the  point.  The  tan- 
gent of  the  angle,  which  may  be  taken  as  a 
measure  of  the  inclination,  is  equal  to  the 
circumference  of  the  bore  divided  b)'  the 
length  of  bore  corresponding  to  one  revolu- 
tion of  the  spiral.     See  Twist. 

Incline.  To  gain  ground  to  the  flank,  as 
well  as  to  the  front.  Inclining  is  of  great 
use  in  the  marching  of  tlie  line  in  front,  to 
correct  any  irregularities  that  may  happen. 
It  is  c(|uivalent  to  the  quarter  facing  and  to 
the  oblique  marching  of  the  infantry.  It 
enables  you  to  gain  the  enemy's  flank  with- 
out exposing  your  own,  or  without  wheel- 
ing or  altering  the  parallel  front  of  the  com- 
pany. 

Inclose.  To  surround;  to  shut  in;  to 
eontine  on  all  sides;  to  include;  to  shut  up  ; 
to  encompass;  as,  to  incK)se  a  ft>rt  or  an 
army  with  troops ;  to  inclose  a  town  with 
walls. 

Incommoder  I'Ennemi  (Fr.).  To  get 
possession  of  a  fort,  eminence,  etc.,  from 
which  the  enemy  may  be  harassed,  or  which 
is  necessary  to  his  security. 

Incompetent.  Incapable;  unfit;  unequal. 
No  officer,  be  bis  situation  what  it  may,  can 
be  said  to  b<!  competent  to  command  who  is 
not  only  willing  and  able  to  follow  orders 
himself,  but  will  likewise  see  them  strictly 
adhered  to  by  others  ;  whose  mind  is  not  su- 
perior to  partialities,  and  whose  judgment  is 
not  equal  to  discern  real  merit  from  ignorant 
assumption. 

Incorporate,  To.  To  add  a  smaller  bod}' 
of  forces  to  a  larger,  and  to  mix  them  to- 
eethor.  Independent  companies  are  said  to 
be  incorporated,  when  they  are  distributed 
nmoiig  different  regiments  ;  regiments  among 
brigades,  etc. 

Incorporation.  In  the  manufacture  of 
gunjiowder.  is  the  thorough  mixing  of  the 
three  ingredients — nitre,  sulphur,  and  char- 
coal,— a  verv  important  operation.  The  pro- 
cess should  W  so  complete  that  the  smallest 
particle  of  the  gunpowder  should  contain 
each  ingredient  in  proper  proportion. 

Increasing  Twist.  A  term  applied  to  rifle 
grooves,  the  inclination  of  which  increases 


from  the  breech  to  the  muzzle.  In  many 
guns  the  grooves  begin  at  the  front  of  the 
chamber,  without  inclination. 

Incursion.  Invu.sion  without  conquest ; 
inroad  ;   ravage. 

Indefensible.  Not  defensible  ;  not  capa- 
ble of  being  defended  or  maintained;  as,  a 
military  post  may  be  indefensible. 

Indefensive.     Having  no  defense. 

Indella.  A  bndy  of  Swedish  yeomen  fur- 
nished by  certain  proprietors  of  lands,  after 
the  manner  of  the  old  Norman  feudal  sys- 
tem. 

Indemnification.  A  regulated  allowance 
for  losses  sustained  by  officers  or  soldiers  on 
actual  service. 

Indemnity.  Indemnification,  compensa- 
tion, or  renumcration  for  loss,  damage,  or 
injury  sustained. 

Indent,  To.  A  word  particularly  made 
use  of  in  India  for  the  dispatch  of  military 
business.  It  is  of  the  same  import  and  mean- 
ing as  to  draw  upon.  It  likewise  means  an 
order  for  military  stores,  arms,  etc. ;  as,  an 
indent  for  new  supplies,  etc. 

Indented.  In  heraldry,  one  of  the  par- 
tition lines  of  the  shield,  similarly  notched 
to  dancette,  but  with  notches  much  smaller, 
and  not  limited  in  number. 

Indented  Line.  In  fortification,  is  a  ser- 
rated line,  forming  several  angles,  so  that 
one  side  defends  another.  The  faces  are 
longer  than  the  flanks.  Indented  lines  are 
used  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  where  thej*  enter 
a  town.  The  parapet  of  the  covered  way  is 
also  often  indented. 

Independence,  Declaration  of.  The  sol- 
emn declaration  of  tIieCongre>s  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  on  .luly  4,  ITTtJ,  by  which 
they  formally  renounced  their  subjection  to 
the  government  of  Great  Britain. 

Independent.  In  a  military  sense,  is  a 
term  which  distinguishes  from  the  rest  of 
the  army  those  companies  which  have  been 
raised  by  individuals  for  rank,  and  were 
afterwards  drafted  into  corps  that  were  short 
of  their  complement  of  men.  Independent 
compaui/  or  troop,  is  one  that  is  not  incorpo- 
rated into  any  regiment. 

India,  or  Hindostan.  An  extensive  region 
of  Southern  Asia,  celebrated  during  many 
ages  for  its  riches  and  natural  productions. 
The  Hindoo  histories  ascribe  the  origin  of 
the  people  to  a  period  ages  before  the  ordi- 
nary chronologies.  A  race  of  kings  is  men- 
tioned as  reigning  2300  n.c.  Several  ancient 
nations,  particularly  the  Tyrians  and  Egypt- 
ians, carried  on  commerce  with  India.  It 
was  partially  conquered  by  Darius  Hystas- 
pes,  who  formed  an  Indian  satrapy,  512  H.c, 
and  by  Alexander,  327  n.c  The  authentic 
history  of  Hindostan  commences  with  the 
conquests  of  Mahmoud  Ghu/.ni,  1004.  For 
further  history  of  India,  see  Bengal,  Cal- 
cutta. ^Iadras,  etc. 

Indian  File.  Single  file;  arrangement  of 
persons  in  a  row  following  one  after  another ; 
the  usual  way  among  Indians  of  traversing 
woods,  etc. 


INDIAN 


238 


INDIANS 


Indian  Fortification.  The  entrance  into 
an  East  Indian  fortification  is  through  a 
large  and  complicated  pile  of  buildings,  pro- 
jecting in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram  from 
the  main  rampart;  and,  if  the  city  has  two 
walls,  it  projects  beyond  them  both.  This 
building  consists  of  several  continued  ter- 
races, which  are  of  the  same  height  as  the 
main  rampart,  and  communicate  with  it ; 
the  inward  walls  of  these  terraces  form  the 
.^ides  of  an  intricate  passage,  about  20  feet 
broad,  which  leads  by  various  short  turn- 
ings, at  right  angles,  through  the  whole  pile 
to  the  principal  gate  that  stands  in  the  main 
rampart.  This  is  the  general  outline  of  the 
old  Indian  fortifications. 

Indian  Military  Force.  The  East  Indian 
military  service,  like  the  civil  service,  has 
been  undergoing  a  thorough  reorganization, 
consequent  on  the  great  mutiny,  and  the 
transfer  of  the  government  of  the  country 
from  the  East  India  Company  to  the  crown. 
In  1857,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  mutiny,  the 
Indian  army  consisted  of  about  277.000  men, 
of  whom  45,000  were  Europeans  and  232,000 
natives.  During  the  mutiny  the  native  army 
of  Bengal  was  almost  entirely  broken  up. 
Fifteen  regiments  of  regular  native  infantry, 
the  local  infantry,  the  Gurka  and  irregular 
line  regiments,  eight  regiments  of  irregular 
cavalry,  and  the  sappers  and  miners,  were 
all  that  remained  at  the  close  of  18G0  of  the 
old  native  army  of  Bengal.  The  Indian 
army  in  1867  numbered  183,148  men  ;  61,498 
being  Europeans,  and  121,650  Indian  forces. 
The  police,  civil  and  military,  forms  an  im- 
portant force,  and  is  to  a  great  extent  taking 
the  place  of  the  regular  army.  In  Bengal, 
for  instance,  the  military  police  includes  ten 
battalions  of  infsmtry,  each  700strong  ;  three 
squadrons  of  cavalry,  and  some  local  levies  ; 
in  all  about  10,000  men,  of  various  races, 
with  40  European  officers.  The  whole  police 
force  of  India  has  been  reorganized  on  one 
uniform  system,  with  a  central  organization 
of  its  own  in  each  presidency. 

Indian  Territory.  A  large  extent  of  ter- 
ritory,, which  originally  belonged  to  the 
Louisiana  purchase,  lying  north  by  west 
of  that  State.  It  was  set  apart  for  the  use 
of  Indians,  many  tribes  of  whom  have  from 
time  to  time  been  removed  to  it,  and  have 
wonderfully  improved  in  the  arts  of  civil- 
ized life. 

Indiana.  One  of  the  Western  States,  and 
a  portion  of  the  great  Mississippi  Valley 
country.  It  was  settled  in  the  early  part  of 
the  18th  century  by  the  French  ;  was  subse- 
quently ceded  to  the  English,  and  after  the 
lievolution  passed  into  the  possession  of  the 
United  States.  The  early  settlers  were  for 
a  long  time  troubled  by  the  incursions  of  the 
Indians ;  but  after  their  signal  defeat  by 
Gen.  Harrison  at  Tippecanoe,  November  7, 
1811,  they  were  soon  afterwards  subdued, 
and  became  peaceable.  Indiana  was  admitted 
as  a  State  in  1816,  and  during  the  civil  war 
contributed  its  full  quota  of  troops  to  the 
support  of  the  Union. 


Indians.    The  name  by  which  the  various 
tribes  of  aborigines  scattered  over  the  exten- 
sive continent  of  America  are  distinguished. 
They  are  divided  into  numerous  tribes  and 
nations,  all  in   a  state  more  or  less  savage, 
and  having  all  the  peculiar  characteristics 
of  that  kind  of  life.     They  generally  decline 
as  the  civilized  population  advances  into  the       I 
country  ;  though  reservations  of  land  have 
always  been  set  apart  by  the  U.  S.  govern- 
ment  for   the  support  of  tribes  within  its 
territory.    (See  Indians  and  their  Agen- 
cies.)    A  short  description  of  the  most  im-       I 
portant  tribes  will  be  found  under  appro-       ' 
priate  headings  in  this  work. 

Indians  and  their  Agencies.  The  follow- 
ing are  the  distribution  and  population  of 
the  Indians  in  the  United  States,  taken  from 
the  Keport  of  the  Commissioner  of  Indian 
Affiiirs,  1876  : 

Arizona,  Colorado  River  Agency:  Mo- 
javes,  820;  Chemehuevis,  320;  Hualapais 
(not  on  reservation),  620;  Coahuilas  (not 
on  reservation),  150;  Cocopas  (not  on  res- 
ervation), 180.  Moquis  Pueblo  Agency :  Mo- 
quis  Pueblos,  1700.  Puna  and  Maricopa 
Agency :  Papagos,  about  5000 ;  Pimas,  4100  ; 
Maricopas,  400.  Snn  Carlos  Agency :  Pinal 
and  Aribaipa  Apaches,  1051 ;  Chiricahua 
Apaches,  297  ;  Mojave  Apaches,  618  ;  Yuma 
Apaches,  352;  Tonto  Apaches,  629  ;  Coyo- 
tero  Apaches,  1612.  Indians  in  Arizona  not 
under  an  agent :   Yumas,  930 ;  Mojaves,  700. 

California,  Hoopa  Valley  Agency :  Hoo- 
pas,  511;  Kedwoods,  12;  Siahs,  13;  Kla- 
maths,  44.  Round  Valley  Agency  (192  not 
on  reservation) :  Potter  Vallej',  307  ;  Ukie, 
197;  Pitt  Eiver,  60;  Bed  Wood,  94;  Wy- 
lackie,  172;  Con  Cowe,  148  ;  Little  Lake,  166. 
Tide  River  Agency:  Tules,  Tejons,  Wach- 
amnis,  Kweahs,  King's  Kiver,  and  Mana- 
ches,  1200.  Indians  in  California  not  under 
an  agent :  Mission,  Coahuila,  Temecula,  and 
other  Indians,  4375;  Klamaths,  1125. 

Colorado,  Los  Pinos  Agency:  Tabequa- 
che-Muache,  Capote,  and  Weminuche 
bands  of  Utes,  2000.  Whiie  River  Agency: 
Grand  River,  Yampa,  Uintah,  and  Pah 
bands  of  Utes,  900. 

Dakota,  Cheyemie  River  Agency:  Two 
Kettle  Sioux,  Sans-Arc  Sioux,  Minneconjou 
Sioux,  Blackfeet  Sioux,  2280.  Crow  Creek 
Agency:  Lower  Yanctonais  Sioux,  1213. 
Devil's  Lake  Agency:  Sisseton  Sioux,  391; 
Wahpeton  Sioux,  477 ;  Cut-Head  Sioux, 
203.  Flandrcan  Agency:  Flandreau  Sioux, 
361.  Fort  Berthold  Aqency :  Arickarees, 
692;  Gros  Ventres,  414;  Mandans,  241; 
Gros  Ventres  (seceders),  100.  Lower 
Brule  Agency:  Lower  Brule  Sioux,  1800. 
Ponea  Agency:  Poncas,  730.  Red  Cloud 
Agency:  Ogallalla  Sioux,  Northern  Chey- 
ennes.  Northern  Arapahoes,  6000.  Spotted 
Tail  Agency:  Upper  Brule  and  Ogallalla 
Sioux,  Lower  Brule  Sioux,  Northern  Brule 
Sioux,  and  others,  2315.  Sisseton  Agency: 
Sisseton  and  Wahpeton  Sioux,  1745.  Stand- 
ing Rock  Agency:  Upper  Yanctonais  Sioux, 
Lower  Yanctonais  Sioux,  Uncpapa  Sioux, 


INDIANS 


239 


INDIANS 


Blackfeet  Sioux,  2315.  YnnJdon  Agency: 
Yankton  Sioux,  1992.  Indians  in  Dakota 
not  under  an  agent,  or  absent  from  agencies, 
15,000. 

Idaho,  Fort  Hall  Agency:  Bnnnack.?, 
648;  Shoshones,  964.  Lemhi  Agency: 
Sheepeatcrs,  300;  Bannack.s,  190;  Slio- 
shoncs,  4o0.  Nez  Pcrces  Agency :  Nez 
Perces,  2800.  Indians  in  Idalio  not  under 
an  agent:  Cocur  d'Alenes,  Pend  d'Oreilles, 
and  Kootcnays,  1000. 

Indian  Tkkritory,  Cheyenne  and  Ara- 
pahoe Agency:  Cheyennes,  2029;  Arapa- 
ooes,  1703  ;  Apaches,  48  ;  Chcyonnes  absent 
from  reservation,  180;  held  as  prisoners  by 
liiilitary,  32.  Kiowa  and  Comanche  Agency: 
Kiowas,  1090  ;  Comanches,  1570;  Apaches, 
.■;2').  Osage  Agency:  Osage,  2G79 ;  Kaws, 
413.  7Vnr/)re  J f/c/ir;/.'  Pawnees,  202G.  Q'/w- 
paw  Agency:  Quapaws,  235;  confederated 
Kaskaskias,  PianUeshaws,  Weas,  Peorias, 
and  Mianiis,  202;  Ottawas,  140;  Eastern 
Shawnees,  97;  Wvandottes,  2-58;  Senecas, 
240;  Modocs,  117';  Straggling  Black  Bob 
Shawnees  and  Pottawatoniies,  100.  Sue  and 
Fox  Agency:  Sacs  and  Fo.xes  of  Mississippi, 
417 ;  absentee  Shawnees,  047  ;  Mexican 
Kickapoos,  312.  Union  Aqenci/ :  Cherokees, 
18,672;  Creeks,  14,000;  Choctaws,  10,000; 
Chickasaws,  5800  ;  Seminoles,  2553.  Wich- 
ita Agency:  Caddos  and  Delawares,  580; 
Comanches,  108;  Kecchies  and  Wacos, 
155;  Tawacanies,  100;  AVichitas,  217.  In- 
dians in  Indian  Territory  not  under  an 
agent:  Citizen  Pottawatomics,  131. 

Iowa,  .Sac  and  Fox  Agency:  Sacs  and 
Poxes,  341. 

Kansas,  Kansas  Agency:  Pottawatomics 
(prairie  band),  497;  Kickapoos,  252.  In- 
dians in  Kansas  without  an  agency:  Chip- 
pewas,  of  Swan  Creek,  and  Munsees,  01  ; 
ilokohoko  band  of  Sacs  and  Foxes,  200. 

Michigan,  Mackinac  Agency:  Chippcwas 
of  Lake  Superior,  1200;  Chippewas  of  Sag- 
inaw, Swan  Creek,  and  Black  River,  2000 ; 
Chippewas  and  Ottawas  of  Lake  Michigan, 
7000;  Pottawatoniies  of  Huron,  60. 

Minnesota,  Leech  Lake  Agency :  Pillager 
and  Lake  Winnebagoshish  Chippewas,  1010; 
Chippewas  of  Mississippi,  790.  lied  Lake 
Agency:  Bed  Lake  Chippewas,  1178.  White 
Earth  Agency :  Mississippi  Chippewas,  1768; 
Pembina  Chippewas,  452  ;  Otter-Tail  Chip- 
pewas, 485. 

Montana,  Blackfeet  Agency:  Blackfeet, 
Blo<nl<.  and  rii'gans  (no  tribal  distinctions), 
7200.  (•/•<;»•  Agriici/ :  Mountain  Crows,  1500; 
River  Crows,  1000.  Flathead  Agency :  Flat- 
heads,  381;  Pend  d'Oreilles,  858;  Kooto- 
na^s,  390.  Fort  Peck  Agency:  A.ssini- 
boincs,  1998;  Yanctonais,  Uncpapa,  Bruit, 
Teton  Sioux,  and  Gros  A'entres,  0500. 

Nkbra.sk A,  Great  Xetnaha  Agency:  lowas, 
224;  Sacs  and  Foxes  of  Missouri,  100. 
Omaha  Agency:  Onuihas,  1027.  Otoe  Agency: 
Otoes  and  Missouris,  4.")4.  Santee  Agency: 
Santce  Sioux,  793.  Winnebago  Agency: 
Winnebagoe.s,  1500. 

New  Me.xico,  Abiquiu  Agency:  Utes,900; 


Jicarilla  Apaches,  326.  Cimarron  Agency: 
Jicarilla  Apaches,  420;  Muache  Utes,  230. 
Mescalero  Agency :  Mescalcro  Apaches,  1400. 
Navajo  Agency:  Navajoes,  11,808.  Pueblo 
Agency:  Pueblos,  8400.  Southerri  Apache 
Agency:  Gila  Apaches,  Mogollen  Apaches, 
Mimbre  Apaches,  Chiricahua  Apaches, 
1000. 

New  York,  A>w  Vork  Af/ency:  Senecas, 
3017;  Oneidas,  250;  Onondagas,  453;  Ca- 
vugas,  161;  Tuscaroras,  412;  St.  Kegis, 
741. 

Nevada,  Nevada  Agency:  Pah-Utes  on 
Pah-Ute  reservation,  400;  Pah-l'tes  in 
Northern  Arizona  (not  on  reservation),  284; 
Pah-Utes  in  Utah  (not  on  reservation),  528  ; 
Pah-Utes  in  Southern  Nevada  (not  on  reser- 
vation), 031  ;  Pah-Utes  in  California  (not  on 
reservation),  184;  Pah-Utes  on  Pyramid 
Lake  reserve,  1500;  Shoshones,  500;  Tah- 
Utes  on  AV'alker  Kiver  reserve,  500.  Western 
Shoshone  Agency:  Goship  L'tes  (not  on  res- 
ervation), 204;  Western  Shoshones  (not  on 
reservation),  1945;  Indians  in  Nevada  not 
under  an  agent:  Pah-Utes  (not  on  reserva- 
tion), 1000. 

North  Carolina,  Eastern  Cherokee 
Agency:  Eastern  Cherokees,  1000;  other 
Eastern  Cherokees  scattered  through  Geor- 
gia, South  Carolina,  and  Tennessee,  800. 

Oregon,  Grand  Jiimde  Agency:  Molels, 
Clackamas,  Rogue  River,  and  other  bands, 
755.  Klamath  Agency:  Klaniaths,  070;  Mo- 
docs, 100;  Pah- lite  Snakes,  100;  Wollpahpe 
Snakes,  174.  Malheur  Agency:  Pah-Utes, 
402;  Snakes,  300.  Siletz  Agency:  Rogue 
River,  Shasta  Scoton,  and  thirteen  other 
bands,  1100;  Alseas,  Sinselaws,  Coosas,  and 
Umpquas,  325.  Umatilla  Aqency :  "Walla 
AValla,  128;  Cayuse,  385;  Umatilla,  109. 
Warm  Springs  Agency  :  Wascoes,  263;  Teni- 
noes,  50;  Warm  Springs,  187;  Indians 
roaming  on  Columbia  River,  renegades  and 
others,  2000. 

Utah,  Uintah  Valley  Agency:  Uintah 
Utes,  050;  Indians  in  L'tah  not  under  an 
agent.  Pah  Vents,  134;  Goship  Utes,  256. 

Washington  Territory,  Colville  Agen- 
cy :  Colvilles,  050;  Spokancs,  085;  Lakes, 
242;  Calispels,  395;  Okinakanes,  330;  San 
Poels  and  Nespeel urns,  500  ;  Methows,  315. 
Neah  Bay  Agency:  Makahs,  538.  Puyallup 
Agency :  Muckleshoot,  130;  Puyallups,  525; 
Nisquallies,  205;  Squaxons,  50;  Chehalis, 
240;  Shoal  Water  Bay,  00;  Grape  Harbor. 
100;  Cowlitz,  25.  Qninairlt  Agency:  Qui- 
naielts,  122;  Queets,  114;  Hobs,  80;  Quil- 
lehutes,  260.  SKnkomish  Agency:  SKlal- 
lanis,  550;  Towanas,  275.  Tulalip  Agency : 
Snohomish,  900;  Lummi.  000;  Etakmur, 
550;  Swinomish,  700;  Muckle.<hoot,  500. 
Yaknyna  Agency:  Yakama,  Palouse,  Pis- 
quose,  W^enatshepum,  Kliktat,  Klinquit, 
Kowwassayee,  Siaywas,  Skinpah,  Wisham, 
Shviks.  Ochechole,  Kahmilt])ah,  and  Seap- 
cat",  4100. 

Wisconsin,  Green  Bay  Agency:  Mcnom- 
onces,  1522;  Oneidas,  1387;  Stockbridges, 
121.     La  Pointe   Agency:   Chippewas,   Red 


INDIANS 


240 


INDIANS 


CliflP  Band,  726  ;  Bad  Eiver,  782;  Lac  Court 
d'Oreille,  1048  ;  Lac  de  Flambeau,  665 ;  Fond 
du  Lac,  404 ;  Grand  Portage,  262 ;  Bois 
Fort,  714.  Indians  in  Wisconsin  not  under 
an  agent:  "Winnebagoes,  823;  Pottawato- 
mies  (prairie  band),  180. 

Wyoming,  S/wshorie  Agency:  Shoshones 
(eastern  band),  1800. 

Indians  in  North  Carolina,  Indiana,  Ten- 
nessee, Georgia,  Florida,  and  Texas :  Mi- 
aniis,  Seminoles,  Lipans,  Tonkawas,  850. 
Number  of  Indians  in  the  United  States, 
exclusive  of  those  in  Alaska,  266,151  ;  num- 
ber of  Indians  who  are  mixed-bloods, 
40,639;  number  of  school-teachers  for  In- 
dians,' 437  ;  amount  of  money  expended  for 
education  during  the  year,  ?362,496.03; 
number  of  births  and  deaths  about  even. 

Alaska.  The  aboriginal  inhabitants  of 
Alaska  are  divided  generally  into  two  classes, 
the  Ararian,  or  Coast  tribes,  and  Indian,  or 
Interior  tribes  ;  of  the  former  the  Innuit,  or 
Esquimo  races,  inhabit  coast  of  Arctic  and 
North  Pacific  Ocean,  and  the  Aleutians  in- 
habited the  chain  of  Aleutian  Islands  and 
the  western  ends  of  Aliaska  peninsula. 

Innuit,  or  Esquimo.  Kopagmuts ;  num- 
bered, in  1870,  about  200;  inhabit  the  shore 
of  the  Arctic  Ocean  between  Mackenzie's 
Iliver  and  Manning's  Point;  were  formerly 
much  more  numerous  and  powerful,  inhab- 
iting valley  of  Mackenzie's  Kiver  for  300 
miles  until  driven  out  by  Indians. 

Kanmaligmut.  They  number  about  250  ; 
inhabit  shore  of  Arctic  Ocean  from  Man- 
ning's Point  to  Cape  Barrow  ;  great  traders. 
Nuwikmut.  Number  about  600,  and  in- 
habit coast  of  Arctic  Ocean  from  mouth  of 
Colville  Kiver  to  Cape  Liskurore ;  main  vil- 
lages at  Cape  Smith,  Cape  Barrow,  Wain- 
wright's  Island,  and  Icy  Cape  ;  make  annual 
trading  voyages  in  July  and  August. 

Nunatogmuts.  Number  about  350 ;  in- 
habit the  north  shore  of  Kotzebue  Sound ; 
treacherous  and  thieving ;  meet  white  traders 
annually  at  Point  Hope,  and  carry  on  trade 
with  natives  up  the  inland  rivers. 

Kojidgmuts.  Number  about  100,  and  in- 
habit the  eastern  shore  of  Selanik  Kiver  and 
southeast  coast  of  Kotzebue  Sound,  carrj'ing 
on  trade  with  interior  Indians. 

Okeeogmuts.  Number  about  350,  and  in- 
habit the  islands  inBehring's  Sea  and  Straits 
north  of  N.  lat.  63° ;  most  agile  and  hardy 
of  Northern  Indians ;  are  bold,  obstinate, 
and  courageous ;  carry  on  trade  between 
Asia  and  America  by  means  of  skin  canoes. 
Kikhtogdmuts.  Number  about  2-50,  and 
inhabit  St.  Lawrence  Island ;  the  most  im- 
modest and  filthy  of  Esquimos. 

Karidgmuts.  Number  500,  and  inhabit 
peninsula  between  Kotzebue  and  Norton 
Sounds,  have  large  trade  with  whalers,  and 
travel  extensively;  are  addicted  to  theft,  in- 
cest, and  violence. 

Mahlemut.  Number  600;  inhabit  the  neck 
of  the  Kariak  peninsula. 

Undligmuts.  Number  150,  and  inhabit 
southwestern  shore  of  Norton  Sound. 


Ecogmuts.  Number  about  1000  ;  inhabit 
the  de'lta  of  the  Yukon  and  300  miles  of  its 
valley.  Have  heavy  beard  and  hairy  bodies, 
in  strong  contrast  to  other  tribes. 

Mdgemuts.  Number  about  500 ;  inhabit- 
ing Muriak  Island  and  coast  from  60°  to  62° 
N.  lat.  Great  hunters  of  mink,  as  their 
name  indicates.  They  excel  in  ivory  carv- 
ing, but  are  poor,  filthy,  and  immodest. 

Kusknogmuts.  Number  2-500;  inhabit 
shore  of  Kuskoquine  Bay  and  valley  of 
Kuskoquine  Kiver  for  150  miles  ;  do  not  in- 
termarry with  other  tribes. 

Nushagdgmuts.  Number  about  400,  and 
inhabit  shore  of  Bristol  Bay  and  valleys  of 
lakes  between  it  and  coast  mountains. 

Oguhnuts.  Number  about  500,  and  in- 
habit north  shore  of  Aliaska  peninsula  and 
basin  of  Lliamna  Lake. 

Karrigmuts.  Number  3000,  and  inhabit 
south  shore  of  Aliaska  peninsula  and  shore 
of  Cook's  Inlet  to  Lliamna  Peak,  and  also 
Kodiack  Island  ;  were  formerly  much  more 
numerous,  and  occupied  all  the  shore  of 
Cook's  Inlet  until  the  interior  Indians  drove 
them  off  and  established  themselves  on  that 
coast;  they  are  frequently  confounded  with 
the  Aleuts ;  have  been  much  altered  by  over 
90  years'  intercourse  with  Kussians  ;  are  vir- 
tually Greek  Christians. 

Chugnc/ng77it(ts.  Number  about  600,  and 
inhabit  southern  and  eastern  coast  of  Kenai 
peninsula. 

Ugdldkmuts.  Number  about  400,  and 
inhabit  coast  from  Icy  Bay  to  Prince  Wil- 
liam's Sound,  except  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Atna,  on  Copper  Kiver,  where  the  interior 
Indians  hold  the  coast.  This  tribe  is  at 
present  the  southern  and  eastern  limit  of  the 
Innuit,  or  Esquimo  races,  although  at  one 
time  they  undoubtedly  extended  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Stickeen  Kiver. 

Aleuts.  On  the  advent  of  the  Kussians, 
about  150  years  ago,  the  twenty  Aleut  races 
numbered  about "lO, 000  people;  they  had 
marked  peculiarities  and  well-defined  tribal 
divisions.  The  cruelty,  oppression,  and  per- 
secution of  the  Russians  rapidly  decreased 
their  numbers  ;  their  natural  and  tribal  dis- 
tinctions were  lost  and  forgotten  ;  they  were 
entirely  cowed  and  subdued;  they  embraced 
Greek  Christianity,  and  were  transported  by 
their  conquerors  all  along  the  coast. 

Khagdntagdkulm.  Number  850,  and  in- 
habit western  end  of  Aliaska  peninsula  and 
Shumagin  Islands. 

Unaldshkuhns.  Number  750  ;  inhabit 
Unalask,  Unmak,  and  Priboloff  Lslands. 

Atkanhim.  Number  470,  and  inhabit  the 
Western  Islands. 

Tinneh.  Interior  Indian  tribes  belonging 
to  the  same  family ;  occupy  either  flank  of 
the  Kocky  Mountains,  from  the  mouth  of 
Mackenzie's  Kiver  southward  as  far  as 
Mexico.  In  Alaska  they  extend  westward 
to  near  the  delta  Yukon,  but  absolutely 
reach  the  sea-coast  only  at  two  places,  the 
mouth  of  the  Atna  Kiver  and  the  shore  at 
Cook's  Inlet. 


INDIANS 


241 


INDIANS 


Koyukukhotana.  Number  about  GOO,  and 
inhabit  the  mountain  north  of  the  Yukon 
and  east  of  Norton  Sound.  A  tierce  and 
warlike  tribe,  constantly  at  war  with  the 
Kait^uhkotima;  live  in  permanent  villages, 
and  travel  by  dog-sledges.  They  subsist  by 
hunting  deer  and  mountain-sheep. 

Kuiifuhkoihua.  Number  about  2300; 
have  many  settlements  between  lat.  G0°  and 
65°  N.  and  long.  150°  and  1G0°  AV.,  on  the 
lower  Yukon  and  Kuskoquin  Rivers.  They 
live  by  fishing  and  trading  dried  fish  with 
the  tribes  of  the  upper  rivers  for  moose  and 
deer  meat,  wooden-ware,  and  beech-bark 
canoes,  which  the  latter  are  very  skillful  in 
making  ;  they  travel  by  dog-sledges. 

Vnakhofann.  Number  about  500,  and  live 
in  the  valley  of  the  Yukon  from  long.  152° 
to  15(5°  AV. ;  do  not  build  permanent  villages, 
keep  only  hunting-dogs,  practice  polygamy, 
take  and  discard  wives  at  pleasure. 

A/i(f»i(i.  Number  about  1500,  and  inhabit 
the  basin  of  the  Atna,  or  Copper  River.  This 
is  one  of  the  two  tribes  that  have  forced 
their  way  through  the  Ararians  and  conduct 
their  annual  trading  independent  of  the 
middlemen  of  the  coast. 

Tchnnhikutehin.  Numberabout  1000,  and 
inhabit  north  shore  of  Kenai  peninsula  and 
basin  of  Suchinto  River.  This  is  the  second 
^  instance  of  interior  Indians  proper  who  have 
forced  their  way  through  the  Ararians.  Less 
is  known  of  them  than  any  other  coast 
tribes ;  they  are  intelligent  and  warlike,  and 
subsist  on  mountain-sheep,  with  the  skins  of 
which  they  clothe  themselves. 

Nefianricc.i.  A  name  given  to  a  number 
of  tribes  who  inhabit  the  head-waters  of  the 
Yukon,  Mackenzie,  and  Stickcen  Rivers. 
By  the  late  George  Gibbs,  they  are  of  a  low 
grade  and  little  is  known  of  their  peculiari- 
ties or  numbers.  They  consist  of  the  Abbato- 
tena,  who  inhabit  the  basin  of  the  Pellv  and 
MacMillan  Rivers,  and  are  called  by  the 
Hudson  Bay  people  "Gens  du  Bois."  The 
Maurais  Moiidi,  inhabiting  basin  of  Francis 
Lake.  Architotcna ,  called  Sicannecs  by  the 
Hudson  Bay  people,  inhabit  the  head-waters 
of  the  Deas  and  Laird's  Rivers.  The  Dnho- 
icna,  inhabiting  the  head-waters  of  the  Stic- 
keen,  and  the  la/tko-tena,  in  the  basin  of  the 
Lewis  River. 

^  Chilkdhtenn.  Inhabit  head-waters  of 
rivers  that  rise  near  the  head-waters  of  the 
Chilkuht  that  flow  north  into  the  Yukon. 
They  are  bold  and  warlike;  number  about 
600;  are  middlemen  traders  between  the 
Chilkhut  Ihlinkets,  who  do  not  allow  them 
to  descend  the  Chilkhut,  and  interior  tribes. 
^  Jna/nikutchin.  Number  about  800,  and 
live  in  basin  of  Jenanah  River,  the  principal 
tributary  of  the  Yukon,  are  nomadic,  live 
on  deer,  and  trap  fox  and  sable  for  trade  ; 
are  regarded  by  their  neighbors,  whom  they 
visit  annually  for  trading  purposes,  with 
fear  and  terror. 

Kuirhkutchiu.  Number  about  400,  and 
inhabit  about  350  miles  of  the  Y'ukon  valley. 

Naiaitkutchin.     The    "  Gens  do   Rats"  "of 


the  Hudson  Bay  people;  occupy  the  north 
side  of  the  Porcupine  ;  number  not  known. 

Inkutlikutchin.  250  in  number;  inhabit 
south  bank  of  Porcupifte. 

Hankutchin.  Number  not  known ;  oc- 
cupy 300  miles  of  Yukon  valley  that  ia 
densely  wooded. 

Intehuon  Kutchin.  Very  numerous,  "the 
Gens  de  Foix'  of  the  Hudson  Bay  people; 
occupy  the  basin  of  the  AVhite,  the  Lewis, 
and  the  Stewart  River;  they  are  of  nomadic 
habits,  amiable  and  remarkably  honest. 
They  trade  with  the  Atna  liiver  Indians. 

Jhlinketn.  A  stock  of  Indians  inhabiting 
the  islands  of  the  Alexander  Archipelago 
from  lat.  tJO°  N.  to  the  head  or  north  end  of 
Vancouver  Island.  They  are  essentially 
maritime  and  commercial ;  they  travel  en- 
tirely l)y  canoes,  in  which  they  make  voy- 
ages hundreds  of  miles  in  length.  They 
live  in  fixed  villages,  always  built  upon  the 
shores  of  bays  or  rivers  in  the  most  substan- 
tial manner  of  heavy  timber,  often  showing 
great  mechanical  skill,  and  frequently  ar- 
ranged with  regard  for  capacity  for  defense. 
They  own  slaves,  cremate  their  dead,  and 
are  industrious  and  frugal  as  well  as  cruel, 
warlike,  and  aggressive  in  their  nature. 

Yakulats.  Numbering  about  3.30  ;  inhabit 
the  coast  from  Mount  St.  Ellas  to  Mf)unt 
Crilton,  their  principal  village  being  at  Port 
Mulgrove,  Behrings  Bay.  They  cure  sal- 
mon to  live  upon,  hunt  the  seal  and  sea-otter 
for  trade.  They  cat  the  blubber  and  flesh 
of  the  whale,  and  often  voyage  as  far  south 
as  Fort  Simpson,  in  lat.  54°  N. 

Chilkahtknnn.  Number  about  1500  in  tho 
village  of  Chiikaht  and  Iselkort  Rivers  and 
head  of  Lyn  Channel;  they  are  fierce  and 
warlike,  often  at  war  with  the  southern  In- 
dians; make  annual  trading  voyages,  carry- 
ing peltries  obtained  from  interior  Indians 
as  far  south  as  Victoria,  Vancouver  Island, 
receiving  in  exchange  blankets,  powder, 
ball,  hardware,  and  molasses  and  sugar. 

Slfkaknepn.  Number  about  1200  or  1500, 
and  inhabit  the  shore  of  Cross  Sound,  Chec- 
kayoft",  Kruyoff,  and  Buranotf  Islands. 
Their  principal  village  is  Sitka,  Buranoff 
Island.  They  arc  called  Kolases  by  Rus- 
sians, whom  it  took  many  years  to  subdue 
to  a  sufficient  extent  to  make  a  foothold  in 
their  country.  They  frequently  fought  the 
intruders,  and  as  late  as  1855  perpetrated 
a  bloody  massacre,  killing  a  whole  congre- 
gation who  were  worshiping  in  a  church. 
Before  the  advent  of  the  Russians  they  were 
often  at  war  with  their  neighbors,  and  be- 
fore being  subject  to  an  epidemic  of  smallpox 
and  a  massacre  by  the  Stickeens  were  much 
more  numerous.  The  Russians  employ  largo 
numbers  of  them  at  ship-building.  They 
are  industrious  and  have  much  mechanical 
skill  in  working  both  wood  and  metals. 
Large  numbers  of  them  have  been  baptiztni 
into^  the  Greek  Church,  but  Christianity 
never  made  much  impression  upon  them. 

Kootznonknan.  Numbering  aoout  300;  in- 
habit Admiralty  Island,  their  principal  vil- 


INDICATIONS 


242 


INFANTRY 


lage  being  at  Hood's  Bay.  They  resemble 
the  Sitkas,  with  whom  they  intermarry. 
They  were  the  first  to  distill  a  kind  of  liquor 
from  molasses  or  sugar  and  potatoes  or  beans, 
which  is  now  a  universal  custom  in  Alaska, 
and  is  demoralizing  the  native  population  to 
a  great  extent. 

Jahkuknan.  Numbering  about  250  in 
the  basin  of  the  Jashku  River  and  shore  of 
Stephen's  Pass  ;  resemble  the  Sitkas. 

Kakcnan.  Number  about  200 ;  inhabit 
Kow  and  several  other  islands  in  Stephen's 
Pass ;  warlike  and  treacherous.  They  are 
the  only  Alaska  Indians  with  whom  the 
United  States  has  had  hostilities.  Gen.  J. 
C.  Davis  destroyed  their  principal  village  in 
1858,  since  which  time  they  have  declined 
in  power  and  importance. 

Tongasknan.  200  in  number ;  inhabit 
Tongas  Island. 

Stakhuiknmi.  Number  1000  ;  inhabit  the 
mouth  of  Stahkin  River  and  neighboring 
islands  ;  principal  village  at  Wrangle  Isl- 
and ;  resemble  the  Sitkas  closely;  warlike 
and  treacherous  ;  skillful  workers  in  metals 
and  wood. 

Kygahn.  Called  Haidas  by  Hudson  Bay 
people;  numbering  in  Alaska  about  500 and 
in  Prince  of  Wales  Archipelago  ;  are  of  fine 
stature,  and  fierce  and  warlike  as  well  as 
treacherous  ;  ingenious  carvers  in  metal  and 
wood ;  they  formerly  carried  on  a  trade  in 
slaves  with  more  northern  Indians,  making 
for  the  purpose  of  capturing  them  preda- 
tory incursions  as  far  south  as  Vancouver 
Island  and  Puget  Sound.  They  also  manu- 
facture and  supply  yellow-cedar  canoes  of 
immense  size  to  northern  Indians. 

Indications,  Military.  See  Military 
Indications. 

Indicator.  An  invention  of  Gen.  Win- 
gate,  of  the  New  York  Militia,  for  instruct- 
ing men  in  aiming  the  musket.  A  steel  rod 
passing  through  a  brass  tompon  in  the  muz- 
zle is  projected  forwards  by  the  firing-pin. 
The  rod  carries  a  sharp  point  in  the  line  of 
the  sights,  which  punctures  a  miniature  tar- 
get a  foot  or  so  in  front  of  the  muzzle. 

Indisciplinable.  Not  disciplinable;  in- 
capable of  being  disciplined,  or  subjected  to 
discipline ;  undisciplinable. 

Indiscipline.  Want  of  discipline  or  in- 
struction. 

Indore.  The  capital  of  the  principality 
of  the  same  name  in  India,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Kuthi.  This  place,  mean  and  insig- 
nificant enough  in  itself,  acquired  considera- 
ble notorietv  in  connection  with  the  grand 
revolt  of  1857.  Though  Holkar,  the  rajah, 
remained  faithful  to  the  British  government, 
yet  his  troops  mutinied  on  July  1,  holding 
their  prince  as  a  prisoner  in  his  palace,  and 
butchering  many  Europeans,  men,  women, 
and  children,  in  cold  blood. 

Inefficient.  Incapable  of,  or  indisposed 
to,  eftective  action;  effecting  nothing;  as, 
an  inefficient  force. 

Inergetic.  Having  no  energy  ;  as,  an  in- 
eriretic  officer. 


Inescutcheon.  In  heraldry,  a  small  es- 
cutcheon borne  within  a  shield. 

Inexperienced.  Not  having  experience  ; 
unskilled  ;  as,  an  inexperienced  general. 

Inexpugnable.  Incapable  of  being  sub- 
dued by  force ;  impregnable. 

Infamous  Behavior.  In  the  British  ser- 
vice a  term  peculiarly  applicable  to  military 
life  when  it  is  affected  by  dishonorable  con- 
duct ;  on  conviction  of  which,  an  officer  is 
ordered  to  be  cashiered.  Infamy  may  be 
attached  to  an  officer  or  soldier  in  a  variety 
of  ways  ;  and  some  countries  are  more  tena- 
cious than  others  on  this  head.  Among 
European  nations  it  has  always  been  deemed 
infamous  and  disgraceful  to  abandon  the 
field  of  action  or  to  desert  the  colors.  In 
Germany  a  mark  of  infamy  was  attached  to 
the  character  of  everj'  man  who  was  found 
guiltj"-  of  misbehavior  before  the  enemy. 
Among  the  Romans  it  was  considered  as  in- 
famous and  disgraceful  to  betaken  prisoner, 
and  a  Roman  soldier  was  impressed  with  the 
i.dea  that  he  must  either  conquer  or  die  on 
the  field.  There  are  various  occasions  in 
which  the  conduct  of  an  officer  may  render 
him  unworthy  of  the  situation  he  fills,  such 
as  cheating  at  play,  taking  unfair  advan- 
tages of  youth,  imposing  upon  the  credulity 
or  confidence  of  a  tradesman,  habitual  drunk- 
enness, flagrant  breaches  of  hospitality,  etc. 

Infantry  (Lat.  Ml/a ws,  "  child,"  or  "ser- 
vant," applied  to  servants  who  went  on 
foot,  and  infanterle,  to  foot-soldiers  gener- 
ally). Is  that  portion  of  a  military  estab- 
lishment using  small-arms  and  equipped  for 
marching  and  fighting  on  foot,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  artillery  and  cavalry.  It  is  the 
oldest  of  the  "three  arms"  into  which  ar- 
mies are  conventionally  divided  ;  was  the 
favorite  of  the  Greeks,  the  Gauls,  the  Ger- 
mans, and  the  Franks,  and  was  that  mainly 
with  which  Rome  conquered  the  world. 
Under  Grecian  and  Roman  civilization  it 
attained  pre-eminence  as  the  arm  of  battle^ 
but  fell  into  contempt  and  comparative  des- 
uetude early  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  did 
not  emerge  from  that  obscurity  till  the  de- 
cline of  the  feudal  system.  It  was  first 
revived  by  the  Swiss,  who,  armed  with  the 
pike,  withstood  the  most  famous  chivalry  of 
Europe.  Afterwards  the  Spanish  infantry, 
armed  with  the  musket,  and  led  by  Alva  and 
the  Duke  of  Parma,  Cortez  and  Pizarro, 
became  the  terror  of  two  continents.  The 
other  states  of  Europe  were  not  slow  in 
learning  the  lesson.  Infantry  steadily  in- 
creased in  power  and  importance  from  the 
first  years  of  the  14th  century,  and  is  now 
recognized  as  constituting  the  principal 
strength  of  military  organizations.  This 
importance  results  from  the  fact  that  it  can 
be  used  everywhere,  "in  mountains  or  on 
plains,  in  woody  or  open  countries,  in  cities 
or  in  fields,  on  rivers  or  at  sea,  in  the  re- 
doubt or  in  the  attack  on  the  breach."  It 
is  the  self-sustaining  arm  in  the  field  of  bat- 
tle, and  is,  moreover,  less  expensive,  man 
for  man,  than  its  auxiliaries. 


INFANTRY 


243 


INJURIES 


Infantry  Exercise.  The  use  of  the  rifle, 
ami  nuina-iivrcs  I'or  rejjiineiits  of  infantry, 
ucc'urdini;;  to  tlie  regulations  issued  by  the 
War  Department. 

Infantry,    Heavy-armed.       Among    the  ! 
ancients  were  such  as  wore  n  complete  suit  | 
of  armor,  and  engaged  with  broad  shields  I 
and  long  spears.     Tliey  were  the  flower  and 
strength  of  the  Grecian  armies,  and  had  the 
liighest  rank  of  military  honor. 

Infantry,  Light.  Came  into  use  after  tbe 
year  Klo').  They  had  no  camp  equipage  to 
carry,  and  their  arms  and  accoutrements 
were  much  lighter  than  tbe  common  in- 
fantry, or  battalion  men  ;  they  were  used  as 
skirmishers,  etc. 

Infantry,  Light-armed.  Among  the  an- 
cients, were  designed  for  skirmishes,  and 
for  fighting  at  a  distance.  Their  weapons 
were  arrows,  darts,  or  slings. 

Infantry  Tactics.     See  Tactics. 
Inferior.     In  a  military  sense  means  sim- 
ply junior  in  rank,  having  a  lower  rank. 

Infest.  To  trouble  greatly  ;  to  disturb  ; 
to  annoy;  to  harass  ;  as,  the  sea  is  infested 
with  pirates  ;  parties  of  the  enemy  infest 
the  coast. 

Iniile.  To  arrange  in  a  file  or  rank  ;  to 
place  in  order.     This  term  is  obsolete. 

Inflammation.  When  grains  of  powder 
arc  unitetl  to  form  a  charge,  and  fire  is  com- 
municated to  one  of  them,  the  heated  and 
expansive  gases  evolved  insinuate  them- 
selves into  the  interstices  of  the  charge, 
envelop  the  grains,  and  ignite  them,  one 
after  the  other.  This  propagation  of  igni- 
tion is  called  irif}nn>mntio7i,  and  its  velocity 
the  relocitij  of  inflammation.  It  is  nuich 
greater  than  that  of  combustion,  and  it 
should  not  be  confounded  with  it.  The 
velocity  of  inflammation  of  powder  com- 
pressed by  pounding  is  about  .(54  inch,  while 
that  of  mealed  powder  in  the  same  condi- 
tion is  only  .45  inch.  Intlanunation,  in  the 
study  of  gunpowder,  is  the  spread  of  the 
flame  from  one  grain  to  another — as  opposed 
to  ignition  ;  the  setting  on  tire  of  a  certain 
point  of  the  charge. 

Informant.  In  case  a  civil  person  is  the 
complainant,  he  becomes  the  principal  wit- 
ness before  a  court-martial,  and  after  giv- 
ing his  evidence  may  renuiin  in  court,  in 
order  that  the  judge-advocate  may  refer  to 
bim. 

Informers.  In  the  British  .service,  were 
soldiers  who  gave  information  of  false  mus- 
ters, or  of  pay  illegally  detained  ;  and  were, 
for  said  services,  entitled  to  their  discharge. 
Ingauni.  A  Ligurian  tribe  who  formerly 
inhabited  the  sea-coast  and  adjoining  moun- 
tains at  the  foot  of  the  ilaritime  Alps,  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Genoa.  They 
are  mentioned  as  being  engaged  in  hostili- 
ties with  a  neighboring  tribe,  the  Epanterii, 
on  the  occasion  of  the  landing  of  Mago, 
the  brother  of  Hannibal,  h.c.  205.  They 
were  several  times  engaged  in  wars  with 
the  Romans,  but  were  finallv  defeated  by 
the  pro-consul,  .^Emilius  PauUus,  in  a  deci- 


sive engagement  (losing  15,000  killed  and 
2500  prisoners),  which  resulted  in  their  ulti- 
mate submission  to  the  Roman  sway. 

Inglorious.  Shameful;  disgraceful;  igno- 
minious ;  as,  he  charged  his  troops  with 
inglorious  flight. 

Inimical.     Hostile. 

Initial  Velocity.  In  England  the  term 
muzzle  velocity  is  fref)uently  used.  In  gun- 
nery, the  initial  velocity  of  a  projectile  is  the 
velocity  at  the  muzzle  of  the  j)iece,  and  is 
determined  by  the  use  of  the  ballistic  pen- 
dulum, the  gun  pendulum,  the  electro-bal- 
listic machines,  the  Schultz  chronoseope,  or 
the  Le  iJoulenge  chronograph  ;  the  two  last 
being  now  generally  used  in  the  U.  S.  ser- 
vice. Tbe  various  plans  in  use  difl'er  only 
in  the  manner  of  recording  and  keeping  the 
time  of  flight.  The  initial  velocity  of  a 
shot  may  be  ascertained  by  firing  the  gun, 
the  axis  being  horizontal,  at  a  target  and 
measuring  the  distance  of  the  point  struck 
below  the  point  where  the  axis  of  the  gun 
produced  would  pierce  the  target.  This  is 
the  vertical  distance  fallen  through  by  the 
ball  in  the  time  of  passage  from  the  muzzle 
to  the  target,  and  the  time  in  which  it  falls 
through  this  distance  is  given  by  the 
formula 


^1 


in  which  t  represents  the  time,  fthc  vertical 
space  fallen  through,  and  g  the  force  of 
gravity.  The  distance  to  the  target  divided 
"by  this  time  gives  the  initial  velocity  ap- 
proximately. Practically,  this  method  is 
only  applicable  to  largo  breech-loading  can- 
non, which  havo.neither  windage  nor  vibra- 
tion in  the  barrel  to  aflect  the  angle  of  de- 
parture of  the  projectile.  Smooth-bores^  or 
muzzle-loading  riHes  are  subject  to  the  first 
cause  of  error;  the  first- named  guns  in  « 
great  degree,  and  small-arms  to  vibrations 
not  yet'' fully  investigated,  which  cause  a 
sensible  diflerence  between  the  axis  of  the 
piece  as  pointed  and  the  line  of  fire.  The 
causes  that  atlcct  initial  velocity  arc  the 
weight  of  the  charge,  the  size  and  position 
of  the  vent,  the  windage,  the  length  of  the 
bore,  the  form  of  the  chamber,  tbe  diame- 
ter and  density  of  the  projectile,  the  wind- 
age of  the  cartridge  ;  the  form,  size,  dens- 
ity, and  dryness  of  the  grains  of  powder ; 
and  the  barometric,  thermometric,  and 
hygrometric  states  of  the  atmosphere.  Sec 
Velocity. 

Injuries  to  Cannon.     Brass   cannon   are 

little  subject  to  external    injury  caused  by 

service,    except    from    the   bending   of    the 

1  trunnions  sometimes,  after  long  service  or 

I  heavv  charges.     Internal  injuries  are  caused 

by  tile  action  of  the  elastic  fluids  developed 

I  iii  the  combustion  of  the  powder,  or  by  the 

I  a.'tion  of  the  shot  in  passing  out  of  the  bore. 

These  eflects  generally  increase  with  the  cal- 

I  iber  of  the  piece.     The  principal  injury  of 

'  the  first   kind  is  the   cutting   away  of  the 


INKERMAN 


244 


INSCONCED 


metal  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  bore  over 
the  seat  of  the  shot.  The  injuries  of  the 
second  kind  are,  tlie  lodgment  of  the  shot, — 
a  compression  of  tlie  metal  on  the  lower  side 
of  the  bore,  at  the  seat  of  the  shot,  which  is 
caused  by  the  pressure  of  the  gas  in  escaping 
over  the  top  of  the  shot.  There  is  a  corre- 
sponding bu7-r  ill  front  of  the  lodgment,  and 
the  motion  therefore  given  to  the  shot 
causes  it  to  strike  alternately  on  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  bore,  producing  other  enlnrr/e- 
ments,  generally  th?-ee  in  number,  the  first  on 
the  upper  side  a  little  in  advance  of  the 
trunnions,  the  second  on  the  lower  side 
about  the  astragal,  the  third  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  muzzle.  It  is  chiefly  from  this 
cause  that  brass  guns  become  unserviceable. 
Scratches,  caused  by  the  fragments  of  a 
broken  shot,  or  the  roughness  of  an  imper- 
fect one.  A  piece  is  said  to  be  honeycombed 
when  the  surface  of  the  bore  is  full  of  small 
holes  and  cavities.  This  is  due  to  the  melt- 
ing and  volatilization  of  a  portion  of  tin  in 
the  alloy,  tin  being  much  more  fusible  than 
copper.  Iron  cannon  are  subject  to  the 
above  defects  in  a  less  degree  than  brass, 
except  the  corrosion  of  the  metal,  by  which 
the  vent  is  rendered  unserviceable  from  en- 
largement. The  one  cause  of  injury  to  iron 
cannon  is  the  rusting  of  the  metal,  pro- 
ducing a  roughness  and  enlargement  of  the 
bore  and  an  increase  of  any  cavities  or 
honeycombs  which  may  exist  in  the  metal. 

Iron  cannon,  however,  are  subject  to  a 
peculiar  erosion  by  the  gases,  which  Prof. 
Horsford  explains  by  supposing  that  under 
the  enormous  tension  and  heat  the  sulphur 
in  the  gases  unites  with  the  iron,  producing 
a  friable  sulphide  of  iron,  which  is  success- 
ively formed  and  swept  off  by  the  gases. 
Wrought-iron  guns  are  peculiarly'  subject  to 
this  erosion,  cast-iron  and  steel  less  so.  The 
amount  of  erosion  is  dependent  upon  the  ve- 
locity with  which  the  gases  pass  over  the 
surface  of  the  bore.  In  rifled  wrought-iron 
guns  having  windage  this  action  is  fully  il- 
lustrated, and  the  gun  is  soon  disabled.  The 
strong  preference  in  many  countries  for  steel 
as  a  bore  lining  is  thus  explained.  By  the 
use  of  expanding  projectiles  this  action  is 
largely  prevented,  the  sabot  acting  as  a  gas- 
check.  This  system  of  projectiles  is  rapidly 
gaining  favor  for  this  and  other  reasons. 

Inkerman.  A  small  Tartar  village  in  the 
Crimea,  situated  near  the  eastern  extremity 
of  the  harbor  of  Sebastopol.  It  was  once  a 
celebrated  city,  and  has  numerous  caverns 
cut  in  the  rock,  supposed  to  be  the  work  of 
the  monks  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Near  this 
place,  November  5,  1854,  was  fought  a  battle 
between  the  allied  English  and  French  forces 
on  the  one  side,  and  the  Russians  on  the 
other,  the  former  amounting  to  2-5, 000  or 
80,000,  the  latter  about  GO,ObO.  The  Rus- 
sians began  the  attack  at  dawn  of  day  upon 
the  intrenched  lines  of  the  English ;  but  af- 
ter a  fierce  and  sanguinary  contest  of  many 
hours,  inflicting  great  loss  on  both  sides,  the 
Russians  were  finally  driven  from  the  field. 


Inlist.     See  Enlistment. 

Inlying  Picket.  A  body  of  infantry  or 
cavalry  in  campaign,  detailed  to  march,  if 
called  upon,  and  held  ready  for  that  purpose 
in  camp  or  quarters. 

Inner.  One  of  the  circular  rings  on  the 
Creedmoor  target;  a  shot  striking  in  this 
space  counts  three. 

Inniskilliners,  or  Enniskilliners.  In  the 
British  service,  the  officers  and  soldiers  of 
the  6th  Dragoons  and  the  27th  Foot  are  so 
called,  from  the  two  regiments  having  been 
originally  raised  at  Enniskillen  (or  Innis- 
kilTen),  a  town  of  Ulster,  where  the  inhab- 
itants distinguished  themselves  in  favor  of 
King  William  against  James  II. 

Innuit.  A  name  given  by  some  ethnol- 
ogists to  the  Indian  races  inhabiting  the 
northwestern  coast  of  North  America.  They 
differ  in  many  respects  from  the  Indians  of 
the  interior  and  farther  south.  The  Aleuts 
and  Esquimos  are  not  included  in  the  term. 

Inofficial.  Not  ofl5cial ;  not  proceeding 
from  the  proper  officer;  not  clothed  with 
the  usual  forms  of  authority,  or  not  done 
in  an  official  character  ;  not  required  by  or 
appropriate  to  the  duties  of  any  office ;  as, 
inofficial  intelligence. 

Inquiry,  Board  of.  A  term  used  in  con- 
tradistinction to  a  court-martial,  to  signify 
the  meeting  of  a  certain  number  of  officers 
(who  are  not  sworn)  for  the  purpose  of  as- 
certaining facts  that  may  afterwards  become 
a  matter  of  investigation  on  oath.  There 
are  also  courts  of  inquiry  ;  such  courts  in 
the  armies  of  Europe,  it  would  seem,  de- 
rived their  origin  from  the  prerogative  of 
the  sovereign,  and  became  part  of  the  mili- 
tary judicature  by  custom  and  not  by  ex- 
press law.  From  this  fact  it  has  been  con- 
sidered that  the  exercise  of  this  authority, 
instead  of  being  regarded  as  an  assumption 
of  power,  is  a  favor  to  the  accused,  and  it 
is  thus  stated  by  Capt.  Simmons  in  his  work 
on  courts-martial.  For  the  army  of  the 
United  States,  courts  of  inquiry  have  been 
specially  authorized  by  legal  enactment. 
(See  Appkndix,  Articles  of  War,  115 
to  121.)  The  origin  and  purposes  of  such 
courts  would  naturally  lead  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  they  are  of  the  essence  of  high 
command ;  and  therefore  the  right  to  con- 
voke them,  under  all  the  legal  restrictions, 
is  properly  confined  to  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  a  general  commanding  an 
army,  or  a  colonel  commanding  a  depart- 
ment; and  in  the  cases  of  enlisted  men,  the 
commanding  officer  of  the  regiment.  See 
Court  of  Inquiry. 

Inroad.  The  entrance  of  an  enemy  into 
a  country  with  purposes  of  hostility ;  a 
sudden  or  desultory  incursion  or  invasion ; 
attack  ;  encroachment. 

Inroll.     See  Enroll. 

Insconced.  In  the  military  art,  when 
any  part  of  an  army  has  fortified  itself  with 
a  sconce,  or  small  work,  in  order  to  defend 
some  pass,  etc.,  it  is  said  to  be  insconced. 
See  Ensconce. 


INSCRIBE 


245 


INSPECTION 


Inscribe.  To  mark  with  letters,  charac- 
ters, or  words,  as,  to  inscribe  the  name  of 
the  battle  on  their  colors. 

Insecure.      Not   eft'ectually  guarded    or 

t)r<)tected  ;    unsafe ;    exposed   to   danger   or 
OSS. 

Inspect.  To  view  and  examine  officially; 
as,  troops,  arms,  etc. 

Inspection.  A  strict  examination ;  a 
close  survey.  It  is  of  various  kinds,  and 
embraces  general,  regimental,  and  troop  or 
company  duties.  A  general  inspection  is 
made  from  time  to  time  by  inspectors-general 
designated  by  the  comnuinding  generals  of 
military  divisions  or  departments.  Every 
regiment  on  this  occasion  is  minutely  looked 
into,  and  a  faithful  account  is  delivered  by 
each  commanding  officer  of  the  actual  state 
of  his  regiment.  The  interior  economy  of 
the  corps  is  not  only  investigated,  but  the 
discipline  of  the  men  is  likewise  examined. 

Inspection  of  Cannon,  Instruments  for. 
These  are  used  to  verify  the  dimensions  of 
cannon,  and  to  detect  the  presence  and 
measure  the  size  of  cavities  in  the  metal. 
The  star-gnKgr,  is  an  instrument  for  meas- 
uring the  diameter  of  the  bore  at  any  point. 
The  niiindcrstdff  is  used  to  measure  the 
length  of  the  bore.  It  is  supported  by  a 
rest  of  a  T-form  at  the  muzzle,  and  the  ex- 
tremity inserted  in  the  gun  is  armed  with  a 
meanHving-poiiit  and  a  guide-plate.  The 
cylinder-gauge  is  a  cylinder  of  cast  iron, 
turned  to  the  exact  or  true  diameter  of  the 
bore.  "When  used  it  is  attached  to  the  end 
of  the  cylinder-staff.  The  searcher  consists 
of  four  flat  springs  turned  up  at  the  end, 
and  attached  to  a  socket  which  is  screwed 
on  to  the  end  of  the  cylinder-staff.  It  is 
used  to  feel  for  cavities  in  the  surface  of  the 
bore.  The  trunnio7i-gauge  verifies  the  di- 
ameters of  the  trunnions  and  rimbases. 
Tbe  trunnion-square  is  used  to  verify  the 
position  of  the  trunnions  with  regard  to  the 
bore.  The  tnoinion-rule  measures  the  dis- 
tance of  the  trunnions  from  the  rear  of  the 
base-ring.  Calipers,  for  measuring  exterior 
diameters.  A  standard-rule,  for  verifying 
other  instruments.  The  vent-gauges  are  two 
pointed  pieces  of  steel  wire,  6.005  inch 
greater  and  less  than  the  true  diameter  of 
the  vent,  to  verify  its  size.  The  vent-searcher 
is  a  hooked  wire,  used  to  detect  cavities  in 
the  vent.  A  ramvierhcad,  shaped  to  the 
form  of  tbe  bottom  of  the  bore,  and  furnished 
with  a  staff,  is  used  to  ascertain  the  interior 
position  of  the  vent.  A  wooden  rule,  to 
measure  exterior  lengths.  A  mirror,  a  v:a.r  j 
taper,  beeswaj- ;  rammer,  sponge,  and  prim- 
ing-wire. Figure  and  letter-stamps,  to  affix  i 
the  required  marks.  The  objects  of  inspect-  I 
ing  cannon  are  to  verify  their  dimensions,  j 
particularly  those  which  "affect  tbe  accuracy 
of  the  tire,  and  the  relation  of  the  piece  to  I 
its  carriage,  and  to  detect  any  defects  of  i 
metal  and  workmanship  that  would  be  likely 
to  impair  their  strength  and  endurance.  I 

Inspection  of  Projectiles.    The  principal  | 
points  to  bo  observed  in  inspecting  shot  and  i 


shells  are,  to  see  that  they  are  of  proper  size 
in  all  their  parts;  that  they  are  made  of 
suitable  metal ;  and  that  they  have  no  de- 
fects, concealed  or  otherwise,  which  will  en- 
danger their  use  or  impair  the  accuracy  of 
their  tire. 

Inspection  of  Shot. — The  instruments  are 
one  large  and  one  small  gauge,  and  one  cyl- 
inder-gauge; the  cylinder-gauge  has  the 
same  diameter  as  the  large  gauge  ;  it  is  made 
of  cast  iron,  and  is  5  calibers  long.  There 
are  also,  one  hammer  with  a  conical  point, 
six  steel  punches,  and  one  searcher  made  of 
wire.  The  shot  should  be  inspected  before 
they  become  rusty  ;  after  being  well  cleaned 
each  shot  is  placed  on  a  table  and  examined 
by  the  eye,  to  see  that  its  surface  is  smooth 
and  that  the  metal  is  sound  and  free  from 
seams,  flaws,  and  blisters.  If  cavities  or 
small  holes  apfiear  on  the  surface,  strike  the 
point  of  the  hammer  or  punch  into  them, 
and  ascertain  their  depth  with  the  searcher  ; 
if  the  depth  of  the  cavity  exceeds  0.2  inch, 
the  shot  is  rejected ;  and  also  if  it  appears 
that  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  conceal 
such  defects  by  filling  them  up  with  nails, 
cement,  etc.  The  shot  must  pass  in  every 
direction  through  the  large  gauge,  and  not 
at  all  through  the  small  one;  the  founder 
should  endeavor  to  bring  the  shot  up  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  large  gauge,  or  to  the  true 
diameter.  After  having  been  thus  exam- 
ined the  shot  are  passed  through  the  cylin- 
der-gauge, which  is  placed  in  an  inclined 
position,  and  turned  from  time  to  time  to 
prevent  its  being  worn  into  furrows;  shot 
which  slide  or  stick  in  the  cylinder  are  re- 
jected. Shot  are  proved  by  dropping  them 
from  a  height  of  20  feet  oii  a  block  of  iron, 
or  rolling  them  down  an  inclined  j)lane  of 
that  height  against  another  shot  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  plane.  The  average  weight  of 
the  shot  is  deduced  from  that  of  three  par- 
cels of  20  to  50  each,  taken  indiscriminately 
from  the  pile ;  some  of  those  which  appear 
to  be  the  smallest  should  also  be  weighed, 
and  they  are  rejected  if  they  fall  short  of  the 
weight  expressed  by  their  caliber  more  than 
one-thirty-second  part.  They  almost  inva- 
riably exceed  that  weight. 

Inspection  of  Grape-  and  Canister-shot. — 
The  dimensions  are  verified  by  means  of  a 
large  and  small  gauge  attached  to  the  same 
handle.  The  surface  of  the  shot  should  bo 
smooth  and  free  from  seams. 

Inspection  of  Hollow  Projectiles. — The  in- 
specting instruments  are  a  large  and  small 
gauge  for  each  caliber,  and  a  cylinder-gauge. 
for  shells  of  8  inches  and  under.  Calipers 
for  measuring  the  thickness  of  shells  at  tho 
sides.  Calipers  to  measure  the  thickness  at 
the  bottom.  Gauges  to  verify  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  fuze-hole  and  the  thickness  of 
the  metal  at  the  fuze-hole.  A  pair  of  hand- 
bellows;  a  wooden  plug  to  fit  the  fuze-hole, 
and  bored  through  to  fit  the  nozzle  of  the 
bellows.  A  hammer,  i\  .learchcr,  a  cold 
chisel,  steel  punches. 

Inspection. — The  surface  of  the  shell  and 


INSPECTOR-GENERAL 


246 


INSULT 


its  exterior  dimensions  are  examined  as  in 
the  case  of  shot.  The  shell  is  next  struck 
with  the  hammer,  to  judge  by  the  sound 
whether  it  is  free  from  cracks;  the  position 
and  dimensions  of  the  ears  are  verified  ;  the 
thickness  of  the  metal  is  then  measured  at 
several  points  on  the  great  circle  perpendic- 
ular to  the  axis  of  the  fuze-hole.  The  diam- 
eter of  the  fuzerhole,  which  should  be  accu- 
rately reamed,  is  then  verified,  and  the 
soundness  of  the  metal  about  the  inside  of 
the  hole  is  ascertained  by  inserting  the  fin- 
ger. The  shell  is  now  placed  on  a  trivet,  in 
a  tub  containing  water  deep  enough  to  cover 
it  nearly  to  the  fuze-hole;  the  bellows  and 
plug  are  inserted  into  the  fuze-hole,  and  the 
air  forced  into  the  shell ;  if  there  be  any 
holes  in  the  shell,  the  air  will  rise  in  bubbles 
through  the  water.  This  test  gives  another 
indication  of  the  soundness  .of  the  metal,  as 
the  parts  containing  cavities  will  dry  more 
slowly  than  other  parts.  The  mean  weight 
of  shells  is  ascertained  in  the  same  manner 
as  that  of  shot.  Shot  and  shells  rejected  in 
the  inspection  are  marked  with  an  X  made 
with  a  cold  chisel, — on  shot  near  the  gate, 
and  on  shells  near  the  fuze-hole. 

Inspector-General.  A  staff-oflScer  of  an 
army,  whose  duties  are  those  of  inspection, 
and'embrace  everything  relative  to  organi- 
zation, recruiting,  discharge,  administration, 
accountability  for  money  and  property,  in- 
struction, po'lice,  and  discipline.  In  the 
French  army,  a  certain  number  of  general 
officers  are  annually  designated  to  make  in- 
spections. 

Inspector-General  of  the  Cavalry.  In 
the  British  service,  a  general  officer  whose 
particular  duty  is  to  inspect  all  cavalry  regi- 
ments, to  report  the  state  of  the  horses,  and 
to  receive  specific  accounts  from  the  different 
corps  of  their  actual  state.  He  communi- 
cates directly  and  confidentially  with  the 
commander-in-chief.  Inspector-general  of 
the  recruiting  service  is  an  officer  of  rank, 
through  whom  the  field-officers  of  districts, 
and  colonels  of  regiments  (when  they  per- 
sonally manage  the  recruiting  service  of 
their  own  corps),  transmit  their  several  re- 
turns to  the  adjutant-general's  office. 

Inspector-General's  Department.  In  the 
United  States,  the  law  provides  for  one  in- 
spector-general, with  the  rank  of  bi-igadier- 
general ;  two  inspectors-general,  with  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-colonel ;  and  two  with  the 
rank  of  major.  Also,  that  the  Secretary  of 
War  may,  in  addition,  detail  oflicers  of  the 
line,  not  to  exceed  four,  to  act  as  inspectors- 
general. 

Installation.  The  act  of  investing  any 
one  with  a  military  order. 

Instruction.  The  education  or  training 
of  soldiers  in  military  duties.  In  the  U.  S. 
service  the  colonel  has  general  charge  of  the 
instruction  of  his  regiment. 

Instructions.  Militarv  directions  or  or- 
ders. 

Instruments,  Military  Musical.  The  in- 
struments which  are  peculiar  to  the  cavalry 


of  most  nations  are  the  trumpet  and  bugle. 
In  France,  dragoon  regiments  in  general 
formerly  adopted  the  drum  in  common  with 
the  infantry  ;  they  now  use  the  trumpet  for 
garrison,  and  the  bugle  for  field  service.  A 
certain  number  of  fifers  are  likewise  allowed 
in  foot  regiments.  In  the  U.  S.  army,  the 
drum,  fife,  and  bugle  are  used  by  foot,  and 
the  trumpet  by  mounted  troops.  There  is 
allowed  a  band  of  musicians  to  each  regi- 
ment, which  usually  serve  at  regimental 
headquarters,  and  is  partly  maintained  by 
the  regimental  fund.  (See  Fund.)  There 
is  also  a  band  employed  at  the  West  Point 
Military  Academy,  which  is  maintained  by 
the  government.  In  the  U.  S.  navy  there 
is  a  band  allowed  to  each  commander-in- 
chief  of  a  fieet,  which  is  also  maintained  by 
the  general  government. 

Instruments,  Warlike  Musical.  The 
Turks  made  use  of  wind  and  clashing  instru- 
ments of  different  shapes  and  sizes ;  all,  ex- 
cept one  wind  instrument,  are  better  calcu- 
lated for  pomp  and  ceremony,  than  adapted 
to  military  service.  The  chishing  instru- 
ments, which  the  French  call  instrumens  a 
choc,  consist  of  two  sorts  of  drums,  and  an 
instrument  which  is  made  of  two  plates  of 
metal.  Their  wind  instruments  consist  of  a 
winding  or  crooked  trumpet,  and  of  a 
wooden  fife.  The  big  drum  which  they  call 
dnul,  stands  8  feet  high.  It  is  carried  by  a 
mounted  drummer,  who  makes  use  of  a  thick 
stick,  with  which  he  strikes  the  upper  part, 
and  a  small  one,  with  which  he  plays  upon 
the  lower  part ;  these  he  applies  alternately, 
with  much  dexterity  of  hand  and  great 
gravity  of  countenance.  This  is  the  only 
instrument  which  the  Turks  use  in  military 
exercises  or  manoeuvres,  and  is  constantly 
beaten  when  the  enemy  is  near,  and  round 
all  the  outposts,  in  order  to  keep  the  senti- 
nels on  the  alert.  On  these  occasions  the 
drummer  exclaims  with  a  loud  voice,  Jagda 
Allah!  that  is,  "  God  is  good  !" 

Insubjection.  Want  of  subjection  ;  state 
of  disobedience  to  government. 

Insubmission.  Want  of  submission  ;  dis- 
obedience. 

Insubordinate.  Not  submissive  ;  not  sub- 
mitting to  authority. 

Insubordination.  The  quality  of  being 
insubordinate;  want  of  subordination  ;  dis- 
order ;  disobedience  to  lawful  authority ;  a 
serious  military  ofl'ense. 

Insubres.  A  Gallic  people,  who  crossed 
the  Alps,  and  settled  in  Gallia  Transpadana, 
in  the  north  of  Italy.  Next  to  the  Boii, 
they  were  the  most  powerful  and  warlike  of 
the"  Gallic  tribes  in  Cisalpine  Gaul.  They 
were  conquered  by  the  Romans  shorth'  be- 
fore the  commencement  of  the  second  Punic 
war. 

Insufficiency.  The  quality  of  being  in- 
sufficient; want  of  sufficiency;  deficiency; 
inadequateness  ;  as,  the  insufficiency  of  pro- 
visions for  a  garrison. 

Insult,  To.  In  a  military  sense,  is  to  at- 
tack boldly  and  in  open  day,  without  going 


INSURGENTS 


247 


INUNDATION 


through  the  slow  operations  of  trenches, 
working  by  mines  and  sujis,  or  liiiving  re- 
course to  those  usual  forms  of  war,  by  ad- 
vancing gradually  towards  the  object  in 
view.  An  enemy  is  said  to  insult  a  coast 
wlien  he  suddenly  appears  upon  it,  and  de- 
barks troops  with  an  immediate  purpose  to 
attack. 

Insurgents.  Soldiers  or  people  generally 
in  a  state  of  insurrection.  The  term,  how- 
ever, admits  of  one  exception.  Hungarian 
insurtcents  {ItiHurrjenicn  die  Uiif/cn'isc/ien) 
mean  the  Hungarian  militia,  called  out  or 
summoned  by  general  proclamation,  as 
under  the  old  feudal  .system. 

Insurrection.  A  rising  against  civil  or 
political  authority  ;  the  open  and  active  op- 
jiosition  of  a  number  of  persons  to  the  exe- 
cution of  law  in  a  city  or  state  ;  a  rebellion  ; 
a  revolt. 

Intenable.  Incapable  of  being  held  ;  un- 
tenable; not  defensible;  as,  an  intenable 
fortress. 

Intendant,  or  Intendant  Militaire.  An 
oflBcer  in  the  French  army  charged  with  the 
organization  and  direction  of  all  the  civil 
services  attending  a  force  in  the  field.  The 
oflScers  acting  under  his  orders  are  those  in 
charge  of  all  the  finance  services,  the  pro- 
visions, stores,  hospitals,  artillery  train,  and 
transport  departments,  besides  the  interpre- 
ters, guides,  and  such  like  temporary  ser- 
vices. The  i ntrnilant-rn-c/u'f  of  an  army  is 
the  representative  of  the  minister  of  war; 
and,  short  of  superseding  the  general's 
orders,  can  exercise,  in  case  of  need,  all 
the  functions  of  that  high  officer  of  state. 
The  intendance  is  divided  into  iiitendants, 
ranking  with  general  officers,  sub-intendants 
with  colonels,  and  assistant-intcndants  with 
majors;  besides  these  there  are  cadets,  who 
receive  no  pay,  and  constitute  a  probationary 
grade. 

Intercept.  To  interrupt  communication 
with,  or  jirogress  towards;  to  cut  off;  as, 
to  intercept  the  march  of  an  army. 

Intcrcombat.     A  combat  between. 

Interior.  A  word  of  varied  ai)})lication  ; 
as,  the  intcriur  flankiug  nn(/le  is  formed  by 
the  curtain  and  line  of  defense.  Interior 
rwtiiis  is  that  part  of  an  oblique  radius  ex- 
tending from  the  centre  of  the  polygon  to 
the  centre  of  the  bastion.  Interior  side  is 
the  line  of  the  curtain  produced  to  the  two 
oblitpie  radii  of  the  front,  or  a  line  drawn 
from  the  centre  of  one  bastion  to  that  of  the 
next. 

Interior  Form  of  Cannon.  The  interior 
of  cannon  may  be  divided  into  three  distinct 
parts:  1st,  the  rent,  or  channel  which  com- 
municates fire  to  the  charge  ;  2d,  t/te  seat  of 
the  charge,  or  chamber,  if  its  diameter  be 
different  fnmi  the  rest  of  the  bore ;  3d,  the 
cylinder,  or  that  portion  of  the  bore  passed 
over  by  the  projectile.  Sec  also  Grooves  for 
RtFLK  Cannon. 

Interior  Guards.  Are  police  guards, 
gtnirds  of  property,  etc.,  who  are  liable  to 
Come  in  contact  with  the  enemv. 


Interior  Slope.  Is  the  inclination  to- 
wards the  inner  part  of  a  work  which  is  given 
to  the  earth  forming  the  rampart  or  parapet. 
Interior  crest  is  the  crest  of  the  interior 
slope. 

Interval.  In  military  disposition.s  and 
manoiuvres,  any  given  distance  or  space.  In 
tactics  the  term  is  used  to  signify  taken  paral- 
lel to  the  front,  as  opposed  to  distance  or 
space  perpendicularly  to  the  front.  Interval 
between  two  battalions  is  the  s]>iice  which  sep- 
arates them  when  they  are  drawn  up  for  ac- 
tion or  when  they  are  encamped.  This  space 
is  generally  wide  enough  to  admit  the  march 
of  another  regiment;  that  is  to  say,  it  is 
equal  to  the  extent  of  its  front  when  in  line. 
Interval  between  the  line  and  the  camp  com- 
prehends the  space  which  lies  between  the 
camp  and  the  line  of  intrenchments.  It  is 
generally  from  180  to  200  toises  in  breadth  ; 
so  that  the  different  sections  of  troops  which 
are  necessary  for  the  security  of  the  camp, 
may  have  room  to  move  in,  while  sufficient 
ground  is  left  in  rear  for  troops  to  pass  and 
repass  as  occasion  may  require.  The  same 
observation  holds  good  with  respect  to  con- 
travallation. 

Intrench.  Is  to  make  secure  against  the 
attack  of  an  enemy  by  digging  a  ditch  or 
trench,  etc.  Ti)  intrench  upon,  to  invade,  to 
make  encroachments  upon  the  property  or 
territories  of  another. 

Intrenched  Camp.  A  large  space  capa- 
ble of  containing  an  entire  army,  sur- 
rounded by  works  of  fortification.  Fre- 
quently an  intrenched  camp  joins  a  fortress, 
in  which  case  it  is  )>rotected  by  permanent 
works  of  considerable  strength — detached 
forts,  for  instance. 

Intrenching  Tool.  An  implement  used 
for  intrenching.  In  view  of  the  deadly  fire 
of  modern  small-arms  it  is  a  matter  of  great 
importance  that  the  soldier  should  be  able  to 
get  cover.  For  this  reason  it  has  been  pro- 
])osed  to  make  an  intrenching  tool  a  }mrt 
of  the  soldier's  equipment.  In  the  I'nitod 
States  army  a  combination  bayonet  and  in- 
trenching tool  is  used.  See  Troavel  Bay- 
onet. 

Intrenchment.  Is  generally  a  ditch  or 
trench  with  a  parapet.  The  earth  removed 
to  form  the  ditch  is  used  to  construct  the 
parapet.  Fascines,  with  earth  thrown  over 
them,  gabions,  hogsheads,  or  bags  tilled 
with  earth,  are  often  employed  to  revet  or 
strengthen  the  work  when  the  earth  is  loose 
or  sandy.  Intrenchments  of  armies  are  the 
whole  works  or  obstacles  by  which  an  army 
or  large  body  of  troops  cover  tliemselvcs  for 
their  defense. 

Intrepidity.  An  unqualified  contempt  of 
death  ;  an  indifference  to  fortune  as  far  as  it 
regards  personal  safety ;  a  fearlessness  of 
heart,  and  a  daring  enterprise  of  mind. 

Inundation.  The  act  of  letting  water 
into  a  country  so  that  it  shall  be  overflowed, 
to  prevent  the  approach  of  an  enemy.  It  is 
among  the  most  considerable  of  the  various 
methods  which  have  been  devised  for  ini- 


INVADE 


248 


IPSWICH 


peding  the  approach  to  a  field-work,  or  in- 
deed, any  fortification. 

Invade,  To.  To  make  a  forcible  or  clan- 
destine entry  into  the  territory  of  another 
state;  to  pass  the  regular  line  of  frontier  of 
any  country,  in  order  to  take  possession  of 
the  interior. 

Invalid.  A  soldier  who  has  been  wounded, 
or  has  suffered  in  his  health,  and  in  conse- 
quence of  his  good  conduct  has  been  recom- 
mended to  a  certain  provision  for  life. 
Chelsea  Hospital  is  the  place  allotted  for  the 
reception  of  such  objects  of  public  gratitude 
and  benevolence  in  England ;  the  Soldiers' 
Home,  in  Washington,  D.  C,  in  the  United 
States,  and  the  Hotel  des  Invalides,  at  Paris, 
France.  In  England  numbers  of  invalids 
are,  however,  allowed  to  reside  where  they 
choose,  and  are  then  known  as  "out-pen- 
sioners." 

Invalides.  Wounded  veterans  of  the 
French  army,  maintained  at  the  expense  of 
the  State.    See  Hotel  des  Invalides. 

Invaliding.  Signifies  the  return  home, 
or  to  a  more  healthy  climate,  of  soldiers  or 
sailors  whom  wounds  or  the  severity  of  for- 
eign service  has  rendered  incapable  of  active 
duty.  The  man  invalided  returns  to  his  duty 
as  soon  as  his  restored  health  justifies  the 
step. 

Invasion.  In  war,  is  the  entrance  or  at- 
tack of  an  enemy  on  the  dominions  of  an- 
other. 

Inventory  of  Effects  of  Deceased  Offi- 
cers and  Soldiers.  See  Appendix,  Arti- 
cles or  War,  125,  126. 

Inverness.  A  royal  burgh  of  Scotland, 
capital  of  a  county  of  the  same  name,  situated 
on  both  sides  of  the  river  Ness.  It  was  a 
city  of  the  Picts  up  to  843  ;  taken  by  Edward 
I.;  retaken  by  Bruce,  1313;  burnt  by  the 
Lord  of  the  Isles,  1411 ;  taken  by  Cromwell, 
1649;  and  by  Prince  Charles  Edward  in 
1746.  The  latter  was  defeated  at  Cullo- 
den,  about  5  miles  from  Inverness,  April  16, 
1746. 

Inversion.  A  movement  in  tactics  by 
which  the  order  of  companies  in  line  is  in- 
verted, the  right  being  on  the  left,  the  left 
on  the  right,  and  so  on. 

Invest.  To  invest  a  place  is  to  seize  upon 
all  the  avenues  leading  to  a  town  or  fortress. 
On  the  occasion  of  an  investment,  the  hostile 
troops  are  distributed  on  the  principal  com- 
mands, to  prevent  any  succor  from  bping 
received  by  the  garrison,  and  to  keep  the 
ground  until  the  rest  of  the  army,  with  the 
artillery,  can  arrive  to  form  a  regular  siege. 
To  invest  a  place  is,  in  fact,  to  take  pre- 
paratory measures  for  a  blockade  or  close 
siege. 

Invincible.  Incapable  of  being  conquered 
or  overcome  ;  unconquerable  ;  insuperable  ; 
as,  an  invincible  army,  etc. 

Inwall.    To  inclose  or  fortify  with  a  wall. 

lona,  Icolmkill,  or  Hii.  The  most  famous 
of  the  Hebrides,  in  Argyle  Co.,  Scotland. 
It  is  about  3  miles  long,  and  varies  in 
breadth  from  a  mile  to  a  mile  and  a  half.    It 


was  founded  by  Saint  Columba,  a  native  of 
Ireland,  in  the  6th  century,  and  long  re- 
mained the  chief  seat  of  learning  and  the 
centre  of  missionary  enterprises  undertaken 
by  the  Culdees.  In  795,  802,  806,  825,  and 
986  the  island  was  ravaged  by  Norsemen, 
by  whom  its  monks  were  martyred  in  the 
three  latter  dates. 

Ionia.  In  Asia  Minor.  About  1040  B.C., 
the  lones,  a  Pelasgic  race,  emigrated  from 
Greece,  and  settled  here  and  on  the  adjoining 
islands.  They  were  conquered  by  the  great 
Cyrus  about  548  B.C.  ;  revolted  in  504,  but 
were  again  subdued.  After  the  victories  of 
Cimon,  Ionia  became  independent  and  re- 
mained so  till  387,  when  it  was  once  more 
subjected  to  Persia.  It  formed  part  of  the 
dominions  of  Alexander  and  his  successors; 
was  annexed  to  the  lloman  empire,  and  con- 
quered by  the  Turks. 

Ionian  Islands.  A  group  of  islands  run- 
ning round  the  west  coast  of  Epirus,  and 
west  and  south  of  Greece.  After  the  di- 
vision of  the  Roman  empire  these  islands 
were  included  in  the  eastern  half,  and  so 
continued  till  1081,  when  the  Duke  of  Cala- 
bria took  possession  of  them.  From  this 
time  they  underwent  a  continual  change  of 
masters  till  the  commencement  of  the  15th 
century,  when  they  by  degrees  came  into 
possession  of  the  Venetians,  who  in  1797 
ceded  them  to  France.  They  were  seized  by 
Russia  and  Turkey  in  1800,  by  France  in 
1807,  by  Great  Britain  in  1809,  and  Novem- 
ber 15,  1815,  they  were  formed  into  a  re- 
public under  the  protectorate  of  the  latter 
power.  In  May,  1864,  they  were  formally 
annexed  to  Greece. 

lonie  Indians.  A  tribe  of  aborigines  allied 
to  the  Caddos,  who  resided  in  Texas,  and 
were  generally  peaceable  and  friendly. 

Iowa,  One  of  the  Central  States  of  the 
United  States,  lying  between  the  Mississippi 
and  Missouri  Rivers.  It  originally  formed 
a  portion  of  the  Louisiana  Territory;  and 
permanent  settlements  commenced  to  be 
formed  in  it  about  1833  ;  organized  as  a  Ter- 
ritory in  1838,  and  admitted  as  a  State  in 
1846.  During  the  civil  war  it  contributed 
its  full  quota  of  troops  to  the  cause  of  the 
Union. 

Iowa  Indians.  A  tribe  of  aborigines  of 
Dakota  stock,  who  inhabited  the  State  which 
now  bears  their  name.  They  were  closely 
allied  to  the  Sacs  and  Foxes. 

Ipsara,  or  Psara.  A  small  island  in  the 
Grecian  Archipelago,  west  of  Scio ;  belongs 
to  Turkey.  It  was  taken  by  the  Turks  in 
1824. 

Ipsus.  A  town  of  Phrygia,  in  Asia  Mi- 
nor. Here  in  301  B.C.,  a  "battle  was  fought 
between  Antigonus,  king  of  Asia,  and  the 
forces  of  Cassander,  Lysimachus,  Ptolemy, 
and  Seleucus,  which  resulted  in  the  defeat 
and  death  of  Antigonus. 

Ipswich.  The  chief  town  of  the  county 
of  Suffolk,  England,  situated  on  the  Orwell. 
This  town  was  destroyed  by  the  Danes  about 
1000. 


IRELAND 


249 


IRON 


Ireland.  Anciently  named  Icrnc  and  Hi- 
her)ti(i,  is  said  to  have  been  first  colonized 
liy  Pho'nicians.  Some  assert  that  Partho- 
liiiii  landed  in  Ireland  about  2048  h.c.  ;  that 
the  descent  of  the  Damnonii  was  made  about 
14(13  no.;  and  that  this  was  f'ullowed  by 
the  descent  of  Ilcrber  and  Ileremon,  Mile- 
sian princes,  from  (ialicia,  Spain,  who  con- 
quered Ireland,  and  gave  to  the  throne  171 
kinijs.  The  Danes  and  Normans  invaded 
Ireland  in  795;  but  were  totally  defeated 
by  Brian  Horiombe  at  C'lontarf,  April  23, 
1014.  In  1172,  King  Henry  II.  of  Eng- 
land invaded  Ireland  with  a  formidable 
armament,  and  received  homage  from  sev- 
eral of  the  minor  native  chiefs,  and  from 
tlie  chief  Norman  adventurers,  granting  to 
the  latter  ciiarters  authorizing  them,  as  his 
subjects,  to  take  possession  of  the  entire  island 
in  his  name;  which  they  jiartially  succeeded 
in  accomjilishing.  Subsequently  the  au- 
thority of  the  English  crown  became  limited 
to  a  few  towns  on  the  coast,  and  the  district 
termed  "  the  Pale,"  comprising  a  small  cir- 
cuit about  Dublin  and  Drogheda.  Henry 
II.  received  the  title  of  "king  of  Ireland" 
in  l.'')41,  b\'  an  act  passed  by  the  Anglo-Irish 
Parliament  in  Dublin  ;  and  about  the  same 

Seriod,  some  of  the  native  princes  were  in- 
uced  to  acknowledge  him  as  their  sover- 
eign, and  to  accept  peerages.  The  attempts 
of  the  English  government  to  introduce  the 
reformed  faith  stirred  up  dissensions  in  Ire- 
land. Among  the  first  to  revolt  was  the 
Earl  of  Desmond,  after  whose  death,  in  1583, 
his  vast  estates  in  Munstcr  were  parceled 
out  to  English  settlers.  Soon  after  the  chief 
clans  of  Ulster  took  up  arms  ;  and  in  oppos- 
ing them,  the  forces  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
commanded  by  officers  of  high  military  rep- 
utation, encountered  many  reverses,  the 
most  serious  of  which  was  that  in  1598  at 
the  battle  of  the  Yellow  P\)rd,  where  the 
English  army  was  routed  and  its  general 
slain.  Philip  III.  of  Spain,  at  the  solicita- 
tion of  the  Irish  chief,  dispatched  a  body  of 
troops  to  their  assistance  in  KJOl,  which 
landed  in  the  extreme  south,  instead  of  in 
the  north,  as  bad  been  expected,  were  unable 
to  effect  anything,  and  were  constrained,  to 
surrender.  Although  Elizabeth  was  sup- 
ported bv  numbers  of  native  Irish,  the 
northern 'chiefs,  ONcill  and  ODonnell,  held 
out  till  the  queen's  government  came  to 
terms  with  them  in  1^03,  recognizing  them 
as  earls  of  Tyrone  and  Tirconnell.  In  H>08 
these  noblemen  having  apprehensions  for 
their  personal  safety  quitted  Ireland,  and  re- 
tired to  the  continent.  Tlieir  withdrawal 
enabled  James  I.  to  carry  out  that  project 
of  parceling  out  the  north  of  Ireland  to 
Protestant  Scotch  and  English  settlers.  Tiie 
Irish  took  advantage  of  the  contentions  in 
England  to  rise  in  insurrection  (1(541)  and 
massacre  the  Pr.)testants.  It  is  believed 
that  nearly  40,000  fell  victims  to  their  fury. 
The  country  continued  in  a  state  of  anarchy 
till  1G49.  when  Cromwell  overran  it.  At 
the  rcvolutifm  the  native  Irish  generally 
17 


took  the  part  of  James  II.,  the  English  and 
Scotch  "colonists'  that  of  William  and 
Marv  ;  and  the  war  was  kept  up  for  four 
years  ( l(;8H-lf;92).  The  Iri.sh  again  reb.-lled 
in  1798,  and  were  not  suppressed  until  1800. 
Ireland  was  incorjiorated  with  England  and 
Scotland  in  1801.  Several  insurrections 
have  taken  place  since  the  latter  date  but 
were  quickh'  suppres.sed.  For  imjiortant 
military  events  in  Ireland,  see  separate  ar- 
ticles. 

Irish  Brigade.  A  body  of  men  who  fol- 
lowed the  fortunes  of  James  II.,  and  were 
formed  into  regiments  under  the  monarchy 
of  France. 

Iron  Cross.  A  Prussian  order  of  knight- 
hood, instituted  on  March  10,  1813,  by 
Frederick  William  III.,  and  conferred  for 
distinguished  services  in  tlie  war  which  was 
then  being  carried  on.  The  decoration  is  an 
iron  cross  with  silver  mounting.  The  grand 
cross,  a  cross  of  double  the  size,  was  pre- 
sented exclusively  for  the  gaining  of  a  deci- 
sive battle,  or  the  capture  or  brave  defense 
of  a  fortress.  It  was  revived  by  William  I. 
in  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  and  awarded 
by  him  to  his  son  for  his  victor}'  at  Weissem- 
bourg,  August  4,  1870. 

Iron  Crown.  The  crown  of  the  ancient 
Lombard  kings  ;  is  a  broad  band  of  gold  set 
with  jewels,  within  which  is  a  thin  plate  or 
fillet  of  iron,  and  is  declared  by  tradition  to 
have  been  hammered  from  one  of  the  nails 
of  the  true  cross.  It  has  been  used  at  the 
coronation  of  34  different  monarchs,  includ- 
ing Charlemagne,  Henry  VII.  of  (Germany, 
Charles  V.,  and  Napoleon.  After  the  peace 
of  ^'ienna  in  180(),  the  crown  was  presented 
by  the  emperor  of  Austria  to  Victor  Em- 
manuel, king  of  Italy. 

Iron  Ores.     Characier  of  Pig-iron. — Ores 
suitable  for  "gun-metal"  should  be  reduced 
in  the  smelting-furnace,  with  charcoal  and 
the  warm  blast,  varying  from  125°  to  300° 
Fahr.,  depending  upon  the  ore  used.     Iron 
thus  made,  or  pig-iron,  should  be  soft,  yield- 
ing easily  to  the  file  and  chisel ;  the  appear- 
ance of  the  fracture  should  be  uniform,  with 
i  a    brilliant    aspect,    dark    gray    color,    and 
I  medium-sized  crystals.      Clmracfer  uf  Guu- 
mctal. — When  remelted  and  cast  into  can- 
:  non,  it  should  approach  that  degree  of  hard- 
,  ness  which  resists  the  file  and  cjiisel,  but  not 
so  hard  as  to  be  bored  and  turned  with  much 
!  difficulty.     Its   color    should    be   a    bright, 
j  lively  gray  ;   crj'stals  small,  with  acute  an- 
I  glos,  and  sharp  to  the  touch  ;  structure  uni- 
1  form,  close,  and  compact.     M(X(jnetite.  —  Oc- 
1  tahrdral  Iron  Ore. — Color  iron-black.  Streak 
I  black.     Brittle.    The  black  streak  and  mag- 
j  netic  properties  distinguish  this  species  from 
'  the  following  :     Specular  Iron  Ore. — Ilema- 
1  iitc. — Often   massive   granular  ;    sometimes 
!  lamellar   or   micaceous.     Also    pulverulent 
j  and  earthy.     Color,  dark  steel-gray  or  iron- 
''  black,  and  often  when  crystallized  having  a 
j  highly  splendid  lustre ;  streak-powder  cherry- 
I  red  or  reddish-brown.     The  metallic  varie- 
.  ties  pass  into  an  earthy  ore  of  a  red  color, 


IRONS 


250 


ISSUES 


having  none  of  the  external  characters  of 
the  crystals,  but  perfectly  corresponding  to 
them  when  they  are  pulverized,  the  powder 
they  yield  being  of  a  deep  red  color,  and 
earthy  or  without  lustre.  Sometimes  slightly 
attracted  by  the  magnet.  Limonite. — Brown 
Iron  Ore. — Usually  massive,  and  often  with 
a  smooth  botryoidal  or  stalactitic  surface, 
having  a  compact  fibrous  structure  within. 
Also  earthy.  Color,  dark  brown  to  ochre- 
yellow  ;  streak,  yellowish-brown  to  dull  yel- 
low. Lustre,  sometimes  sub-metallic;  often 
dull  and  earthy ;  on  a  surface  of  fracture 
frequently  silky.  Spathic  Iron. — Carbonate 
of  Iron. — Chalyb'ite. — Usually  massive,  with 
a  foliated  structure,  somewhat  curving. 
Sometimes  in  globular  concretions  or  im- 
planted globules.  Color,  light  grayish  to 
brown  ;  often  dark  brownish-red,  or  nearly 
black  on  exposure.  Streak,  uncolored.  Lus- 
tre, pearly  to  vitreous  ;  translucent  to  nearly 
opaque. 

Irons.  Tetters  or  instruments  made  of 
iron,  with  which  a  prisoner  is  shackled.  To 
be  put  in  irons,  is  to  be  handcuffed  and  con- 
fined in  fetters. 

Ironsides.  A  strong  man.  A  cuirassier  ; 
— applied  also  to  Cromwell's  cavalrj'. 

Iroquois,  or  Six  Nations.  The  name 
given  by  the  French  to  the  Indian  con- 
federacy of  the  Mohawks,  Oneidas,  Ononda- 
gas,  Cayugas,  and  Senecas,  to  which  were 
afterwards  added  the  Tuscaroras,  after  being 
driven  from  their  hunting-grounds  in  North 
Carolina.  This  once  formidable  confederacy 
is  now  nearly  extinguished,  but  remnants  of 
it  are  still  found  scattered  through  the  State 
of  New  York. 

Irregular.  Not  regular ;  not  according 
to  common  form  or  rules;  as,  an  irregular 
building  or  fortification.  See  Fortifica- 
tion, Irregular. 

Irregular  Cavalry.  A  term  now  almost 
obsolete.  It  applied  a  few  years  ago  to  regi- 
ments of  horsemen  raised  under  certain  con- 
ditions in  the  East  Indies.  These  conditions 
were  that  each  man  should  provide  his  own 
horse,  arms,  accoutrements,  and  clothing, 
receiving  in  return  a  monthly  sum,  which 
also  included  his  pay.  To  these  regiments 
only  three  English  officers  were  appointed, 
the  other  officers  being  natives.  These  regi- 
ments are  still  paid  in  the  same  way,  but 
they  are  clothed,  armed,  and  equipped  in  a 
uniform  manner ;  the  number  of  British 
officers  is  increased,  and  they  are  no  longer 
styled  irregular  cavalry. 

Irregularity.  A  violation  of  the  customs 
of  service, — a  delinquency  which  is  subject  to 
censure  but  not  serious  enough  to  be  brought 
before  a  court-martial. 

Irun.  A  town  of  Spain,  near  the  left  bank 
of  the  Bidassoa.  It  is  a  place  of  great  an- 
tiquity, having  been  in  existence  in  the  time 
of  the  Romans.  The  Carlists  were  defeated 
by  the  British  Legion,  under  Gen.  Sir  de 
Lacy  Evans,  in  the  battle  of  Irun,  May  16, 
1837. 

Isabella  the  Catholic,  Order  of.     A  Span- 


ish order  of  knighthood,  founded  by  Ferdi- 
nand VII.,  March  24,  1815,  as  a  reward  of 
loyalty,  for  the  defense  of  the  possessions  of 
Spanish  America.  At  present,  it  is  conferred 
for  all  kinds  of  merit.  The  sovereign  is  the 
head  of  the  order,  which  is  divided  into  the 
three  classes  of  Grand  Crosses,  Commanders, 
and  Knights. 

Isauria.  A  province  in  Asia  Minor,  the 
inhabitants  of  which  were  a  wild  and  semi- 
barbarous  race,  who  lived  by  rapine  and 
plunder.  The  Romans  surrounded  Isauria 
with  a  chain  of  fortresses,  but  the  Isaurians 
broke  through  them  and  remained  as  un- 
tamable as  before.  Under  the  empire,  army 
after  army  was  sent  against  Isauria,  which 
stood  to  Rome,  and  afterwards  to  Constanti- 
nople, very  much  in  the  relation  that  Cir- 
cassia  now  does  to  Russia.  In  the  8th  cen- 
tury their  national  vanity  was  gratified  by  a 
countryman  of  their  own  being  appointed  to 
the  throne.  From  this  date  they  gradually 
ceased  to  be  formidable. 

Ischia.  An  island  in  the  Gulf  of  Naples, 
6  miles  from  the  coast,  and  17  miles  west 
from  Naples.  In  1807,  Ischia  was  taken  by 
a  British  and  Sicilian  force. 

Isernia.  A  place  in  Southern  Italy,  on  the 
west  slope  of  the  Apennines,  where  the  Sar- 
dinian general  Cialdini  defeated  the  Nea- 
politans, October  17,  1860. 

Isle  of  France.    See  Mauritius. 

Ismail,  or  Ismailov.  A  strong  town  of 
Turkey  in  Europe,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Kilia  arm  of  the  Danube.  This  place  was 
long  in  the  possession  of  the  Turks  ;  it  was 
stormed  by  the  Russians,  under  Suwarrow, 
in  1790.  It  remained  in  the  possession  of 
Russia  until  1856,  when  it  was  restored  to 
Turkey  by  the  removal  of  the  Russian  fron- 
tier. 

Isole  {Fr.).  This  word  is  used  among  the 
French,  to  express  any  body  or  thing  which 
is  detached  from  another.  It  is  variously 
applied  in  fortification.  Thus  a  pavilion  or 
a  barrack  which  is  not  joiried  to  any  other 
wall  or  building  is  called  isole,  because  it 
stands  alone,  and  a  person  may  walk  en- 
tirely round  it.  A  parapet  is  also  said  to  be  \ 
isole  when  there  is  an  interval  of  4  or  5  feet  i 
existing  between  the  rampart  and  its  wall; 
which  interval  serves  as  a  path  for  the 
rounds. 

Ispahan.     A  famous  city  of  Persia,  capi- 
tal of  the  province  of  Ira'k-Ajemi,  situated       : 
on  the  Zendarud.     In  1722  it  was  taken  by       j 
the  Afghans,  and  in  1729  was   retaken  by 
Nadir  Shah.     It  has  fallen  gradually  into 
decay. 

Issue.  Event;  consequence;  the  ultimate 
result  of  any  undertaking  ;  the  termination 
of  any  contest.  A  term  also  applied  to  the 
distribution  of  supplies;  as,  issue  of  rations, 
issue  of  clothing,  etc.,  to  troops. 

Issues.  In  the  British  service,  are  cer- 
tain sums  of  money  which  are,  at  stated  pe- 
riods, given  to  public  accountants  fur  public 
service;  and  for  the  honest  distribution  of 
which,  every  individual  so  intrusted  is  re- 


ISSUS 


251 


JACK 


sponsible  to  Parliament.  Regimental  issues 
are  moneys  paid  by  regimental  agents,  acting 
under  tlie  authority  of  their  respective  colo- 
nels, fur  regimental  purposes. 

Issus.  An  ancient  city  and  seaport  in 
Cilicia,  in  Asia  Minor,  close  to  the  frontier 
of  Syria,  on  or  near  the  head  of  the  Sinus 
Issicus,  now  the  Gulf  of  Scanderoon.  It 
was  in  the  neigliborhood  of  this  city  that 
Alexander  the  (ireat  annihilated  the  Persian 
army  under  Darius  in  383  u.c.  Hero  too 
wasfouglit  (1'J4  A.D.),  the  bloody  battle  be- 
tween Sej)tinuis  Severus  and  Pescennius 
Niger,  by  virtue  of  which  the  former  be- 
came sole  master  of  the  Konuin  emj)ire.  The 
exact  site  of  Issus  has  not  yet  been  dis- 
covered. 

Istalif.  A  town  of  Afghanistan,  province 
of  Cabul  (  Cabool ).  It  was  taken  and  partly 
destroyed  by  the  British  in  1842. 

Italy.  A  peninsula  in  the  south  of  Eu- 
rope. The  invading  Pelasgians  from  Greece, 
and  the  aborigines  (  Umbrians,  Oscans,  and 
Etruscans  ),  combined,  formed  the  renowned 
Latin  race  still  possessing  the  southern  part 
of  Europe.  The  history  of  Italy  is  soon  ab- 
sorbed into  that  of  Rome,  founded  753  B.C. 
Previous  to  the  loth  century  it  was  desolated 
by  intestine  wars  and  the  interference  of  the 
German  emperors;  since  then,  Spain,  France, 
and  Germany  have  struggled  for  the  posses- 
sion of  the  country,  which  has  been  divided 
among  them  several  times.  Spain  predomi- 
nated in  Italy  during  the  IGth  and  17th  cen- 
turies;  but  was  compelled  to  yield  to  the 
house  of  Austria  at  the  beginning  of  the  18th 
century.  The  victories  of  Bonaparte  in  17'J7- 
98  changed  the  government  of  Italy ;  but 
the  Austrian  rule  was  re-established  at  the 
peace  of  1814.  In  1848  the  Mihmeso  and 
Venetians  revolted  and  joined  Piedmont, 
but  were  subdued  by  Kadetzky.  The  hostile 
feeling  between  Austria  and  Piedmont 
gradually  increased  till  war  broke  out  in 
April,  1859,  in  which  the  Austrians  were  de- 


feated, and  the  kingdom  of  Italy  was  re- 
established in  18(Jl.  Another  war  with  Aus- 
tria was  declared  in  June,  18G(J,  but  peace 
was  signed  in  October,  same  year,  and  Ve- 
netia  was  ceded  to  Italy.  For  other  details, 
see  Ko.ME  and  the  various  Italian  cities 
throughout  thi.s  volume. 

Ithome.  A  mountain  fortress  of  Me.ssenia, 
memorable  for  the  defense  there  made  for 
many  years  against  the  Spartan.s  in  the  first 
Messenian  war.  It  was  afterwards  the  cita- 
del of  Messene,  when  that  city  was  founded 
by  Epaminondas. 

Itinerairies  {  Fr.).  Itinerary  movements 
or  days  of  march.  A  technical  phrase  among 
the  French  to  denote  the  order  and  the  dis- 
position which  a  body  of  men  or  an  army  is 
directed  to  observe  in  its  march  from  "one 
camp  to  another,  or  to  any  particular  quarter 
or  destination. 

Itzehoe.  An  ancient  town  in  the  duchy 
of  Holstein.  The  original  castle  around 
which  Itzehoe  was  built  by  Charlemagfie  in 
SO'J.  This  town  was  twice  taken  by  Tilly 
in  the  Thirty  Years'  "War,  and  in  1G57  a 
great  portion  of  it  was  burned  down  by  the 
Swedes. 

Ivry-la-Bataille.  A  town  of  Franco, 
department  of  Eure,  40  miles  west  of  Paris. 
It  is  celebrated  for  the  decisive  victory 
which  was  gained  by  Henry  IV.  of  Navarre 
over  the  forces  under  the  Duke  of  Mayenne 
in  1590. 

Ixcaquixtla.  A  town  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  state  of  Puobla,  Mexico.  It  is 
noted  in  3Iexican  history  as  the  scene  of  a 
sharp  battle  fought  January  1,  1817,  between 
Mexican  insurgents  under  Gen.  Mier  of 
Teran,  and  the  Spanish  troops  under  La 
Madrid. 

Izucar.  A  city  of  the  state  of  Puehla, 
Mexico.  Near  here  Gen.  Matamoros,  light- 
ing for  the  independence  of  his  country, 
gained  a  victory  over  the  Spaniards,  Febru- 
ary 24,  1812. 


Jaca,  or  Jacca.  A  fortified  town  of  Spain, 
in  the  province  of  Aragon,  situated  at  the 
foot  of  the  Pyrin ?es,  on  the  river  Aragon. 
It  ia  ft  town  of  great  antiquity,  and,  from 
its  position,  has  been  the  scene  of  many 
sanguinary  contests.  Its  occupation  was 
eagerly  coveted  by  every  invader  of  the 
Peninsula,  from  Cato  and  Julius  Ciesar  to 
the  generals  of  Napoleon. 

Jack.    See  Implements. 

Jack  (Fr.  jncque).  A  coat  of  defensive 
armor,  quilted  and   covered   with   leather, 


worn  particularly  by  horsemen ;  a  bulT- 
jcrkin  ;   rarely,  a  coat  of  mail. 

Jack.  Hydraulic.   See  Hydkaulic  Jack. 

Jack  in  the  Box.  A  very  handy  engine, 
consisting  of  a  large  wooden  male-screw 
turning  in  a  female  one.  which  forms  tho 
upper  part  of  a  strong  wooden  box,  sluipcd 
like  the  frustum  of  a  pyramid.  It  is  used 
by  means  of  levers  pa^^sing  through  holes 
in  it  as  a  press  in  packing,  and  for  other 
purposes. 

Jack  Wambasium.     A  sort  of  coat  ar- 


JACK-BOOTS 


252 


JAMAICA 


mor,  formerly  worn  by  horsemen,  not  of 
solid  iron  but  of  many  plates  fastened  to- 
gether, which  some  persons  by  tenure  were 
bound  to  furnish  upon  any  invasion. 

Jack-boots.  Cavalry  boots,  made  of  thick, 
firm  leather,  hardened  in  a  peculiar  manner. 
They  were  sometimes  lined  with  plates  of 
iron. 

Jacket.  A  short,  close  garment,  extend- 
ing downward  to  the  hips  ;  a  short  military 
coat  is  so  called.  In  the  manufacture  of 
ordnance  a  tube  inclosing  and  reinforcing 
another  tube  is  called  a  jacket. 

Jack-man.  One  wearing  a  jack  ;  a  horse- 
soldier;  a  retainer. 

Jack-screw.     See  Implements. 

Jacob,  St.  A  Swiss  hamlet,  about  a  mile 
south  of  Basle,  on  the  Bienne  road,  and  the 
scene  of  a  great  battle  fought  in  1444,  be- 
tween 1600  Swiss  and  a  vastly  more  numer- 
ous French  force,  under  the  dauphin,  after- 
wards Louis  XI.  The  Swiss  fought  for  ten 
hours,  slew  three  times  their  number  of  the 
enemy,  but  were  themselves  cut  oif  to  10 
men.  This  battle  is  known  as  the  "  Swiss 
Thermopylae." 

Jacobins.  One  of  those  clubs  which 
played  so  conspicuous  a  part  in  the  first 
French  revolution.  In  1792  they  took  the 
name  of  "The  Society  of  the  Friends  of 
Liberty  and  Equality."  Immediately  after 
the  fall  of  the  king,  the  Jacobins  began  that 
struggle  against  the  Girondists  which  ended 
in  the  destruction  of  the  latter.  After  the 
fall  of  Eobespierre  during  the  Convention 
they  rapidly  lost  influence,  and  were  at  last 
suppressed. 

Jacobites.  This  name  was  given  to  those 
who,  at  the  English  revolution  in  1688,  ad- 
hered to  the  cause  of  the  dethroned  James 
II.  In  Ireland  the  adherents  of  the  Stuarts 
rose  in  rebellion,  but  were  vanquished  by 
force  of  arms.  In  Scotland  attempts  were 
made  in  1715  and  1745  by  the  descendants 
and  adherents  of  James  II.  to  expel  the 
house  of  Hanover.  Both  were  unsuccessful, 
and  involved  the  ruin  of  many  noble  fami- 
lies. 

Jacob's-staff.  A  mathematical  instru- 
ment for  taking  heights  and  distances,  used 
by  military  engineers. 

Jacquerie,  Insurrection  of  the.  The 
name  given  to  the  war  of  the  French  peas- 
antry, which  broke  out  in  1358.  The  im- 
mediate occasion  of  it  was  the  enormities 
perpetrated  by  Charles  the  Bad,  king  of 
Navarre,  and  his  adherents  ;  but  it  was  really 
caused  by  long-continued  oppression  on  the 
part  of  the  nobles.  Suddenly  rising  against 
their  lords,  the  peasants  laid  hundreds  of 
castles  in  ruins,  murdered  the  nobles,  and 
violated  their  wives  and  daughters,  practicing 
every  enormity,  and  acting,  as  they  said,  on 
the  principle  of  doing  as  had  been  done  to 
them.  For  some  weeks  they  were  successful ; 
but  the  magnitude  of  the  danger  induced 
the  .nobles  to  make  common  cause  against 
them,  and  on  June  9  the  peasants  were  de- 
feated with  great  slaughter  near  Meaux  by 


Captal  de  Buch  and  Count  of  Foix.     This 
put  an  end  to  the  insurrection. 

Jade  (Fr.).  A  very  hard  stone,  of  an 
olive  color,  from  which  the  handles  of  swords 
and  sabres  are  manufactured  in  Poland  and 
Turkey. 

Jaen.  Formerly  an  independent  Moorish 
kingdom  ;  is  now  a  province  of  Spain.  It 
was  conquered  by  the  Moors  on  their  en- 
trance into  Spain.  Jaen  maintained  its  in- 
dependence as  a  Moorish  state  till  1234, 
when  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Ferdinand 
III.,  and  was  added  to  the  kingdom  of  Cas- 
tile. 

Jaffa,  Yafa,  or  Joppa.  A  town  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  in  the  province  of  Syria,  on  the 
Mediterranean.  This  place  attained  its 
greatest  prosperity  in  the  times  of  the  Cru- 
saders, when  it  became  the  principal  landing- 
place  of  the  warriors  of  Christendom.  In 
1799  it  was  stormed  by  the  French  under 
Bonaparte,  and  here  was  perpetrated  his 
shameful  massacre  of  Turkish  prisoners.  In 
1832,  Mohammed  Ali  made  himself  master 
of  it;  but  the  Turks,  with  the  assistance  of 
the  British  and  Austrians,  took  it  from  him 
again  in  1840. 

Jaffna,  or  Jaffnapatam.  The  capital  of 
the  district  of  Jaftnapatam,  in  Ceylon.  The 
town  is  fortified,  and  possesses  a  good  cita- 
del ;  but  it  was  taken,  after  a  short  resist- 
ance, by  the  British  troops  in  1795. 

Jaghire.  An  Indian  term,  signifying  the 
assignment  of  the  revenues  of  a  district  to 
a  servant  or  dependant  of  government, 
who  is  hence  called  Jaghirdar.  Jaghires 
are  frequently  given  in  India  to  persons  as  a 
reward  and  compensation  for  their  military 
services. 

Jaghire  Asham.     An  Indian  term,  signi- 
I  fying  land  granted  for  the  support  of  the 
troops. 

Jahpoor.  A  town  of  Hindostan,  in  the 
presidency  of  Bengal,  15  miles  from  Agra. 
This  place  has  been  the  scene  of  two  decisive 
battles ;  the  first  fought  in  1688,  between 
Aurungzebe  and  his  brother  Darah  Sheeoh  ; 
and  the  second,  in  1707,  between  Alum  and 
Azain  Ushaum,  all  Indian  princes. 

Jalapa.  A  city  of  the  Mexican  confed- 
eration, 60  miles  west-northwest  of  Vera 
Cruz.  In  1847-48  the  American  troops  occu- 
pied it. 

Jalet  {Fr.).  See  Galet. 
•  Jalons  (Fr.).  Long  poles  with  a  wisp  of 
straw  at  the  top.  They  are  fixed  at  different 
places  and  in  diff'erent  roads,  to  serve  as  sig- 
nals of  observation  to  advancing  columns, 
when  the  country  is  inclosed,  etc.  They 
are  likewise  used  as  camp  colors  to  mark  out 
the  ground  on  days  of  exercise. 

Jamaica.  One'of  the  West  India  Islands, 
or  Greater  Antilles,  which  belongs  to  Great 
Britain,  and  forms  the  most  considerable  and 
valuable  of  its  possessions  in  that  quarter. 
It  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1494,  and 
colonized  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  early  part 
of  the  16th  century.  In  1655  it  was  taken 
bv  the  English,  when  3000  British  soldiers 


JAMB 


253 


JAUTS 


who  had  served  in  the  Parliamentary  army 
settled  there.  In  18G6  a  revolt  of  a  large 
portion  of  the  negro  population  took  pluee, 
wliicii  was  promptly  suppressed. 

Jamb.     To  squeeze  tiglit. 

Jambeaux,  or  Jambes  (Fr.).  Greaves; 
nriiior  for  the  legs,  made  of  waxed  leather 
or  metal ;  much  used  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

James  of  the  Sword,  St.  A  military 
order  in  Spain,  instituti'd  in  1170  under  the 
reign  of  Ferdinand  II.,  king  of  Leon  and 
Galicia.  Its  ohject  was  to  put  a  .stop  to  the 
incursions  of  the  Moors ;  these  knights 
obliging  themselves  by  a  vow  to  secure  the 
roads.  The  highest  dignity  in  that  order  is 
that  of  grand  master,  which  has  been  united 
to  the  crown  of  Spain.  The  knights  were 
obliged  to  give  proof  of  their  descent  from 
families  that  had  been  noble  for  four  genera- 
tions on  both  sides  ;  they  were  also  required 
to  make  it  appear  that  their  ancestors  were 
neither  Jews,  Saracens,  nor  heretics,  nor  had 
ever  been  called  into  question  by  the  Inquisi- 
tion. 

James  Island.  One  of  the  sea  islands  of 
Charleston  Co.,  S.  C,  having  Charleston 
harbor  and  Ashley  River  on  the  north.  The 
battle  of  Secessionville  (June  11,  18G3)  and 
several  other  spirited  engagements  occurred 
upon  this  island  during  the  late  civil  war. 

James  Projectile.     See  Pkojectiles. 

James  Rifle.  An  American  sporting  rifle, 
which  was  popular  many  years  ago. 

James,  St.  A  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Manche.  William  the  Con- 
queror built  a  strong  fortress  here,  which 
remained  in  possession  of  the  English  till 
1448. 

Jamestown.  A  former  village  of  James 
City  Co.,  Va.,  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
James  Kiver.  The  first  English  settlement 
in  the  United  States  was  made  at  this  place 
in  1G08,  but  nothing  now  remains  but  a  few 
ruins.  The  forces  of  Wayne  and  Lord 
Cornwallis  had  an  engagement  near  here  in 
1781. 

Jangar.  A  kind  of  ponton  constructed  of 
two  boats  with  a  platform  laid  across  then^ 
which  is  used  by  the  natives  in  the  East 
Indies  to  convoy  horses,  cattle,  etc.,  across 
rivers. 

Janissar-Agasi.  Commander-in-chief  of 
the  Janissaries. 

Janissaries  (Turk,  icni  ichrri,  "  new  sol- 
diers ' ).  An  order  of  infantry  in  the  Turkish 
army  :  originally  prisoners  trained  to  arms; 
were  first  organized  by  Orcan,  about  LS.'iO, 
and  remodeled  by  his  son  Amurath  I.,  1300; 
their  numbers  being  increased  by  following 
sultans.      In   later   days   they   degenerated 


iscipii 
1.    Di 


deposed  the  sultan.  During  an  insurrectn)n, 
June  14-1.5,  IS'iG,  when  nearly  8000  of  thenj 
were  killed,  the  Ottoman  army  was  reorgan- 
ized, and  a  firman  was  issued  on  June  17 
•bolishing  the  Janissaries. 

Januarius,  Order  of  St.  An  order  of 
knighthood  founded  by  King  Charles  of 
Sicily  (afterwards  Charles  III.  of  Spain)  on 


July  6,  1738.  It  was  abolished  after  the 
French  invasion  of  1806,  and  re-introduced 
in  1814.  The  badge  is  a  gold  octagonal 
white  and  red  enameled  cross,  with  gold 
lilies  in  the  upper  and  side  angles.  The  ob- 
verse represents  St.  Januarius  in  episco|)al 
robes  with  an  open  book.  The  round  mid- 
dle of  the  reverse  shows  a  golden  open  book, 
and  two  j)hials  partly  filled  with  blood.  The 
kniglits  arc  either  Cttvnlieri  di  Giitsiizia, 
who  must  count  four  noble  generations,  or 
C'livnlieri  di  Grazia. 

Japan.  An  Asiatic  empire,  composed  of 
Japan,  or  Niphon,  and  3850  isles,  with 
nearly  40,000,000  inhabitants.  For  military 
events  in  Japan,  see  separate  articles  in  this 
book. 

Jargeau.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment Loiret,  10  miles  from  Orleans. 
This  place  was  taken,  after  a  short  siege,  by 
the  Earl  of  Salisbury,  in  1428. 

Jarnac.  A  town  of  France,  situated  on 
the  Charente.  The  Protestants  under  Co- 
ligny  and  the  Prince  of  Conde  were  defeated 
near  Jarnac  in  1G59,  when  the  latter  was 
slain. 

Jassy,  or  Yassy.  The  chief  town  of  Mol- 
davia, and  the  residence  of  the  hospodar  or 
prince  of  that  country.  Jassy  has  been  fre- 
quently taken  by  the  Russians,  but  it  has 
always  been  restored  at  the  conclusion  of 
each  war  with  Turkey.  In  1822  it  was 
burned  by  the  Janissaries,  from  which  dis- 
aster it  has  never  recovered. 

Jauts,  or  Jats.  A  people  of  Hindostan, 
who  have  at  ditl'eront  times  made  some  fig- 
ure in  its  annals.  The  first  historical  men- 
tion of  them  occurs  in  the  beginning  of  the 
11th  century,  on  the  invasion  of  India  by 
Mahmoud  the  Gaznevide,  when  they  were 
completely  defeated  and  driven  into  the 
mountainous  districts  of  the  interior  of 
India.  A\"e  find  them  afterwards,  under  the 
growing  imbecility  of  Aurungzebe's  succes- 
sors, continually  extending  their  conquests. 
They  sutfercd  a  reverse,  however,  at  the 
hands  of  Ahmed  Shah,  the  sovereign  of 
Cabul,  who  invaded  Northern  India,  and 
overran  a  great  portion  of  their  territory. 
The  Jaut  chief  afterwards  became  an  ally  of 
Ahmed  Shah,  having  treacherously  betrayed 
his  former  allies,  the  Mahrattas,  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Paniput,  January  14,  1761.  When 
the  British  power  became  predominant,  the 
rajah  of  the  Jauts,  Rungeet  Sing,  sought  se- 
curity by  concluding  a  treaty  by  which  he 
agreed  to  assist  England  against  all  enemies, 
and  by  this  means  he  retained  the  government 
of  his"  territories.  In  1808,  however,  on  the 
defeat  of  Holkar  by  the  British,  he  received 
into  Bhurtpore  the  discomfited  army.  The 
city  was  besieged,  and  cost  the  British  an 
immense  number  of  lives ;  but  at  length, 
despairing  of  eflectual  resistance,  the  rajah 
agreed  to" compel  Holkar  to  quit  the  place. 
For  this  breach  of  the  terms  of  the  treaty 
he  was  compelled  by  the  English  to  pay  a 
heavy  fine.  Disputes  about  the  succession 
to  the  throne  afterwards  led  to  the  inter- 


JAVA 


254 


JIDDAH 


feronce  of  the  British,  and  the  hitherto  im- 
pregnable fortress  of  Bhurtpore  was  taken 
by  Lord  Combermere,  January  18,  1826, 
after  a  desperate  resistance  on  the  part  of 
the  Jauts. 

Java.  A  hirge  island  in  the  Eastern 
Archipelago;  is  said  to  have  been  reached 
by  the  Portuguese  in  1511,  and  by  the 
Dutch  in  1595.  The  latter,  who  now  pos- 
sess it,  built  Batavia,  the  capital,  about  1619. 
The  atrocious  massacre  of  20,000  of  the  un- 
armed natives  by  the  Dutch,  sparing  neither 
women  nor  children,  to  possess  their  effects, 
took  place  in  1740.  The  island  capitulated 
to  the  British,  September  18,  1811  ;  but  it 
was  restored  to  Holland  in  1814. 

Javelin  {'Lat.  pUu))i).  A  short  and  light 
spear  used  for  darting  against  an  enemy. 
In  the  ancient  Eoman  legions,  the  first  and 
second  lines  were  armed  with  them,  and  in 
those  days  they  were  considered  excellent 
offensive  weapons. 

Je  Maintiendrai  ("I  will  maintain").  The 
motto  of  the  house  of  Nassau.  When  Wil- 
liam III.  came  to  the  throne  of  England, 
he  continued  this,  but  added  "  the  liberties 
of  England  and  the  Protestant  religion," 
at  the  same  time  ordering  that  the  old  motto 
of  the  royal  arms,  "  Z>ie?6  ct  mon  d7-oit" 
should  be  retained  on  the  great  seal,  1689. 

Jean  de  Pied  de  Port,  St.  A  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  the  Lower 
Pyrenees,  on  the  Nive.  Near  this  place  is 
the  pass  of  Eoncevaux,  or  Koncesvalles, 
where,  in  778,  the  army  of  Charlemagne  was 
defeated,  and  Holland,  the  distinguished 
Paladin,  mortally  wounded. 

Jelalabad.  A  town  of  Afghanistan ; 
capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  75 
miles  southeast  from  Cabul  (Cabool).  It 
is  memorable  for  the  successful  resistance 
made  there  in  1841-42  by  Sir  Kobert  Sale, 
with  a  handful  of  British  troops  against  a 
large  besieging  force  of  Afghans.  Its  forti- 
fications were  destroyed  by  the  British  in 
1842,  when  they  evacuated  the  country. 

Jeloudar.  An  East  Indian  term,  signify- 
ing to  belong  to  the  train  or  equipage. 

Jemadar.  A  native  lieutenant  in  an 
Indian  native  infantry  or  cavalry  regiment. 

Jemappes.  A  village  and  commune  of 
Belgium,  in  the  province  of  Hainault,  2 
miles  west  from  Mons.  In  1792,  the  French 
under  Dumouriez  gained  a  great  victory 
over  the  Austrians  near  this  place. 

Jemaulabad.  A  town  and  fortress  in  the 
south  of  India,  province  of  Canara,  which 
was  originally  called  Narasingha  Augady. 
The  first,  which  was  built  by  Tippoo,  stands 
on  the  summit  of  an  immense  rock,  which 
may  be  deemed  impregnable,  as  it  is  wholly 
inaccessible  except  by  one  narrow  way. 
After  the  fall  of  Seringapatam,  it  sustained 
a  siege  of  six  weeks  from  the  British,  when 
being  bombarded,  it  was  taken,  and  the 
commander  having  poisoned  himself,  his 
principal  officers  were  hanged.  It  was 
afterwards  surprised  and  taken  by  a  band  of 
insurgents  or  plunderers,  when  it  was  re- 


duced, after  a  blockade  of  three  months,  and 
all  that  did  not  escape  were  summarily  exe- 
cuted. 

Jena.  A  town  of  Germany,  in  the  grand 
duchy  Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach,  situated  in 
a  romantic  valley  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Leutra  with  the  Saale.  In  this  vicinity  was 
fought  the  great  battle  of  Jena,  October  14, 
1806,  between  the  French  and  Prussian 
armies,  in  which  the  latter  was  totally  de- 
feated. 

Jenizer-effendi.  An  appointment  among 
the  Turks,  which  in  some  degree  resembles 
that  of  provost-marshal  in  European  armies. 
The  only  functions  which  this  olScer  is  per- 
mitted to  exercise  are  those  of  judge  to  the 
company.  He  sits  on  particular  days  for 
the  purpose  of  hearing  the  complaints  of  the 
soldiers,  and  of  settling  their  difierences.  If 
a  case  of  peculiar  difiiculty  should  occur,  he 
reports  the  case  to  the  Aga,  whose  opinion 
and  determination  are  final. 

Jericho.  Once  one  of  the  most  flourish- 
ing cities  of  Palestine,  situated  a  few  miles 
northeast  of  Jerusalem.  The  Israelites  cap- 
tured and  destroyed  it  on  their  first  entry 
into  Canaan.  In  the  time  of  Herod  it  was 
rebuilt,  but  was  destroyed  in  the  reign  of 
Vespasian,  and  again  rebuilt  under  Hadrian. 
During  the  Crusades,  it  was  repeatedly  cap- 
tured, and  at  last  destroyed.  At  the  present 
day  its  place  is  occupied  by  a  miserable  vil- 
lage called  Richa. 

Jersey.  One  of  the  Channel  Islands,  and 
the  largest  and  most  southerly  of  the  group, 
situated  about  15  miles  west  from  the  coast 
of  France,  and  belonging  to  Great  Britain. 
Various  attempts  have  been  made  by  the 
French  to  possess  themselves  of  this  island, 
but  without  success.  The  most  remarkable 
was  in  1781,  when  they  were  repulsed  by  the 
local  militia. 

Jerusalem.  A  celebrated  city  of  Syria, 
the  capital  of  the  ancient  Judaja  and  the 
modern  Palestine.  This  city  was  called 
Salem  in  1913  B.C. ;  its  king  was  slain  by 
Joshua,  1451  B.C.  It  was  taken  by  David, 
1048  B.C.,  who  dwelt  in  the  fort,  calling  it 
the  City  of  David.  Jerusalem  was  taken  by 
the  Persians  in  614 ;  retaken  by  the  em- 
peror Heraclius,  628;  by  the  Saracens,  637; 
and  by  the  Crusaders,  when  70,000  infidels 
were  put  to  the  sword ;  taken  by  Saladin, 
1187;  by  the  Turks,  who  drove  away  the 
Saracens,  1217  and  1239.  It  was  held  by  the 
French  under  Bonaparte,  February,  1799. 

Jet  (Fr.).  A  term  signifying  the  motion 
of  any  body  that  is  urged  forward  by  main 
force;  it  likewise  means  the  space  which  is 
gone  over  by  any  propelled  body  ;  and  some- 
times the  instrument  from  which  anything 
is  thrown  or  shot ;  as,  the  cross-bow,  etc. 
Jet  des  bomhes  is  a  phrase  adopted  instead  of 
tlr,  which  formerly  expressed  the  course  that 
a  shell  took  when  it  was  thrown  out  of  a 
mortar  by  the  power  of  gunpowder. 

Jets.     See  Pyrotechny. 

Jiddah,  or  Jeddah.  A  trading  town  of  the 
Iledjaz,  Arabia,  about  GO  miles  west  from 


JINGAL 


255 


JUDGE-ADVOCATE 


Mecca.  On  June  15,  1808,  the  inhabitants 
ruse  against  the  Christians  resident  amonj; 
them,  and  massacred  a  considerable  number 
of  them.  In  Aui^just  of  the  same  year  the 
town  was  bombarded  by  the  British,  and 
satisfaction  rendered. 

Jingal,  or  Jingall.  A  small,  portable  piece 
of  ordnance,  to  be  fired  from  the  ground  or 
on  u  wall,  resting  on  a  long,  slender  butt- 
end,  and  two  legs.  This  piece  was  used  in 
India.     See  Gingals. 

Joar,  An  East  Indian  term,  signifying  a 
general  massacre  of  the  women  and  children, 
which  is  sometimes  performed  by  the  Hin- 
doos, when  they  find  they  cannot  prevent 
the  enemy  from  taking  the  town.  When 
this  dreadful  and  unnatural  ceremony  is  to 
take  place,  a  spot  is  selected  which  is  filled 
with  wood,  straw,  oil,  etc.  The  victims  are 
inclosed  and  the  whole  is  set  on  tire. 

John  (St.)  of  Jerusalem,  Knights  of. 
See  Saint  John  of  Jkiusai.km,  Tiik 
Order  of  thk  Knight.s  1Iosi>italler.s  of. 

Join.  A  technical  word  used  in  the  Brit- 
ish service,  signifying  to  effect  the  junction 
of  one  military  bod}'  with  another.  In  a  more 
limited  sense,  it  means  the  accession  of  an 
individual,  voluntary  or  otherwise,  to  a 
corps  or  army.  If  an  officer,  on  being  or- 
dered to  join,  omits  to  do  so  willfully,  he  is 
liable  to  be  tried  by  a  general  court-martial, 
or  to  be  peremiitorily  suspended  for  being 
absent  without  leave. 

Jooday  Perraput.  An  East  Indian  term, 
•ignifying  a  slave  taken  in  war. 

Jour  (Fr.).  The  tour  of  duty  which  is 
done  in  the  course  of  a  day  and  night. 
Eire  de  jour,  to  be  officer  of  the  day,  or  to 
command  a  body  of  troops  at  a  siege  or 
otherwise  in  the  capacity  of  a  general  offi- 
cer, etc. 

Journal  {Fr.).  A  public  record  or  gen- 
eral orderly  book,  kept  in  the  French  ser- 
vice, and  in  which  every  transaction  that 
occurred  during  a  siege  is  entered  by  the 
governor  of  the  town,  for  the  inspection  of 
n  superior  authority.  The  general  officer 
who  carried  on  the  siege  of  a  place  likewise 
kept  a  document  of  the  same  kind,  and  mi- 
nuted down  everything  that  ha])pened  under 
his  command.  So  that  the  journal  which 
was  kept  in  this  manner  was  a  circumstan- 
tial detail  of  what  occurred,  day  after  da}', 
during  the  attack  and  defense  of  a  town. 

Journals  of  Defense.  In  the  American 
service  during  war,  the  commander  of  a 
place,  and  the  chiefs  of  engineers  and  of 
artillery,  shall  keep  journals  of  defense,  in 
which  shall  be  entered,  in  order  of  date, 
without  blank  or  interlineati<m,  the  orders 
given  or  received,  the  manner  in  which  they 
are  executed,  their  results,  and  every  event 
and  circumstance  of  importance  in  the  prog- 
ress of  the  defense.  These  journals  shall  be 
sent  after  the  siege  to  the  Department  of 
War. 

Journals  of  March.  Commanding  offi- 
cers of  troops  nuirching  through  a  country 
little   known   will    keep   journals   of    their 


marches  according  to  a  form  laid  down  in 
Army  liegulations.  At  the  end  of  the 
march  a  copy  of  the  journal  will  be  retained 
at  the  station  where  the  triops  arrive,  and 
the  original  will  be  forwarded  to  the  head- 
quarters of  the  department  or  corps  d'armie. 
Thence,  after  a  copy  has  been  taken,  it  will 
be  transmitted,  through  the  headquarters  of 
the  army,  to  the  adjutant-general,  for  the 
information  of  the  War  Department.  The 
object  of  the  journal  is  to  furnish  data  for 
maps,  and  information  which  may  serve  for 
future  operations.  Every  point  of  practical 
importance  should  therefore  be  noted. 

Journee  {Fr.).  A  term  used  among  the 
French  to  express  any  particular  engage- 
ment or  battle;  as,  la  jouni/e  de  ^[arrufjo, 
the  battle  of  Marengo.  We  frequently 
adopt  the  word  in  the  same  sense ;  thus,  a 
hard-fought  day  signifies  a  hard-fought 
battle. 

Joust,  or  Just.  An  exercise  of  arms  and 
horsemanship,  performed  in  the  Middle 
Ages  by  knights  and  nobles.  In  the 
joust,  the  combatants  engaged  one  another 
singly,  each  against  his  antagonist.  The 
weapon  most  in  use  in  the  .joust  was  the 
lance,  but  sometimes  the  battle-axe  and 
sword  were  employed.  To  direct  the  lance 
anywhere  but  at  fhe  body  of  the  antagonist 
was  reckoned  foul  play.  In  the  joust  of 
peace,  or  jonte  de  plaisancc,  a  foot  encounter 
preceded  the  mounted  combat. 

Joute  (Fr.).  A  close  fight  between  two 
individuals.  It  likewise  means  an  engage- 
ment at  sea. 

Joves  (Fr.).  The  two  side5  in  the  epaule- 
ment  of  a  battery  which  form  the  embrasure 
are  so  called. 

Joyeuse  (Fr.).  A  name  given  to  the 
sword  of  Charlemagne. 

Judge  -  Advocate.  An  individual  ap- 
pointed to  officiate  as  public  prosecutor  upon 
every  general  court-martial  for  the  trial  of 
officers  and  soldiers  accused  of  a  breach  of 
the  Articles  of  War,  general  regulations,  or 
any  conduct  prejudicial  to  good  order  and 
discipline.  He  is  appointed  by  the  officer 
authorized  to  assemble  a  general  court- 
martial,  and  must  be  relieved  by  the  satne 
authority.  His  duties  are  various  and  im- 
portant (see  De  Hart's  "Military  Law," 
Benet  on  "Courts-Martial,"'  and  Scott's 
"Analytical  Digest  of  Military  Law,"  on 
duties,  etc.,  of  judge-advocate) ;  he  must  be 
present  at  the  court  for  which  he  is  ap- 
pointed, not  only  to  record  all  it^  proceed- 
ings, but  also  in  order  to  impart  validity  to 
its  jurisdiction.  He  advises  tiro  court  on 
points  of  law,  of  custom,  and  of  form,  and 
invites  their  attention  to  any  deviation  there- 
from. If  any  question  oflaw  arises  out  of 
the  proceedings,  and  he  is  called  upon  for 
his  opinion,  he  is  bound  to  give  it.  It  is 
his  duty  to  take  care  that  the  accused  does 
not  sufier  from  a  want  of  knowledge  of  the 
law,  or  from  a  deficiency  of  exiwrience  or 
ability  to  solicit  from  witnesses,  or  develop 
bv  the  testimonv  on  the  trial,  a  full  state- 


JUDGE-ADVOCATE-GENERAL      256 


JURISDICTION 


mcnt  of  the  facts  of  the  case  as  bearinej  on 
the  defense.  If  tlie  court,  or  a  member 
thereof,  should  deviate  from  the  letter  of 
the  law,  or  assume  a  power  at  variance  with 
it,  the  judge-advocate  is  bound  to  point  out 
the  error,  which  should  become  a  part  of 
the  record.  It  is  now  admitted  that  the 
custom  of  appointing  persons  from  civil  life 
to  officiate  as  judge-advocate  is  clearly  ob- 
jectionable. It  creates  a  ministerial  officer 
without  legal  responsibilities,  and  neces- 
sarily commits  to  his  hands  high  interests 
of  the  government,  and  to  some  extent  the 
rights  and  reputation  of  individuals,  to  be 
treated  and  observed  without  any  stronger 
guaranty  of  fidelity  than  his  own  sense  or 
impression  of  moral  obligation.  In  the 
important  duties  of  the  judge-advocate  as 
recorder,  adviser,  and  prosecutor,  the  utmost 
deference  to  the  dignity  of  the  court  should 
be  apparent;  a  delicate  courtesy  and  modest 
demeanor  should  be  characteristic  of  his 
address,  while  his  argument  may  be  replete 
with  all  the  vigor  and  energy  which  knowl- 
edge imparts  and  which  truth  demands. 

judge-Advocate-General.  Of  the  British 
forces  is  stationed  in  London,  and  is  regarded 
as  a  civil  officer,  and  is  paid  from  the  civil 
department.  The  office  is  generally  held 
by  an  experienced  barrister,  to  whom  all 
proceedings  of  courts-martial  are  referred 
for  remarks  as  to  legality  and  regularity. 
In  the  United  States  he  is  a  staff-officer  with 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  who  receives, 
revises,  and  causes  to  be  recorded  the  pro- 
ceedings of  all  courts-martial,  courts  of  in- 
quiry, and  military  commissions,  and  has 
charge  of  the  records  of  the  bureau  of  mil- 
itary justice. 

Judge -Advocates,  Corps  of.  In  the 
United  States,  consists  of  four  general  staif- 
officers  with  the  rank  of  major,  who  are 
usually  assigned  to  duty  at  the  headquarters 
of  geographical  divisions  and  departments, 
and  inay  be  detailed  as  judge-advocates  of 
military  courts. 

Judge  -  Martial,  or  Advocate  -  General. 
In  former  years  was  the  supreme  judge  in 
martial  law,  as  to  the  jurisdiction  and  powers 
of  military  courts  in  the  British  system. 

Junior.  One  having  a  lower  rank.  When 
the  grade  is  the  same,  the  one  having  the 
more  recent  commission  or  warrant. 

Junk-wads.  Are  used  for  proving  can- 
non. Wad-molds  for  each  caliber — consist- 
ing of  two  cast-iron  cylinders  of  different 
diameters  set  in  oak,  or  of  two  strong  pieces, 
strapped  with  iron,  and  joined  by  a  hinge — 
are  employed  in  their  manufacture.  The 
junk,  after  having  been  picked,  is  compressed 
by  being  beaten  in  the  smaller  mold  with 
a  maul  and  cylindrical  drift — the  latter 
nearly  of  the  size  of  the  mold — until  it 
assumes  the  requisite  dimensions  ;  it  is  then 
taken  out  by  raising  the  upper  part  of  the 
mold,  and  closely  wrapped  with  fope-yarn 
passed  over  it  in  the  direction  of  the  axis 
of  the  cylinder,  and  fastened  by  a  few  turns 
around  the  middle  of  the  wad.     It  is  then 


placed  in  the  large  mold,  and  again  beaten 
with  the  maul  and  drift  until  its  diameter 
is  increased  to  that  of  the  mold  ;  when  it  is 
taken  out  and  its  diameter  verified  by  a 
wooden  gauge  corresponding  to  the  large 
shot-gauge  of  the  caliber. 

Jupon,  or  Just-au-Corps.  A  surcoat. 
The  name  jupon  is  chiefly  applied  to  the 
short  tight  form  of  that  military  garment  in 
use  in  the  14th  century.  It  was  a  sleeveless 
jacket  or  overcoat,  composed  of  several  thick- 
nesses of  material  sewed  through,  and  faced 
with  silk  or  velvet,  upon  which  were  em- 
broidered the  arms  of  the  wearer.  It  fitted 
closely  to  the  body,  and,  descending  below 
the  hips,  terminated  in  an  enriched  border 
of  various  patterns. 

Jurisdiction.  Legal  authority  ;  extent  of 
power.  All  sutlers  and  retainers  to  the 
camp,  and  all  persons  whatsoever  serving 
with  the  armies  of  the  United  States  in  the 
field,  though  not  enlisted  soldiers,  are  to  be 
subject  to  orders,  according  to  the  rules  and 
discipline  of  war.  To  decide  exactly  where 
the  boundary-lino  runs  between  civil  and 
military  jurisdiction  as  to  the  civilians  at- 
tached to  an  army  is  difficult ;  but  it  is  quite 
evident  that  they  are  within  military  juris- 
diction, as  provided  for  in  the  Articles  of 
War,  when  their  treachery,  defection,  or  in- 
subordination might  endanger  or  embarrass 
the  army  to  which  they  belong  in  its  opera- 
tions against  what  is  known  in  military 
phrase  as  "an  enemy."  Probably  the  fact 
that  troops  are  found  in  a  region  of  country 
chiefly  inhabited  by  Indians,  and  remote 
from  the  exercise  of  civil  authority,  may 
enter  into  the  description  of  "an  army  in 
the  field."  Persons  who  attach  themselves 
to  an  army  going  upon  an  expedition  against 
hostile  Indians  may  be  understood  as  agree- 
ing that  they  will  submit  themselves  for  the 
time  being  to  military  control.  All  officers, 
conductors,  gunners,  matrosses,  drivers,  or 
other  persons  whatsoever  receiving  pay  or 
hire  in  the  service  of  the  artillery  or  corps 
of  engineers  of  the  United  States,  shall  be 
subject  to  be  tried  by  courts-martial.  The 
officers  and  soldiers  of  any  troops,  whether 
militia  or  others,  being  mustered  and  in  pay 
of  the  United  States,  shall,  at  all  times  and 
in  all  places,  when  joined,  or  acting  in  con- 
junction with  the  regular  forces  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  be  governed  by  the  Rules  and 
Articles  of  War,  and  shall  be  subject  to  be 
tried  by  courts-martial  in  like  manner  with 
the  officers  and  soldiers  in  the  regular  forces  ; 
save  only  that  such  courts-martial  shall  be 
composed  entirelj'  of  militia  officers.  No 
officer,  non-commissioned  officer,  soldier,  or 
follower  of  the  army  shall  be  tried  the  second 
time  for  the  same  oflense.  No  person  shall 
be  liable  to  be  tried  and  punished  by  a  gen- 
eral court-martial  for  any  offense  which  shall 
appear  to  have  been  committed  more  than 
two  years  before  the  issuing  of  the  order  for 
such  trial,  unless  the  person  by  reason  of 
having  absented  himself,  or  some  other 
manifest  impediment,  shall  not  have  been 


JUST 


257 


KALAI 


nnienablu  to  justice  witliin  tliat  period.  No 
yiirrisori  or  rei^imental  crmrt-niartial  shall 
iiave  the  power  to  try  capital  ca.ses,  or  coin- 
nii.ssioncd  t)fFicers  ;  neither  shall  they  inflict 
a  tine  exceeding;  one  inontii's  pay,  nor  im- 
prison, nor  put  to  hard  labor  any  non-com- 
niissicjned  officer  or  soldier,  for  a  longer  time 
than  one  month. 

Just.     Sec  Jo  U.ST. 

Justice,  Military.  That  species  of  jjistico 
whiiii  prevails  in  the  army,  and  which  is 
administered  by  military  tribunals  in  ac- 
cordance with  tiie  Articles  of  War.  In  Prus- 
sia justice  is  freijuontly  obtained  through 
what  is  known  as  the  court  of  honor.  Sec 
Court  of  Honor,  Coukt-martial  ;  also, 
Ai'i'K.NDix,  Artic'LE.s  OK  War,  29,  30,  and 
7*J  to  10.-). 

Justice,  Military,  Bureau  of.  In  the 
United  States  consists  of  one  judge-advocatc- 
general,  with  the  rank,  pay,  etc.,  of  briga- 


dier-general.    Sec  Judoe-Advocate-Ge.v- 

'    KRAL. 

:  Juterbogk.  A  small  town  of  Prussia,  in 
'  the  province  of  Brambmburg.  In  the  vi- 
cinity is  the  iield  of  Dennewitz,  where  tho 
I  Prussians  defeated  the  French,  September 
j   G,  181:5.     See  Dknxkwitz. 

Jutland.    The  only  considerable  peninsula 
[  of  Eurojje  that  points  directly  north,  forms 
j  a  portion  of  the  kingdom  of  Denmark,  and 
'  comprises  the  province  of  North   Jutland. 
!   South  Jutland  was  taken  by  the  allies  in 
1   1813,  and   restored  in    1814.     In    historical 
j   times,  the  Jutes  took  part  in  the  expedition 
j  of  the  Saxons  to  England.     As  allies  of  tho 
Saxons,  they  waged  war  with  Charlemagne, 
and  under  the  mmie  of  Normans  (North- 
men), frequently  desolated  the  coasts  of  Ger- 
many and  France. 

Juzail.      A  heavy  rifle  used  by  the  Af- 
ghans. 


K. 


Kabbade  (Fr.).    Military  clothing  of  the  i 
modern  Greeks  ;   Koman  sai/um. 

Kabyles.     An  aboriginal  African  people, 
inhabiting    the    mountains    of    the    Atlas.   [ 
They  are  an  independent  race,  who  mainly  [ 
exist  by  plundering  the  people  of  the  plains.   [ 
They  are  divided  into  numerous  tribes,  each 
of  which  has  its  distinctive  name,  with  the 
prefix   lieni    before   it.      See   Beki-Ahbes, 
jJeni-Aciiour,  etc. 

Kaffa.     See  Cakka. 

Kafl'raria.  An  extensive  country  in  South- 
ern  Africa,    extending    from    the    north    of  | 
Cape  Colony  to  the  south  of  Guinea.     The  j 
English  war  with  the  natives  of  the  country  | 
began  in  17'.l8,  and  continued  with  intermis-  i 
sions  until  March,  185;5.    The  Kaffirs,  headed 
by  Mokanna,  a  ]>roi)het,  attacked  Grahams-  j 
town,  but  were  repulsed  with  much  slaugh- 
ter in   1819;  again  defeated    in   1828,  1831, 
and  1834.     After  a  series  of  engagements, 
they    were   attacked    by    Governor-General 
Cathcart,  and  completely  defeated,  Decem- 
ber 20,  18')2,  and  jieace  was  restored  in  the 
following  March. 

Kagosima.  A  town  of  Japan,  which  was 
bombarded  by  tho  English  in  18(i3,  in  retal- 
iation for  the  murder  of  one  of  their  subjects. 

Kahlenberg.  A  hill  in  Austria,  on  the 
Danube,  a  little  northwest  of  Vienna.  0\\ 
ita  side  the  army  of  Sobieski  arrived  to  the 
rescue  of  Vienna,  when  besieged  by  the 
Turks  in  1G83. 

Kaiffa.  A  seaport  town  of  Syria,  situated 
on  the  south  siae  of  the  Bay  of  Acre.  It 
w»8  captured  by  the  French  in  1799. 


Kainardji.  In  Bulgaria ;  liere  a  treaty 
was  signed,  1774,  between  the  Turks  and 
Russians,  which  opened  the  Black  Sea,  and 
gave  Crimea  to  the  latter. 

Kaiser  (from  Lat.  Caaai-).  Tho  German 
word  for  emjieror,  which  has  been  so  exten- 
sively known  and  used  in  every  language 
since  the  year  1871,  when  AVilliam,  king  of 
Prussia,  was  crowned  at  Versailles,  France, 
as  emperor  of  Germany.  Thus  was  revived 
the  old  Teutonic  appellation  of  kaiser,  which 
applied  formerly,  and  especially  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  to  the  German  emperors,  who  in- 
herited this  title  from  the  lioman  Cwsars, 
themselves  succeeded  by  Charlemagne,  who 
is  considered  by  the  Germans  as  the  first  em- 

fieror  of  the  Vaterland,  as  William  is  tho 
atest  one. 

Kaiserslautern.  A  fortified  town  of  the 
jialatinate  of  the  Rhine,  which  belongs  to 
Bavaria,  33  miles  west  from  Spires.  It  was 
the  scene  of  nuich  hard  fighting  between  tho 
French  and  Gernnms  in  1792  and  1793. 

Kak  Towda  [Ltd.).  A  term  applied  in 
the  East  Indies  to  the  fine  mold  used  in 
makinL;  butts  for  archery  practice. 

Kalafat.  A  town  of  Wallachia,  situated 
on  the  ii'ft  bank  of  the  Danube,  nearly  ojipo- 
site  Widdin.  It  is  strongly  fortified,  and 
conunands  the  approach  to  the  Danube. 
The  battle  of  Citate  was  fought  here  on  Jan- 
uary G,  1854,  and  three  following  days,  be- 
tween the  Turks  under  Omar  Pasha  and  the 
Russians  under  Gortschakott'. 

Kalai  (/•>.).  A  Turkish  fortress;  more 
particularly  applied  to  stockades. 


EALISCH 


258 


KASTA.MOUNI 


Kalisch,  or  Kalice.  A  town  of  Poland, 
l)eloni:;ing  to  Russia,  and  situated  on  the 
frontier  of  the  Prussian  territory.  The 
Swedes  were  defeated  by  the  Poles  in  its 
vicinity  in  1706;  another  battle  was  fought 
here  between  the  Russians  and  Saxons  in 
1813. 

Kalispels,  or  Calispels.  See  Pend 
d'Oreilles. 

Kalmar,  or  Calmar.  A  fortified  town  of 
Sweden,  and  the  capital  of  a  province,  on 
the  sound  or  strait  of  the  same  name,  in  tlie 
Baltic,  opposite  the  island  of  Oland.  In 
1397,  the  treaty  of  Kalmar,  by  which  Den- 
mark, Norway,  and  Sweden  were  united, 
was  signed  here. 

Kalmucks,  or  Calnnucks.  Called  by  the 
Tartars  A'Aa^tmicA;  ("  renegades"),  the  largest 
of  the  Mongolian  peoples,  inhabiting  large 
regions  of  the  Chinese,  and  also  Russian 
dominions.  They  are  divided  into  four 
tribes :  the  Choshots,  ruled  by  descendants 
of  Genghis  Khan  ;  the  Soongars,  in  the  17th 
and  the  18th  centuries  the  masters  of  the 
other  races  ;  oppressed  by  the  Chinese,  they 
migrated  in  great  numbers,  in  1758,  to  Rus- 
sia, but  returned  in  1770  to  Soongaria  ;  the 
Derbets,  who  dwell  in  the  valleys  of  the  Don 
and  Hi  ;  the  Torgots,  formerly  united  with 
the  Soongars.  The  Kalmucks  are  a  nomad, 
predatory,  and  warlike  race,  and  pass  the 
greater  part  of  their  lives  in  the  saddle. 

Kalsa  Cutcherry  {IiuL).  The  room  of 
business,  where  matters  pertaining  to  the 
army  are  transacted,  and  all  matters  of  liti- 
gation on  that  branch  of  service  are  deter- 
mined. 

Kaluga.  Chief  town  of  the  government 
of  the  same  name  in  Russia,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Oka.  From  the  14th  to  the  18th 
century,  its  stronghold  was  a  great  protec- 
tion against  the  invasions  of  the  Lithua- 
nians, the  Tartars  of  the  Great  Horde,  and 
especially  against  the  Crimean  Tartars.  It 
is  at  present  the  residence  of  Schamj'l,  the 
Circassian  chief. 

Kalunga  Fort,  In  the  East  Indies  ;  it 
was  attacked  unsuccessfully  by  the  com- 
pany's forces,  and  Gen.  Gillespie  killed,  Oc- 
tober 31,  1814;  and  again  unsuccessfully  on 
November  25.  It  was  evacuated  by  the 
Nepaulese,  November  30,  same  year. 

Kaminietz.  A  town  of  Russian  Poland, 
situated  on  the  river  Smotriza,  and  the  capi- 
tal of  the  government  of  Podolia.  The  for- 
tifications of  this  place  were  razed  in  1812, 
but  have  since  been  rebuilt. 

Kamtschatka,  A  peninsula  on  the  east 
coast  of  Asia ;  was  discovered  by  Morosco, 
a  Cossack  chief,  and  was  taken  possession  of 
by  Russia  in  1697. 

Kanauts.  A  term  used  in  India  to  des- 
ignate the  walls  of  a  canvas  tent. 

Kangiar.  A  Turkish  sabre,  the  blade  of 
which  is  bent  contrary  to  other  swords,  gen- 
erally ornamented  with  diamonds  and  other 
precious  stones. 

Kansas.  One.of  the  States  of  the  United 
States,  the  thirty-fourth  in  order  of  admis- 


sion. It  lies  between  37°  and  40°  N.  lat., 
and  between  25th  meridian  of  long,  and  the 
western  boundary  of  the  State  of  Missouri, 
and  is,  geographically,  the  central  State  of 
the  Union.  It  was  organized  as  a  Terri- 
tory in  1854,  and  admitted  into  the  Union 
January  29,  1861 ;  and  though  it  remained 
loyal  during  the  civil  war,  yet  many  of  its 
inhabitants  took  the  field  for  the  Confederate 
cause. 

Kapigi-Bachi.  Officer  in  charge  of  the 
gates  of  the  sultan's  palace  ;  a  warrior. 

Kaponier.     See  Caponiere. 

Karauls.  Military  posts  ;  sultan's  body- 
guards. 

Karki-Mesrac.     A  Turkish  lance. 

Karmathians.  So  called  from  Abu  Said 
Al-Jenabia,  surnamed  Al-Karmata,  a  Mo- 
hammedan sect  which  sprang  up  in  the  9th 
century,  and  was  originally  a  branch  of  the 
Ismail'is.  The  sect  was  very  powerful  for  a 
time.  They  conquered  Arabia,  Persia,  and 
Syria,  which  they  ruled  with  a  despotic 
power,  and  their  armies  gained  great  vic- 
tories of  those  of  the  caliphs.  In  928  they 
threatened  Bagdad,  and  in  930,  under  their 
leader,  Abu  "Takir,  entered  Mecca,  which 
was  full  of  pilgrims,  when  a  massacre  of 
the  most  fearful  description  ensued,  dese- 
crated the  holy  places,  and  carried  away  the 
supreme  palladium,  the  black  stone,  which 
Avas  only  restored  to  Mecca  at  an  immense 
ransom  after  twenty  years.  From  that  time 
their  power  declined,  and  after  the  11th 
century  they  are  not  mentioned  in  history, 
although  some  traces  of  them  still  exist  at 
Hasa,  their  former  stronghold. 

Karrack.     See  Carrack. 

Kars.  A  fortified  town  of  Asiatic  Tur- 
key, in  the  province  of  Armenia,  situated 
on  a  table-land  between  6000  and  7000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  1828  it  was 
taken  from  the  Turks  by  the  Russians  under 
Paskievitsch.  In  1855,  its  fortifications  hav- 
ing been  strengthened,  it  sustained  a  long 
siege  by  the  Russians.  Their  attempt  at 
taking  "it  by  storm  (September  29)  failed, 
but  it  was  compelled  by  famine  to  surren- 
der, November  30.  Kars  again  surrendered 
to  the  Russians  in  1877,  having  been  cap- 
tured by  storming  in  a  night  attack, — one 
of  the  most  brilliant  feats  of  arms  in  the 
annals  of  history. 

Kaschau.  A  town  of  Hungary  ;  is  situ- 
ated in  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  Hernad, 
130  miles  northeast  from  Pesth.  Two  bat- 
tles were  fought  near  Kaschau  during  the 
Hungarian  revolution,  both  of  which  the 
Austrians  gained. 

Kaskaskia  Indians.  A  tribe  which  for- 
merly inhabited  Illinois,  but  are  now  located 
with  other  tribes  on  the  Quapaw  agency, 
Indian  Territory.  See  Indians  and  their 
Agencies. 

Kastamouni,  or  CostambOne.  A  town 
in  Anatolia,  Asia  Minor.  It  stands  in  a 
dreary  hollow,  from  which  rises  a  solitary 
rock  surmounted  by  a  fortress  in  ruins. 
During  the  Greek  empire,  the  fortress  was 


KATAN 


259 


KENILWORTH 


in  ptissession  of  the  Comneni.  It  was  taken 
by  Bajazet,  retaken  by  Tiniour,  and  lastly, 
ct)nqiK'red  by  Mohammed  I. 

Katan.  A  Japanese  sword,  otherwise 
cat  i 'til. 

Katsbach,  or  Katzbach.  A  river  in 
Prussia,  in  tlic  province  of  Silesia,  near 
whii'li  (Jen.  Biiiciier  defeated  the  French 
under  Mucdonald  and  Ney,  August  20,  1813. 
He  received  the  title  <>f  I'rinte  of  Wahl- 
statt,  the  name  of  a  neiujliborinp  village. 

K^tsena.  A  town  of  Central  Africa,  in 
tlie  eiMpir(!  of  Sokoto.  In  J807  tiie  con- 
quering Fiilbes  assailed  it,  and  a  war  was 
commenced,  which  lasted  for  upwards  of 
seven  years.  The  capture  of  the  town  was 
achieved  only  through  its  destruction. 

Kavass.  In  Turkey,  an  armed  constable  ; 
also  a  government  servant  or  courier. 

Kazan.  A  tt)wn  of  lius.sia,  capital  of  the 
government,  and  ancient  capital  of  the  king- 
dom of  tlie  same  name;  is  situated  on  the 
river  Kazanka,  4  miles  from  the  north  bank 
of  the  Volga.  It  was  founded  in  120?  by  a 
Tartar  tribe,  and  after  various  vicissitudes, 
was  made  the  capital  of  an  independent 
kingdom  of  the  khan  of  the  Golden  Horde, 
which  nourished  in  the  loth  century.  In 
1552  the  Russians,  under  Ivan  the  Terrible, 
carried  the  town  after  a  bloody  siege,  and 
put  an  end  to  the  existence  of  the  kingdom. 

Kecherklechi.  Are  guards  attached  to 
the  jierson  of  the  king  of  Persia;  they  are 
armed  with  a  musket  of  an  extraordinary 
size  and  caliber.  They  were  raised  and 
formed  into  a  regular  corps  about  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century. 

Keechies.  A  small  tribe  of  Indians  re- 
siding with  others  on  the  Wichita  Agency, 
Indian  Territory.     See  Indians  and  tukir 

AOKXCIES. 

Keen.  Sharp  ;  having  a  fine  cutting  edge ; 
as,  a  keen  blade. 

Keep.  To  maintain  hold  upon  ;  not  to 
let  go  of;  not  to  lose;  to  retain;  as,  if  we 
lose  the  field,  we  cannot  keep  the  town. 

Keep.  In  ancient  military  history,  a  kind 
of  strong  tower,  which  was  built  in  the 
centre  of  a  castle  or  fort,  to  which  the  be- 
sieged retreated,  and  made  their  last  ett'orts 
of  defense.  In  the  Norman  keeps  there  ap- 
pear to  have  been  three  stories,  the  lowest 
lor  stores,  the  second  for  a  guard-room,  and 
the  upper,  or  finlariinn,  for  the  family.  The 
keep  was  similar  to  what  the  cla.ssical  an- 
cients called  the  citadel,  or  inner  fort, — a 
term  generally  applied  to  modern  fortifica- 
tion on  the  continent.  Kim/'s  Krrp,  a  fort 
built  by  King  Henry  II.  in  the  inner  part  of 
Dover  Castle  is  so  called. 

Keep  Off.  To  deter  an  enemy  from  ap- 
proaching close  to  the  lines  or  fortifications, 
Dy  inducing  him  to  suspect  a  superior  force, 
an  ambuscade,  or  a  mine,  or  by  openly  gall- 
ing his  advanced  posts  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  beat  liim  in  detail.  Infantry  may  keep 
off  cavalry  by  hot  firing,  or  by  a  bristling 
hedge  of  bayonets,  when  in  square. 

Keep  On.     To  go  forward  ;    to  proceed  ; 


to  continue  to  advance;  as,  to  keep  on  ad- 
vancing into  the  enemy's  country. 

Keep  Up.  In  military  movements,  is  to 
))reserve  that  regular  pace  by  which  a  line  or 
column  on  a  march,  or  in  manteuvring,  ad- 
vances towards  any  given  point  without  any 
chasms  or  fluctuations.  When  a  regiment 
marches  by  files,  it  is  almost  impossible  for 
the  rear  to  keep  up.  Un  this  account,  di- 
visions, sub-divisions,  and  even  secti<jns,  are 
best  calculated  to  preserve  a  regular  dejith 
and  continuity  of  march.  Keep  up  likewise 
signifies  to  attend  to  the  interior  manage- 
ment and  discipline  of  a  corps,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  least  deviation  from  established 
rules  and  regulations.  Thus  commanding 
officers  are  said  to  keep  up  good  order  and 
discipline,  who,  whether  present  or  absent, 
provide  against  the  least  insubordination,  etc. 
To  keep  up  (I  heavy  fire ^  is  to  play  lieavy  ord- 
nance against  a  fortified  place,  or  body  of 
men,  by  a  calm  and  well-directed  succession 
of  shot'  The  term  is  equally  applicable  to 
a  steady  fire  of  musketry. 

Kehl.  A  town  of  Germany,  on  the  Rhine, 
opposite  Strasburg.  It  is  of  great  impor- 
tance in  a  military  sense,  and  was  fortified  by 
the  French  engineer  Vauban  in  the  year 
1088.  This  place  has  often  been  besieged 
and  taken.  It  was  obstinately  defended 
against  the  Austrians,  who  took  it  in  171^7. 
It  was  taken  by  the  French  the  following 
year,  and  retained  b}'  them  till  1814. 

Kelat.  A  town  and  strong  fortress  of 
Afghanistan,  72  miles  northeast  from  Can- 
daiiar.  It  was  held  by  the  British  till  their 
evacuation  of  the  country  in  1842. 

Kelat.  Theca])italof  Heloochistan,  India, 
standing  on  a  hill  0000  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  In  1840  this  place  was  taken  by 
the  English  general  Nott,  but  in  the  follow- 
ing year  the  Hritish  finally  withdrew  from  it. 

Kelso.  A  town  in  Scotland,  in  the  county 
of  Roxburgh,  situated  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Tweed  and  the  Teviot.  An  old  abbey, 
now  in  ruins,  is  the  chief  object  of  interest  in 
Kelso.  It  was  founded  by  David  I.  in  1128, 
and  was  destroyed  in  1500,  after  having  sus- 
tained great  injury  at  the  hands  of  the 
English  in  1522  and  1545.  Kelso  is  often 
mentioned  in  the  histories  of  the  border 
wars. 

Kemmendine.  A  post  of  the  Burmese 
empire,  near  Rangoon,  memorable  for  the 
various  contests  between  the  British  forces 
and  the  natives  in  1824. 

Kenaians.  A  numerous  tribe  of  Indians 
residing  in  Alaska.  They  derive  their  name 
from  the  peninsula  of  Kenai,  and  are  peace- 
able and  self-supporting. 

Kenilworth.  A  small  town  of  Warwick- 
shire, England.  The  only  in. crest  of  the 
place  centres  in  its  ruined  castle,  which 
stands  on  a  rocky  and  commanding  emi- 
nence ;  it  was  founded  by  GeoflVey  de  Clin- 
ton, lord  chamberlain  to  Henry  I.  It  was 
granted  by  Henry  III.  to  Simon  de  Mont- 
fort,  earl  of  Leicester,  and  became  the  chief 
rallying-point  of  the  insurgents  who  sided 


KENT 


260 


KHAIBAE 


with  that  noble.  After  his  death  it  held  out 
for  six  months  against  the  royal  forces.  The 
castle  of  Kenilworth  was  dismantled  by 
Oliver  Cromwell. 

Kent.  A  maritime  county  of  England, 
forming  the  southeastern  angle  of  the  king- 
dom, and  approaching  nearer  to  the  continent 
than  any  other  part  of  the  kingdom.  It  was 
in  this  county  that  the  Romans  first  landed 
when  they  invaded  Britain.  It  was  then 
inhabited  by  the  Cantii.  Kent  was  the  first 
kingdom  of  the  Heptarchy  established  by 
the  Saxons  in  Britain. 

Kentucky.  One  of  the  Central  States  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  the  second  ad- 
mitted into  the  confederacy  after  the  llevolu- 
tion.  It  was  formerly  included  in  the 
territory  of  Virginia,  to  which  it  belonged 
till  1792.  Its  name,  signifying  "the  dark  and 
bloody  ground,"  is  suggestive  of  its  early 
history,  it  being  the  scene  of  many  bloody 
conflicts  between  the  settlers  and  Indians, 
and  also  the  grand  battle-ground  of  the 
Indians  themselves.  The  most  important 
battle  between  the  Indians  and  whites  took 
place  near  Blue  Lick  Springs,  August  19, 
1782,  the  latter  numbering  182,  and  the  for- 
mer about  three  times  that  number.  After 
a  desperate  engagement  the  Kentuckians 
were  totally  routed,  with  a  loss  of  60  killed 
and  wounded.  The  celebrated  Col.  Boone 
bore  a  part  and  lost  a  son  in  this  engagement. 
In  the  war  of  1812  Kentucky  was  largely 
and  effectively  represented,  as  also  in  the 
Mexican  war.  In  the  civil  war  the  State 
at  first  declared  a  strict  neutrality  ;  but  as 
this  condition  could  not  be  maintained,  after 
stormy  and  exciting  discussions  in  its  coun- 
cils, it  declared  for  the  Union  in  November, 
1861.  As  the  population  was  almost  equally 
divided  in  its  sympathy,  Kentuckians  were 
to  be  found  fighting  in  the  ranks  of  both 
contending  armies.  The  State  was  the  theatre 
of  several  hotly  contested  actions  during  the 
civil  war,  and  sufl'ered  considerably  during 
that  trying  period. 

Kerana.  A  long  trumpet,  similar  in  shape 
and  size  to  the  speaking-trumpet.  The 
Persians  use  it  whenever  they  wish  to  make 
any  extraordinary  noise,  and  they  frequently 
blow  it  with  hautboys,  kettle-drums,  and 
other  instruments,  at  retreat  or  sunset,  and 
two  hours  after  midnight. 

Kerman,  or  Sirjan.  The  capital  of  a 
province  of  the  same  name  in  Persia,  situa- 
ted about  360  miles  southeast  from  Ispahan. 
In  1794,  after  a  brave  defense,  this  city  was 
taken  by  Aga  Mohammed  Khan,  and  given 
up  to  plunder  for  three  successive  months. 
It  has  never  recovered  from  the  effects  of 
this  great  disaster. 

Kern  (Ir.  cearn).  A  soldier.  The  Irish 
infantry  were  formerly  distinguished  by  this 
appellation.  The  men  in  those  days  were 
armed  with  a  sword  and  a  dart  or  javelin, 
which  was  tied  to  a  small  cord,  so  that  after 
they  had  thrown  it  at  the  enemy  they  could 
instantly  recover  it,  and  use  it  in  any  way 
they   thought    proper.       The    javelin   was 


called  Skene,  which  is  also  the  Irish  for  a 
knife. 

Kertch  (anc.  Panticapceum').  A  town  of 
Russia,  in  the  government  of  Taurida,  on  the 
coast  of  the  Crimea.  It  was  colonized  in 
500  B.C.  by  the  Milesians,  and  about  50  B.C. 
it  became  part  of  the  Roman  empire ;  and 
in  375  A.D.  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Huns.  In  1280  it  was  occupied  by  the 
Genoese,  who  were  driven  out  by  the  Turks 
in  1473.  It  was  seized  by  the  Russians  in 
1771,  and  formally  ceded  to  them  in  1774. 
In  May,  1855,  it  was  taken  by  the  allied 
French  and  English  during  the  Crimean 
war,  on  which  occasion  it  was  ruthlessly 
plundered  by  the  soldiery. 

Ket's  Rebellion.  A  revolt  which  occurred 
in  England  in  July,  1549,  instigated  by  Wil- 
liam Ket,  a  tanner,  of  Norfolk.  He  de- 
manded the  abolition  of  inclosures  and  the 
dismissal  of  evil  counselors.  The  insurgents 
amounted  to  20,000  men,  but  were  quickly 
defeated  by  the  Earl  of  "Warwick,  whose 
troops  killed  more  than  200  of  the  insur- 
gents. 

Kettle-drum.  A  drum  formed  by  stretch- 
ing vellum  over  the  circular  edge  of  a  hem- 
ispherical vessel  of  brass  or  copper.  This  in- 
strument, which  gives  forth  a  sharp,  ringing 
sound,  is  used  in  Europe  by  regiments  of 
cavalry  and  horse-artillery  in  lieu  of  the 
ordinary  cylindrical  drum,  which  would, 
from  its  shape,  be  inconvenient  on  horseback. 
Kettle-drums  are  not  used  in  the  U.  S.  mili- 
tary service. 

kettle-drum  Cart.  A  four-wheel  car- 
riage drawn  by  four  horses,  which  was  used 
exclusively  by  the  British  artillery  as  a 
pageant.  The  ordnance  flag  was  painted  on 
the  fore  part,  and  the  drummer,  with  two 
kettle-drums,  was  seated,  as  in  a  chair  of 
state,  on  the  back  part.  This  cart,  which  is 
finely  engraved  and  richly  gilt,  has  not  been 
in  the  field  since  1743,  when  the  king  was 
present.  It  is  at  present  kept  in  the  Tower 
of  London. 

Kettle-drummer,  One  who  plays  on  a 
kettle-drum. 

Kettle-hat.  A  cap  of  iron  worn  by 
knights  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

key.  In  artillery  carriages,  is  a  bolt  used 
to  secure  cap  squares  and  for  analogous  pur- 
poses. 

Key  of  a  Position  or  Country.  A  point 
the  possession  of  which  gives  the  control  of 
that  position  or  country. 

Key-chain.  A  chain  attached  to  the  key 
to  prevent  it  from  being  lost. 

Key-plates.  See  Ordnance,  Carriages 
FOR,  The  Caisson. 

Keyserlicks,  or  Imperialists.  The  Aus- 
trian troops  are  frequently  called  so.  The 
term  was  indeed  common  among  the  British 
soldiers,  when  they  did  duty  with  the  Aus- 
trians,  and  invaded  France  in  1794. 

Khaibar.  A  town  of  Arabia,  the  capital 
of  an  independent  Jewish  territory,  110 
miles  north  from  Medina.  In  628  it  was 
taken   by   Mohammed,    who   had   received 


kiia:n- 


2G1 


KIEV 


from  a  Jewess  of  the  town  the  poisoned  egg 
which  uUiinntely  cost  him  liis  life. 

Khan.  A  title  of  Monfjolian  or  Tartar 
sovereigns  and  lords.  A  khannte  is  a  prin- 
cipality. Khngan  means  "  khan  of  khans," 
hut  has  seldom  heen  applied.  The  word 
khan  is  probably  of  the  same  origin  as  king. 

Khedive.  A  title,  said  to  signify  a  posi- 
tion inferior  to  an  absolute  sovereign,  but 
superior  to  a  mere  viceroy,  which  was  given 
to  the  viceroy  of  Egvpt*  Ismail  Pasha,  by 
the  sultan  of  "Turkey 'in  IHiiT* 

Kheet  (Ind.).  A  fortified  city,  which  is 
4  or  more  coss,  or  8  English  miles,  in  length 
and  breadth,  and  which  does  not  exceed  8 
coss,  or  If)  English  miles. 

Khelat.  A  hill  fortress  of  considerable 
streni;;th  in  the  territory  of  Afgliaiiistan, 
which  was  gallantly  captured  by  the  British 
tr..nj>s  in  1839. 

Kherson.  An  ancient  Dorian  colony, 
which  came  under  the  sway  of  the  great 
Mithridates  about  120  B.C.,  and  afterwards 
of  that  of  Rome  in  .30.  It  continued  impor- 
tant, and  its  possession  was  long  disputed  by 
the  Russians  and  Greeks.  It  was  taken  by 
Vladimir,  grand  duke  of  Russia,  in  088. 
The  city  was  destroyed  by  the  Lithuanians  ; 
and  the  Turks  found  it  deserted  when  they 
took  possession  of  the  Crimea  in  1475. 

Khiva  (anc.  ('/torns7nia),  Khaurezm, 
Kharasm,  or  Urgunge.  A  khanate  of  Tur- 
kestan, in  Central  Asia.  In  ancient  times 
it  was  nominally  subject  to  the  Selucida> ; 
subsequently  it  formed  jiart  of  the  kingdoms 
of  Bactria,  Parthia,  Persia,  and  the  Calijth- 
ate,  and  became  an  independent  monarchy 
in  lOO'J  under  a  Seljuk  dynasty.  The  Khi- 
vans,  or  as  they  were  then  called,  the  Khau- 
rozmians,  after  conquering  the  whole  of 
Persia  and  Afghanistan,  were  obliged  to 
succumb  to  the  Moguls,  under  Genghis 
Khan,  in  1'221.  In  1370  it  came  into  the 
hands  of  Timur.  Timur's  descendants  were 
subdued  in  loll  by  Shahy  Beg,  chief  of  the 
Uzbeks,  a  Turkish  tribe,  and  liis  successors 
still  rule  over  Khiva.  In  1717,  Peter  the 
Great  attempted  to  conquer  it,  but  his  army 
was  totally  defeated;  the  attempt  was  re- 
newed in  183'J  by  the  czar  Nicliolas,  with 
the  same  result ;  the  greater  part  of  the  Rus- 
sian army  perished  in  the  desert.  From 
1873  to  1870,  however,  it  was  continually 
invaded  by  the  armies  of  Russia,  who  in  the 
latter  year  occupied  a  portion  of  the  princi- 
pality, which  is  now  ruled  by  the  Russian 
government  under  the  name  of  the  Trans- 
Caspian  Territory. 

Khodadaud  Sircar  (Tiifl.).  The  govern- 
ment or  ruler  blessed  or  beloved  of  God  ;  it 
was  a  title  assunied  by  Tippoo  Sahib,  the 
sovereign  of  the  kingdom  of  Mysore,  who 
fell  in  defense  of  his  cajiital,  Seringapatam, 
when  it  was  stormed.  May  4,  17'.t<.l,  by  the 
British  forces  under  Lieut. -Gen.  Harris. 

Khoi.  A  walled  town  of  Persia,  ]irovince 
of  Azcrbijan,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Khar. 
In  the  plain  of  Khoi,  Shah  Ismael  signally 
defeated  the  Turks  under  Selim  I.  in  1514. 


Khurd-Cabul.  A  village  of  Afghanistan, 
situated  I'i  miles  southeast  of  Cabul.  Here, 
in  1841,  the  British  troops  retreating  from 
Cabul  to  Jehilabad  became  totally  disorgan- 
ized, and  were  murdered  without  resistance 
by  the  Afghans  ;  and  here,  in  1842,  Gen.  Pol- 
lock encam|>ed  after  the  decisive  defeat  of 
the  Afghans  at  Terzecn. 

Khyber  Pass.  The  most  practicable  of 
all  the  ojienings  through  the  Khyber  Moun- 
tains, is  the  only  one  by  which  cannon  can 
be  conveyed  between  the  jilain  of  Peshawur, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  upper  Indus,  and 
the  plain  of  Jelalabad,  in  Northern  Afghan- 
istan. It  is  30  miles  in  length,  being  here 
and  there  merely  a  narrow  ravine  between 
almost  perpendicular  rocks  of  at  least  fiOO 
feet  in  lieight.  It  may  be  said  to  have  been 
the  key  of  the  adjacent  regions  in  either  di- 
rection from  the  davs  of  Alexander  the 
Great  to  the  Afghan  wars  of  1839-42.  Hero 
a  British  army,  on  its  retreat  from  Cabul  in 
January,  1842,  was  absolutely  annihilated. 

Kibee.  A  flaw  produced  in  the  bore  of  a 
gun  by  a  shot  striking  against  it. 

Kick.  To  recoil ; — said  of  a  musket, 
I)iece  of  ordnance,  and  the  like. 

Kickapoos.  A  tribe  of  Indians  who 
formerly  lived  on  the  AV'isconsin  River,  and 
were  for  a  long  time  hostile  to  the  white 
settlers,  but  after  Wayne's  victory  over  the 
tribes  in  Ohio  in  1794  submitted,  and  con- 
cluded a  treaty  of  peace  in  1795.  In  1811 
and  1812,  however,  they  again  renewed  hos- 
tilities, and  attacked  Port  Harrison  in  the 
latter  year.  Being  repulsed,  they  surprised 
and  murdered  20  persons  at  the  mouth  of 
AVhite  River.  For  this  and  similar  atroci- 
ties they  were  punished  by  the  burning  of 
some  of  their  villages.  After  a  desultory 
warfare,  treaties  of  peace  were  again  con- 
cluded with  them,  and  after  the  treaty  of 
1819  they  sold  their  lands  and  moved  beyond 
the  Mississippi  River.  A  few  settled  down 
to  airriculture,  and  their  descendants  now 
exhibit  considerable  indications  of  civiliza- 
tion ;  but  the  greater  numlter  roamed  over 
the  country  committing  depredations.  Some 
of  them  are  now  settled  on  the  Kansas 
agency,  Kansas,  and  others  on  the  Sac  and 
Fox  agency,  in  Indian  Territory.  See  In- 
dians .\NI)  THKIK  ACJENCIKS. 

Kidnapper.  Parties  were  formerly  so 
called,  who  by  improper  means  decoyed  the 
unwary  into  the  army. 

Kiel".  Chief  tmvn'of  Holstein,  a  seaport, 
and  a  member  of  the  Hanseatie  Leagiio  in 
1300.  By  a  treaty  between  (ireat  Britain, 
Sweden,  and  Deimiark,  signed  here  January 
14,  1814,  Norway  was  ceded  to  Sweden.  An 
extraordinary  assembly  of  the  revolted 
provinces,  Schloswig  and  Holstein,  met  hero 
September  9,  1850.  By  the  convention  of 
Gastein  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  Au- 
gust 14.  18t)5,  the  former  was  to  govern 
Holstein,  but  Kiel  to  be  held  by  Prussia  as 
a  German  federal  port.  This  was  annulled 
in  18tj(j  by  the  issue  of  the  war. 

Kiev,  or  Kief.     The  chief  town  of  the 


KILCULLEX 


2G2 


KINGSTON 


government  of  that  name,  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Dnieper ;  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the 
Eussian  towns,  and  was  formerly  the  capital. 
In  864  it  was  taken  from  the  Khazars  by- 
two  Norman  chiefs,  companions  of  Kuric, 
and  conquered  from  them  by  Oleg,  Kuric's 
successor,  who  made  it  his  capitat.  It  was 
nearly  destroyed  by  Batu,  khan  of  Kiptchak. 
In  the  14th  century  it  was  seized  by  Gedi- 
min,  grand  duke  of  Lithuania,  and  annexed 
to  Poland  in  1569,  but  in  1686  was  restored 
to  Eussia. 

Kilcullen.  In  Kildare,  Ireland.  Here  a 
large  body  of  the  insurgent  Irish  defeated 
the  British  forces  commanded  by  Gen. 
Dundas,  May  23,  1798.  The  general  in  a 
subsequent  engagement  overthrew  the  rebels 
near  Kilcullen  bridge,  when  300  were  slain. 

Kildare.  A  county  of  Ireland,  in  the 
province  of  Leinster.  The  insurrection  in 
Ireland  which  swelled  into  the  rebellion, 
commenced  in  Kildare,  May  23,  1798.  On 
that  night  Lieut.  Gifl'ord  of  Dublin,  and  a 
number  of  other  gentlemen,  were  murdered 
by  the  insurgents.  This  rebellion  was 
quelled  in  1799. 

Kilkenny.  Capital  of  a  county  of  the 
same  name  in  Ireland,  on  the  Nore.  After 
a  siege  the  town  surrendered  to  Cromwell, 
March  28,  1650,  on  honorable  terms. 

Killa  (Iiid.).     A  castle,  fort,  or  fortress. 

Killadar.  The  governor,  or  commandant 
of  a  fort  in  India. 

Killala.  A  small  seaport  town  of  Ireland, 
in  the  county  of  Mayo.  It  was  invaded  by 
a  French  force  landing  from  three  frigates, 
under  Gen.  Humbert,  August  22,  1798':  The 
invaders  were  joined  by  the  Irish  insurgents, 
and  the  battles  of  Castlebar  and  Colooney  fol- 
lowed ;  and  the  French  were  defeated  at 
Ballinamuck,  September  8  of  the  same  year. 

Killaloe.  A  town  of  Ireland,  in  the 
county  Clare,  12  miles  northeast  of  Limerick. 
This  town  was  long  the  royal  seat  of  the 
O'Briens;  and  at  Kincora,  about  a  mile  to 
the  north,  are  pointed  out  some  remains  of 
the  residence.  At  Killaloe,  in  1691,  Gen. 
Sarsfield  intercepted  the  artillery  of  William 
III.  on  its  way  to  Limerick. 

Killese.     The  groove  in  a  cross-bow. 

Killiecrankie.  A  famous  pass  through  the 
Grampian  Mountains,  in  Perthshire,  Scot- 
land, 15  miles  northwest  of  Dunkeld.  At 
the  northwest  extremity  of  this  pass  a  battle 
was  fought  in  1689,  between  the  revolution- 
ary army  under  Gen.  Mackay,  and  the  roy- 
alists under  J.  C.  Graham  of  Claverhouse, 
viscount  Dundee,  in  which  the  former  was 
defeated. 

Kilmainham  Hospital.  An  asylum  in 
Dublin,  Ireland,  for  aged  and  disabled  sol- 
diers. It  was  founded  by  Arthur,  earl  of 
Granard,  marshal-general  of  the  army  in 
Ireland,  1675.  The  appointments  to  this 
place  are  in  the  gift  of  the  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army,  who  selects  them  from  the 
old  half-pay  officers.  The  expense  of  the  in- 
stitution to  the  country  is  £8000  per  annum. 

Kilmallock.     A  town  of  Ireland,   in  the 


county  Limerick.  It  was  invested  by  the 
Irish  forces  in  1598,  but  tlie  siege  was  raised 
by  the  Duke  of  Ormond.  There  was  much 
fighting  done  here  in  1641  and  1642.  Kil- 
mallock police  barrack  was  attacked  by  200 
armed  Fenians  on  March  5, 1867  ;  the  barrack 
was  defended  for  three  hours  by  14  police 
constables,  who  finally  drove  oti"  the  Fenians, 
with  loss,  by  a  sally. 

Kilsyth.  A  village  of  Scotland,  in  Stir- 
lingshire, 13  miles  southwest  from  Stirling. 
Montrose  gainW  a  victory  over  the  Cove- 
nanters, commanded  by  Gen.  Baillie,  near 
Kilsyth  in  1687. 

Kinburn.  A  fort  at  the  confluence  of  the 
rivers  Bug  and  Dnieper,  which  was  taken  by 
the  English  and  French,  October  17,  185-1 
Three  floating  French  batteries,  on  the  princi- 
ple of  horizontal  shell-firing,  said  to  be  the 
invention  of  the  emperor,  were  very  effective. 
On  October  18,  the  Eussians  blew  up  Ocza- 
koff",  a  fort  opposite. 

Kindle.  In  a  military  sense,  to  kindle  is 
to  excite  to  arms  ;  to  excite  military  ardor. 

Kineton.  A  town  of  England,  in  War- 
wickshire, 11  miles  southeast  from  Warwick, 
in  the  vicinity  of  which  the  famous  battle  of 
Edgehill  was  fought  between  the  royalist 
and  Parliamentary  armies  in  1642. 

Kinghorn.  A  small  burgh  of  Scotland, 
in  the  county  of  Fife,  situated  on  the  Frith 
of  Forth.  In  early  Scottish  history  it  was  a 
place  of  importance.  Here  Macbeth  is  said 
to  have  routed  the  Northmen. 

King-of-Arms,  or  King-at-Arms.  The 
principal  herald  of  England  was  at  first 
designated  king  of  the  heralds,  a  title  ex- 
changed for  king-of-arms  about  the  reign 
of  Henrj'  IV.  There  are  four  kings-of-arms 
in  England,  named  respectively  Garter, 
Clarencieux,  Norroy,  and  Bath ;  but  the 
first  three  only  are  members  of  the  College  of 
Arms.  Scotland  has  a  heraldic  officer  called 
Lj'on  king-of-arms,  or  Lord  Lyon  king-at- 
arms.  Ireland  has  one  king-of-arms,  named 
Ulster.     See  Herald. 

King's  Mountain.  A  range  of  mountains 
in  North  and  South  Carolina,  about  16  miles 
from  north  to  south,  with  several  spurs 
spreading  laterally.  About  a  mile  and  a 
half  south  of  the  North  Carolina  line,  in 
this  range,  on  October  7,  1780,  the  British 
forces  about  1100  strong,  under  Lieut. -Col. 
Ferguson,  were  surprised  and  attacked  by 
the  American  militia  under  Cols.  Cleave- 
land,  Shelby,  and  Campbell,  and,  after  an 
obstinate  and  bloody  contest,  their  leader 
being  among  the  slain,  the  British  were 
made  prisoners. 

Kingsland.  A  parish  of  England,  in 
Herefordshire,  4  miles  west  from  Leominster. 
The  battle  of  Mortimer's  Cross,  which  fixed 
Edward  IV.  on  the  throne,  was  fought  here 
in  1461. 

Kingston.  A  city  in  Ulster  Co.,  N.  T., 
90  miles  north  of  New  York  City.  It  was 
burnt  by  a  British  force  under  Sir  Henry 
Clinton,  October  7,  1777;  it  was  afterwards 
rebuilt  and  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1805. 


KINGSTON 


263 


KNIGHT 


Kingston.  A  village  and  township  of 
Lu/.'iiKi  Co.,  Pa.  In  this  township  the 
nmssacrL'  of  W'voininii;  took  place,  on  July 
3,  177«.     Sue  Wyoming  Vallky. 

Kingston-upon-Thames.  A  town  in 
Surrt'V,  Eiii^laiid,  on  the  Thames,  10  miles 
southwest  of  London.  The  first  armed  foix-e 
of  the  Parliamentary  army  assembled  in  this 
town,  and  here  the  last  attempt  in  favor  of 
Charles  I.  was  made. 

Kinsale.  A  town  of  Ireland,  in  the 
county  of  Cork.  This  place  was  taken  by 
the  Spaniards  in  lljOl,  and  in  1G08  King 
James  II.  landed  here. 

Kioge.  A  seaport  of  Denmark,  near  Co- 
Iieiihii^^en,  where  the  Danes  in  1807  were 
signally  defeated  by  the  JJritish. 

Kiowas.  A  warlike  and  powerful  tribe 
of  Indians,  who  formerly  roamed  over  Kan- 
sas, Colorado,  and  Northern  Te.xas,  robbing 
and  murdering  settlers.  They  are  now  lo- 
cated, to  the  nuniber  of  about  2000,  with 
the  Comanchcs,  on  a  reservation  in  Indian 
Territory.  In  1870,  in  violation  of  the  terms 
of  their  treaty,  they  made  a  raid  into  Texas, 
where  they  killed  several  people.  For  this 
two  of  their  principal  chiefs,  Satanta  and 
Big  Tree,  were  sentenced  to  be  hung;  but 
their  sentence  was  commuted  to  imprison- 
ment for  life,  and  they  were  subsequently 
pardoned.  Of  late  years  they  have  been 
peaceable. 

Kiptchak,  or  Kipchak.  A  term  which,  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  designated  that  vast  terri- 
tory stretching  north  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
from  the  Don  to  Turkestan,  and  occupied  by 
the  Kunnxns  and  Polovises.  This  tract 
formed  one  of  the  four  empires  into  which 
the  huge  dominion  of  Genghis  Khan  was 
divided,  and  was  the  portion  of  his  eldest  son 
Jujy,  under  who.se  son  and  successor,  Batu 
Klian,  it  became  the  terror  of  Western  Eu- 
rope, and  held  Russia  in  iron  subjection 
from  1236  till  13(;2.  IJatu  also  conquered 
Bulgaria,  and  invaded  Hungary,  Austria, 
and  Eastern  Germany,  but  made  no  perma- 
nent conquests  in  this  direction.  This  ex- 
tensive empire  was  dismembered  towards  the 
end  of  the  l.>th  century,  and  gave  rise  to  the 
khanates  of  Kazan,  Astrakhan,  and  Crim- 
Tartary.  The  Mongols  of  Kiptchak  were 
also  known  as  the  Golden  Horde. 

Kirkee.  A  village  of  Hindostan,  near 
Poona,  in  the  Deccaii,  memorable  for  a  battle 
fought  there  in  1817  between  the  Anglo- 
Indian  forces  and  the  Mahrattas,  who,  al- 
though gri'atly  su)ierior  in  number,  were 
conijx'lled  to  retreat  with  severe  loss. 

Kisselbaches.  Soldiers  are  so  called  in 
India. 

Kissingen.  A  town  of  Bavaria,  on  the 
Saalc,  30  miles  north-northeast  of  "Wiir/.- 
burg.  It  was  taken  by  storm  on  July  10, 
1866,  after  a  severe  engagement  between  the 
Bavarians  and  Pru.ssians,  in  which  the  latter 
were  victorious. 

Kit.  A  small  wooden  pail  or  bucket, 
wherewith  boats  are  bailed  out. 

Kit.    In  military  language,  the  equipment 


in  necessaries,  such  as  shirts,  boots,  brushes, 
etc.,  of  a  solaier,  but  not  applicable  to  his 
uniform,  arms,  or  accoutrements. 

Kitchen.  The  building  or  room  used  by 
soldiers  for  cooking  |iurpi>se^«. 

Klagenfurth,  or  Clagenfurt.     A  town  of 

I  Aiistriii,  the  cii].ital  of  llie  duchy  of  Carin- 

thia,  on  tlie  (ihiii.      In  IM/J  theFronch  en- 

teretl  this  jilace,  and  distroyed  the  fortiticu- 

tions  wiiich  surrounded  it.  ' 

Klamaths,  or  Clamets.  A  tribe  of  North- 
ern California  Indians,  who  lived  in  South- 
ern Oregon  and  Northern  California,  near 
Klamath  Lake,  and  on  Klamath  and  lioguo 
Kivers.  They  are  generally  peaceable,  and 
nuniber  about  700.  They  are  now  located 
on  a  reservation,  and  have  an  agency  in 
Southern  Oregon  known  by  their  name. 

Klicket.  A  small  gate  in  a  pali.sade  for 
the  pur|)ose  of  sallying  forth. 

Kliketats,  or  Kliktats.  A  tribe  of  Indians 
who  resided  in  Washington  Territory,  in  the 
country  between  the  Cascade  Range  and  the 
Columbia  River,  north  of  the  Dalles.  They 
were  reduced  to  complete  subjection  in  l8oo, 
and  are  now  located  with  kii\dred  tribes  to 
the  number  of  about  4000,  on  the  Yakima 
reservation,  Washington  Territory. 

Klinket.  A  term  used  in  fortification, 
signifying  a  small  postern  or  gate  in  a  pali- 
sade. 

Knapsack.  A  bag  of  canvas  or  skin,  con- 
taining a  soldier's  necessaries,  and  worn 
suspended  by  straps  between  his  shoulders. 
Those  used  in  the  British  army  arc  ordi- 
narily of  black  painted  canvas,  but  a  new 
sort  of  knapsack,  called  the  valise  equip- 
ment, has  been  issued  to  some  regiments. 
Some  other  nations,  as  the  Swiss,  make  theni 
of  thick  goat-skin,  dressed  with  the  hair  on. 

Knight.  From  the  Saxon  cniht,  a  servant 
or  attendant,  was  originally  a  man-at-arms 
bound  to  the  performance  of  certain  duties, 
among  others  to  attend  his  sovereign  or  feu- 
dal superior  on  horseback  in  time  of  war. 
The  institution  of  knighthood,  as  conferred 
by  investiture,  and  with  certain  oaths  and 
ceremonies,  arose  gradually  throughout 
Europe  as  an  adjunct  of  the  feudal  system. 
The  character  of  the  knight  was  at  once 
military  and  religious ;  the  defense  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  and  the  protection  of  pil- 
grims being  the  objects  to  which,  in  early 
times  of  the  institution,  heespecially  devoted 
himself  The  system  of  knight-service  in- 
troduced into  England  by  William  the  Con- 
queror empowered  the  king,  or  even  a  su- 
perior lord  who  was  a  subject,  to  compel 
every  holder  of  a  certain  extent  of  land, 
called  a  knight's  fee,  to  become  a  member  of 
the  knightly  order;  his  investiture  being 
accounted  jjroof  that  he  possessed  the  requi- 
site knightly  arms,  and  was  sutliciently 
trained  in  their  use.  After  the  long  war  be- 
tween France  and  England,  it  btHnnne  the 
practice  for  the  sovereign  to  receive  money 
compensations  from  subjects  who  were  un- 
willing to  receive  knighthood,  a  system  out 
of  which  grew  a  series  of  grievances,  leading 


KNIGHT 


264 


KNOUT 


eventually  to  the  total  abolition  of  knight- 
service  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  Since 
the  abolition  of  knight-service,  knighthood 
has  been  conferred,  without  any  regard  to 
property,  as  a  mark  of  the  sovereign's  es- 
teem, or  a  reward  for  services  of  any  kind, 
civil  or  military.  The  ceremonies  practiced 
in  conferring  knighthood  have  varied  at  dif- 
ferent periods.  In  general,  some  religious 
ceremonies  were  performed,  the  sword  and 
spurs  were  bound  on  the  candidate  ;  after 
which  a  blow  was  dealt  him  on  the  cheek 
or  shoulder,  as  the  last  aflVont  which  he  was 
to  receive  unrequited.  He  then  took  an 
oath  to  protect  the  distressed,  maintain  right 
against  might,  and  never  by  word  or  deed  to 
stain  his  character  as  a  knight  and  a  Chris- 
tian. A  knight  might  be  degraded  for  the 
infringement  of  any  part  of  his  oath,  in 
■which  case  his  spurs  were  chopped  off  with 
a  hatchet,  his  sword  was  broken,  his  es- 
cutcheon reversed,  and  some  religious  ob- 
servances were  added,  during  which  each 
piece  of  armor  was  taken  off  in  succession, 
and  cast  from  the  recreant  knight.  For  the 
different  orders.of  knighthood,  see  separate 
articles,  under  their  appropriate  headings, 
in  this  work. 

Knight,  To.  To  dub  or  create  a  knight, 
"which  in  modern  times  is  done  by  the  sov- 
ereign, who  gives  the  person  kneeling  a  blow 
■with  a  sword,  and  says,  "  Kise,  Sir ." 

Knight  Baronet,  or  Baronet.  A  dignity 
or  degree  of  honor  next  below  a  baron  and 
above  a  knight,  having  precedency  of  all 
orders  of  knights  except  those  of  the  garter, 
and  being  the  onlj"^  knighthood  that  is  hered- 
itary. The  order  was  founded  by  James  I. 
in  Kill,  and  is  given  by  patent.  The  word, 
however,  in  the  sense  of  lesser  baron,  was  in 
use  long  before  the  time  of  James  I. 

Knightage.  The  body  of  knights  taken 
collectively. 

Knight-bachelor.  One  of  the  lowest  or- 
der of  knights,  who  were  expected  to  remain 
unmarried  until  they  had  gained  some  re- 
nown by  their  achievements. 

Knight-banneret.  A  knight  who  carried 
a  banner,  who  possessed  liefs  to  a  greater 
amount  than  the  knight-bachelor,  and  who 
■was  obliged  to  serve  in  war  with  a  greater 
number  of  attendants.  He  was  created  by 
the  sovereign  in  person  on  the  field  of  battle. 

Knight-errant.  A  wandering  knight;  a 
knight  who  traveled  in  search  of  adventures, 
for  the  purpose  of  exhibiting  military  skill, 
prowess,  and  generosity. 

Knight-errantry.  The  practice  of  wan- 
dering in  quest  of  adventures  ;  the  manners 
of  wandering  knights  ;  a  quixotic  or  roman- 
tic adventure  or  scheme. 

Knight-erratic.  Pertaining  to  knight- 
errantry. 

Knighthood.  Originally  a  military  dis- 
tinction, came,  in  the  16th  century,  to  be  oc- 
casionally conferred  on  civilians,  as  a  reward 
for  valuable  services  rendered  to  the  crown 
or  community.  The  first  civil  knight  in 
England  was  Sir  William  Walworth,  lord 


mayor  of  London,  who  won  that  distinction 
by  slaying  the  rebel  Wat  Tyler  in  presence 
of  the  king.  In  recent  times,  it  has  been 
bestowed  at  least  as  often  on  scholars,  law- 
yers, artists,  or  citizens,  as  on  soldiers,  and 
in  many  cases  for  no  weightier  service  than 
carrying  a  congratulatory  address  to  court. 

Knighthood.  The  character,  dignity,  or 
condition  of  a  knight. 

Knightliness.     Duties  of  a  knight. 

Knightly.  Pertaining  to  a  knight;  be- 
coming a  knight;  as,  a  knightly  combat. 

Knights,  Military.  An  institution  of 
military  knights  at  Windsor,  England,  for- 
merly called  "  Poor  Knights,"  which  owes 
its  origin  to  Edward  III.,  and  is  a  provision 
for  a  limited  number  of  old  officers.  These 
officers  consist  of  a  governor  and  12  knights 
on  the  upper  foundation,  and  5  on  the  lower, 
together  18,  and  are  composed  of  officers  se- 
lected from  every  grade,  from  a  colonel  to  a 
subaltern,  chiefly  veterans,  or  on  half-pay. 
They  are  allowed  three  rooms  each  in  Wind- 
sor iPalace,  and  2  shillings  per  diem  for  their 
sustenance,  besides  other  small  allowances. 

Knights  of  St.  George.  See  Garter, 
Order  of  tiik. 

Knights  Templar.  See  Templar, 
Knights. 

Knight-service.  A  tenure  of  lands  held 
by  knights  on  condition  of  performing  mili- 
tary service.  It  was  abolished  in  the  time 
of  Charles  II.  of  England. 

Knob  of  a  Cascabel.     See  Cascabel. 

Knot.  A  twist  or  loop  in  a  rope  or  cord, 
so  made  that  the  motion  of  one  piece  of  the 
line  over  the  other  shall  be  stopped.  The 
knot  owes  its  power  of  passive  resistance  to 
the  friction  of  the  rope.  The  three  elemen- 
tary knots,  which  every  one  should  know, 
are  the  timber-hitch,  the  bow-line,  and  the 
clove-hitch. 

The  virtues  of  the  timber-hitch  are,  that, 
so  long  as  the  strain  upon  it  is  kept  up,  it 
will  never  give ;  when  the  strain  is  taken 
off,  it  is  cast  loose  immediately. 

The  bow-line  makes  a  knot  difficult  to  un- 
do ;  with  it  the  ends  of  two  strings  are  tied 
together,  or  a  loop  made  at  the  end  of  a  sin- 
gle piece  of  string.  For  slip  nooses,  use  the 
bowline  to  make  the  draw-loop. 

The  clove-hitch  binds  with  excessive  force, 
and  by  it,  and  it  alone,  can  a  weight  be  hung 
to  a  smooth  pole,  as  to  a  tent-pole.  A  kind 
of  double  clove-hitch  is  generally  used,  but 
the  simple  one  suffices,  and  is  more  easily 
recollected. 

There  are  other  knots  very  useful  in  the 
artillery  service  and  indispensable  aboard 
ship,  viz. :  single  knot,  weaver^ s  knot,figure- 
eiflht  knot,  artijicer's  knot,  mooring  knots, 
hitches,  capstan,  or  prolonge  knot,  square 
knot,  loops,  becker  knot,  and  anchor  knot. 

Knot,  Shoulder-.     See  Shoulder-kxot. 

Knout.  A  scourge  composed  of  many 
thongs  of  skin,  plaited,  and  interwoven  with 
wire,  which  was  till  lately  the  favorite  in- 
strument of  punishment  in  Kussia  for  all 
classes  and  degrees  of  criminals.     The  of- 


KOLIN 


265 


KRUPP 


fender  was  tied  to  two  stakes,  stripped,  and 
received  on  the  back  the  j^pecified  number  of 
lushes;  100  or  120  were  equivalent  to  sen- 
tence of  death,  but  in  many  cases  the  victim  i 
died  under  the  operation  long  before  this 
number  was  completed.  This  punishment  | 
is  at  present  only  intlicted  upon  ordinary 
criminals,  such  as  incendiaries  or  assassins. 
It  is  no  longer  in  use  in  the  army,  except 
when  a  soldier  is  dismissed  for  ill  conduct, 
in  which  case  3  to  10  lashes  are  given, 
in  order  to  disgrace  the  soldier,  rather  than 
punish  him. 

Kolin.  A  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Elbe.  Here  the  Austrians  un- 
der Daun  defeated  the  Prussians  under  Fred- 
erick the  Great,  June  18,  1757. 

Koloshes.  The  Russian  name  for  the 
Indians  of  the  coast  of  Alaska. 

Komom.     Sec  C'omokx. 

Koniagas,  or  Kadiaks.  The  names  by 
which  tlio  various  tribes  of  aborigines  living 
along  the  coast  of  Alaska  for  over  1500 
miles,  are  known. 

Konieh  (anc.  Iconitim).  A  town  of  Asi- 
atic Turkey,  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Karamania,  Asia  Minor.  Here  the  Turkish 
army  was  defeated  by  the  pasha  of  Egypt, 
after  a  long,  sanguinary  fight,  December  21, 
1832.     See"lcoNiu.M. 

KoniggrStz.  A  town  and  fortress  of  Bo- 
hemia, on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe.  On 
July  2,  18fi<J,  the  Austrians  under  Gen. 
Benedek  were  signally  defeated  with  a  loss 
of  40,000  men  by  the  Prussians  under  King 
"William,  at  Sadowa,  near  Koniggriitz. 

Konigsberg.  A  fortified  city  of  Prussia, 
and  former  capital  of  the  kingdom,  is  sit- 
uated on  both  banks  of  the  Pregcl,  and  on 
an  island  in  that  river,  4  miles  from  its  en- 
trance into  the  Frisch  Haff.  It  was  founded 
in  1255,  and  in  ViOo  became  a  member  of  the 
Hanseatic  League;  in  1G26,  it  was  surrounded 
with  walls  ;  and  in  1657,  received  a  strong 
additional  defense  in  the  citadel  of  Fried- 
richsburg.  It  suffered  much  during  the 
Seven  Years'  War  by  the.  occupation  of  the 
Russians  from  1758  to  17(64;  and  also  from 
the  French,  who  entered  it  in  1807,  after  the 
battle  of  Friedland. 

Konigstein.  A  town  of  Germany,  in 
Saxony.  17  miles  southeast  of  Dresden,  on 
the  left  hank  of  the  Elbe.  It  has  a  fortress, 
situated  on  a  rock  nearly  4-30  feet  high, 
which  is  (me  of  the  few  in  Kurope  that  never 
yet  were  taken.  The  royal  treasurer  have 
usually  been  deposited  here  during  war. 

Koom,  or  Kum.  A  town  of  Persia,  in 
the  province  of  Irak-.\jemee.  It  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  .Vfghnns  iti  1722. 

Kootenais,  Kontenays,  Cottonois,  Cou- 
tanies,  i.r  Flatbows.  A  tribe  of  Indians  j 
who  formerly  resided  wholly  in  British  Co-  1 
lumbia,  but  some  of  them  are  now  located  I 
in  Washington,  Idaho,  and  Montana  Ter-  | 
ritories.  They  are  generally  jK-aceable  and  I 
self-supporting,  and  have  made  some  prog-  | 
roM  in  civiliTiation.  About  400  of  them  re-  | 
side  at  the  Flathead  Agencv,  Montana.  | 

18 


Koreish.  An  Arab  tribe  which  had  the 
charge  of  the  Caaba,  or  sacred  stone  of  Mecca, 
and  strenuously  opposed  the  pretensions  of 
Mohammed.  It  was  defeated  by  him  and 
his  adherents,  623-30. 

Kossacks.     See  Cossacks. 

Kossova.  A  town  of  European  Turkev, 
8  miles  nortlieast  from  Pristina.  A  battle 
was  fought  near  this  place  in  1389  between 
the  Turks  and  Serbs.  The  latter  were  de- 
feated, and  the  king  slain. 

Koszegh,  or  Guns.     See  Guns. 

Kotah.  The  chief  town  of  a  protected 
state  of  the  same  name  ;  is  situated  in  Kaj- 
pootana,  India,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Chumbul.  In  1857,  notwithstanding  the 
fidelity  of  the  rajah  to  the  British  govern- 
ment, Kotah  fell  under  the  power  of  the 
mutineers,  remaining  in  their  possession 
until  March  30,  1858,  when  it  was  stormed 
by  Gen.  Roberts. 

Kot-dufFadar.     See  Duffadar,  Kot. 

Koul.  A  soldier  belonging  to  a  noble 
corps  in  Persia. 

Kouler-Agasi.  A  distinguished  military 
character  in  Persia,  who  has  the  comman'd 
of  a  body  of  men  called  Kouls.  He  is 
usually  governor  of  a  considerable  province. 

Kouls.  The  third  corps  of  the  king  of 
Persia's  household  troops.  The  Kouls  are 
men  of  note  and  rank  ;  no  person  can  arrive 
at  any  considerable  post  or  situation  in 
Persia  who  has  not  served  among  the  Kouls. 

Kovno.  Capital  of  the  government  of 
the  same  name  in  European  Russia,  near 
the  confluence  of  the  Viliaand  the  Niemen, 
was  founded  in  the  10th  century,  and  wa:i 
the  scene  of  many  blot)dy  conflicts  between 
the  Teutonic  knights  and  Poles  during  .the 
14th  and  15th  centuries. 

Kraal  (probably  from  the  language  of  the 
Hottentots).  In'South  Africa,  a  village;  a 
collection  of  huts;  sometimes  a  single  hut. 
This  term  is  applied  to  the  villages  and 
military  camps  of  the  Zulus. 

Krasnoe.  A  Russian  village,  30  miles 
southwest  of  Smolensk,  near  which  the 
French,  in  the  retreat  of  1812,  lost,  during 
three  successive  days,  25,000  men,  several 
thousand  prisoners,  and  25  pieces  of  cannon. 

Kreuznach.  A  town  of  Rhenish  Prus- 
sia, on  the  Nahe,  40  miles  south-st)utheast 
of  Coblentz.  This  place  was  stormed  by 
Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1632. 

Kris,  or  Crease.  A  dagger  or  poniard, 
the  universal  weapon  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Malayan  Archipelago.  It  is  made  of 
many  difierent  forms,  short  or  long,  straight 
or  crooked.  The  hilt  and  scabbard  are  often 
much  ornamented.  Men  of  all  ranks  wear 
this  weapon  ;  and  those  of  high  rank,  when 
in  full  dress,  sometimes  carry  three  or  four. 
In  Java  women  .sometimes  wear  it. 

Krupp  Gun.  The  metal  used  in  these 
celebrated  guns  is  cast  steel,  a  composition 
of  puddled  steel  and  wrought  iron.  The 
wrought  iron  is  obtsiincd  from  the  best  hen  - 
atite  ores  of  Europe,  the  puddled  steel  from 
the  spathic  ore  of  Siegen,  in  the  immediate 


KKUPP 


266 


KKUPP 


vicinity  of  the  works.  The  proportions  of 
each  metal,  the  details  of  their  preparation, 
as  well  as  certain  ingredients  guessed  at  but 
not  known,  remain  a  secret  with  the  manu- 
facturers. Manganese  in  small  quantity  is 
supposed  to  be  present  and  to  exercise  an 
important  influence.  The  result  is  a  metal 
equal  in  elasticity  and  tensile  strength  to  the 
best  English  steel,  the  excellent  quality  of 
which  is  largely  due  to  "oil  tempering,"  a 
process  entirely  omitted  in  the  Krupp  gun. 
The  ingots  forming  the  diti'erent  parts  of  the 
gun  are  cast  in  cylindrical  iron  molds,  an 
operation  requiring  the  greatest  care  to  pre- 
vent the  imprisonment  of  air  or  other  gases 
in  the  casting, — a  defect  which  the  tenacious 
character  of  the  metal  renders  fatal.  Subse- 
quent hammering  only  increases  the  trouble 
by  involving  a  larger  area.  As  soon  as  the 
ingot  is  hard  enough  to  permit  handling  it  is 
removed  from  the  mold  and  cooled  slowly  in 
ashes.  It  is  next  brought  to  a  working  heat 
in  a  furnace,  placed  under  a  steam-hammer 
weighing  from  1  to  50  tons,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  ingot,  and  drawn  out  to  the  re- 
quired length  and  thickness,  when  it  is  again 
buried  in  ashes  and  gradually  annealed  to 
remove  the  tensions  induced  by  hammering. 
From  the  rough  ingot  thus  prepared  the 
tube  forming  the  barrel  is  made  directly  by 
boring,  turning,  and  rifling.  The  ingots 
intended  for  hoops,  trunnion  bands,  etc.,  are 
cut  up  into  short  lengths,  which  are  formed 
into  rings  without  weld  by  being  split 
through  the  centre  within  a  certain  distance 
of  the  ends,  after  which  the  slit  is  gradually 
widened  to  a  circle  by  swaging.  The  parts 
when  finished  are  carefully  annealed. 

The  Krupp  gun  consists  of  a  central  tube 
or  barrel,  comprising  the  greater  mass  of  the 
gun,  and  a  series  of  encircling  hoops.  The 
tube  has  a  thickness  of  about  eight-tenths  of 
the  caliber  from  a  point  over  the  front  of  the 
charge  to  the  termination  of  the  rings  or 
hoops,  whence  it  is  conical,  tapering  to  a 
thickness  of  about  half  the  caliber  at  the 
muzzle.  From  the  seat  of  the  charge  breech- 
wards  the  tube  thickens  rapidly  by  a  series 
of  steps  to  a  cylinder  about  l^  calibers  thick. 
The  hoops  overlie  the  tube  from  the  cylin- 
der in  rear  to  the  base  of  the  cone  in  front, 
covering  about  half  the  total  length  of  the 
tube.  The  hoops  are  put  on  in  layers,  the 
number  of  layers  being  determined  by  the 
size  of  the  gun.  The  6-inch  gun  has  one, 
the  8-  and  9-inch  two,  and  the  higher  cali- 
bers have  three  layers  of  hoops.  The  hoops 
are  shrunk  on  at  black  heat,  the  different 
layers  being  held  in  place  by  small  key- 
rings. 

The  rifling  for  Krupp  guns  is  polygrooved, 
the  twist  uniform,  the  grooves  being  gradu- 
ally narrowed  towards  the  muzzle  for  the 
suppression  of  windage.  The  chamber  in 
which  the  shot  and  charge  rest  is  a  little 
larger  than  the  bore,  though  they  coincide 
at  the  bottom.  This  makes  the  passage  of 
the  projectile  into  the  bore  direct  andpre- 
, vents   the   abrasion  which   would   occur  if 


tilted  upwards  in  leaving  its  seat.  More- 
over, the  shot  is  "centred'' — that  is,  has  its 
axis  in  the  axis  of  the  bore — from  its  entry 
into  the  gun. 

The  breech-mechanism  is  essentially  that 
of  Broadwell.  The  breech  is  closed  on  the 
"sliding  block"  principle.  Through  the 
cylindrical  part  of  the  barrel  in  rear  of  the 
rings,  from  one  side  to  the  other,  a  slot  is 
cut  in  which  the  breech-block  slides  hori- 
zontally, alternately  exposing  and  closing 
the  rear  of  the  chamber.  The  block  is  run 
in  and  out  by  an  attached  screw,  which 
works  partly  in  the  upper  wall  of  the  slot. 
The  motion  of  the  block  is  governed  by 
guides  in  the  upper  and  lower  walls  of  the 
slot  slightly  inclined  from  the  perpendicular 
to  the  axis  of  the  piece.  The  rear  of  the 
slot  is  so  cut  that  the  block  is  wedged  firmly 
against  it  when  it  is  home.  The  block  is 
locked  in  this  position  by  a  large  screw, 
which  catches  in  certain  threads  cut  on  the 
rear  wall  of  the  slot.  The  block  is  furnished 
Avith  an  "  indurator  plate,"  a  disk  of  hard- 
ened steel,  which  is  set  in  its  face  to  receive  I 
the  direct  action  of  the  powder  gases.  The 
vent  is  in  the  axis  of  the  gun  through  the 
block.  The  gas-check  used  is  the  Broad- 
ivell  ring  (which  see).  The  powder  for  all 
the  large  guns  is  the  pristnaiic.  (See  Gun- 
powder.) Both  steel  and  cast-iron  projec- 
tiles are  used.  The  steel  projectiles  for 
armor  piercing  have  their  points  water-tem- 
pered. Eotation  being  communicated  by 
compression,  the  projectiles  belong  to  the 
soft-jacketed  class.  The  projectile  is  turned 
smooth  in  a  lathe,  pickled  in  dilute  acid, 
and  then  put  in  sal-ammoniac  to  remove 
oil.  It  is  next  galvanized  by  immersion  in 
molten  zinc,  then  immersed  in  lead,  and  af- 
terwards a  heavy  lead  jacket  is  cast  on  it, 
which  is  turned  down,  leaving  several  prom- 
inent rings  to  facilitate  compression  into  the 
grooves.  In  late  years  Herr  Krupp  has 
adopted  for  his  large  guns  the  American 
system  of  projectiles,  having  soft  metal  ex- 
panding sabots  attached  to  the  base,  with  a 
centring  ring  in  front. 

Krupp  guns  range  in  size  from  small  field-  ;| 
pieces  to  a  gun  weighing  72  tons.  The 
field  pieces  manufactured  number  several  h 
thousand.  They  form  the  official  equipment 
of  the  German  army,  and  contributed  much 
to  German  success  in  the  Franco-Prussian 
war.  The  large  guns,  comprising  6-,  7-,  8-, 
9-,  10-,  11-,  and  12-inch  guns,  have  been 
made  in  large  numbers,  and  have  found  a 
ready  sale  in  Germany,  Russia,  and  Turkey. 

The  largest  guns  are  a  14-inch  gun  weigh- 
ing 56  tons,  and  a  15|-inch  weighing  72  tons. 
(See  Cannon.)  Herr  Krupp  is  also  a  large 
manufacturer  of  gun-carriages  of  all  kinds. 
His  partiality  for  steel  has  led  him  to  use  it 
almost  exclusively  in  his  constructions.  He 
has  inherited  likewise  the  aversion  of  the 
great  Borsig  for  welding ;  and  a  noticeable 
feature  of  his  guns  is  an  absence  of  any  weld. 
The  "coil"  principle,  so  well  adapted  to  de- 
velop tangential  strength,  is  also  omitted, 


KRUPP'S 


267 


KURTCHI 


the  character  of  the  metal  being  relied  upon 
to  resist  strains  "  across  the  grain." 

Perhaps  the  most  novel  piece  of  ordnance 
of  modern  times  is  Kriipp's  non-recoiluig 
shield  gun.  This  gun  is  made  with  an  on- 
largcment  around  the  muzzle  in  the  shape 
of  a  large  ball,  wliich  is  held  in  a  socket 
formed  in  a  heavy  armored  shield  protecting 
the  gun  in  front,  the  arrangement  giving  a 
veritable  ball-and-socket  joint,  about  which 
the  gun  is  elevated  and  traversed.  On  ship- 
board or  in  a  fortification  the  shield  would 
form  a  jiart  of  the  armor  or  scarp  wall.  A 
narrow  !<lit  above  the  ball  is  used  in  point- 
ing by  the  gunner,  who  for  this  purpose  sits 
astride  of  the  gun.  The  problem  solved  by 
this  unique  arrangement  is  the  entire  sup- 

Eression  of  recoil,  the  strain  being  absorbed 
y  the  massive  shield.  In  the  late  experi- 
ments at  Happen,  1879,  the  triumphs  of 
Krupp  guns  culminated  in  the  performances 
of  tins  novel  i>iecc  of  ordnance.  Its  action 
was  satisfactory  in  every  respect,  and  so 
slight  was  the  shock  communicated  to  the 
gun  that  the  gunner  did  not  deem  it  neces- 
sary to  dismount,  but  kept  his  seat  astride 
of  it  during  the  firing. 

Krupp's  Steel  Works.  On  account  of  the 
wide-spread  reputation  which  the  steel  pro- 
duced in  the  great  works  of  Krupp  at  Essen, 
in  Rhenish  Prussia,  has  obtained,  it  is 
necessary  that  these  works  should  receive  a 
brief  notice.  They  were  founded  by  Fried- 
rich  Krupp  in  1810,  and  were  continued  by 
his  sons  after  his  death  in  1820.  For  the 
last  fifty  years  they  have  been  increasing 
annually  from  onc-si.\th  to  one-third  in  size, 
until  now  they  cover  about  500  acres,  and 
eive  employment  to  about  20,000  persons, 
including  those  engaged  in  building,  and  in 
the  mines  and  smelting-houses.  For  large 
metallurgical  works  Essen  is  favorably 
situated,  being  in  the  centre  of  a  coal-bear- 
ing area,  where  coal  of  the  best  quality  can 
be  procured  cheaply,  and  near  rrjines  of 
niunganiferous  iron  ore,  which  has  been 
found  e.xcellently  adapted  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  steel  ;  but  it  is  believed  that  the 
admirable  organization  of  every  part  of  his 
manufactory  has  conduced  as  much  as  any- 
thing to  the  great  success  of  Krupp.  The 
articles  manufactured  consist  principally 
of  rails,  tires,  crank-axles,  shafts,  mining 
pump-rods,  gun-carriages  and  guns,  the  pro- 
portion of  ordnance  being  about  two-fifths 
of  the  whole.  Guns  have  been  made  at 
Essen  for  the  Prussians,  Austrians,  Bel- 
gians, Dutch,  Italians,  Turks,  Japanese,  and 
also  for  the  English,  although  not  directly 
ordered  by  the  government.  Since  1872  a 
field-gun  invented  by  Krupp  has  been 
adopted  by  the  Prussian  government,  and 
supplied  to  the  whole  army.  The  establish- 
ment possesses  28(5  steam-engines  from  2  to 
1000  horse-power,  1100  furnaces  of  various 
kinds,  71  steam-hammers,  2<)4  smith's  forges, 
276  coke-ovens,  and  lOoti  planing,  cutting, 
and  boring  nuichines.  It  burns  over  1000 
tonsofcottl  daily,  and  has  over  11,000  gas-  i 


burners,  consuming  in  twentv-four  hours 
400,000  cubic  feet  of  gas.  It  has,  besides,  a 
complete  telegraph  system,  800  cars,  15  loco- 
motives, 33  miles  of  railway,  over  3000 
dwelling-houses,  hospitals,  chemical  labora- 
tory, a  photographic  and  lithographic  estab- 
lishment, over  400  mines,  11  blast-furnaces 
and  several  smelting-houses  which  produce 
annually  about  20,000  tons  of  pig-iron. 
These  works  have  already  produced  over 
18,000  heavy  guns. 

Kshatriya.  The  second  or  military  caste 
in  the  social  system  of  the  Brahmanical 
Hindus. 

Ku-Klux-Klan.  A  secret  organization 
of  ex-Confederate  soldiers,  who,  for  several 
years  after  the  close  of  the  civil  war,  by  their 
murders  and  other  crimes  disturbed  the 
tranquillity  of  the  Southern  States.  Their 
victims  were  chiefly  freedmen,  and  persons 
suspected  of  favoring  the  policy  of  the  gov- 
ernment. Stringent  measures  were  taken 
against  them  by  Congress  in  1871,  and  they 
soon  after  ceased  their  disturbances. 

Kul.  The  Turkish  word  for  slave  to  the 
prince.  The  grand  vizier,  the  bachas,  the 
beiglerbeys,  and  all  persons  who  receive  pay 
or  subsistence  from  situations  dependent  upon 
the  crown,  are  so  called.  This  title  is  in  high 
estimation  among  the  Turkish  military,  as 
it  authorizes  all  who  are  invested  with  it  to 
insult,  strike,  and  otherwise  ill  use  the  com- 
mon people,  without  being  responsible  for 
the  most  flagrant  breach  of  humanity. 

Kulm.  A  small  village  of  Bohemia,  16 
miles  north-northwest  of  Leitmeritz,  was 
the  scene  of  two  bloody  conflicts  between 
the  French  and  allied  Russian-Austrian  ar- 
mies on  August  2ii-30,  1813.  The  French, 
numbering  30,000  men,  were  commanded  by 
Gen.  Vandamme  ;  the  Russians,  during  the 
first  days  conflict,  were  17,000,  and  were 
commanded  by  Gen.  Ostermann-Tolstoi. 
During  the  night,  the  latter  were  heavily 
reinforced,  and  on  the  second  day  Barclay 
de  Tolly  assumed  the  command  with  GO, 000 
troops.  The  result  was  the  complete  wreck 
of  the  French  army,  which  lost  in  these  two 
days  little  short  of  20,000  men,  while  the 
allies  did  not  lose  half  of  that  number. 

Kunnersdorf.     See  Cunnkksdork. 

Kunobitza.  In  the  Balkan,  where  John 
llunniuilcs,  the  Hungarian,  defeated  the 
Turks,  December  24,  1443. 

Kupele.  Straits  so  called  in  India,  through 
which  the  Ganges  disembogues  itself  into 
Hindostan.  They  are  distant  from  Delhi 
about  30  leagues.  It  was  at  these  strait.s 
that  the  East  Indians  made  some  show  of 
resistance  when  the  famous  Tamerlane  (Ti- 
mur)  invaded  India.  The  field  of  this  vic- 
tory is  the  most  distant  point  of  that  em- 
peror s  conquest  in  India,  and  on  the  globe. 

Kurrol  (Ind.).  The  advanced-guard  of  a 
main  army. 

Kurtchi'.  A  militia  is  so  called  in  Persia. 
It  consists  of  one  body  of  cavalry,  which  is 
composed  of  the  first"  nobility  of  the  king- 
dom, and  of  the  lineal  descendants  of  the 


KURTCHI-BASCHI 


268 


LABORATOEY 


Turkish  conquerors,  who  placed  Ismael 
Sophi  on  the  throne.  They  wear  a  red 
turban  of  twelve  folds,  which  is  made  of 
particular  stuff.  This  turban  was  originally 
given  them  by  Ismael,  in  consideration  of 
their  attachment  to  the  religion  and  family 
of  Ali.  In  consequence  of  their  wearing 
this  turban,  the  Persians  are  always  called 
by  the  Tusks  kifllbaschi,  or  red-heads.  The 
Kurtchi  form  a  body  of  nearly  18,000  men. 

Kurtchi-baschi.  The  chief  or  command- 
ing officer  of  the  Kurtchi.  This  was  for- 
merly the  most  distinguished  situation  in 
the  kingdom,  and  the  authority  annexed  to 
it  was  equal  to  what  the  constable  of  France 
originally  possessed.  At  present  his  power 
does  not  extend  beyond  the  Kurtchis. 

Kush-bash  (Ind.).  Persons  who  enjoy 
lands  rent  free,  upon  condition  of  serving 
the  government  in  a  military  capacity  when 
called  upon. 


Kustrin,  or  Custrin.  A  fortified  town  of 
Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Brandenburg, 
at  the  union  of  the  Wartha  with  the  Oder, 
48  miles  east  from  Berlin.  In  1758  it  was 
bombarded  by  the  liussians,  and  in  1806 
taken  by  the  French.  It  has  a  large  powder- 
magazine. 

Kutchin.  A  family  of  Alaska  Indians, 
which  is  divided  into  a  number  of  petty 
tribes,  who  occupy  the  valley  of  the  Yukon 
River. 

Kyanizing.  A  process  for  preserving 
timber  from  decay, — so  named  from  the 
inventor  Kyan.  The  process  consists  in 
saturating  the  wood  with  a  solution  of  cor- 
rosive sublimate. 

Kythul.  A  town  of  India,  and  the  cap- 
ital of  a  district  of  the  same  name.  The 
district  fell  into  the  possession  of  the  Brit- 
ish in  1843,  from  the  failure  of  heirs  to  the 
last  rajah. 


L. 


Labarum.  A  military  standard  of  the 
Roman  empire.  It  consis"ted  of  a  long  lance 
crossed  at  right  angles  near  the  top  by  a 
staff,  from  which  hung  a  small  flag  or 
streamer  of  purple  cloth  inwrought  with 
gold  and  precious  stones,  and  bearing  the 
effigy  of  the  emperor.  Constantine  the 
Ureat,  when  he  embraced  Christianity,  sub- 
stituted for  that  device  a  crown,  a  cross,' and 
the  initial  letters  of  the  name  of  Christ,  and 
made  it  the  imperial  standard. 

Labeates.  A  warlike  people  in  Dalmatia, 
whose  chief  town  was  Scodra,  and  in  whose 
territory  was  the  Labeatis  Palus  (now  Lake 
of  Scutari),  through  which  the  river  Bar- 
ban  a  (now  Bogana)  runs. 

Label,  Lanibel,  or  File.  In  heraldry,  is 
the  mark  of  cadency  which  distinguishes 
the  eldest  son  in  his  father's  lifetime.  It 
consists  of  a  horizontal  stripe  or  fillet,  with 
three  points  depending  from  it.  "When  the 
mark  of  cadency  itself  is  designated  a  file, 
its  points  are  called  labels. 

Labicum,  Labici,  Lavicum,  Lavici  (now 
Colonna).  An  ancient  town  in  Latium,  on 
one  of  the  hills  of  the  Alban  Mountain,  15 
miles  southeast  from  Rome.  It  was  an  ally 
of  the  ^qui ;  taken  and  colonized  by  the 
Romans,  418  B.C. 

Laboratory.  A  department  which  is  in- 
trusted with  the  manufacture  of  combustible 
and  other  substances  for  military  purposes, 
such  as  blank  and  ball  cartridges  for  small- 
arms,  cartridges  for  every  description  of  ord- 
nance, rockets,  and  all  stores  of  similar 
character.  This  department  is  likewise  in- 
trusted with  the  conservation,  packing,  re- 


storing, and  supply  of  all  gunpowder  to  the 
several  military  and  naval  departments,  and 
in  the  British  service  is  under  the  manage- 
ment of  officers  of  the  royal  artillery  es- 
pecially appointed  to  that  duty;  in  the 
U.  S.  service  it  is  under  the  officers  of  the 
ordnance  department.  In  the  latter  service 
officers  of  artillery,  as  well  as  non-commis- 
sioned officers  and  privates,  are  instructed 
at  the  artillery  school,  Fort  Monroe,  Va., 
in  laboratory  duties,  and  carefully  taught 
the  manipulation  and  manufacture  of  labo- 
ratory stores.  At  the  West  Point  Military 
Academy,  the  cadets  are  thoroughly  in- 
structed in  the  above  duties,  as  are  also  the 
naval  cadets  at  the  Naval  Academy,  An- 
napolis, Md.  In  the  British  service  officers 
of  artillery,  as  well  as  non-commissioned 
officers  and  gunners,  are  instructed  in  lab- 
oratory duties.  Officers  and  non-commis- 
sioned officers  of  artillery  in  Germany, 
France,  and  Austria  are  required  to  possess 
a  knowledge  of  the  manufacture  and  care  of 
laboratory  stores. 

Laboratory,  Roj'al.  An  extensive  mili- 
tary manufacturing  department  in  Woolwich 
Arsenal,  England.  Although  it  has  existed 
for  many  years,  it  was  only  in  1855  that  the 
present  very  large  establishment  was  organ- 
ized. Here  are  foundries  for  the  casting  of 
shot,  shell,  grape,  etc.;  apparatus  for  the 
manufacture  of  percussion-caps,  which  are 
formed — hundreds  at  a  time — out  of  the 
copper  sheet;  presses  where  rifle-bullets  are 
squeezed  into  shape;  fuzes  in  all  stages  of 
manufacture  ;  and  a  thousand  other  instances 
of  combined   ingenuity   and   power.      The 


LABORATORY 


2C9 


LABORATORY 


British  government  grants  permission  to  in- 
spect the  factory.  There  are  also  labora- 
tories— though  on  a  comparatively  small 
scale — at  Portsmouth  and  Davenport,  Eng- 
land. 

Laboratory  Stores.  The  following  are 
anions  the  laboratory  stores  used  in  service: 

The  time-fuze,  the  percussion-fuze,  and  the 
concuss  ion-fuze  (which  see). 

The  wooden  fuze  consists  of  a  conical  plug 
of  wood  of  the  proper  size  for  the  fuze-hole 
of  the  shell  with  which  it  is  to  be  fired. 
The  axis  of  this  plug  is  bored  out  cylindric- 
allv  from  the  large,  down  to  within  a  short 
distance  of  the  small  end,  which  is  left  solid. 
At  the  large  end  a  cup  is  hollowed  out,  and 
the  outside  of  the  plug  is  divided  into  inches 
and  parts,  generally  tenths,  commencing  at 
the  bottom  of  the  cup.  The  cylindrical 
space  is  filled  with  composition,  pounded 
hard,  and  as  regularly  as  possible,  and  the 
cup  tilled  with  meal  powder  moistened  with 
whisky  or  alcohol.  The  rate  of  burning  is 
determined  by  experiment,  and  marked  on  a 
waterproof  cap,  which  is  tied  over  the  cup. 
Knowing  the  time  any  shell  is  to  occupy  in 
its  flight,  the  fuze  is  cut  off  with  a  saw  at 
the  proper  division,  and  firmly  set  in  the 
fuze-hole  with  a  fuze-set  and  mallet.  The 
disadvantage  of  this  fuze  is  its  irregularity, 
it  being  very  difficult  to  pound  the  composi- 
tion so  that  equal  lengths  will  burn  equal 
times.  The  shell  may  either  burst  too  soon, 
«nd  a  great  part  of  its  eti'ect  lost,  or  it  may 
burst  after  burying  itself  in  the  ground,  or 
it  may  burst  after  passing  the  proper  point. 
This  irregularity  of  burning  is  common  to 
all  fuzes  where  the  composition  is  driven  in 
successive  layers  in  a  column  which  burns 
in  the  same  direction.  This  fuze  is  used 
with  mortar  shells.  The  composition  of 
mortar-fuzes  is,  nitre  2  parts,  sulphur  1  part, 
and  meal  powder  3  parts  ;  the  quantities  of 
meal  powder  vary  in  fuzes  for  mortars  of 
different  calibers.  Generally  these  fuzes  are 
cut  before  being  inserted  in  the  shell ;  but 
they  are  sometimes  bored  through  at  the 
proper  positions  instead  of  being  sawed. 
They  are  also  cut  obliquely,  when  the  fuze 
is  80  long  as  to  render  it  likely  that  it  will 
reach  the  bottom  of  the  shell ;  for  by  cutting 
it  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  the  whole  base 
of  the  wood  might  be  driven  in  contact  with 
the  bottom  of  the  shell,  and  prevent  the 
lighted  composition  from  setting  fire  to  the 
bursting  charge. 

The  paper  time-fuze  consists  of  a  cylindri- 
cal column  of  burning  composition  packed 
in  a  paper  case,  gradually  increasing  in 
thickness  from  its  lower  to  its  upper  or  outer 
extremity  ;  to  insure  ignition,  it  is  primed 
with  rifle-powder  at  the  larger  end.  It  is 
inserted  at  the  time  of  loading  the  piece 
into  a  brass  or  wooden  plug  previously 
driven  into  the  fuze-hole  of  the  shell.  The 
composition  has  the  same  ingredients  as  gun- 
powder, the  proportions  being  varied  to  suit 
the  required  rate  of  combustion  ;  pure  meal 
powder  gives  the  quickest  composition;  by 


adding  certain  proportions  of  sulphur  and 
nitre,  the  composition  burns  more  slowly. 
The  rate  of  burning  also  depends  upon  the 
density  of  the  composition  and  the  purity 
and  thorough  mi.xture  of  the  ingreaients. 
These  fuzes  vary  in  length,  burning  from  4 
to  40  seconds  ;  they  are  graduated  in  seconds 
on  the  outside  of  the  case,  and  can  be  cut  to 
a  length  corresponding  to  any  intermediate 
time  of  flight. 

Belgian,  or  Bormann-fuze.  See  Bormann- 

FUZE. 

The  Wright-fuze,  a  modification  of  the 
Bormann-fuze,  extends  the  time  of  burning 
to  12  or  14  seconds. 

United  States  sea-coast  fuze.  The  paper 
case  fits  in  a  fuze-plug  of  bronze  instead  of 
wood.  It  fits  the  fuze-hole  of  the  shell  in 
the  same  way  as  the  wooden  plug,  and  is  re- 
tained by  the  force  of  friction.  A  safety- 
cap  and  primer  combined  have  been  adopted 
to  prevent  ricochets,  especially  over  water, 
from  extinguishing  the  fuze.  A  recess  in 
the  top,  filled  with  priming  composition,  is 
covered  until  the  fuze  is  required  for  use, 
with  a  disk  of  lead  or  paper  fitting  accu- 
rately the  opening.  The  fire  is  conveyed  to 
the  fuze  composition  through  a  crooked  pas- 
sage which  is  tilled  with  priming,  and  pre- 
vents water  from  entering  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity to  extinguish  the  fuze.  For  security  a 
small  leaden  plug  is  placed  in  the  inner  end 
of  the  fuze-plug,  where  it  remains  until  it 
is  driven  out  by  the  shock  of  the  explosion. 
"When  the  shell  is  placed  in  the  piece,  nothing 
more  is  necessary  than  to  remove  the  disk 
which  covers  the  recess  in  the  top.  Paper- 
fuzes  are  inserted  at  the  moment  of  loading 
the  gun,  and  into  wooden  or  brass  fuze-plugs 
previously  driven  into  the  shell. 

Port-fire  consists  of  a  small  paper  case, 
filled  with  a  highly  inflammable  but  slow- 
burning  composition,  the  flame  of  which  is 
very  intense  and  penetrating,  and  cannot  be 
extinguished  by  water.  It  is  principally 
used  as  an  incendiary  material  in  loading 
shells,  and  for  communicating  fire  to  the 
priming  of  guns  when  proving  them. 

Port-fire  composition  consists  of  nitre,  sul- 
phur, and  meal  powder,  in  different  propor- 
tions. One  kind  is  composed  of  nitre,  G'> 
parts;  sulphur,  22. -3  parts;  and  meal-pow- 
der, 12.5  parts.  A  port-fire  case,  18  inches 
in  length,  filled  with  this  composition,  burns 
10  minutes. 

Priming-tubes  are  small  pipes  having  a 
cup  on  one  end,  and  filled  with  a  composi- 
tion for  firing  cannon.  Tie  tube  in  general 
use  in  the  U.  S.  serviceis  the //•ie^'on-/;ri»irr 
(which  see). 

Shw-tnatch  is  a  slow-burning  match  pre- 
pared from  hemp  or  flax  slightly  twisted, 
soiiked  in  strong  lye,  or  in  water  holding  in 
solution  sugar  of  lead.  Cotton  rope  well 
twisted  forms  a  good  match  without  any 
preparation.  Slow-match  prepared  from 
hemp  or  flax  burns  4  to  5  inches  to  the  hour ; 
it  is  used  principally  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
taining fire  in  the  shape  of  a  hard-pointed 


LABOKEK 


270 


LADDEKS 


coal,  to  be  used  in  firing  cannon,  fireworks, 
etc.  It  was  formerly  used  in  field-batteries 
for  lighting  the  port-fires  with  which  the 
pieces  wei-e  discharged ;  but  both  are  now 
entirely  superseded  by  the  friction-primer. 

Qidck-jnatch  is  a  match  made  of  threads 
of  cotton,  or  cotton-wick,  steeped  in  gummed 
brandy  or  whisky,  then  soaked  in  a  paste  of 
meal  powder  and  gummed  spirits,  and  after- 
wards strewed  over  with  meal  powder  ;  one 
yard  of  it  burns  in  the  open  air  13  seconds. 
The  quick-match  is  used  to  fire  mortars,  and 
sometimes  in  proving  pieces.  It  is  exten- 
sively used  in  priming  all  kinds  of  fireworks, 
such  as  fire  and  light  balls,  carcasses,  rock- 
ets, priming-tubes,  etc.,  and  in  conveying 
fire  very  rapidly  from  one  portion  of  a  piece 
of  firework  to  another.  "When  used  for  dis- 
charging cannon,  the  quick-match  is  set  fire 
to  by  a  slow-match,  port-fire,  or  any  other 
convenient  material.  "When  used  to  prime 
carcasses,  etc  ,  it  is  set  on  fire  by  the  flame 
from  the  piece. 

The  Valenciennes  composition  is  a  com- 
pound of  50  parts  of  nitre,  28  of  sulphur,  18 
of  antimony,  and  6  of  rosin  ;  it  is  used  as  an 
incendiary  composition,  in  charging  shells 
for  the  purpose  of  increasing  their  destruc- 
tive property,  by  setting  fire  to  buildings, 
shipping,  etc.  For  manufacture  of  ammu- 
nition for  small-arms,  see  "  U.  S.  Ordnance 
Memorandum,"  No.  21,  1878. 

Laborer  {Fr.).  In  a  military  sense,  ex- 
presses any  direct  and  concentrated  effort 
which  is  made  to  destroy  a  fortification.  It 
likewise  applies  to  the  working  of  a  bomb 
or  shell,  which  excavates,  plows  up,  and 
scatters  the  earth  about  wherever  it  bursts. 
Laborer  un  rampart,  signifies  to  bring  sev- 
eral pieces  of  ordnance  discharged  from  two 
oblique  directions  to  bear  upon  one  centre. 
Shells  are  generally  used  on  these  occa- 
sions, and  tiie  chief  design  is  to  second  the 
operations  of  the  miner  in  some  particular 
part  from  which  the  explosion  is  to  take 
place. 

Labuan  Pulo.  An  island  of  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  lying  oft*  the  northwest  coast 
of  Borneo.  The  British  took  possession  of 
this  island  in  1846,  and  it  was  formally 
ceded  to  the  British  crown  by  the  sultan  of 
Borneo  in  1848. 

Lacandones.  A  tribe  of  Indians  in  Cen- 
tral America,  who  for  more  than  three  cen- 
turies maintained  a  hostile  attitude  to  the 
Spaniards.  They  are  nominally  subject  to 
Guatemala,  but  are  in  reality  quite  inde- 
pendent. 

Lacay,  or  Laquet  {Fr.).  An  old  French 
militia  was  formerly  so  called.  The  name 
is  found  among  the  public  documents  which 
were  kept  by  the  treasurers  belonging  to  the 
dukes  of  Brittany  in  the  15th  century. 

Lacerne  {Fr.).  The  short  woolen  military 
cloak  of  the  Romans. 

Lachete  {Fr.).  An  opprobrious  term 
which  is  frequently  used  among  the  French, 
and  is  applied  in  all  instances  of  cowardice, 
want  of  spirit,  or  dishonorable  conduct.    La 


traJiison  est  une  lachctc ;  treason  is  infamous 
in  its  nature. 

Lachish.  A  city  of  Southern  Palestine. 
It  was  taken  after  a  two  days'  siege  by 
Joshua,  and,  in  later  times,  is  repeatedly 
mentioned  as  a  place  strongly  fortified. 
After  a  siege,  conducted  by  Sennacherib  in 
person,  it  was  taken  and  plundered,  with 
the  customary  massacre  of  its  inhabitants. 
It  was  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar  at  the 
downfall  of  the  kingdom  of  Judaea,  and  was 
reoccupied  by  the  Jews  after  the  Keturn. 

Lacker.  A  composition  made  use  of  for 
preserving  iron  cannon,  carriages,  shot,  etc. 
The  following  are  the  proportional  parts  of 
compositions  made  use  of  for  preserving 
iron  cannon:  (1)  Pulverized  black  lead,  12; 
red  lead,  12  ;  litharge,  5  ;  lampblack,  5  ;  lin- 
seed oil,  66.  This  composition  is  to  be  boiled 
gently  about  twenty  minutes,  during  which 
time  it  must  be  constantly  stirred.  (2)  Ground 
umber,  3.75;  pulverized  gum  shellac,  3.75; 
ivory-black,  3.75;  litharge,  3.75;  linseed  oil, 
78  ;  spirits  of  turpentine,  7.25.  The  oil  must 
be  first  boiled  half  an  hour ;  the  mixture  is 
then  boiled  twenty-four  hours,  poured  oft* 
from  the  sediment,  and  put  in  jugs,  corked. 
(3)  Coal-tar  (of  good  quality),  2  gallons,  and 
spirits  of  turpentine,  1  pint.  In  applying 
lacker,  the  surface  of  the  iron  must  be  first 
cleaned  with  a  scraper  and  a  wire  brush,  if 
necessary,  and  the  lacker  applied  hot,  in  two 
thin  coats,  with  a  paint-brush.  It  is  better 
to  do  it  in  summer.  Old  lacker  should  be 
removed  with  a  scraper,  or  by  scouring,  and 
not  by  heating  the  guns  or  balls,  by  which 
the  metal  is  injured.  About  5  gallons  of 
lacker  are  required  for  100  field-guns  and 
1000  shot;  about  one  quart  for  a  sea-coast 
gun.  Before  the  lacker  is  applied  every 
particle  of  rust  is  removed  from  the  gun, 
and  the  vent  cleaned  out. 

Lacs  d'Amour.  In  heraldry,  a  cord  of 
running  knots  used  as  an  external  decora- 
tion to  surround  the  arms  of  widows  and 
unmarried  women  ;  the  cordelier,  which  dif- 
fers but  slightly  from  it,  being  used  simi- 
larly with  the  shields  of  married  women. 

Lacunette  {Fr.).  A  term  in  fortification. 
A  small  fosse  or  ditch  was  formerly  so  called. 
The  word  cunette  (which  see)  has  since  been 
adopted. 

Ladder  Bridge.  Used  for  crossing  streams, 
etc.  It  is  formed  by  running  a  cart  or  gun- 
limber  into  the  stream  and  securing  it  there, 
with  the  shafts  in  a  vertical  position,  by 
ropes  from  both  sides  of  the  river ;  one  end 
of  a  ladder  from  each  bank  resting  upon 
it,  and  covering  the  steps  or  rungs  with 
planks. 

Ladders,  Scaling  (Fr.  eschelles  de  siege). 
Are  used  in  scaling  when  a  place  is  to  be 
taken  by  surprise.  They  are  made  several 
ways ;  sometimes  of  flat  staves,  so  as  to  move 
about  their  pins  and  shut  like  a  parallel 
ruler,  for  conveniently  carrying  them.  The 
French  make  them  of  several  pieces,  so  as  to 
be  joined  together,  and  to  be  capable  of  any 
necessary  length.     Sometimes  they  are  made 


LADLE 


271 


LAIDLEY'S 


of  single  ropes,  knotted  at  proper  distances, 
with  iron  hooks  at  each  end,  one  to  fasten 
them  upon  the  wall  above,  and  the  other  in 
the  ground ;  and  sometimes  they  are  made 
of  two  ropes,  with  staves  between  thom  to 
keep  the  ropes  at  a  proper  distance,  and  to 
tread  upon.  When  they  are  used  in  the 
action  of  scaling  walls,  they  ought  to  be 
rather  too   long  than   too  short,  and  to  be 

fiven  in  charge  only  to  the  stoutest  of  the 
etachment.  The  soldiers  should  carry  these 
ladders  with  the  left  artn  passed  through  the 
second  step,  taking  care  to  hold  them  up- 
right close  to  their  sides,  and  very  short 
below,  to  prevent  any  accident  in  leaping 
into  the  ditch. 

Ladle.     See  Implements. 

Lady  of  Mercy,  Our.  A  Spanish  order 
of  knighthood,  founded  in  1218  by  James  I. 
of  Aragon,  in  fulfillment  of  a  vow  made  to 
the  Virgin  during  his  captivity  in  France. 
The  object  for  which  the  order  was  instituted 
was  the  redemption  of  Christian  captives 
from  among  the  Moors,  each  knight  at  his  in- 
auguration vowing  that  if  necessary  for  their 
ransom  he  would  remain  himself  a  captive 
in  their  stead.  "Within  the  lirst  six  years  of 
the  e.xistence  of  the  order  no  fewer  than  400 
captives  are  said  to  have  been  ransomed  by 
its  means.  On  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors 
from  Spain,  the  labors  of  the  knights  were 
transferred  to  Africa.  The  order  was  ex- 
tended to  ladies  in  1261.  Their  badge  is  a 
shield  party  per  fess  gules  and  or,  in  chief  a 
cross  pattee  argent,  in  base  four  pellets  gules 
for  Aragon,  the  shield  crowned  with  a  ducal 
coronet. 

Lady  of  Montesa,  Our.  An  order  of 
knighthood,  founded  in  1317  by  King 
James  II.  of  Aragon,  who,  on  the  abroga- 
tion of  the  order  of  Templars,  urged  Pope 
Clement  V.  to  allow  him  to  emploj'  all  their 
estates  within  his  territory  in  founding  a 
new  knightly  order  for  the  protection  of  the 
Christians  against  the  Moors.  His  request 
was  acceded  to  by  the  following  pope,  John 
XXII.,  who  granted  him  for  this  purpose 
all  the  estates  of  the  Templars  and  of  the 
knights  of  St.  John  situated  in  Valencia. 
The  order  is  now  conferred  merely  as  a 
mark  of  royal  favor.  The  badge  is  a  red 
cross  edged  with  gold,  the  costume  a  long 
white  woolen  mantle,  decorated  with  a  cross 
on  the  left  breast,  and  tied  with  very  long 
white  cords. 

Lagos.  A  city  and  seaport  of  Portugal, 
in  the  province  of  Algarve,  about  23  miles 
east-northeast  from  the  extremity  of  Cape 
St.  Vincent.  In  the  Bay  of  Liigos,  Ad- 
miral IJoscawen  obtained  a  signal  victory 
over  the  French  Toulon  fleet,  August  18, 
1769. 

Lag:os.  In  the  Bight  of  Benin,  Africa; 
this  place  was  assaulted  and  taken  by  the 
boats  of  a  British  squadron,  under  Commo- 
dore Bruce,  December  2tJ-27,  1851.  In 
1862  the  place  wjis  ceded  to  the  i3ritish  gov- 
ernment, and  created  a  settlement. 

Lahore.     Tho  capital  of  the  Punjab,  in 


British  India,  standing  on  the  Ravee,  270 
miles  northwest  from  Delhi.  It  was  taken 
by  Baber  about  1520,  and  was  long  the  cap- 
ital of  the  Mongol  empire.  It  fell  into  the 
power  of  the  Sikhs  in  1798;  was  occupied 
by  Sir  Hugh  Gough,  February  22,  184C, 
who  in  March  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace. 

Laibach,  or  Laybach.  A  town  of  Austria, 
capital  of  the  duchy  of  Carniola,  44  miles 
northeast  from  Trieste.  This  place  was 
taken  in  1799  by  Bernadotte,  and  in  1809 
by  Macdonald.  It  is  well  known  from  the 
congress  which  was  held  in  it  in  1821,  the 
object  of  which  was  the  extinction  of  con- 
stitutional government,  as  established  in 
Naples  after  the  insurrection  in  1820. 

Laidley's  Practice  Musket.  This  gun 
is  made  out  of  an  old  smooth-bore  musket, 
reamed  out  for  a  length  of  11  inches,  for 
the  reception  of  a  coil  ribbon  spring,  on  one 
end  of  which  a  closely-fitting  piston  is 
placed,  having  a  stem  of  about  5  inches 
attached  to  its  centre  ;  a  hole  is  bored  through 
the  breech-screw  and  a  cut  made  on  its  un- 
der side  to  receive  a  spring;  a  circular  disk 
with  a  flaring  hole  through  its  centre  is 
secured  in  the  barrel  just  in  front  of  the  end 
of  the  breech-screw ;  a  short  lever  crosses 
the  end  of  the  barrel  just  in  front  of  this 
disk,  and  is  held  in  position  by  the  spring 
already  referred  to;  the  hole  in  the  cone  is 
enlarged  and  receives  a  small  sjiindle  with 
a  collar  at  its  middle,  which  prevents  it 
from  coming  out.  About  12  inches  froni 
the  breech  a  horizontal  cut  is  made  through 
the  top  of  the  barrel,  leaving  an  opening  of 
2  inches  in  length  ;  a  cylindrical  plug  having 
a  hole  through  its  axis  is  inserted  in  the 
barrel  at  this  place,  and  a  handle  screwed 
in.  An  inner  barrel,  having  a  bore  of  .22 
inch  and  a  length  of  17  inches,  its  upper 
end  counter-bored,  is  inserted  in  the  barrel 
and  secured  by  a  screw ;  the  length  of  the 
block  is  such  as  to  close  the  space  between 
the  chambered  recess  and  the  end  of  the 
inner  barrel.  A  hole  is  bored  through  the 
side  of  the  stock  to  communicate  with  the 
hole  through  the  breech-screw.  A  dart  is 
fired  from  this  musket,  which  when  fired 
into  the  target  is  extracted  with  a  claw-tool. 
The  men  in  firing  stand  at  a  distance  of  15 
paces  from  the  target ;  and  two  men  use  tho 
gun,  firing  alternately.  This  is  a  very  use- 
ful musket  to  practice  the  soldier  in  rifle- 
firing.  The  soldier  can  also  be  practiced  at 
long  ranges  with  this  gun  in  the  following 
manner  :  Place  a  target  at  500  or  GOO  yards 
distant,  or  as  far  oflT  as  convenient,  so  that 
it  can  be  seen  through  the  open  window ; 
place  a  target  (16  inches  .«quare,  with  a  bull's- 
eye  of  .75  inch)  15  paces  from  the  firing- 
stand,  at  such  a  height  that  the  distant  tar- 
get may  be  seen  4  or  6  inches  below  tho 
middle  of  its  lower  edge;  mark  on  the  floor 
the  position  for  the  feet  of  the  man  when 
firing,  raise  the  longer  leaf  of  the  sight, 
aim  at  the  distant  bull's-eye,  and  fire;  the 
shots  will  strike  the  near  target  if  correctly 
placed,   and   the  accuracy  of  aim  will  be 


LAIKD 


272 


LANCE 


shown  by  the  score  thus  made.  The  height 
of  the  target  may  have  to  be  adjusted  after 
the  first  few  shots. 

Laird.     A  leader  or  captain. 
Laisches  (i*^/-.).     "Were  thin  metal  plates 
which   the  ancient  Gauls  placed  upon  the 
buff-coats  of  infantry,  between  the  buff  and 
the  lining. 

Lake  Champlain.  See  Champlain, 
Lak?:. 

Lake  Ontario.     See  Ontario,  Lake. 
Lake   Regillus.     In   Italy,  where  tradi- 
tion states  the  llomans  defeated  the  Latin 
auxiliaries  of  the  expelled  Tarquins  about 
499  B.C. 

Lama.  See  Pack  and  Draught  Ani- 
mals. 

Lambrequin.  Leathern  strap  or  flap 
hanging  from  a  cuirass,  often  highly  orna- 
mented. Also  ribbon  of  different  colors  for 
fastening  a  helmet,  twisted  round  its  crest, 
the  knot  forming  an  ornament. 

Lamia  (now  Zeltun,  or  Zetuni).  A  town 
in  Phthiotis,  in  Thessaly,  situated  on  the 
small  river  Achelous.  It  has  given  its 
name  to  the  war  which  was  carried  on  by 
the  confederate  Greeks  against  Antipater, 
after  the  death  of  Alexander,  323  B.C.  The 
confederates  under  the  command  of  Leos- 
thenes,  the  Athenian,  defeated  Antipater, 
who  took  refuge  in  Lamia,  where  he  was 
besieged  for  some  months.  Leosthenes  was 
killed  during  the  siege  ;  and  the  confederates 
were  obliged  to  raise  it  in  the  following  year 
(822),  in  consequence  of  the  approach  of 
Leomatus.  The  confederates  under  the 
command  of  Antiphilus  defeated  Leomatus, 
who  was  slain  in  the  action.  Soon  after- 
wards Antipater  was  joined  by  Craterus ; 
and  thus  strengthened,  he  gained  a  decisive 
victory  over  the  confederates  at  the  battle  of 
Cranon  (322),  which  put  an  end  to  the  La- 
mian  war. 

Lamian  War.  See  Lamia. 
Lampion  de  Parapet  {Fr.).  A  lamp 
generally  used  on  a  parapet  or  elsewhere  in 
a  besieged  place.  It  was  a  small  iron  vessel 
filled  with  pitch  and  tar,  which  was  lighted 
by  the  troops  as  occasion  required. 

Lancaster.  The  chief  town  of  Lanca- 
shire, England,  situated  on  the  river  Lune. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  the^lc?  Alaunam 
of  the  Ivomans.  It  was  granted  by  William 
I.  or  II.  to  Pioger  de  Poitou,  who  erected  a 
castle  upon  its  hill.  It  was  taken  by  the 
Jacobites,  November,  1715,  and  November, 
1745. 

Lancaster  Gun.  See  Ordnance,  Con- 
struction OF. 

Lancaster  Herald.  One  of  the  six  heralds 
of  England,  ranking  second  in  seniority. 
His  oflBce  is  said  to  have  been  instituted  by 
Edward  III.,  when  he  created  his  son,  John 
of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster.  Henry  IV. 
raised  Lancaster  to  the  dignity  of  king-at- 
arms.  Edward  IV.,  after  reducing  him  back 
to  the  status  of  a  herald,  abolished  his  oflice, 
which  was  revived  by  Henry  VII. 
Lancaster  Rifle.     See  Small-arms. 


Lancastrians.  See  Roses,  Wars  of  the. 

Lance.  A  weapon  of  war,  consisting  of 
a  long  shaft  or  handle,  and  metal  point,  now 
usually  adorned  with  a  small  flag,  and  gen- 
erally used  by  horsemen  to  transfix  an 
enemy,  but  formerly  used  sometimes  as  a 
javelin.  This  offensive  weapon  was  much 
used  by  the  Erench  in  former  times,  partic- 
ularly by  that  class  of  military  gentlemen 
called  chevaliers,  and  by  the  gendarmes. 
Before  the  reign  of  Philip  de  Valois,  the 
chevaliers  and  gendarmes  fought  on  foot, 
armed  with  lances  only,  both  in  battles  and 
at  sieges.  On  these  occasions  they  .shortened 
their  lances,  which  were  then  said  to  be  re- 
taillees,  or  cut  again. 

Lance  (Fr.).  Means  likewise  an  iron  rod 
which  is  fixed  across  the  earthen  mold  of  a 
shell,  and  which  keeps  it  suspended  in  the 
air  when  it  is  cast.  As  soon  as  the  shell  is 
formed,  this  rod  must  be  broken,  and  care- 
fully taken  out  with  instruments  made  for 
that  purpose.  Shells  ought  to  be  scrupu- 
lously examined  with  respect  to  this  article, 
as  they  could  not  be  charged  were  the  lance 
or  any  part  of  it  to  remain  within.  This  is 
also  the  name  of  an  instrument  which  con- 
veys the  charge  of  a  piece  of  ordnance  and 
forces  it  home  to  the  bore. 

Lance.  A  soldier  armed  with  a  spear ;  a 
lancer. 

Lance.  To  pierce  with  a  lance,  or  any 
similar  weapon  ;  to  throw  in  the  manner  of 
a  lance.     See  Lanch. 

Lance  a  Feu  (Fr.).  A  squib.  A  species 
of  artificial  firework  which  is  made  in  the 
shape  of  a  fuze,  and  is  used  for  various  pur- 
poses. The  composition  of  the  la)ice  a  feu 
consists  of  3  parts  of  the  best  refined  salt- 
petre, 2  parts  of  flour  of  sulphur,  and  2  of 
antimony ;  the  whole  being  pounded  and 
mixed  together.  The  chief  use  of  the  lance 
a  feu  is  to  throw  occasional  light  across  the 
platform,  whilst  artificial  fireworks  are  pre- 
paring. They  likewise  serve  to  set  fire  to 
fuzes,  as  they  can  be  taken  hold  of  without 
danger. 

Lance  a  Feu  Puant  (Fr.).  Stink-fire 
lances  prepared  in  the  same  manner  that 
stink-pots  are,  and  particularly  useful  to 
miners.  When  a  sapper  or  miner  has  so  far 
penetrated  towards  the  enemy  as  to  hear  the 
voices  of  persons  in  any  places  contiguous 
to  his  own  excavation,  he  first  of  all  bores  a 
hole  with  his  probe,  then  fires  ofl'  several  pis- 
tols through  the  aperture,  and  lastly  forces 
in  a  lance  a  feu  puant,  taking  care  to  close 
up  the  hole  on  his  side  to  prevent  the  smoke 
from  returning  towards  himself.  The  ex- 
halation and  stinking  hot  vapor  which  issue 
from  the  lance,  and  remain  confined  on  the 
side  of  the  enemy,  infest  the  air  so  much, 
that  it  is  impossible  to  approach  the  quarter 
for  three  or  four  daj'S.  Sometimes,  indeed, 
they  have  had  so  instantaneous  an  eft'ect, 
that  in  order  to  save  their  lives,  miners,  who 
would  persevere,  have  been  dragged  out  by 
the  legs  in  an  apparent  state  of  suffocation. 

Lance  de  Feu  (Fr.).  A  species  of  squib, 


LANCE 


273 


LANGUEDOC 


wliieh  is  used  by  the  garrison  of  a  besieged 
town  aijainst  a  scaling  party. 

Lance,  Free.     See  Frek  Lance. 

Lance  Socket.  A  leather  socket  which 
8U))i)<>rt.s  llie  butt  of  the  lance  when  carried 
on  liorseback  ;  called  also  lance  bucket. 

Lance-Corporal.  An  assistant  to  a  cor- 
poral ;  ii  [(riviitc  performing  the  duties  of  a 
corporal;  u  lancc-pesade.  See  CoRroRAL, 
Lanci:-. 

Lance-gaye  (Fr.).     See  Arch-gate. 

Lance-head.     The  head  of  a  lance. 

Lance-knight.  A  common  or  foot-sol- 
JIit;  a  lan^quiMiet.     See  Lansquknet. 

Lance-pesade.     See  An'spe.s.sade. 

Lance-rest.  A  projection  like  a  bracket, 
on  tin-  right  side  of  a  breastplate  in  armor, 
to  aid  in  hearing  a  lance. 

Lancers.     A  description  of  cavalry  sol- 


diers in  ditl'erent  armies  of  Europe,  who  are 

and  pc 
of  lancers  are  the  Russian  Cossacks,  whose 


armed  with  lances.   The  type 


»crfection 


long  lances  enable  them  to  combat  with  en- 
emies at  a  distance  from  which  they  them- 
.sclves  take  little  harm.  The  lancers  were 
brought  into  European  notice  by  Napoleon, 
who  greatly  relied  upon  some  Polish  regi- 
ments. After  the  peace  of  1815,  the  arm 
was  adopted  in  the  English  service,  but  it  is 
thought  by  many  that  Uie  British  lancer  has 
a  weapon  too  short  to  enable  him  to  charge 
an  infantry  square  with  any  chance  of  suc- 
cess. 

Lances  Levees  (Fr.).  L'^plifted  lances, 
indicating  that  the  enemy  was  beaten,  and 
that  the  chevaliers  or  gendarmes  should  close 
the  day  by  giving  a  final  blow  to  the  dis- 
ordered ranks. 

Lanch.  To  throw,  as  a  lance;  to  dart ; 
to  let  lly.  To  pierce  with  a  lance,  or  as  with 
a  lance;  to  wound.     Written  also /aM?ic/i. 

Land  Batteries.  Batteries  used  on  land, 
fts  distingui.-hod  from  floating  batteries,  etc., 
employed  in  the  defense  of  harbors. 

Landau.  A  strong  town  of  Bavaria,  in 
the  Palatinate  of  the  Rhine,  situated  on  the 
Qucich,  18  miles  from  Carlsruhe.  This  place 
was  held  alternately  by  the  French  and 
Austrians  from  1680  to  1815,  when  it  was 
assigned  to  the  Germanic  Confederation, 
under  the  protection  of  Bavaria. 

Landen.     See  Neerwindex. 

Land-force.  A  military  force,  army,  or 
body  of  troops  serving  on  land,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  a  naval  force. 

Landgrave.  A  German  nobleman  of  a 
rank  corresponding  to  an  English  earl. 

Landgravine.     The  wife  of  a  landgrave. 

Landing.  In  fortification,  is  the  portion 
of  the  floor  of  the  gallery  between  the  frames 
that  bound  the  entrance  to  a  return.  The 
landing  is  in  all  cases  horizontal. 

Landing  of  Troops.  See  Disembarka- 
tion. 

Landshut.  A  town  of  Prussian  Silesia. 
In  Juno.  ITOO,  the  Austrians  gained  a  de- 
cisive victory  over  the  Prussians  in  this 
place. 

Landsturm.     A  local  militia  of  Prussia, 


formed  of  men  above  forty  years  of  age, 
which  never  leaves  its  own  district,  and  is 
only  called  out  in  case  of  actual  invasion. 

Landwehr.  The  militia  of  a  country. 
Austria  has  a  landwehr — bei  den  Oestrei- 
chern  ;  and  Prussia — hei  den  Prcussen.  The 
former  are  a  sort  (>f  a  reserve  to  each  regi- 
ment of  the  line;  they  are  under  the  same 
colonel,  and  are  drilled  once  a  year  with  the 
line  regiment.  The  Prussian'  landwehr  is 
more  completely  national.  Every  Prussian 
subject  commences  military  service  in  the 
standing  army,  a  force  composed  of  the  youth 
of  the  nation  from  twenty  to  twenty-tive 
years  old.  After  two  or  three  years  of  ser- 
vice, the  soldier  proceeds  to  his  home,  but  is 
liable  to  be  called  upon  to  join  his  regiment. 
During  this  period  he  is  called  a  reservist. 
At  the  expiration  of  five  years  from  the  date 
of  enlistment,  the  men  are  transferred  into 
the  first  class  or  levy  of  the  landwehr,  re- 
maining in  it  until  their  thirty-second  year. 
In  time  of  war  they  are  liable  to  be  called 
upon  to  serve  with  the  regiment  of  the  line 
of  a  corresponding  number, — in  fact,  they 
form  the  reserve  of  that  regiment  whence  re- 
inforcements aredrawn.  From  their  thirty- 
second  to  their  thirty-ninth  year  the  men 
belong  to  the  second  levy,  and  are  only 
called  out  occasionally  in  time  of  peace,  but 
in  war  they  garrison  fortresses. 

Lane.  The  term  applied  to  a  body  of 
soldiers  in  two  ranks  standing  face  to  face, 
forming,  in  fact,  a  street,  passage,  or  lane. 
The  French  call  this  formation  /laie,  or 
hedge.  It  is  used  when  troops  form  a  guard 
of  honor  for  persons  of  rank  to  pass  through. 

Langensalza.  A  town  of  Prussian  Sax- 
ony, on  the  Salza,  20  miles  northwest  of 
Erfurt.  The  French  and  Saxons  were  hero 
defeated  by  the  Prussians  in  1750;  in  1761 
the  Prussians  and  English  defeated  the  Ger- 
man imperial  army;  in  1813  the  Prussians 
were  defeated  by  the  Bavarians ;  and  in 
1866,  a  bloody  contest  took  place  between 
the  Prussians  and  Hanoverians,  resulting  in 
the  capture  of  the  Hanoverian  army  as  pris- 
oners of  war. 

Langrel,  or  Langrage.  A  villainous  kind 
of  shot,  consisting  t>f  various  fragments  of 
iron  bound  together,  so  as  to  fit  the  bore  of 
the  cannon  from  which  it  is  to  be  discharged. 
It  is  seldom  used  but  by  privateers. 

Languedoc  (anc.  yarboucn.tis  Prima). 
An  old  province  of  the  south  of  France, 
bounded  cast  by  the  river  Rhone,  and  south 
by  the  Mediterranean.  As  a  Roman  prov- 
ince it  enjoyed  the  freedom  of  Italy.  It 
formed  part  of  Gallia  Narboncnsis,  but, 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  was  known  as  Sr}>ti- 
mania,  from  the  seven  cathedral  churches 
which  it  contained.  From  the  hands  of  the 
Romans  it  passed  into  the  possession  of  the 
Goths  ;  and  being  wrested  from  them,  it  was 
occupied  by  the  Saracens  till  725,  when  they 
were  expelled  by  Charles  Martel.  It  after- 
wards came  under  the  sway  of  Philin  the 
Bold,  and  became  a  part  of  the  French  King- 
dom in  1.301. 


LANGUET 


274 


LASHES 


Languet.  A  small  slip  of  metal  on  the 
liilt  of  a  sword,  which  overhangs  the  scab- 
bard ;  the  ear  of  a  sword. 

Lansdown.  In  Somersetshire,  England. 
The  Parliamentary  army  under  Sir  William 
Waller  was  defeated  here  July  5,  1G43. 

Lansquenet.  A  German  foot-soldier ; 
originally  one  of  the  serfs  who  followed  the 
camp  in  the  service  of  the  common  soldiers  ; 
afterward  one  of  the  independent  troops  who 
hired  themselves  to  those  willing  to  pay 
highest  for  their  services. 

Lanterne  (Fr.).  Sometimes  called  c.uUler, 
or  ladle,  serves  to  convey  gunpowder  into  a 
piece  of  ordnance.  It  is  made  of  copper,  and 
resembles  a  round  spoon  or  ladle,  which  is 
fixed  to  a  long  pole. 

Lanuvium  (now  Civita  Lavinia).  An  old 
and  important  city  of  Latium,  on  the  Ap- 
pian  Way,  20  miles  south  of  Kome.  Tradi- 
tion describes  it  as  a  colony  from  Alba  ;  but 
it  first  rose  to  importance  in  the  5th  century 
B.C.,  when  it  took  part  against  Rome  as  one 
of  the  thirty  cities  of  the  Latin  League.  Its 
name  again  appears  in  the  long  wars  be- 
tween Rome  and  the  ^qui  and  Volsci,  sid- 
ing with  the  former;  it  changed  sides  in  383 
B.C.,  but  was  leniently  treated  by  its  old  ally 
at  the  end  of  the  war.  In  the  great  Latin 
war,  340  B.C.,  it  again  took  part  against 
Rome,  and  in  the  general  settlement  at  the 
close  of  hostilities,  it  obtained  the  Roman 
civitas. 

Lanyards.     See  Implements. 

Laodicea  ad  Mare  (now  Ladikiyeh).  A 
city  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  about  50  miles 
south  from  Antioch  ;  was  built  by  Seleucus 
I.  on  the  site  of  an  earlier  city,  called  Ra- 
mitha.  It  was  severely  punished  by  Cassius 
for  its  adherence  to  Dolabella,  and  again 
suffered  in  the  Parthian  invasion  of  Syria. 
It  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  the  Arabs  in 
1188. 

Laon.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Aisne,  75  miles  northeast  from 
Paris.  It  was  besieged  by  the  barbarians  in 
407;  taken  and  sacked  by  Gelimer  in  G82 ; 
unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the  Normans  in 
882  ;  taken  by  Eudes,  count  of  Paris,  in  892, 
by  Charles  the  Simple  in  895,  and  by  Robert 
of  France,  who  held  it  till  923.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  in  1411  ;  by  the 
royal  troops  in  1414  ;  surrendered  in  1419 
by  Philip  the  Good  to  the  English,  who 
were  dispossessed  in  1429.  It  was  unsuc- 
cessfully besieged  by  the  Calvinists  in  1567, 
and  was  taken  by  Henry  IV.  in  1594.  On 
March  10,  1814,  an  indecisive  battle  was 
fought  here  between  the  French  troops  un- 
der Napoleon,  and  the  Prussians  under 
Bliicher. 

Lapelle,  or  Lapel.  The  facings  of  uni- 
form coats  were  formerly  so  termed.  Until 
the  introduction  of  epaulettes  in  1812,  the 
white  lapelle  was  synonymous  with  a  lieu- 
tenant's commission  in  the  British  service. 

Lapithae.  A  wild  race,  inhabiting,  in 
ancient  times,  the  mountains  of  Thessaly. 
They  derived  their  name  from  a  mythical 


ancestor,  Lapithes,  a  son  of  Apollo,  and  the 
brother  of  Centauros,  the  equally  mythical 
ancestor  of  the  Centaurs.  A  bloody  war  is 
said  to  have  been  waged  between  the  kindred 
races  in  prehistoric  times,  which  ended  in 
the  defeat  of  the  Centaurs,  but  the  Lapitha3 
were  in  their  turn  defeated  by  Hercules. 

Laplander.  An  inhabitant  of  Lapland, 
a  country  of  Northern  Europe. 

Lapse.  To  fall  in,  or  belong  to.  This 
expression  was  formerly  used  in  the  British 
army  to  signify  the  reversion  of  any  mili- 
tary property.  Thus,  upon  the  sale  or  pur- 
chase of  one  commission  at  the  regulated 
difference,  another  (where  there  are  two)  is 
said  to  lapse  to  government.  Commissions 
lapse,  or  fall  into  the  patronage  of  govern- 
ment, when  vacancies  happen  by  death,  by 
officers  being  superseded,  or  where  officers 
apply  to  sell  who  have  only  purchased  a  part 
of  their  commissions,  and  have  not  served 
long  enough  to  be  entitled  to  sell  the  whole; 
in  which  case  they  are  only  permitted  to  sell 
what  they  actually  purchased,  and  the  re- 
mainder is  in  the  gift  of  the  government. 

Lap-weld.  A  weld  in  which  the  welding 
edges  are  made  thin,  lapped  one  over  the 
other  and  welded. 

Laranda  (now  Lare7ida,  or  Caraman).  A 
considerable  town  in  the  south  of  Lycaonia. 
It  was  taken  by  storm  by  Perdiccas,  but  af- 
terwards restored.  It  was  used  by  the  Isau- 
rian  robbers  as  one  of  their  strongholds. 

Largs.  A  seaport  of  Scotland,  in  Ayr- 
shire, 23  miles  southwest  from  Glasgow. 
Here,  in  1263,  Alexander  III.  of  Scotland 
gained  a  victory  over  Haco,  king  of  Norway. 

Lariat.  The  lasso,  a  long  cord  or  thong 
of  leather  with  a  noose,  used  in  catching 
wild  horses  and  other  animals.  The  term 
is  now  applied  to  a  rope  1^  inches  in  circum- 
ference and  30  feet  long,  made  of  Italian 
hemp,  which  is  used  in  the  U.  S.  cavalry 
service  to  picket  horses  while  grazing. 

La  Roda.  A  town  of  Spain,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Murcia,  22  miles  northwest  from 
Albacete.  This  place  is  famous  for  the  de- 
fense it  made  against  the  Carlists  in  1840. 

La  Rothiere"(France),  Battle  of.  Took 
place  between  the  French,  commanded  by 
Napoleon,  and  the  Prussian  and  Russian 
armies,  which  were  defeated  with  great  loss 
after  a  desperate  engagement,  February  1, 
1814.  This  was  one  of  Napoleon's  last  vic- 
tories. 

Lascar.  In  the  East  Indies,  signifies 
properly  a  camp-follower,  but  is  generally 
applied  to  native  sailors  on  board  of  British 
ships.  The  Lascars  make  good  seamen,  but 
being  of  an  excessively  irritable  and  re- 
vengeful nature,  are  generally  kept  in  the 
minority  in  a  ship's  crew. 

Lash.  To  tie  or  bind  with  a  rope  or  cord ; 
to  secure  or  fasten  by  a  string. 

Lashes.  Formerly  a  general  court-mar- 
tial could  sentence  a  soldier  to  receive  a  cer- 
tain number  of  lashes.  This  mode  of  pun- 
ishment is  prohibited  in  the  U.  S.  service. 
See  Appendix,  Articles  of  War,  98. 


LASHING-RINGS 


275 


LAWS 


Lashing-rings.  Are  fixed  on  the  sides 
of  Hitillery  traveling-carrisiges,  to  hish  the 
tarpaulin,  as  also  to  tie  the  sponge,  rammer, 
and  ladle. 

Lasso.  A  rope  or  cord  with  a  running 
noose,  used  by  men  on  horseback  in  Spani^-h 
America,  Texas,  and  Southern  California 
for  catching  cattle,  wild  horses,  grizzly  bears, 
etc.  It  is  said  that  the  lasso  was  used  by 
the  ancient  Sarmatians  and  Parthians.  Cer- 
tain Patagonians  use  a  lasso  with  a  stone  tied 
to  the  end, — instead  of  a  noose. 

Laswarree.  A  town  of  Hindostan,  in 
Delhi,  whirh  was  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of 
the  Mahrattas  by  Lord  Lake,  November, 
1803. 

Latham  House.  In  Lancashire,  England  ; 
it  was  heroically  defended  for  three  months 
against  the  Parliamentarians,  by  Charlotte, 
countess  of  Derby.  She  was  relieved  by 
Prince  Rupert,  May,  1044.  The  house  was, 
however,  surrendered  December  4,  1G45,  and 
dismantled. 

Lathe.  In  the  manufacture  of  ordnance, 
lathes  are  machines  for  turning  cannon,  gun- 
barrels,  etc. 

Latrines.  Conveniences  for  soldiers  in 
camps  and  barracks.  !Much  attention  has  of 
late  been  devoted  to  their  construction  ;  a 
large  percentage  of  the  army  sickness  hav- 
ing been  traced  to  their  defective  and  impure 
condition. 

Lauenberg.  A  duchy  of  Northern  Ger- 
many, but  fiirmcrly  united  with  the  crown  of 
Denmark  ;  was  conquered  from  the  AVends 
by  Henry  the  Lion  of  Saxony  about  1152; 
ceded  to  Hanover,  1G80,  and  seized  along 
with  Hanover  by  the  French  in  1803.  It 
was  afterwards,  with  some  change  of  boun- 
dary, made  over  to  Prussia,  and  by  Prussia 
transferred  to  Denmark  in  1815,  with  reser- 
vation of  rights.  In  1870  it  was  re-annexed 
to  Prussia. 

Laufach.  In  Bavaria,  Southwestern  Ger- 
many ;  it  was  taken  by  the  Prussians,  under 
"Wrangel,  July,  180(),  after  a  sharp  action, 
in  which  the  Hessians  were  defeated. 

Launch.  To  throw  as  a  spear  or  dart ;  to 
send  forth.     AVritten  also  lunch. 

Laundresses.  Camp- women,  usually  the 
wives  of  soldiers,  employed  to  wash  soldiers' 
clothing. 

Laurel.  An  evergreen  shrub,  selected  for 
the  brows  of  heroes  and  conquerors,  and  em- 
blematic of  their  unfading  reputation. 

Lauterburg.  A  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  Lower  llhine,  33  miles 
northeast  from  Strasburg.  In  1793  the 
French  forced  the  famous  lines  of  Lauter- 
burg, and  took  this  place. 

Laval.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Mayenne,  situated  on  the  Ma- 
yenne,  42  miles  east  from  Kennes.  This  place 
suffered  greatly  in  the  Vcndean  war,  towards 
the  close  of  the  last  centurv. 

La  Vendee  (West  France).  The  French 
royalists  of  La  Vendee  took  arms  in  March, 
1793,  and  were  successful  in  a  number  of 
hard-fought  battles  with  the  republicans,  be- 


tween July  12,  1793,  and  January  1,  1794, 
when  they  experienced  a  severe  reverse. 
Their  leader  Henri,  comte  de  Larochejaque- 
lein,  was  killed  March  4,  1794.  A  short 
peace  was  made  at  La  Jaunay,  February  17, 
1795.  The  war  was  terminated  by  Gen. 
Hoche  in  1 790.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  signed 
at  Lu<,'on,  January  17,  1800. 

Lavure  (Fr.).  The  grains,  dust,  or  de- 
tached pieces  of  metal  wliiuh  fall  in  casting 
cannon. 

Law,  Martial.     See  Martial  Law. 

Law,  Military.  A  branch  of  the  general 
municipal  law,  consisting  of  rules  ordained 
for  the  government  of  the  military  forces  of 
a  state  or  government,  and  those  voluntarily 
serving  with  them,  equally  in  peace  and 
war,  and  administered  by  tribunals  of  special 
and  limited  jurisdiction.  See  Appexdi.v, 
Akticlks  of  War. 

Law  of  Arms.  Certain  acknowledged 
rules,  regulations,  and  precepts,  which  re- 
late to  war ;  and  are  observed  by  all  civil- 
ized nations.  The  laws  of  arms  also  show 
how  to  proclaim  war,  to  attack  the  enemy, 
and  to  ]iunish  offenders  in  the  camp,  etc. 

Law  of  Nations.  Such  general  rules  as 
regard  the  embassies,  reception  and  enter- 
tainment of  strangers,  intercourse  of  mer- 
chants, exchange  of  prisoners,  suspension  of 
arms,  etc. 

Laws,  Execution  of.  On  all  occasions 
when  the  troops  are  employed  in  restoring  or 
maintaining  public  order  among  their  fellow- 
citizens,  the  use  of  arms,  and  particularly 
fire-arms,  is  obviously  attended  with  loss  of 
life  or  limb  to  private  individuals ;  and  for 
these  consequences,  a  military  man  may  be 
called  to  stand  at  the  bar  of  a  criminal  court. 
A  private  soldier  also  may  occasionally  be 
detached  on  special  duty,  with  the  necessity 
of  exercising  discretion  as  to  the  use  of  his 
arms ;  and  in  such  cases  he  is  responsible, 
like  an  officer,  for  the  right  use  or  exercise 
of  such  discretion. 

Some  years  ago,  the  public  journals  of 
London  recorded  the  meritorious  behavior 
of  a  private  sentry,  upon  the  occasion  of  a 
riotous  mob  assembled  at  the  entrance  of 
Downing-Street  with  the  intention  of  attack- 
ing the  government  offices  in  that  quarter  of 
the  town.  This  man  standing  alone  pre- 
sented his  musket,  and  threatened  to  firo 
upon  the  crowd,  if  the  slightest  attempt 
were  made  to  approach  the  particular  office 
for  the  defense  of  which  he  was  placed  on 
duty,  and  succeeded  by  the  terror  thus  cre- 
ated, though  at  a  great  risk  of  consequences 
to  himself,  in  keeping  the  rioters  at  bay 
until  a  larger  force  arrived  to  a>sist  him. 
The  soldier's  conduct  was  publicly  much  a|>- 
proved.  It  was  also  clearly  legal  according 
to  Macadam's  case  {a  soldier  tried  before  the 
courts  of  Scotland  in  1735) ;  and  if  after  the 
announcement  of  his  intentions  the  mob  had 
pressed  forward  to  execute  their  purpose,  he 
would  have  been  held  justified  at  law  in 
firing  at  the  rioters  upon  his  own  responsi- 
bilitv.     The  Duke  of  Wellington,  as  Con- 


LAWS 


276 


LECH 


stable  of  the  Tower,  testified  his  marked 
approbation  of  this  man's  conduct,  by  pro- 
moting him  at  once  to  a  wardership  at  that 
fortress. 

The  right  of  officers  or  soldiers  to  inter- 
fere in  quelling  a  felonious  riot,  whether 
with  or  without  superior  military  orders,  or 
the  direction  of  a  civil  magistrate,  is  quite 
clear,  and  beyond  the  possibility  of  mistake. 
This  subject,  however,  was  formerly  little 
understood  ;  and  military  men  failed  in  their 
public  duty  through  excess  of  caution. 

But  notwithstanding  the  existence  of  a 
clear  right  and  duty  on  the  part  of  military 
men  voluntarily  to  aid  in  the  suppression  of 
a  riot,  it  would  be  the  height  of  imprudence 
to  intrude  with  military  force,  except  upon 
the  requisition  of  the  proper  authority,  un- 
less in  those  cases  where  the  civil  power  is 
obviously  overcome,  or  on  the  point  of  being 
overcome,  by  the  rioters. 

When  the  civil  officer  may  not  deem  it 
safe  to  wait  for  the  orders  of  government,  he 
should  address  his  requisition  for  troops,  not 
to  any  subordinate  military  officer,  but  to 
the  highest  authority,  to  whom  he  should 
communicate  his  object  in  making  it,  and  all 
the  information  he  may  possess  regarding  the 
strength  and  designs  of  those  by  whom  the 
public  peace  is  menaced  or  disturbed.  His 
duty  is  confined  to  these  points.  He  has  no 
authority  in  directing  7nilitary  operations. 
The  officer  commanding  the  troops  has  alone 
authority  to  determine  the  number  and  na- 
ture of  those  to  be  employed;  the  time  and 
manner  of  making  the  attack,  and  every 
other  operation  for  the  reduction  of  the 
enemy. 

Under  no  circumstances  can  U.  S.  troops 
be  called  into  service  at  the  "  polls." 

In  the  United  States,  regular  troops  can  be 
ordered  only  to  serve  against  rioters,  or  other 
lawless  bands  of  citizens,  under  the  orders 
of  the  President  to  co-operate  with  the  civil 
authorities. 

It  should  ever  be  the  aim  of  military  men 
to  attain  the  desired  end  by  the  exercise  of 
passive  interposition. 

Laws  of  War.  The  recognized  rules  for 
the  conduct  of  civilized  warfare.  These 
rules  relate  to  the  treatment  of  prisoners, 
non-combatants,  spies,  traitors,  etc. ;  the  dis- 
position of  private  property,  the  rights  of 
capture,  occupation  and  conquest,  the  estab- 
lishment of  blockades,  the  rights  and  obliga- 
tions of  neutrals,  etc. 

Lay.  To  quit;  to  surrender  the  use  of; 
as,  lay  down  one's  arms.  To  lay  for,  is  to 
attempt  something  by  ambuscade. 

Lay.  To  point  or  aim  ;  as,  to  lay  a  gun. 
See  Pointing. 

Lay  About,  To.  To  strike,  or  throw  the 
arms  on  all  sides  ;  to  act  with  vigor. 

Layette  {Fr.).  Three-sided  tray  or  box 
without  a  cover,  used  to  carry  powder  from 
one  mortar  to  another  in  powder-mills. 

Lazarus.  A  military  order  instituted  at 
Jerusalem  by  the  Christians  of  the  West, 
■when  they  wei-e  masters  of  the  Holy  Land. 


They  received  pilgrims  under  their  care,  and 
guarded  them  on  the  roads  from  the  insults 
of  the  Mohammedans.  This  order  was  in- 
stituted in  the  year  1119,  and  was  confirmed 
by  a  bull  of  Pope  Alexander  IV.  in  1255, 
who  gave  it  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine. 

Lazzaro,  St.  In  Northern  Italy,  where 
the  king  of  Sardinia  and  the  Imperialists  de- 
feated the  French  and  Spaniards  after  a  long 
and  severe  conflict,  June  4,  1746. 

Lead.  To  conduct  as  a  chief  or  com- 
mander ;  as,  let  the  troops  follow  where  their 
general  leads. 

Lead  Balls.  Are  now  generally  made  by 
compression,  by  means  of  machinery,  either 
at  arsenals  or  at  private  establishments. 

Lead  Out.  A  command  in  the  mounted 
service  to  cause  the  horses  to  be  taken  from 
the  stable  or  picket  line  preparatory  to 
mounting  or  harnessing. 

Leader.  A  chief,  a  commander ;  a  cap- 
tain.    Also  the  directing  musician  of  a  band. 

Leadership.  The  state  or  condition  of  a 
leader. 

Leading.  The  clogging  of  the  grooves  of 
a  rifle  with  lead  from  the  bullet, — one  of  the 
principal  obstacles  against  continuous  accu- 
rate shooting.  It  is  obviated  by  covering 
the  bullet  with  a  paper  patch  or  by  using  a 
lubricant  in  the  canellures.     See  Bullets. 

Leading  Column.  The  first  column  that 
advances  from  the  right,  left,  or  centre  of  any 
army  or  battalion. 

Leading  File.  The  first  two  men  of  a 
battalion  or  company  that  marches  from 
right,  left,  or  centre,  by  files.  See  File- 
leader. 

Leading  Guide.  The  foremost  guide  of 
a  column. 

Leading  Question.  In  the  proceedings 
of  military  tribunals,  is  a  question  to  a  wit- 
ness which  suggests  the  desired  answer.  Such 
questions  are  objectionable  except  under  cer- 
tain conditions. 

Leaf  Sight.  A  form  of  elevating  rear 
sights,  consisting  of  several  hinged  leaves  of 
different  heights.     See  Sight. 

League.  A  measure  of  length  or  distance, 
equal,  in  England  and  the  United  States,  to 
three  geographical  miles. 

League.     See  Holy  League. 

League,  Achaean.  See  Ach.ean  League. 

League,  First  Suabian.     See  Suabia. 

League,  Great  Suabian.     See  Suabia. 

League,  Holy.     See  Holy  League. 

League  of  Marbach.     See  Suabia. 

Leaguer.  A  camp,  generally  of  an  in- 
vesting army. 

Leaguer.'  One  who  unites  in  a  league;  a 
confederate. 

Leaguerer.  One  who  belongs  to  or  is 
eqgaged  in  a  league  ;  a  leaguer. 

Leave  of  Absence.  See  Absence,  Leave 
or. 

Lech.   A  river  in  Southern  Germany,  near 

which  the  cruel  Gen.  Tilly  was  defeated  by 

the  Swedes,  under  Gustavus  Adolphus,  April 

18,   1632.     Tilly  died  of  his   wounds  soon 

,  after. 


LEEK 


277 


LEIPSIC 


Leek.  The  Welsh  emblem,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  command  from  Dewi,  or  David,  | 
afterwards  archbishop  of  St.  David's,  in  519.  | 
On  the  day  that  King  Arthur  won  a  great  1 
victory  over  the  Saxons,  Dewi  is  said  to  | 
have  t>rdered  the  soldiers  to  place  a  leek  in  j 
their  caps.  | 

Leesburg.     See  Ball's  Bluff. 

Legatus.  Among  the  Komans,  an  am-  i 
bassador,  or  lifuteiumt-gencral.  Legati  were  j 
of  three  kinds:  (1)  Those  sent  by  foreign  ' 
nations  on  an  embassy  to  Kome.  (2)  Those  ; 
sent  from  Kome  on  an  embassy  to  foreign 
countries  or  the  provinces.  (3)  Those  who 
served  under  Roman  generals  during  war, 
or  under  the  pro-consuls  and  praetors  in  the 
provinces.  The  hitter  kind  was  generally  a 
person  of  high  military  skill,  and  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  consul,  prsetor,  or  dictator, 
under  wbom  he  was  ititcnded  to  serve.  His 
nomination,  however,  was  not  legal  until 
sanctioned  by  the  senate.  His  duty  was  to 
aid  his  superior  officer,  by  advising  him  in 
all  great  emergencies,  by  acting  as  his  sub- 
stitute, both  in  civil  and  military  affairs,  and 
by  assuming  his  insignia  as  well  as  authority 
during  his  absence.  In  the  last  case,  he  was 
called  tepatus  pro  prcctore.  The  number  of 
legati  under  one  superior  differed  in  propor- 
tion to  the  importance  of  the  war  or  the  ex- 
tent of  the  province. 

Leghorn  (It.  Livarno).  A  large  maritime 
town  in  Central  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Leghorn.  It  was  entered  by  the  French  | 
army  Julv  27,  1790;  evacuated  by  the 
French  in"  1799,  and  retaken  in  1800.  It 
was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  the  British 
and  Italian  forces  in  December,  1813.  The 
Austrians  took  the  city  from  the  insurgents 
May  12  and  13,  1849,  and  quelled  a  slight 
insurrection,  July,  1857. 

Legion  (Lat.  Irfio).  A  corps  of  soldiers  in 
the  Roman  armies,  first  formed  by  Romulus, 
about  750  n.c,  when  it  consisted  of  3000  foot 
and  300  horse.  When  Hannibal  was  in 
Italy,  216  B.C.,  the  legion  consisted  of  6200 
Soldiers  ;  and  under  .Marius,  in  88  B.C.,  it 
was  6200  foot  besides  700  horse.  There  were 
10,  and  sometimes  as  many  as  18  legions 
kept  at  Rome.  Augustus  had  a  standing 
army  of  45  legions,"  together  with  25,000 
horse  and  37,0(10  light-armed  troops,  about 
5  B.C. ;  and  the  peace  establishment  of 
Adrian  was  30  of  these  formidable  brigades. 
A  legion  was  divided  into  10  cohorts,  and 
every  cohort  into  6  centuries,  with  a  vexil- 
lum,  or  standard,  guarded  by  10  men.  The 
peace  of  Britain  was  protected  by  3  legions. 
The  French  army  was  divided  into  legions 
subsequent  to  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  See 
Thundkrino  Lkcjions. 

Legion  of  Honor,  Order  of  the.  An 
order  of  merit  institutid  under  the  French 
republic  in  May,  1802,  by  the  first  consul, 
Napoleon  Bonaparte.  The  order  originally 
comprised  three  classes, — grand  officers,  com- 
manders, and  legionaries.  The  class  of  grand 
oflBcers  was,  on  the  coronation  of  Napoleon 
I.,  divided  into  Knights  of  the  Grand  Eagle  | 


and  grand  officers.  On  the  restoration  of 
the  Bourbons  the  Legion  was  remodeled  so 
as  to  consist  of  four  classes, — viz.,  grand 
officers,  grand  crosses,  commanders,  and 
knights,  but  the  order  lost  much  of  its  origi- 
nal character.  The  order  confers  its  distinc- 
tion for  civil  and  military  valor,  but  espe- 
cially for  the  hitter.  The  college  of  the 
Legion  is  in  nossession  of  considerable  means, 
which  have  been  augmented  by  the  addition 
of  property  belonging  to  Lo'uis  Philippe. 
Out  of  this  fund  pensions  are  paid  to  certain 
members  of  the  order  who  have  been 
wounded  or  who  have  undergone  the  ampu- 
tation of  a  limb  in  service.  These  pensions 
have  sometimes  amounted  to  as  large  a  sum 
as  6,000,000  of  francs  annually. 

Legionary.  Relating  to  or  consisting  of 
a  legi<in  or  of  legions  ;  as,  a  legionary  force. 

Legionary.     One  of  a  legion. 

Legnago.  A  fortress  on  the  Adige,  North- 
ern Italy,  one  of  the  quadrilateral.  It  was 
captured  by  the  French  in  1796;  but  re- 
verted to  the  Austrians  in  1815.  It  was  sur- 
rendered to  the  Italians  in  October,  1866. 

Legnano.  A  town  in  Northern  Italy,  in 
the  province  of  Milan,  where  the  emperor 
Barbarossa  was  defeated  by  the  Milanese 
and  their  allies.  May  29,  1176,  which  vic- 
tory led  to  the  treaty  of  Constance  in  1183. 

Leicester.  A  town  of  England,  and  the 
chief  town  of  Leicestershire,  situated  on  the 
Soar.  During  the  civil  war  it  was  taken  by 
Charles  I.,  May  31,  and  by  Fairfax,  June  17, 
1645. 

Leinster,  A  province  of  Ireland,  occu- 
pying the  southeast  part  of  that  island.  It 
was  a  kingdom  in  1167.  The  abduction  of 
Devorgilla,  wife  of  O'Rourke,  a  lord  of 
Connaught,  by  Dertnot,  king  of  Leinster, 
in  1152,  is  asserted  to  have  led  to  the  land- 
ing of  the  English,  and  the  subsequent  con- 
quest. The  province  of  Leinster  gave  the 
title  of  duke  to  Schomberg's  son  in  1690. 
The  title  became  extinct  in  1719,  and  was 
conferred  on  the  family  of  Fitzgerald  in 
1766. 

Leipsic.  A  city  of  the  kingdom  of  Sax- 
ony, situated  about  65  nfiles  west-northwest 
of  Dresden,  near  the  Prussian  border,  in  a 
large  and  fertile  plain.  The  Elster,  the 
Pleisze,   and   the   Parthe   flow   through   or 

Cast  the  city,  and  unite  about  3  miles 
elow  it.  The  city  sprung  up  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Pleisze  and  the  Parthe,  and  is 
first  mentioned  as  a  town  in  1015.  It  grad- 
ually increased  in  prosperity  and  impor- 
tance. The  famous  Leipsic  Couft-rence  be- 
tween Luther,  Eck,  and  Carlstadt,  in  1519, 
greatly  tended  to  the  promotion  of  the  Ref- 
ormation. It  suffered  greatly  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  in  which  it  was  five  times  be- 
sieged and  taken,  and  again  in  the  Seven 
Years'  War;  and  although  the  commercial 
changes  connecti-d  with  the  French  revolu- 
tion at  first  affected  it  very  favorably,  yet  it 
suffered  not  a  little  amidst  the  terrible  strug- 
gle of  the  years  1812  and  1813,  when  it  wiu5 
alternately  in  possession  of  the  French  and 


LEITH 


278 


LEUCTKA 


of  the  allies.  The  immediate  neighborhood 
of  Leipsic  has  been  the  scene  of  two  battles 
of  great  importance  in  the  history  of  Ger- 
many and  of  Europe, — the  battle  of  Leip- 
sic, or  of  Breitenfeld  (see  Breitenfeld), 
on  September  7,  1631,  and  the  great  battle 
called  the  Battle  of  the  Nations,  which  con- 
tinued for  three  days,  October  16-18,  1818. 
The  latter  was  one  of  the  most  bloody  and 
decisive  of  those  which  effected  the  deliver- 
ance of  Europe  from  French  domination. 
The  troops  under  Napoleon  in  this  battle 
amounted  to  about  180,000  men,  and  those 
of  the  allies,  commanded  by  Prince  Schwar- 
zenberg,  Marshal  Blucher,  and  Bernadotte, 
crown-prince  of  Sweden,  to  almost  800,000. 
About  2000  pieces  of  artillery  were  brought 
to  the  field.  The  loss  of  the  French  was 
reckoned  at  about  38,000  killed  and 
wounded,  and  30,000  prisoners  ;  that  of  the 
allies  to  about  48,000.  The  victory  of  the 
allies  was  complete  ;  the  French  being  com- 
pelled to  evacuate  Leipsic,  and  to  retreat. 

Leith.  A  town  of  Scotland,  2  miles 
northeast  from  Edinburgh,  of  which  it  is 
the  seaport.  It  was  burned  in  1541  by  an 
English  fleet,  and  in  1549  it  was  occupied 
by  French  troops,  who  came  to  the  assist- 
ance of  Mary  of  Guise. 

Leleges,  An  ancient  race  which  inhab- 
ited Greece  before  the  Hellenes,  and  are 
mentioned  along  with  the  Pelasgians  as  the 
most  ancient  inhabitants.  They  were  a  war- 
like and  migratory  race,  and  piracy  was  their 
chief  occupation.  The  Leleges  must  be  re- 
garded as  a  branch  of  the  great  Indo-Ger- 
manic  race,  who  became  incorporated  with 
the  Hellenes,  and  thus  ceased  to  exist  as  an 
independent  people. 

Length  of  Cannon.  Is  the  distance  from 
the  rear  of  the  base-ring  to  the  face  of  the 
piece,  and  the  extreme  length  is  from  the  rear 
of  the  cascabel  to  the  face. 

Lengthen.  To  extend  in  length  ;  to  make 
longer ;  to  elongate  ;  as,  to  lengthen  a  line 
of  troops.  To  lengthen  the  step,  to  take 
more  than  the  prescribed  pace. 

Lenni-Lenape.     See  Delawares. 

Lens.  A  parish  and  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  Pas-de-Calais,  9  miles  from 
Arras.  A  battle  was  fought  here  in  1648, 
between  the  Spanish  forces  and  those  of  the 
Prince  of  Conde,  in  which  the  latter  gained 
the  victory. 

Lentini  (Lat.  Leontini).  A  city  of  Sicily, 
situated  between  Syracuse  and  Catania.  In 
427  B.C.,  the  Lentinians  applied  to  the 
Athenians  for  support  against  Syracuse ; 
they  were  sent  twenty  ships,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Laches  and  Charoeades.  In  215 
B.C.,  they  raised  their  standard  of  open  war 
against  Rome;  but  Marcellus  hastened  to 
attack  the  city,  and  made  himself  master  of 
it  without  difficulty.  Under  the  Roman 
government  it  was  restored  to  the  position 
of  an  independent  town. 

Leon.  A  province  of  Spain,  subdivided 
into  the  smaller  provinces  of  Salamanca, 
Zamor,  and  Leon.     The  kingdom  of  Leon 


was  erected  in  746,  by  Alfonso  the  Catholic, 
out  of  the  provinces  he  had  wrested  from  the 
Saracens  and  the  older  kingdom  of  Asturias, 
and  in  1230  it  was  permanently  united  to 
Castile.  Duringthe  Peninsular  war  it  suf- 
fered greatly. 

Lepanto  (anc.  Naupactus).  Called  by  the 
Greek  peasants  Epakto,  a  seaport  town  of 
Greece,  12  miles  northeast  from  Patras.  The 
name  Naupactus  is  said  to  have  originated 
with  the  Heraclidse,  who  are  reported  to  have 
there  built  the  fleet  with  which  they  invaded 
the  Peloponnesus.  After  the  Persian  war 
it  fell  into  the  possession  of  the  Athenians, 
who  settled  it  with  the  expatriated  Messe- 
nians.  The  Athenians  made  it  their  chief 
military  station  in  "Western  Greece  during 
the  Peloponnesian  war.  At  its  close  Le- 
panto was  taken  by  the  Locrians,  and  after- 
wards passed  in  succession  through  the  hands 
of  the  Etolians,  Macedonians,  Achaeans,and 
Romans.  In  1475  it  was  invested  by  the 
Turks,  who,  after  the  loss  of  30,000  men  in 
four  months,  were  forced  to  raise  the  siege. 
Within  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto,  in  1571,  was 
fought  the  great  naval  engagement  between 
the  Ottomans  and  the  Christian  powers  of 
the  Mediterranean,  under  Don  John  of  Aus- 
tria, in  which  the  former  lost  about  200 
galleys  and  20,000  men. 

Lerida.  A  town  of  Spain,  in  Catalonia, 
on  the  Segre,  80  miles  northwest  from  Bar- 
celona. In  1707  this  place  was  stormed  by 
the  French,  and  in  1810  it  was  again  taken 
by  French  troops  under  Suchet. 

Lesse  (Fr.).  A  machine  covered  with 
raw  hides,  used  as  a  mantelet  by  the  ancient 
Greeks  for  different  purposes. 

Let  Off,  To.  To  discharge  ;  to  let  fly,  as 
an  arrow  ;  or  fire  the  charge  of,  as  a  gun. 

Letter  Stamp.  See  Inspection  of  Can- 
non. 

Letters  Patent.  The  written  instrument 
by  which  a  government  grants  to  an  inventor 
the  exclusive  right  and  use  of  his  invention 
for  a  term  of  years. 

Lettre  de  Cachet  {Fr.).  An  infamous 
state  paper,  which  existed  before  the  French 
revolution,  which  was  sealed,  and  the  person 
upon  whom  it  was  served  carried  into  con- 
finement without  ever  seeing  the  authority 
by  which  he  was  hurried  otf  in  so  peremptory 
a  manner,  or  being  tried  afterwards  for  any 
specific  offense.  It  was  always  written  by 
the  king,  countersigned  by  one  of  his  prin- 
cipal secretaries  of  state,  and  sealed  with  the 
royal  signet. 

Lettre  de  Passe  {Fr.).  A  paper  which 
was  formerly  signed  by  the  kings  of  France, 
authorizing  an  officer  to  exchange  from  one 
regiment  into  another. 

Leuctra.  A  village  of  Bceotia,  situated 
between  Thespia  and  Platfea,  in  the  territory 
of  the  former,  celebrated  as  the  scene  of  the 
great  battle  between  the  Spartans,  com- 
manded by  Cleombrotus,  and  the  Thebans, 
under  Epaminondas,  in  which  the  former 
were  defeated,  and  the  supremacy  of  Sparta 
finally  overthrown. 


LEUTHEN 


279 


LI  BURN  I A 


Leuthen.  A  village  of  Prussia,  in  Lower 
Silesia,  9  miles  west  of  Breslau.  It  is  cele- 
brated for  the  victory  won  there  December 
6,  17o7,  by  Frederick  the  Great,  with  33,000 
men,  over  the  Austrians  under  Prince 
Charles  of  Lorraine  at  the  head  of  92,000. 

Levee  en  Masse  (Fr.).  A  general  rising 
of  the  jjcople  of  any  country,  either  for  the 
j)urp<>se  of  self-defense,  or  to  answer  the 
intention  of  its  governing  powers. 

Level.  In  mining,  is  a  horizontal  passage 
or  gallery. 

Level,"  Gunner's.    Sec  Gunnkr's  Level. 

Level,  Horizontal.  Free  from  obstructions 
or  declivities. 

Level,  James's.  An  instrument  to  find 
the  highes^t  points  of  the  breech  and  muzzle 
of  a  cannon,  when  the  carriage-wheels  stand 
on  uneven  ground.  Plumb-level,  one  in 
which  the  horizontal  arm  is  j)laced  in  true 
position  by  means  of  a  plummet  or  plumb- 
line,  to  whii'h  it  is  at  right  angles.  Spirit- 
level,  one  in  which  the  adjustment  to  the 
horizon  depends  on  the  position  of  a  bubble, 
or  small  vacant  space,  in  the  upper  side  of  a 
glass  tube,  which  is  slightl}'  curved  and 
nearly  filled  with  alcohol  or  ether.  Sur- 
veyor's level,  or  leveling  itistru>neni,  a  tele- 
scope with  a  spirit-level  attached,  and  with 
suitable  screws,  etc.,  for  accurate  adjustment, 
the  whole  mounted  on  a  tripod  for  use  in 
K-vcling. 

Levellers.  A  fanatical  party  in  Germany, 
headed  by  Muncer  and  Storck  in  the  IGth 
century,  who  taught  that  all  distinctions  of 
rank  were  usurpations  on  the  rights  of  man- 
kind. At  the  head  of  40,000  men  Muncer 
commanded  the  sovereign  princes  of  Germany 
and  the  magistrates  of  cities  to  resign  their 
authority;  and  on  his  march  his  followers 
ravaged  the  country.  The  landgrave  of 
Hesse  at  last  defeated  him  ;  7000  of  the 
enthusiasts  fell  in  battle,  and  the  rest  fled; 
their  leader  was  taken  and  beheaded  at  Mul- 
hausen  in  1525.     The  English  "Levellers," 

Sowerful  in  Parliameiit  in  1047,  were  put 
own  by  Cromwell  in  1(349,  and  their  leader, 
Lilburn,  imprisoned. 

Lever-jack.     See  Implemknts. 

Level.  A  blast  of  a  trumpet, — probably 
that  by  which  soldiers  are  called  in  the 
morning.     This  term  is  obsolete. 

L,cvy  (Ft.  levee).  Is  the  compulsory  rais- 
ing of  a  body  of  troops  from  any  specified 
class  in  the  community  for  purposes  of  gen- 
eral defense  or  ottense.  AVhen  a  country  is 
in  danger  of  instant  invasion,  a  levee  en 
tnaaae  is  sometimes  made, — i.e.,  every  man 
capable  of  bearing  arms  is  required  to  con- 
triouto  in  person  towards  the  common  de- 
fense, (^n  loss  urgent  occasions,  the  levy 
may  be  restricted  to  a  class,  as  to  men  be- 
tween eighteen  and  forty  years  of  age.  At 
other  times,  a  levy  of  'so  many  thousand 
men  of  a  certain  age  is  decreed,  and  the  dis- 
trict* concerned  draw  them  by  lot  from 
among  their  eligible  male  population.  In 
armies  sustained  by  volunteering,  the  levy, 
which  is  a  remnant  of  barbarous  times,  is 


unnecessary  ;  but  the  system  was  frequently 
resorted  to  in  France  before  the  enactment 
of  the  conscription  laws.  In  1802-04  there 
were  great  levies  in  the  United  States  of 
America;  and  in  any  country  where  great 
danger  is  apparent,  and  volunteers  are  not 
sufficiently  numerous,  recourse  must  at  all 
times  be  had  to  a  levy  of  the  people.  This 
term  is  also  ayifilied  to  the  assessment  of 
taxes,  tolls,  or  contributions. 

Levy.  To  raise  or  collect  troops  or  funds 
by  a  levy.  The  word  has  also  other  mean- 
ings ;  as,  to  levy  war,  to  make  war,  to  be- 
gin hostilities  ;  to  levy  a  siege,  to  desist  from, 
to  raise  the  siege.  In  this  latter  sense  it  is 
nearly  obsolete. 

Lewes.  A  town  of  England,  in  Sussex, 
on  the  Ouse,  7  miles  northeast  from  Brighton. 
Near  this  town,  in  1204,  Henry  III.  was  de- 
feated by  Simon  de  Montfort,  and  impris- 
oned in  the  castle. 

Lewis.  A  device  for  lifting  stones,  con- 
sisting of  two  wedge-shaped  pieces  of  iron, 
which  are  inserted  butt  foremost  into  a 
dovetail  mortise  in  the  stone,  and  keyed  by 
inserting  a  piece  between  them.  All  three 
are  then  shackled  to  the  lifting-chain  by  a 
bolt  passing  through  them. 

Lexington.  A  township  of  Middlesex 
Co.,  Mass.,  11  miles  northwest  from  Boston. 
The  fii-st  battle  in  the  war  between  Great 
Britain  and  her  revolted  colonies  in  North 
America  was  fought  here  on  April  19,  1775, 
and  ended  disastrously  for  the  British. 

Lexington.  A  village  of  Lafayette  town- 
ship, Mo.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Missouri 
Kiver.  In  September,  1801,  a  body  of  Fed- 
eral troops  under  Col.  Jlulligan  were  hero 
captured  by  the  Confederate  general  Price. 
The  town  was  retaken  by  the  Federals  in 
October  following.  In  October,  1804,  an 
indecisive  engagement  took  place  here  be- 
tween the  armies  of  Gens.  Price  and  Blunt. 

Leydan  (anc.  Lugdumwi  Batuvurum).  An 
important  city  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the 
province  of  South  Holland,  on  the  Old 
Bhine,  C  miles  from  its  outlet  in  the  North 
Sea.  It  was  once  a  strong  fortress,  and  the 
siege  which  it  sustained  from  the  Spaniards 
in  1573-74  made  it  famous.  For  seven  weeks 
there  was  no  bread  within  its  walls,  but  the 
burghers  still  resisted,  though  the  hunger 
became  almost  unbearable.  At  last  the 
Prince  of  Orange  came  to  their  rescue.  Tl.e 
dykes  were  opened,  and  the  waters,  which 
drowned  a  great  number  of  the  besiegers, 
carried  a  fleet  of  200  boats  loaded  with  pro- 
visions to  the  city.  As  a  reward  for  the 
valor  the  city  evinced  during  this  siege,  the 
Prince  of  Orange  founded  a  university  here. 

Liburnia.  In  ancient  times  was  a  portion 
of  Northern  Illyricum,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  Sinus  Flanaticus,  now  the  present  Croa- 
tia and  Dalmatia.  It  was  inhabited  by  the 
Pelasgic  race,  who  were  daring  seamen  and 
noted  pirates.  Their  privateers,  with  large 
lateen-sails,  were  for  centuries  the  terror  of 
the  seas,  and  during  the  second  Macedonian 
war  the  Romans  adopted  them. 


LIBYANS 


280 


LIGHT-AEMED 


Libyans,  The  name  formerly  given  to 
the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  portion  of 
Africa,  with  the  exception  of  the  delta  of  the 
Nile.  They  fell  under  the  sway  of  the  Ro- 
mans, and  subsequently  relapsed  into  bar- 
barism. 

Licorne.     See  Howitzer. 

Lictor.  A  Roman  officer  who  bore  an 
axe  and  fasces  as  insignia  of  his  office.  His 
duty  was  to  attend  the  chief  magistrates 
when  they  appeared  in  public,  to  clear  the 
way  and  enforce  respect  for  them.  In  addi- 
tion, he  performed  constabulary  duties. 

Lid,  or  Roof.     See  Ordnanck. 

Lide  (Fr-)-  A  warlike  machine  which 
was  formerly  used  to  throw  large  stones 
against  a  fortified  place,  or  upon  an  enemy. 

Lie.  To  be  situated ;  to  occupy  a  fixed 
place  ;  as,  the  troops  lie  encamped  at  Wash- 
ington. To  lie  in  ambush,  to  be  posted  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  be  able  to  surprise  your 
enemy,  should  he  presume  to  advance  with- 
out having  previously  cleared  the  woods, 
hedges,  etc.  To  lie  in  wait,  to  take  a  posi- 
tion unobserved  by  the  enemy,  and  to  re- 
main under  arms,  in  the  expectation  of  sud- 
denly falling  upon  his  flanks  or  rear.  To  lie 
under  cover,  to  be  under  the  protection  of  a 
battery,  or  to  be  sheltered  by  a  wood,  etc. 
To  lie  under  arms,  to  remain  in  a  state  ready 
for  action. 

Liebenau.  A  town  of  Bohemia.  Here 
was  fought  the  first  action  of  the  Seven 
Weeks'  "War,  June  26,  18G6,  when  the 
Austrians  were  compelled  to  retreat  by  the 
Prussians  under  Gen.  von  Home. 

Liegnitz.  A  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  at 
the  conflux  of  the  Katzbach,  the  Schwarz- 
wasser,  and  the  Neisse,  35  miles  northwest 
from  Breslau.  The  Austrian  army  was 
totally  defeated  before  Liegnitz  in  1760  by 
the  Prussians  under  the  command  of  Fred- 
erick the  Great. 

Lieutenancy.  The  office  or  commission 
of  a  lieutenant. 

Lieutenant.  From  the  French,  lieu  ten- 
ant, "  holding  the  place,"  in  a  general  sense 
is  an  officer  performing  the  duties  of  his 
superior.  The  rank  was  abolished  by  Charles 
IX.  in  the  French  army,  and  re-established 
by  Henry  IV.  In  companjr  organizations 
the  lieutenant  comes  next  after  the  captain, 
and  supplies  his  place  during  temporary  ab- 
sence. There  are  two  grades  of  lieutenants, 
first  and  second.  A  lieutenant  in  the  navy 
is  an  officer  ranking  with  a  captain  in  the 
army,  holding  rank  above  a  master  and 
below  a  lieutenant-commander. 

Lieutenant  de  la  Colonelle  {Fr.).  The 
second  officer,  or  what  was  formerly  styled 
the  captain-lieutenant  of  the  colonel's  com- 
pany of  everj^  infantry  regiment  in  France. 

Lieutenant  du  Roi  {Fr.).  During  the 
monarchy  of  France  there  was  a  deputy 
governor  in  every  fortified  place,  or  strong 
town,  who  commanded  in  the  absence  of  the 
governor,  and  was  a  check  upon  his  conduct 
when  present.  This  person  was  called  lieu- 
tenant du  roi.    Lieutenants  des  Gardes  Fran- 


coises et  Suisses ;  lieutenants  belonging  to 
the  French  and  Swiss  guards.  During  the 
existence  of  the  monarchy  in  France  they 
bore  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  and  took 
precedence  of  all  captains.  Lieutenants 
Provinciaux  d^ Ar tiller ie  were  certain  offi- 
cers belonging  to  the  old  French  service, 
and  immediately  attached  to  the  artillery, 
who  bore  the  title  or  name  of  the  particular 
province  in  which  they  were  stationed. 
Several  of  these  lieutenants,  who  had  mili- 
tary employment  under  the  board  of  ord- 
nance, received  the  rank  of  lieutenant-gen- 
eral in  the  army  from  the  king,  and  could 
rise  to  the  most  exalted  stations  in  common 
with  other  officers. 

Lieutenant-Colonel.  His  rank  corre- 
sponds with  that  of  commanders  in  the 
navy.     See  Colonel,  Lieutenant-. 

Lieutenant-General.  His  rank  is  equiva- 
lent to  that  of  a  vice-admiral.  See  Gen- 
eral, Lieutenant-. 

Life-guard.  A  guard  of  the  life  or  per- 
son ;  a  guard  that  attends  the  person  of  a 
prince,  or  other  high  officer  or  dignitary ;  a 
body-guard.     See  Guards. 

Light  Battery.  A  mounted  battery  of 
field-guns. 

Light  Bobs.  In  the  British  service,  a 
familiar  term  used  for  the  light  infantry. 

Light  Horse.  All  mounted  soldiers  that 
are  lightly  armed  and  accoutred  for  active 
and  desultory  service,  may  be  considered 
under  this  term.  Thus  light  dragoons,  hus- 
sars, mounted  riflemen,  etc.,  are  strictly 
speaking  light  horse. 

Light  Infantry.  A  body  of  armed  men 
selected  and  trained  for  rapid  evolutions; 
often  employed  to  cover  and  assist  other 
troops.     See  Infantry,  Light. 

Light  Infantry  Company.  In  the  British 
service,  a  company  of  active,  strong  men, 
carefully  selected  from  the  rest  of  the  regi- 
ment. It  always  occupies  its  place  on  the 
left  of  the  battalion  until  called  for.  When 
the  call  sounds,  the  light  company  orders 
arms  and  unfixes  bayonets  without  word  of 
command,  and  remains  in  readiness  to  move. 

Light  Marching  Order.  A  soldier  pa- 
raded with  arms,  ammunition,  canteen,  and 
haversack,  is  said  to  be  in  light  marching 
order. 

Light  Troops.  By  this  term  is  generally 
meant  all  troops  which  are  lightly  accoutred 
for  detached  service. 

Light,  Velocity  of.  It  has  been  proven 
by  astronomers  that  light  travels  through 
space  with  the  prodigious,  though  finite, 
velocity  of  192,500,  or  nearly  200^000  miles 
in  a  second  of  time,  and  consequently  would 
pass  round  the  earth  in  the  eighth  part  of  a 
second.  It  is  also  proved,  by  the  phenom- 
ena of  aberration,  that  the  light  of  the  sun, 
planets,  and  all  the  fixed  stars,  travels  with 
the  same  velocity. 

Light-armed.  Not  heavily  armed,  or 
armed  with  light  weapons ;  as,  light  troops; 
a  troop  of  light  horse.  See  Infantry, 
Light-armed. 


LIGHT-BALL 


281 


LINE 


Light-ball.     See  Pyrotechny. 

Light-barrel.     8ee  Pyrotkchny. 

Ligny.  A  village  in  Belgium,  in  the 
jiruvinie  of  Natnur,  about  10  miles  north- 
cast  of  Charleroi,  famous  on  account  of  the 
battle  fought  here  by  the  French  under 
Napoleon,  and  the  Prussians  under  Blucher, 
•hiiio  10,  1815,  in  which  the  latter  was  de- 
feat cd. 

Liguria.  In  ancient  geography,  a  region 
of  Northern  Italy,  the  land  of  the  Ligu- 
rians  It  is  first  mentioned  by  the  early 
Greek  authors  as  extending  as  far  westward 
as  the  mouths  of  the  lilione,  while  accord- 
ing to  Polybius,  its  eastern  boundary  was 
I'isie,  and  its  northern  the  country  of  the 
Arretincs.  The  Ligurians,  so  often  praised 
by  ancient  authors  for  tlieir  hardihood  and 
bravery,  are  generally  understood  to  be 
those  on  the  south  side  of  the  Apennines 
exclusively.  In  the  time  of  Strabo  these 
eked  out  the  scanty  produce  of  tlieir  st<my 
and  sterile  soil  by  hunting  and  feeding 
Hocks,  and  thus  fostered  that  vigor  of  frame 
and  ferocity  of  disposition  which  long  ren- 
dered them  the  indomitable  foes  and  plun- 
derers of  the  Komans.  They  were  re- 
nowned as  siingers  and  light  infantry  in  the 
armies  of  the  Carthaginians,  and  afterwards 
in  those  of  the  Romans.  They  were  con- 
quered by  the  Romans  in  125  H.c.  Liguria 
formed  the  first  point  of  the  Roman  province 
of  Gaul ;  in  1797,  in  consequence  of  the 
conquests  of  Bonaparte,  it  was  formed  into 
the  republic  of  Liguria. 

Limber.  To  attach  to  the  limbers  ;  as,  to 
limber  the  gun  ;  to  limber  up. 

Limber-chest.  The  ammunition-chest 
placed  on  tlie  limber  of  field-pieces. 

Limbers.      See    Ordnanck,  Carriages 

FOK. 

Limenarque  (Fr.).  An  offtce  of  distinc- 
tion, which  existed  in  the  Roman  empire. 
The  persons  invested  with  it  were  directed  to 
watch  the  frontiers  of  the  empire,  and  they 
commanded  the  troops  that  were  employed 
upon  that  service. 

Limerick.  A  city  of  Ireland,  chief  town 
of  a  county  of  the  same  name,  situated  on 
the  .Shannon,  about  *iO  miles  from  its  mouth, 
and  I0»i  miles  south-southwest  of  Dublin. 
It  has  always  been  deemed  a  place  of  impor- 
tance. It  was  taken  by  the  English  in  1174  ; 
in  1»;,'>1  it  was  taken  by  Ireton,  the  son-in- 
law  of  Cromwell ;  in  Itl'JO  it  was  unsuccess- 
fully besieged  by  King  William  III.  in 
Eerson  ;  in  IfitU  it  surrendered  to  Gen.  Gin- 
el,  afterwards  carl  of  Alhione.  Before  the 
Conquest  it  was  the  seat  of  the  kings  of 
Thomond. 
Limitary.     A   guard   or   superintendent, 

t laced  at  the  confines  or  boundaries  of  any 
in;;dom  or  state. 
Limitation  of  Time  of  Prosecution,    See 

AlM-KN|)|\.    AkTK  I.KS  OF    WaK,    103. 

Limites  Romani.     The  name  of  a   con- 
tinuous series  of  fortifications,  consisting  of 
castles,  walls,  earthen  ramparts,  and  the  like, 
which  the  Romans  erected  along  the  Rhine 
I'J 


and  the  Danube,  to  protect  their  possessions 
from  tlie  attacks  of  the  Germans. 

Limits.  In  a  military  sense,  is  that  which 
bounds  or  confines ;  as,  the  limits  of  a  senti- 
nel's post ;  tlie  limits  of  a  garrison.  An 
ofllicer  in  arrest  may  have  his  limits  extended. 

Limoges.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Upper  Vienne,  on  the 
Vienne.  It  was  besieged  and  taken  by  the 
English  in  1370. 

Limonite.     An  iron  ore  (which  see). 

Lincelles.  In  Northern  France,  where 
the  allied  English  and  Dutch  armies  defeated 
the  French,  August  18,  1793 

Linch-pin.  A  pin  through  the  end  of  an 
axle-arm  of  an  artillery  carriage  to  keep  the 
wheel  on.  A  hook  attached  to  the  head  of 
the  pin  and  embracing  the  axle-arm  j)re- 
vents  the  pin  from  being  jolted  out. 

Linch-pin  Washer.  A  ring  against  which 
the  liiicli  pin  rubs. 

Lincoln  (anc.  Lindum  Colonia).  A  city 
of  England,  the  capital  of  Lincolnshire,  on 
the  Witham.  It  was  at  the  period  of  the 
Conquest  rich  and  populous.  It  was  taken 
several  times  by  Saxons  and  Danes.  With- 
out Newport-gate,  upon  Lincoln  plain,  was 
fought  the  battle  between  the  partisans  of 
the  empress  Maud,  commanded  by  the  Earl 
of  Gloucester,  and  the  army  of  Stephen,  in 
which  the  king  was  defeated  and  taken  pris- 
oner, February  2,  1141.  Lincoln  was  the 
scene  of  important  operations  during  the 
civil  wars  in  the  reign  of  King  John  ;  and 
here  the  party  of  the  Dauphin  was  completely 
overthrown  by  the  Earl  of  Pembroke  during 
the  minority  of  Henry  III.  During  the 
great  civil  war  the  royalists  obtained  pos- 
session of  the  city,  but  it  was  stormed  by  the 
Parliamentary  army  under  the  Earl  of  Man- 
chester, May  5,  1044. 

Linden-tree.  The  wood  used  in  artificial 
firewt)rks,  etc. 

Lindisfarne.    See  Holy  Island. 

Line.  Various  opinions  have  been  given 
as  to  what  portion  of  the  military  establish- 
ment should  constitute  the  line  of  the  army, 
and  in  the  absence  of  legislation,  which 
should  settle  the  question,  it  will  continue 
to  be  a  subject  of  controversy,  and  some  dif- 
ficulty has  arisen  from  the  vague  and  un- 
certain meaning  of  the  words  "  line  of  the 
army,"  which  neither  in  the  English  service 
nor  in  the  United  States  have  a  wcll-defim^ 
meaning.  The  opinion  that  the  words  are 
intended  to  distinguish  the  regular  army 
from  the  militia,  or  discriminate  between 
officers  by  brevet  and  those  by  ordinary 
commissions,  as  understood  by  some,  would 
seem  to  be  erroneous.  Though  the  words 
"  line  of  the  army'"  may  sometimes  be  used 
in  a  dirterent  sense,  the  (qiinion  prevails  that 
in  the  122d  Article  of  War  they  are  used  to 
designate  those  officers  of  the  army  who  do 
not  belong  to  the  stafl^,  in  contradistinction 
to  those  who  do.  It  is  now  generally  con- 
ceded that  the  law  contemplates  that  the 
fighting  portion  of  the  army;  as  cavalry, 
artillery,  infantry,  and   engineers,  or   that 


LINE 


282 


LINES 


part  of  the  service  organized  or  subdivided 
into  units  for  command,  as  well  as  the  com- 
manders thereof,  constitutes  the  "line  of  the 
army."  The  four  arms  of  the  service  above 
mentioned  form  the  principal  part  of  a 
mobilized  army,  and  as  they  are  always 
formed  into  a  line  of  battle  to  resist  the  attack 
of  an  enemy,  or  to  make  an  attack,  they  are 
generally  known  as  the  "  line  of  the  armj^," 
or  "  troops  of  the  line,"  to  distinguish  them 
from  other  bodies  of  men  who  form  parts  of 
an  army. 

Line.  In  the  British  service,  the  regular 
infantry  of  an  army,  as  distinguished  from 
militia,  volunteer  corps,  artiUery,  cavalry, 
etc. 

Line.  In  tactics,  a  body  of  men  in  either 
one  or  two  ranks  ;  generally  a  body  of  troops 
drawn  up  with  an  extended  front.  To  line, 
is  to  place  troops  in  line  (see  Align)  ;  thus, 
to  Ihie  hedges  or  walls,  is  to  place  troops 
behind  them.  To  form  the  line,  in  land 
tactics,  is  to  arrange  the  troops  in  order  of 
battle,  or  battle  array.  To  break  the  line, 
to  change  the  direction  from  that  of  a  straight 
line,  in  order  to  obtain  a  cross-iire,  and  for 
other  purposes.  To  line  a  street  or  road,  is 
to  draw  up  any  number  of  men  on  each  side 
of  the  street  or  road,  and  to  face  them  in- 
wards. This  is  frequently  practiced  on  days 
of  ceremony,  when  some  distinguished  person 
is  received  with  military  honors  on  his  way 
through  places  where  troops  are  stationed. 
This  is  the  usage  also  in  funerals,  when  the 
corps  under  arms  form  a  line  facing  inwards. 

Line,  In  fencing,  an  imaginary  line  op- 
posite to  the  fencer,  wherein  the  shoulders, 
right  arm,  and  the  sword  should  always  be 
found,  and  wherein  are  also  to  be  placed  the 
two  feet  at  the  distance  of  18  inches  apart. 
In  which  sense  a  man  is  said  to  be  in  his 
line,  or  to  go  out  of  his  line,  etc. 

Line.  A  cord  or  rope ;  as,  a  picket  line, 
side  lines  (which  see). 

Line,  Horizontal.  A  line  parallel  to  the 
plane  of  the  horizon  ;  as,  any  line  in  the 
level  surfiice  of  a  plane. 

Line,  Inclined.  Is  a  line  which  is  oblique 
to  the  plane  of  the  horizon. 

Line,  Magistral.     See  Magistral  Line. 

Line,  Oblique.  A  straight  line  which  is 
neither  parallel  nor  perpendicular  to  another 
line  ;  also  a  line  of  troops  posted  or  march- 
ing obliquely. 

Line  of  Battle.  The  position  of  troops 
drawn  up  in  their  usual  order  without  any 
determined  manoeuvre. 

Line  of  Counter-approach.  A  .sort  of 
trench  which  the  besieged  make,  and  push 
forward  from  the  glacis,  for  the  purpose  of 
counteracting  the  enemy's  works. 

Line  of  Defense.  See  Defense,  Line  of. 

Line  of  Demarcation.  A  line  which  is 
drawn  by  consent,  to  ascertain  the  limits  of 
lands  or  territories  belonging  to  diflerent 
powers. 

Line  of  Direction.  In  gunnery,  was  a 
line  formerly  marked  upon  guns,  by  a  short 
point  upon  the  muzzle,  and  a  cavity  on  the 


base-ring,  to  direct  the  eye  in  pointing  the 
gun. 

Line  of  Duty.  An  otBcer  or  soldier  dis- 
abled while  performing  properly  authorized 
duty  is  said  to  be  injured  in  line  of  duty,  and 
as  such  is  entitled  to  the  allowances  fixed  by 
law. 

Line  of  Fire.  In  gunnery,  the  axis  of 
the  gun  produced. 

Line  of  Fire.  In  fortification,  this  term 
admits  of  two  distinct  acceptations:  first, 
when  it  is  found  necessary  to  give  an  idea  of 
the  manner  in  which  a  rampart  or  an  in- 
trenchment  covers  any  space  of  ground  by 
the  discharge  of  ordnance  or  musketry,  lines 
must  be  drawn  to  express  the  distances  trav- 
ersed by  the  shot,  etc.  These  lines  are  called 
lines  of  fire,  being  representations  of  the  ac- 
tual ranges ;  second,  all  that  extent  of  a 
rampart  or  intrenchment  from  which  the 
projectiles  of  ordnance  or  musketry  are  dis- 
charged, is  understood  to  be  the  line  of  fire. 

Line  of  Least  Resistance.  The  .shortest 
distance  from  the  centre  of  the  charge  of  a 
mine  to  the  open  air. 

Line  of  March.  Arrangement  for  march- 
ing.    Course  or  direction  taken  by  an  army. 

Line  of  Metal.  Or  natural  line  of  sight, 
is  a  line  drawn  from  the  highest  point  of  the 
base-ring  or  base-line  to  the  highest  point  of 
the  swell  of  the  muzzle,  or  to  the  top  of  the 
sight,  if  there  be  one.  The  line  of  sight 
nearest  to  the  axis  of  the  piece  is  the  natui-al 
line  of  sight,  the  others  are  artificial  lines  of 
sight.     See  Artificial  Line  of  Sight. 

Line  of  Sight.  See  Line  of  Metal  and 
Pointing. 

Line  of  the  Bastion,  Capital.  Is  a  line 
which  bisects  the  salient  angle  of  a  bastion. 
See  Capital. 

Line,  Retiring.  A  line  of  troops  in  or- 
derly retreat.* 

Line,  Tangent.  A  straight  line,  which 
meets  a  curve  at  one  point  and  touches  with- 
out cutting  it. 

Line,  Vertical.  A  line  which  is  perpen- 
dicular to  the  horizon.  Of  this  description 
are  all  lines  that  express  height  or  depth. 

Lineal,  or  Linear.  Pertaining  to  length; 
pertaining  to  the  line  of  an  army. 

Lineal  Rank.  Is  the  rank  of  a  line-oflScer 
in  his  arm  of  the  service. 

Linear  Promotion.  Is  promotion  of  line- 
officers  according  to  seniority  in  the  arm  of 
service,  as  opposed  to  promotion  in  the 
regiment. 

Line-firings.  This  term  is  used  when 
troops  fire  by  line. 

Lines.  A  series  of  field-works,  either  con- 
tinuous or  at  intervals.  The  former  are  con- 
nected by  means  of  curtains  or  straight  walls.  . 
The  rule  in  constructing  the  other  is,  that 
the  works  shall  be  within  cannon-  or  musket- 
shot  range  of  each  other,  according  to  their  . 
armament.  i 

Lines,  Close  and  Open.  Formerly  when 
troops  were  drawn  up  in  order  of  battle  with 
intervals  between  the  battalions  and  squad- 
rons, the  lines  were  said  to  be  close  and  open. 


LINES 


283 


LINES 


Lines,  Continued.  A  continued  lirtf^of 
field-works  constructed  for  the  defense  of  ii 
position. 

Lines  Cremaillere.  Are  composed  of  al- 
ternate sliort  and  long  faces  ut  right  angles 
to  each  ollnT. 

Lines,  Full  or  Close.  Are  lines  of  men 
drawn  up  without  leaving  intervals  between 
them. 

Lines,  Inside.  Are  a  kind  of  ditches  to- 
wards ihi.'  place,  to  prevent  sallies,  etc. 

Lines  of  Bastion.  As  the  name  indicates, 
are  fornu-d  of  ii  succession  of  bastion-shaped 
parai)i'ts,  each  consisting  of  two  faces  and 
two  flaiilcs,  connected  by  a  curtain. 

Lines  of  Circumvallation.  The  defensive 
works  by  which  a  besieging  army  covers  its 
rear  and  Hanks  against  a  relieving  force. 

Lines  of  Communication.  Are  trenches 
that  unite  one  work  to  another,  so  that  men 
may  pass  between  them  without  being  ex- 
posed to  the  enemy's  fire;  hence,  the  whole 
intrenchmcnt  round  any  place  is  sometimes 
called  a  line  of  communication,  because  it 
leads  to  all  the  works. 

Lines  of  Communication.  This  term  is 
applied  lo  all  the  practicable  routes  and 
roads  connecting  the  ditlerent  parts  of  an 
army  occupying  the  theatre  of  war.  There- 
fore, as  the  army  moves  from  its  base,  the 
lines  of  operations  become  lines  of  communi- 
cation, and  since  these  "lines  of  operations" 
nre generally  the  longest  and  most  important 
lines  of  communication,  it  is  to  them  that  the 
."iinple  term  "communications"  generally 
refers.  All  the  routes  used  by  the  trains 
employed  in  provisioning  an  army,  form  a 
■  part  of  the  communications.  The  most  im- 
portant, safest,  and  most  convenient  of  these 
routes,  all  other  things  being  equal,  will  be 
the  central  one,  or  the  one  leading  from  the 
centre  of  the  army  back  to  its  base.  This 
particular  route  is  sometimes  designated  as 
the  "  line  of  supplies.  "—/Vo/.  J.  b7  Wheeler. 

Lines  of  Contravallation.     See  Coxtra- 

VAI,I..\T1(>X. 

Lines  of  Operations.  The  roads  or  routes 
by  which  an  army  moves  from  its  base 
towards  its  objective-point  have  been  desig- 
nated by  the  term  "lines  of  operations." 
Lines  of  operations  are  classified  from  their 
number  into  sin;;lc,  dnuhle,  or  multiple  lines  ; 
from  their  positions  with  respect  to  the  lines 
of  operations  of  the  enemy  into  interior  or 
rrterior  lines;  and  from  their  position  with 
respect  to  each  other  into  convergent  or  rfi- 
vergent  lines.  Other  classifications  are  some- 
times used  descriptive  of  the  nature  or  other 
quality  of  the  line. 

Sinfflr  Line  of  Operations.  —  An  army 
moving  in  a  given  direction  with  all  its  parts 
united,  or  with  those  parts  so  situated  that 
thev  can  be  readily  joined  when  required,  is 
•aid  to  use  a  "single  line  of  operations." 
Sometimes  tliis  line  is  called  a  .liwple  line. 
A  single  line  of  operations  docs  not  mean  a 
tingle  i-oa<l,  but  embraces  all  the  roads  or 
routes  taken  by  the  fractions  of  the  army  for 
the  purpose  of  reaching  a  common  point  of 


concentration  ;  the  condition  being  imposed 
that  these  roads  shall  not  be  so  far  apart,  or 
have  intervening  such  obstacles,  that  the 
different  parts  of  an  artny  will  be  prevented 
from  uniting  at  any  given  time  which  may 
be  appointed. 

Double  and  Multiple  Lines  of  Operations. 
— When  there  are  ofcstaclcs  intervening  be- 
tween the  roads  or  routes  passed  over  by  an 
arm}',  or  the  roads  are  so  far  apart  as  to  pre- 
vent the  parts  of  the  army  from  being  read- 
ily united,  the  army  is  then  said  to  employ 
"double"  or  "multiple"  lines  of  ojjerations. 

Interior  Lines  of  Operations. — If  thes^ 
lines  are  within  those  employed  by  the 
enemy,  they  are  known  as  "  interior"  lines. 

Exterior  Lines  of  Operations. — If  these 
lines  are  outside  of  the  lines  employed  by 
the  enemy,  they  are  called  "exterior"  lines. 

Convergerit  Lines  of  Operations. — If  these 
lines  of  ojierations  start  from  points  some 
distance  apart,  approach  each  other,  and 
meet  at  some  point  in  advance,  they  are 
called  "  convergent."  Sometimes  the  term 
"  concentric"  is  employed  to  designate  them. 

Divergent  Lines  of  Opei-ations. — These 
lines  are  the  reverse  of  convergent  lines,  as 
they  continue  to  separate,  or  the  distance 
between  them  to  widen,  as  the  army  ad- 
vances. The  term  "  eccentric"  is  also  ap- 
plied to  them. 

Accidental  Lines  of  Operatioyis. — Lines  of 
operations  are  sometimes  emploj-ed  different 
from  those  proposed  in  the  original  plan  of 
campaign.  To  these  lines  the  term  "acci- 
dental" is  applied.  It  does  not  follow  that 
their  adoption  is  a  matter  of  accident,  as 
might  be  inferred  from  their  name.  They 
are  frequently  the  result  of  a  change  in  the 
original  plan,  which  probable  change  was 
foreseen  and  provided  for. 

Tempo7-ari/  Lines  of  Operations. — Some- 
times an  army  in  making  a  movement  em- 
ploys a  line  which  deviates  from  that 
adopted  in  the  general  plan  of  campaign. 
As  soon  as  the  movement  is  completed  the 
original  lines  are  resumed.  Such  lino 
adopted  for  such  movement  is  termed  a 
"  temjiorary  line."  The  term  "manffuvre 
line"  is  also  applied  to  it.  —  Prof.  J.  B. 
W/,celrr. 

Lines  of  Retreat.  The  roads  passed  over 
as  the  army  advances  are  ordinarily  the 
roads  taken  when  the  army  retires  or  is 
driven  back.  In  the  latter  case  they  are 
known  as  "lines  of  retreat,"  and  are  "sin- 
gle," "double,"  "  diverging,"  etc.,  accord- 
ing to  their  number  and  position. — Prof.  J. 
B.   Wl,relcr. 

Lines  of  Tenailles.  Consist  of  parapets, 
forming  a  series  of  salient  and  re-entering 
angles. 

Lines  of  Torres  Vedras.  See  Torres 
Vkdr  vs. 

Lines  Outside.  Arc  a  kind  of  ditches 
towards  fho  tii'ld,  to  hinder  relief,  etc. 

Lines,  Strategical.  The  lines  followed 
by  an  army  in  making  a  strategical  move- 
ment are  called  "strategical  lines."    Tempo- 


LINES 


284 


LITTER 


rary  lines  of  operations,  or  manoeuvre  lines, 
therefore,  are  strategical  lines.  Lines  of 
operations  are  important  strategical  lines. 
And  in  general,  lines  connecting  two  or 
more  strategical  points,  which  lines  can  be 
used  by  an  army,  and  which  allow  of  easy 
communication  between  these  points,  are 
"  strategical  lines."  A  base  of  operations  is 
therefore  a  strategical  line.  —  Prof.  J.  B. 
Wheeler. 

Lines  with  Intervals.  One  or  more  rows 
of  field-works  with  large  intervals  between 
them,  through  which  the  ofl'ensive  may  be 
assumed. 

Linesmen.  In  the  British  service,  in- 
fantrymen of  the  regular  army  are  so  called. 

Lingerer.  One  who  pretends  to  be  indis- 
posed, in  order  to  avoid  his  tour  of  duty, — a 
skulker.  Hence  the  term  malingerer,  or  a 
soldier  who  avoids  duty  in  a  disreputable 
manner. 

Linlithgow-bridge.  Near  Edinburgh, 
Scotland,  near  which  the  forces  of  the  Earl 
of  Angus,  who  held  James  V.  in  their  power, 
defeated  the  forces  of  the  Earl  of  Lennox, 
who,  after  receiving  promise  of  quarter,  was 
killed  by  Sir  James  Hamilton,  1526. 

Linstock.  A  short  staft"  of  wood,  about  3 
feet  long,  having  at  one  end  apiece  of  iron 
divided  into  two  branches,  each  of  which 
has  a  notch  to  hold  a  lighted  match,  and  a 
screw  to  fasten  it  there,  the  other  end  being 
shod  with  iron  to  stick  into  the  ground. 

Linstock  Socket.  A  socket  attached  to 
the  piece  in  which  the  linstock  was  formerly 
carried. 

Lipan  Indians.  A  warlike  tribe  of  abo- 
irigines  residing  in  Texas  and  Mexico. 

Lippe,  or  Lippe  Detmold.  A  small  prin- 
cipality of  Northwest  Germany,  the  chief 
part  of  which  is  comprised  between  Prussian 
Westphalia,  Hanover,  and  the  principality 
Pyrmont.  The  surface  is  hilly,  partly  cov- 
■ered  by  the  Teutoburger  Wald,  where  Ar- 
minius  exterminated  the  legions  of  Varus. 

Lis  [Fr.).  A  warlike  machine  was  for- 
merly so  called.  It  consisted  of  a  piece  of 
wood  or  a  stake,  about  the  size  of  the  human 
body,  which  was  made  smaller  at  the  top 
;than  at  the  bottom,  and  resembled  a  lily  not 
yet  blown.  Several  of  these  were  tied  to- 
gether with  ozier  or  willow  twigs,  and  were 
used  for  the  security  of  a  camp.  They 
were  not  unlike  the  palisades  of  the  present 
day. 

Lisaine.  A  small  river  in  France,  rising 
in  the  Vosges  Mountains,  and  flowing  west 
of  the  fortress  of  Belfort.  On  January  15, 
16,  and  17,  1871,  a  terrible  contest  raged 
here  between  the  French  army  under  Bour- 
baki  and  the  Germans  under  Von  Werder, 
,the  French  being  finally  compelled  to  re- 
treat. The  German  loss  was  about  2000; 
the  French  about  6000. 

-Lisbon.  The  capital  of  Portugal,  situated 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  Tagus,  near  its 
mouth  in  the  Atlantic.  In  1807  it  was  oc- 
cupied by  the  French,  and  was  afterwards 
the  scene  of  important  operations  between 


th?^ritish  and  French  armies,  until  the  lat- 
ter were  finally  driven  from  Portugal. 

Lisburn.  A  town  of  Ireland,  in  the 
county  of  Antrim,  on  the  Lagan,  8  miles 
southwest  from  Belfast.  It  was  founded  in 
1627,  and  in  1641  was  laid  in  ashes  by  the 
Irish  insurgents.  It  was  again  burnt  in 
1707. 

Lisieux.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment Calvados,  situated  near  the  confluence 
of  the  Orbec  and  the  Tanque.  The  Nor- 
mans pillaged  it  in  the  8th  century,  and  re- 
tained it  for  a  considerable  time.  It  has 
since  been  frequently  besieged  and  captured,  l 
and  was  last  taken  by  Henri  Quatre  in  1588. 

Lisle,  or  Lille.  A  city  of  France,  for- 
merly the  capital  of  French  Flanders,  and 
now  of  the  department  of  the  North.  It 
was  founded  in  1009  by  Bandouin  IV., 
count  of  Flanders.  It  fell  into  the  power  of 
Philip  the  Fair,  after  a  siege  of  three  monthsj 
in  1297,  and  was  taken  again  by  Guy,  count' 
of  Flanders,  in  1302.  The  Protestants  at- 
tempted in  vain  to  surprise  it  in  1581,  and 
the  French  besieged  it  without  success  in 
1645.  Wrested  from  the  Spaniards  by  Louis 
XIV.  in  1667,  and  retaken  by  the  allies  in 
1708,  after  a  long  and  obstinate  siege,  it  was 
ceded  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht. 
The  Austrians  bombarded  it  from  September 
29  till  October  6,  1792,  but  the  garrison,  ad- 
mirably supported  by  the  bravery  of  the  in- 
habitants, compelled  them  to  raise  the  siege. 

Lissa.  A  town  of  Prussian  Poland,  near 
the  borders  of  Silesia.  This  place  was  laid 
in  ruins  by  the  Russian  army  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1707. 

Lissa.  A  mountainous  island  of  Austria, 
in  the  Gulf  of  Venice,  near  the  coast  of  Dal- 
matia,  held  by  the  British  from  1810  to  1815. 
Near  here  the  Italian  fleet,  commanded  by 
Persano,  was  defeated  with  severe  loss  by 
the  Austrian  fleet,  commanded  by  Tegethoff, 
July  20,  1866. 

List.  A  roll  or  catalogue ;  as,  the  army 
list,  the  pay  list,  etc. 

List.  A  line  inclosing  or  forming  the  ex- 
tremity of  a  piece  of  ground,  or  field  of  com- 
bat; hence,  in  the  plural  (lists),  the  ground 
or  field  inclosed  for  a  race  or  combat.  To 
enter  the  lists,  to  accept  a  challenge,  or  en- 
gage in  a  contest. 

List.  To  engage  in  the  public  service  by 
enrolling  one's  name,  as  soldiers ;  to  inclose 
for  combat ;   as,  to  list  a  field. 

Litana  Silva  (now  Sllva  di  Luge).  A 
large  forest  on  the  Apennines,  in  Cisalpine 
Gaul,  southeast  of  Mutina,  in  which  the 
Romans  were  defeated  by  the  Gauls,  216  B.C. 

Litter  (Lat.  lectica,  from  lectus,  "bed"). 
According  to  Rees's  Cyclopaedia,  a  kind  of 
vehicle  borne  upon  shafts,  anciently  esteemed 
the  most  easy  and  genteel  way  of  carriage. 
It  was  much  in  use  among  the  Romans, 
among  whom  it  was  borne  by  slaves  kept  for 
that  purpose,  as  it  still  continues  to  be  in  the 
East,  where  it  is  called  a  palanquin.  The 
invention  of  litters,  according  to  Cicero,  was 
owing  to  the  kings  of  Bithynia.    In  the  time 


LITTLE 


285 


LOADING 


of  Tiberius  they  hud  become  very  frequent 
at  Komo,  as  appears  from  iScnoca.  Uorse- 
litters  were  much  used  in  Europe  prior  to 
the  introduction  of  coaches.  In  tiic  military 
service  the  litter  is  a  species  of  hurdle  bed, 
on  wliicli  the  wounded  are  sometimes  carried 
from  the  liekl  of  buttle.  What  is  known  as 
the  hand-litter  or  stretcher  is  used  to  carry 
men  from  where  they  fall  in  battle  to  tield 
hospitals.  The  hand-litter  or  stretcher  is 
jjenerally  constructed  with  canvas  about  tU 
feet  long  by  3  feet  wide,  the  sides  securely 
fastened  to  two  hard-wood  poles  about  8  feet 
in  lenijth  ;  the  two  cross-pieces  should  be 
constructed  so  tliat  the  litter  can  be  rolled 
up.  Small  outlyin<:f  bodies  of  troops,  es- 
pecially detachments  of  cavalry,  are  not  al- 
ways provided  with  them ;  for  these  the 
hand-litter,  made  with  guns  and  blankets, 
has  been  extemporized  ;  fur  tliis  purpose  the 
edges  of  the  blanket  are  rolled  over  the  guns, 
^nd  tied  lirmly  with  twine,  and  two  stout 
sticks  are  also  tied  across  at  the  head  and 
foot,  serving  as  handles  for  tlie  bearers. 
This  being  laid  on  the  ground,  the  wounded 
man  is  placed  upon  it,  with  his  knapsack 
under  his  head.  The  Indian  litter  is  made 
by  taking  two  stout  saplings,  and  attaching 
to  them  three  cross-pieces,  about  2A  or  3  feet 
apart,  by  cords  and  notches ;  the  sick  or 
wounded  man  being  placed  on  his  blanket, 
this  frame-work  is  j)laced  over  him,  and  the 
blanket  knotted  to  it.  By  three  bent  twigs 
and  an  additional  blanket,  a  kind  of  top  can 
be  made  to  this  in  case  of  a  storm.  Several 
kinds  of  horse  or  mule  litters  for  frontier 
service  have  been  invented,  but  none  seem 
80  well  adapted  for  all  purposes  as  the  one 
invented  by  Surgeon  J.  C.  Baily,  U.S.A. 
Ambulance  litters  are  so  constructed  as  to 
be  drawn  from  the  ambulance  and  taken  to 
the  wounded  man,  who  is  by  it  conveyed  to 
the  vehicle.  It  is  then  slid  into  place  on 
rollers,  and  steadied  by  loops  and  guys. 

Little  Fortification.  The  lirst  division 
of  the  first  system  of  Vauban,  and  is  so  called 
when  the  e-xterior  side  of  a  fortification  does 
not  exceed  350  yards.  It  is  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  citadels,  small  forts,  horn-  and 
crown-works. 

Living  Force.  Vis  viva.  That  force  of 
a  body  in  motion  which  determines  the  work 
of  which  it  is  capable.  Living  force  is 
measured  by  the  product  of  the  mass  into 
the  sqiuire  of  the  velocity. 

Livonia.  A  Kussian  province  on  the 
Baltic  Sea,  first  visited  by  some  Bremen 
merchants  about  1158.  It  has  belonged 
successively  to  Denmark,  Sweden,  Poland, 
and  Russia.  It  was  finally  ceded  to  Peter 
the  Great  in  1721. 

Liziere.  The  bermc  of  a  parapet.  See 
Bkkmk. 

Llandeweyer.  In  Caermarthenshire, 
Wales.  Here  Llewellyn,  prince  of  "Wales, 
baving  descended  into  the  plains,  was  sur- 
prised, defeated,  and  slain  by  the  lords- 
marchers,  December  11,  1282.  "  This  disas- 
ter led  to  the  subjugation  of  Wales  in  1283. 


Llerena.  An  ancient  town  of  Spain,  in 
the  province  of  Estremadura,  59  miles  north 
from  Seville.  Near  this  place,  the  English 
under  Combermere  defeated  the  French 
under  Drouet  in  1812. 

Load.  The  charge  of  a  fire-arm  ;  as,  a 
load  of  powder. 

Load.  To  place  a  charge  in  ;  to  charge, 
as  a  gun,  with  powder,  or  with  powder  and 
shot,  or  ball. 

Load.  A  word  of  command  given  when 
men  are  to  charge  their  guns  or  rifles. 

Loading.  TJie  process  of  loading  field- 
shells  is  as  follows  :  They  are  set  up  on  their 
sabots,  the  charges  measured  out  in  the 
proper  powder-measure,  and  poured  in 
through  a  copper  funnel.  The  fu/.e- plugs 
are  then  driven  in  with  a  mallet,  allowing 
the  tops  to  project  about  0.1  inch,  care  being 
taken  not  to  split  them.  The  holes  in  the 
plugs  are  then  carefully  reamed  out,  and 
stopped  with  tow  wads,  which  are  pressed 
in  firmly  with  a  round  stick. 

Process  of  loading  spherical  case-shot  : 
The  shot  having  been  cleaned,  the  balls  are 
put  in.  A  stick  with  a  less  diameter  than 
the  fuze-hole,  and  having  a  groove  on  each 
side  of  it,  is  inserted  and  pushed  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cavity  by  working  the  balls 
aside.  The  shot  is  then  placed  in  a  sand- 
bath  or  oven,  and  brought  to  a  proper  tem- 
perature to  receive  the  sulphur,  which,  in  a 
melted  state,  is  poured  in  to  fill  up  the  in- 
terstices between  the  balls ;  the  shot  is 
allowed  to  cool  and  the  sulphur  to  harden, 
when  the  stick  is  withdrawn,  and  the  sul- 
phur adhering  to  the  sides  of  the  eye  and 
the  surface  of  the  shot  is  removed.  If  a 
fuze-plug  and  paper  fuze  are  to  be  used^  the 
charge  is  poured  in,  and  the  plug  inserted 
exactly  as  in  case  of  a  shell ;  but,  if  the 
Bormann-fuze  is  to  be  used,  the  charge  is 
inserted,  and  the  stopper  and  fuze  screwed 
into  their  places,  care  being  taken  before 
placing  the  fuze  in  position  to  puncture  the 
covering  of  the  magazine,  so  that  the  fire 
can  communicate  with  the  charge.  Spheri- 
cal-case are  now  usually  loaded  by  putting 
in  the  bullets  and  pouring  melted  sulphur 
or  rosin  in  until  the  case  is  full.  After  the 
sulphur  has  cooled,  the  space  for  the  powder 
is  bored  out  by  a  cutter,  which  removes 
both  the  sulphur  and  portions  of  the  bullets 
from  the  space.  This  is  a  quicker  method, 
and  gives  a  more  compact  projectile.  Case- 
shot  for  rifle  guns  are  tilled  in  a  similar 
manner.  The  object  of  the  sulphur  or  ri)sin 
is  to  solidify  the  mass  of  bullets,  and  pre- 
venting them  from  striking  by  their  inertia 
against  the  sides  of  the  case,  and  cracking 
it,  when  the  piece  is  fired.  Coal-dust  is 
sometimes  used  instead  of  sulphur  or  rosin. 
Kound,  leaden  balls,  seventeen  to  the  pound, 
are  used. 

Process  of  filling  tnorfar-shcUs  :  Having 
been  inspected  to  see  that  they  are  clean, 
dry,  and  in  good  order,  place  them  on  a 
block  made  for  the  purpose,  or  on  rings  of 
rope,  or  in  indentations  in  the  floor  of  tho 


LOADING-BAR 


286 


LOCRI 


magazine,  or  on  the  ground  with  the  fuze- 
holes  up.  The  charge  measured  out  in  a 
powder-measure  is  poured  in  through  a  fun- 
nel, and  any  incendiary  composition,  such 
as  pieces  of  port-fire,  rock-fire,  etc.,  is  in- 
serted. In  the  mean  time  the  fuze  is  cut  to 
the  proper  length  according  to  the  range,  by 
resting  it  in  a  groove  made  in  the  block,  or 
inserting  it  in  a  hole  made  in  a  block  or  in 
a  post,  and  sawing  it  across  with  the  fuze- 
saw  ;  or  the  fuze  may  be  bored  through 
with  a  gimlet  perpendicularly  to  the  axis  at 
the  proper  point.  The  fuze  is  then  tried  in 
the  fuze-hole,  and  should  enter  three-fourths 
of  its  length.  If  it  does  not,  it  may  be  re- 
duced by  rasping.  The  head  of  it  is  cov- 
ered with  tow  to  prevent  the  breaking  of 
the  composition,  the  fuze-setter  placed  on, 
and  the  fuze  driven  with  the  mallet  until 
the  head  projects  not  more  than  0.2  inch  to 
0.4  inch  above  the  surface  of  the  shell. 
These  shells  are  generally  filled  and  the 
fuzes  driven  in  the  battery  magazines,  as 
they  are  required.  Shells  for  heavy  guns 
are  loaded  in  the  same  way  as  mortar-shells  ; 
but  as  paper  fuzes  inserted  in  wooden  or 
bronze  fuze-plugs  are  used  instead  of  wooden 
fuzes,  the  plug  only  is  driven  into  its  place, 
and  stopped  with  tow  after  the  bursting 
charge  has  been  poured  through  it  into  the 
shell. 

Loading-bar.  A  bar  used  to  carry  shot. 
It  is  passed  through  the  ring  of  the  shell- 
hooks  ;  also  called  carryhiff-bar. 

Loading-tongs.  A  pair  of  tongs  used 
with  siege  howitzers  to  set  the  shell  home. 

Loano.  A  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province 
of  Genoa,  situated  on  the  Gulf  of  Genoa. 
Herekthe  Austrians  and  Sardinians  were  de- 
feated by  the  French,  under  Massena,  No- 
vember 23,  1795. 

Lobau.  An  island  of  Lower  Austria, 
in  the  Danube,  5  miles  east-southeast  of 
Vienna.  Here  the  French,  in  1809,  re- 
mained intrenched  for  six  weeks,  between 
the  battles  of  Gross-Aspern  and  Wagram. 

Lobbes.  A  town  of  Belgium,  10  miles 
southwest  from  Charleroi,  on  the  Sambre. 
This  was  the  scene  of  an  engagement  be- 
tween the  Austrian  and  French  troops  in 
1794. 

Local  Rank,  or  Temporary  Rank.  An 
ofiScer  who  receives  increased  rank,  for  a 
limited  period  or  during  the  performance  of 
some  specific  duty,  is  said  to  have  local  rank. 
Also  sometimes  applied  to  the  rank  held  by 
an  oflicer  who  is  assigned  to  duty  by  his 
brevet  rank  to  a  locality  fixed  by  geograph- 
ical limits,  such  as  a  military  department  or 
district.     See  Bkevet  Rank. 

Lochaber-axe.  A  formidable  weapon  of 
war,  consisting  of  a  ^ole  bearing  an  axe  at 
its  upper  end,  formerly  used  by  the  Scotch 
Highlanders. 

Lochage.  In  Greek  antiquity,  an  officer 
who  commanded  a  cohort. 

Lochleven  Castle.  In  Scotland,  built  on 
an  isle  in  Loch  Leven,  it  is  said  by  the  Picts. 
It  was  besieged  by  the  English  in  1301  and 


in  1834.  The  Earl  of  Northumberland  was 
confined  in  it,  1569.  It  was  the  place  of 
Queen  Mary's  imprisonment  in  1G67. 

Lock.  That  part  of  a  fire-arm  by  which 
fire  is  produced  for  the  discharge  of  a  piece. 
The  first  form  of  the  apparatus  was  the 
match-lock,  which  consisted  of  a  lever  hold- 
ing a  lighted  match,  which  by  a  simple 
mechanism  was  brought  in  contact  with  the 
priming.  This  was  superseded  by  the  wheel- 
lock,  invented  in  Nuremburg,  or  Italy,  ac- 
cording to  different  authorities,  which  made 
its  appearance  early  in  the  16th  century. 
This  consisted  of  a  wheel  wound  up  against 
a  spring  and  released  by  a  trigger.  In  its 
revolution  it  evolved  sparks  by  friction 
against  an  alloy  of  iron  and  antimony, 
which  fell  upon  and  ignited  the  priming. 
This  was  replaced  about  1680  by  the  flint- 
lock, consisting  of  a  hammer,  or  cock,  hold- 
ing a  flint,  which  in  its  descent  struck  a 
steel  plate.  This  device  gave  way  in  its  turn, ' 
about  1840,  to  the  percufisioti-lock,  which,  in 
one  or  another  of  its  many  forms,  promises 
to  endure  indefinitely.  The  terms  match- 
lock, flintlock,  flrelock,  etc.,  have  also  been 
used  to  designate  the  weapon  itself. 

Lock.  In  fencing,  to  seize,  as  the  sword- 
arm  of  an  antagonist,  by  turning  the  left 
arm  around  it,  in  order  to  disarm  him. 

Lock-chain  Bridles.  See  Ordnance, 
Construction  of,  The  Caisson. 

Lock-chain  Hooks.  See  Ordnance, 
Construction  of.  The  Caisson. 

Lock-chains.  Are  chains  used  to  lock  the 
wheels  of  field-  and  siege-carriages,  or  to 
prevent  them  from  turning.  For  siege- 
carriages  the  chain  has  a  shoe  at  the  end, 
which  goes  under  the  wheel  and  lifts  it  from 
the  ground.  In  field-carriages  the  chain  is 
passed  around  one  of  the  felloes  and  secured 
to  itself  by  a  key.  In  both  carriages  the 
chain  is  secured  to  the  stock  by  an  assem- 
bling-bolt. 

Lock-chains.  See  Ordnance,  Con- 
struction OF,  The  Caisson. 

Locket.     Tlie  chape  of  a  sword-scabbard. 

Locking-plates.  Are  thin,  flat  pieces  of 
iron  on  the  sides  of  a  field-carriage,  where 
the  wheels  touch  it  in  turning,  to  prevent 
the  wearing  of  the  wood  in  tho.se  places. 
These  plates  are  commonly  called  wheel- 
guard  plates. 

Lock-plate.  The  plate  in  a  small-arm 
which  covers  the  lock  and  to  which  the 
mechanism  is  attached. 

Lockspit.  In  field  fortification,  a  small 
cut  or  trench  made  with  a  spade,  about  a  foot 
wide,  to  mark  out  the  first  lines  of  a  work. 

Lock-step.  A  mode  of  marching  by  a 
body  of  men  going  one  after  another  as 
closely  as  possible,  in  which  the  leg  of  each 
moves  at  the  same  time  with  and  closely 
follows  the  corresponding  leg  of  the  person 
directly  before  him. 

Locri,  or  Locri  Epizephyrii  (now  Motta 
di  Burzano).  A  town  of  the  Greek  Locrians 
in  Italy,  on  the  southeast  coast  of  the  Brut- 
tian  peninsula.     An  important  event  in  its     i 


LODGE 


287 


LOMBARDY 


history  is  the  battle  at  the  river  Satjras,  in 
which  10,000  Locrians  and  a  few  Khegian 
auxiliaries  dcfVated,  with  great  carnage,  an 
army  of  180,000  Crotoniats.  They  were 
allies  of  the  Koinans  against  Pyrrhus  ;  but 
after  the  battle  of  Canna?,  210  n.c.,  revolted 
to  the  Carthaginians,  and  did  not  resume 
the  yoke  of  Rome  until  205  u.c.  From  this 
period  Locri  seems  to  have,  gradually  de- 
clined in  importance. 

Lodge  Arms.  An  old  word  of  command, 
which  was  used  on  guards  and  pickets  for 
the  men  t"  jilace  their  arms  in  front  of  tiie 
guard-house  or  quarter-guard. 

Lodge,  Indian.     See  Wigwam. 

Lodge-pole.  Is  a  pole  used  by  Indians 
in  the  construction  of  their  teepes.  It  is 
generally  of  mountain  pine  or  ash,  about 
30  feet  long  ;  2  to  2A  inches  at  the  butt,  and 
U  inches  at  the  other  extremity.  Lodge- 
jidles  are  also  used  by  tiie  Indians  to  con- 
struct their  travaux,  to  convey  their  wounded, 
camp  e<piipmcnts,  etc.     See  Travois. 

Lodging  Allov\^ance.  In  the  British 
army,  a  money  allowance  given  under  cer- 
tain circumstances  to  officers  and  men  for 
whom  there  is  no  accommodation  in  bar- 
racks to  provide  lodgings  for  themselves. 
Married  sergeants  and  private  soldiers,  who 
are  married  "  with  permission,"  are  entitled 
to  lod'ging-money  at  various  rates  up  to  8 
shillings  a  week,  when  separate  rooms  in 
barracks  cannot  be  spared  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  each  couple. 

Lodgment.  Is  a  work  made  by  the  be- 
siegers in  some  part  of  a  fortification,  after 
the  besieged  have  been  driven  out,  for  the 

fiurpose  of  maintaining  it,  and  to  be  covered 
rom  the  enemy's  fire.  It  also  means  a  foot- 
ing obtained  inside;  of  an  enemy's  works. 

Lodgment.     See  In.iuriks  to  Cannon. 

Lodi.  A  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province 
of  Lombardy,  stands  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Adda,  19  miles  south  of  Milan.  Lodi  is 
celebrated  for  ihe  victory  of  the  French 
under  Bonaparte  over  the  Austrians,  on 
Mav  10,  1790,  when  the  long  and  narrow 
bridge  was  carried  by  the  French  column, 
notwithstanding  a  tremendous  fire  from  the 
Austrian  batteries. 

Logement  (Fr.).  Means  generally  any 
place  occupied  by  military  men,  for  the 
time  being,  whether  they  are  quartered  upon 
the  inhabitants  of  a  town,  or  are  distributed 
in  barracks.  "When  applied  to  soldiers  that 
have  taken  the  field,  it  is  comprehended 
Undt-r  the  several  heads  of  huts,  tents,  etc. 

Logistics.  Is  properly  that  branch  of 
the  military  art  embracing  all  details  for 
moving  and  supplying  armies.  It  includes 
the  operations  of  tlie  ordnance,  quarter- 
master's, subsistence,  medical,  and  pay  de- 
partments. It  also  embraces  the  preparation 
and  regulation  of  magazines  for  opening  a 
campaign,  and  all  orders  of  march  and 
other  orders  from  the  general-in-chief  rela- 
tive to  moving  and  supplying  armies.  Some 
writers  have,  however,  extended  its  signifi- 
cation to  embrace  strategy. 


I  Logrono.  A  town  of  Spain,  the  capital 
I  of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  in  Old 
I  Castile,  situated  on  the  Ebro.  In  1808  and 
j   1823  it  was  occupied  by  the  French,  being 

of  importance  as  a  military  post. 
I       Loigny.    A  village  in  France,  department 
I  of    Loiret,    about    9   miles    from    OrUans. 
I  During  the  Franco-German  war,  the  army 
of  the   Loire  under  Gen.  Chanzy  was  de- 
feated near    here    by    the    Germans    under 
the  (irand  Duke  of  Mecklenburg,  December 
2,  1870. 

Lombard.      A   form   or  size  of  cannon 
(  formerly  in  use. 

I  Lombards  or  Longobards.  A  German 
peoj)leof  the  Suevic  family,  not  very  numer- 
ous, butof  distinguished  valor,  who  piayedan 
important  part  in  the  early  history  of  Europe. 
About  the  4th  century  they  seem  to  have 
begun  to  leave  their  original  seats  (on  the 
Lower  Elbe,  where  the  Romans  seem  to  have 
come  first  in  contact  with  them  about  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era),  and  to  have 
fought  their  way  southward  and  eastward, 
till  they  came  into  close  contact  with  the 
eastern  Roman  empire  on  the  Danube, 
adopted  an  Arian  form  of  Christianity,  and 
after  having  been  some  time  tributary  to 
the  Heruli,  raised  themselves  u|)on  the  ruins 
of  their  power,  and  of  that  of  the  Gepidae, 
shortly  after  the  middle  of  the  0th  century, 
to  the  position  of  masters  of  Pannonia,  and 
became  one  of  the  most  wealthy  and  power- 
ful nations  in  that  part  of  the  world.  Un- 
der their  king  Alboin  they  invaded  and 
conquered  the  north  and  centre  of  Italy 
(568-509),  and  founded  the  kingdom  of 
Lombardy.  The  nobles  ravaged  the  greater 
part  of  Italy  subsequent  to  573,  but  in  584 
they  appointed  Autharis  their  king,  who 
greatly  extended  the  empire,  and  formed  a 
powerful  kingdom.  In  the  autumn  of  773, 
Charlemagne  invaded  Italy  ;  and  in  May  of 
the  following  year  Pavia  was  conquered 
and  the  Lombard  kingdom,  after  an  exist- 
ance  of  200  years,  was  overthrown.  In  770, 
an  insurrection  of  st)me  of  the  Lombard 
nobles  brought  Charlemagne  again  into 
Italy,  and  their  dukedoms  were  broken 
down  into  counties,  and  the  Lombard  sys- 
tem, as  far  as  possible,  supplanted  by  that  of 
the  Franks.  In  803,  a  treaty  between  Charle- 
magne, the  Western,  and  Nicephorus  the 
Eastern  emperor,  confirmed  the  right  of  the 
former  to  the  Lombard  territory. 

Lombardy.  The  name  given  to  that  part 
of  Upper  Italy  which  formed  the  nucleus 
of  the  kingdom  of  the  Lombards  (which 
see).  It  consisted  of  the  whole  of  Italy 
north  of  the  peninsula,  with  the  exceptions 
of  Savoy  and  Venice,  and  after  the  fall  of 
the  Lombard  kingdom,  in  774,  was  incorpo- 
rated in  the  Carlovingian  enifiire.  In  843 
it  was  created  a  separate  kingdom,  but  was 
not  entirely  severed  from  the  Frankish  mon- 
archy till  888.  From  this  time  it  was  ruled 
by  its  own  kings  till  901,  when  it  was  an- 
nexed to  the  German  empire.  Out  of  the 
wrecks  of  the  old  independent  kingdom  now 


LOMOND 


LOOP-HOLED 


arose  a  number  of  independent  duchies,  as 
Friuli,  Mantua,  Susa,  Piedmont,  etc.,  and 
soon  afterwards  the  republics  of  Venice, 
Genoa,  Milan,  and  Pavia,  etc.  The  Lom- 
bard cities  declared  themselves  independent 
towards  the  commencement  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury, and  in  1167  were  joined  by  their  less 
powerful  neighbors  in  the  "first  Lombard 
league,"  for  the  maintenance  of  their  liber- 
ties against  Frederic  Barbarossa,  whom  they 
severely  defeated  in  1176.  In  1225  they  were 
compelled  to  form  the  "second  Lombard 
league"  against  Frederick  II.,  and  with 
similar  success.  After  this,  petty  tyrants 
rose  in  most  of  the  cities,  and  foreign  influ- 
ence quickly  followed.  The  Guelph  and 
Ghibelline  factions  greatly  distracted  Lom- 
bardy  ;  and  from  the  15th  century  to  the 
present  time  it  has  been  contended  for  by 
the  German  and  French  sovereigns.  The 
house  of  Austria  obtained  it  in  1748,  and 
held  it  till  1797,  when  it  was  conquered  by 
the  French,  who  incorporated  it  into  the 
Cisalpine  republic,  and  in  1805  into  the 
kingdom  of  Italy.  On  the  breaking  up  of 
the  French  empire  in  1815,  the  Lombardo- 
Venetian  kingdom  was  established  by  the 
allied  sovereigns  and  given  to  Austria,  who 
had  lost  her  Flemish  possessions.  In  1859 
this  union  was  dissolved  by  the  Italian  war ; 
and  also  by  the  treaty  of  Villa  Franca,  ceded 
to  the  king  of  Sardinia. 

Lomond,  Loch.  The  largest  and  most 
celebrated  of  the  Scottish  lakes,  separating 
the  counties  of  Dumbarton  and  Stirling.  In 
1263  the  Norsemen,  under  Angus,  king  of 
Man,  after  having  ravaged  the  shores  of  the 
adjoining  Loch  Long,  drew  their  boats  over 
the  neck  of  land  which  separates  the  two 
waters  at  Tarbet,  massacred  the  inhabitants, 
and  set  fire  to  the  numerous  villages  they 
found  on  the  shores  of  the  lake.  After  this 
expedition,  the  loch  came  into  the  hands  of 
some  of  the  chief  Highland  clans,  who  long 
carried  on  their  feuds  here. 

Lomza.  A  district  town  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Augustovo,  in  Poland,  on  the  left 
of  the  Narev,  a  tributary  of  the  Vistula. 
It  played  a  prominent  part  in  the  history  of 
Poland,  but  has  never  recovered  from  its 
sufferings  during  the  Swedish  wars. 

Lonato.  A  town  of  Northern  Italy, 
province  of  Brescia;  it  is  surrounded  by 
walls,  and  further  defended  by  a  citadel.  It 
suffered  greatly  during  the  Middle  Ages  by 
pestilence.  Here  Bonaparte  gained  a  victory 
over  the  Austrians  in  1796. 

London.  The  capital  and  chief  city  of 
the  British  empire,  stands  on  both  banks  of 
the  Thames,  about  60  miles  from  the  sea. 
It  appears  first  in  history  under  the  reign  of 
Claudius,  and  it  was  fortified  under  Con- 
stantine  the  Great.  Boadicea,  queen  of  the 
Iceni,  reduced  London  to  ashes,  and  put 
70,000  Komans  and  strangers  to  the  sword 
in  61 ;  it  was  rebuilt  and  walled  in  by  the 
Komans  in  306  ;  pillaged  by  the  Danes  in 
839.     In  1875  its  population  was  3,445,160. 

London,  New.     A  city  of  New  London 


Co.,  Conn.,  situated  42  miles  southeast  from 
Hartford,  on  the  Thames.     This  place  was  ! 

burned  by  the  British  in  1781. 

Londonderry.     The  capital  of  a  county 
of  the  same  name  in  Ireland,  on  the  Foyle. 
This  town  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  has  often 
suffered  from  the  effects  of  war.     It  was  be-         ; 
sieged  by  James  II.,  from  December,  1688,         I 
till  August,  1689,  when  the  siege  was  raised. 

Long  Island.  An  island  about  115  miles 
long,  which  is  separated  from  New  York  by 
the  JEast  River,  a  strait  about  half  a  mile 
wide.  Its  capital  is  Brooklyn  (which  see), 
where  was  fought  in  1776  the  first  pitched 
battle  of  the  Revolutionary  war,  the  result 
being  the  defeat  of  the  Americans.  The 
island  suffered  considerably  at"  the  hands  of 
the  English  during  this  war.  During  the 
civil  war  (1861-65)  Long  Island  took  an  ac- 
tive part  in  aid  of  the  cause  of  the  Union. 

Long  Roll.     See  Roll,  Long. 

Long-bow.  A  bow  of  the  height  of  the 
archer,  formerly  used  in  England  for  war 
and  sport. 

Long-jawed.  The  state  of  a  rope  when 
its  strands  are  straightened  by  being  much 
strained  and  untwisted,  and  from  its  plia- 
bility will  coil  both  ways. 

Longitudinal  Strain.  The  strain  on  a 
cannon  or  tire-arm  which  tends  to  part  it 
with  a  ring  fracture.  See  Ordnance, 
Strains  upon. 

Longwy.  A  strongly  fortified  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  the  Moselle, 
33  miles  northwest  from  Metz.  This  is 
called  the  "iron  gate  of  France,"  and  was 
in  1792  taken  by  the  Prussians,  and  again 
by  the  allies  in  1815. 

Looking-glass  Signaling.  A  method  of 
signaling  invented  and  extensively  used  by 
the  North  American  Indians,  both  on  the 
Plains  and  in  the  regions  west  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  The  reflection  of  the  sun  is 
flashed  from  a  small  piece  of  a  mirror  held 
in  the  hand.  Indians  have  been  known  to 
communicate  over  a  distance  of  several 
miles  by  this  means.  It  is  also  extensively 
used  in  their  drills, — the  chief  often  direct- 
ing the  movements  of  his  warriors  with  the 
greatest  ease  and  certainty  from  a  distant 
point  overlooking  the  field.  This  method  of 
signaling,  modified  by  the  resources  of 
science,  has  been  lately  introduced  into  the 
English  service,  and  used  both  in  India  and 
Southern  Africa.  A  concave  mirror  is  used, 
and  an  artificial  light  replaces  the  sun  when 
he  is  absent.  The  method  has  been  called 
heliography. 

Loop-holed  Galleries.  Are  vaulted  pas- 
sages or  casemates,  usually  placed  behind 
the  counterscarp  revetment,  and  behind  the 
gorges  of  detached  works,  having  holes 
pierced  through  the  walls,  to  enable  the  de- 
fenders to  bring  a  musketry  fire  from  unseen 
positions  upon  the  assailants  in  the  ditch.  ' 
Loop-holes,  however,  are  not  confined  to 
galleries.  In  modern  fortifications,  the  re- 
vetments, both  scarp  and  counterscarp,  are 
very  generally  pierced  for  musketry  fire.  | 


LOOP-nOLES 


289 


LOUISBURG 


Loop-holes.  Apertures  in  a  wall  or  stock- 
ade, through  which  a  fira  of  musketry  may 
be  clirccted  on  the  exterior  ground. 

Loose.  Not  close  or  compact.  "With 
horse  and  chariots  ranked  in  h^ose  array." 

Loosen,  To.  To  open  ranks  or  files  from 
close  order.  To  loosen  is,  in  fact,  to  lose 
that  linn  continuity  of  line  or  perpendicular 
adiierence,  which  constitutes  the  true  basis 
of  military  operations.  The  lock-step  was 
introduced  for  the  purpose  of  counteracting 
the  mischievous  effects  of  loose  marching, 
but  it  jiroduced  a  greater  inconvenience,  and 
has  therefore  been  laid  aside  ;  the  equal  pace 
and  marked  time  correct  both. 

Loot.  An  East  Indian  term  for  plunder 
or  pillage. 

Looties,  or  Lootees.  An  East  Indian 
term  for  a  body  of  irregular  horsemen,  who 
j)lunder  and  lay  waste  the  country,  and 
harass  the  enemy  in  their  march. 

Lootywallow.  An  East  Indian  terra  of 
the  same  import  as  looties. 

Lorarii.  Among  the  Romans,  officers 
whose  business  it  was,  with  whips  and 
scourges,  to  compel  the  gladiators  to  engage. 
The  lorarii  also  punished  slaves  who  dis- 
obeyed their  masters. 

Lorca.  A  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province 
of  Murcia,  on  the  Cornera.  This  town  is 
remarkable  in  history  as  having  been  the 
key  of  Murcia  during  the  Moorish  wars  ; 
being  situated  on  the  frontiers  of  Granada, 
it  was  often  taken  and  retaken.     It  suffered 

freatly  from  military  violence  during  the 
'rench  occupation  in  1810. 
Lord-Lieutenant.  In  Great  Britain  the 
lord-lieutenant  of  a  county  is  a  pernument 
provincial  governor  appointed  by  the  sover- 
eign by  patent  under  the  great  seal,  lie  is 
the  permanent  local  representative  of  the 
crown,  who,  on  the  occasion  of  an  invasion 
or  rebellion,  has  power  to  raise  the  militia, 
form  regiments,  troops,  and  companies,  and 
eive  commissions  to  otiicers.  He  is  also  the 
head  of  the  magistracy,  the  militia,  and  the 
yeomanry;  he  nominates  otRcers  of  militia 
and  volunteers,  and  is  the  chief  executive 
authority. 

Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland.  The  viceroy 
or  deputy  of  the  sovereign,  to  whom  the 
government  of  Ireland  is  committed.  The 
office  has  existed  from  a  remote  period,  the 
appointment  having  been  made  under  differ- 
ent designations.  "  The  lord-lieutenant  is 
ai)pointed  under  the  great  seal  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  bears  the  sword  of  state  as 
the  symbol  of  his  viceregal  office.  He  has 
the  control  of  the  police,  and  may  issue  or- 
ders to  the  gei\eral  comnumding  the  troops 
for  the  supjiort  of  the  civil  authority,  the 

trotection  of  the  public,  the  defense  of  the 
ingdom,  and  the  suppression  of  insurrec- 
tion. He  also  has  the  power  to  confer 
knighthood. 

Loreto,  or  Loretto.  A  fortified  city  of 
Italy,  in  the  province  of  Macerata,  situated 
14  miles  southeast  frt)m  Ancona.  This  place 
was  taken  by  the  French  in  1797. 


Lorica.  A  cuirass,  or  coat  of  mail  worn 
by  the  Koman  soldiers,  was  made  of  various 
materials.  The  ordinary  kind  consisted  of 
a  skin,  or  a  piece  of  strong  linen  covered 
with  small  plates  of  iron,  which  resembled 
both  in  their  shape  and  in  their  manner  of 
overlapping  each  other  the  scales  of  a  ser- 
pent or  fish.  Sometimes  cuirasses  or  hau- 
uerks,  composed  entirely  of  irtm  rings  linked 
together,  were  worn  by  the  K(nnan  hnittaii. 
A  less  fiexible  but  more  impervious  defense 
was  the  cuirass  made  of  hard  leather  or  of 
metal,  and  consisting  of  two  parts  (the  one 
covering  the  breast  and  abdomen,  and  the 
other  the  back),  united  by  hinges  and  leath- 
ern thongs. 

Lorraine  (Ger.  Lothringcn).  A  former 
extensive  province  of  France,  included  in 
the  departments  of  Vosges,  Meurthe,  Moselle, 
and  Meuse.  Under  the  Romans  it  formed 
part  of  the  Belgic  division  of  Gaul,  and  was 
afterwards  united  to  the  empire  of  Charle- 
magne. It  subsequently  became  a  duchy, 
and  passed  into  possession  of  the  dukes  of  the 
house  of  Austria.  In  183G  it  was  ceded  to 
Stanislas,  ex-king  of  Poland,  and  after  his 
death  passed  to  the  crown  of  France,  from 
which  it  was  wrested  by  the  Germans  at  the 
close  of  the  Franco-German  war.  May  10, 
1871. 

Los  Angeles.  A  citj',  the  capital  of  a 
county  of  the  same  name,  in  Southern  Cali- 
fornia, about  3-30  miles  southeast  of  San 
Francisco.  It  was  captured  from  the  Mexi- 
cans by  the  combined  forces  of  Gen.  Kearney 
and  Commodore  Stockton  in  184t). 

Loss.  Killed,  wounded,  and  captured 
persons,  or  captured  property. 

Losses.  In  the  British  army  there  is  a 
regular  provision  made  for  indemnification 
for  losses  by  fire,  by  shipwreck,  in  action 
with  the  enemy,  by  capture  at  sea,  by  de- 
struction or  capture  of  a  public  store-house, 
by  the  destructi(m  of  articles  or  horses,  to 
prevent  their  falling  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy,  etc.  In  the  United  States,  it  would 
seem  just  that  Congress  should  establish 
some  general  rule  regulating  such  matters. 
The  principle  of  settling  all  such  claims  by 
special  legislation  cannot  but  bear  hardly  on 
a  number  of  individuals,  and  also  probably 
in  the  end  imposes  greater  burdens  upon  the 
treasury. 

Loudon.  A  parish  of  Ayrshire,  Scotland, 
4  miles  east  from  Kilmarnock.  In  the  neigh- 
borhood, at  Loudon  Hall,  Bruce,  with  his 
forces,  encountered  the  troops  of  the  Earl  of 
Pembroke  in  1307. 

Loudon-hill.     See  Drumcloo. 

Louis,  i>r  Knights  of  St.  Louis.  The 
name  of  a  military  order  in  France,  insti- 
tuted by  Louis  XlV.  in  1»J93.  Their  collars 
were  of  a  flame  color,  and  pivssed  from  left 
to  right.  The  king  was  always  grand 
master. 

Louisburg.  A  famous  fortress  built  by 
the  French  soon  after  the  peace  of  Utrecht 
(1713)  upon  the  eastern  coast  of  Cape  Breton 
Island.    Since  the  existence  of  so  strong  a 


LOUISIANA 


290 


LUCKNOW 


place  threatened  the  colonial  and  English 
tisheries,  it  was  determined  in  1745  by  the 
Legislature  of  Massachusetts  Bay  (France 
and  Great  Britain  being  then  at  war)  to 
strike  a  blow  at  the  town.  Accordingly,  a 
force  of  colonists  consisting  of  3250  Massa- 
chusetts militia,  aided  by  516  men  from  Con- 
necticut and  304  from  New  Hampshire,  set 
sail  in  100  vessels,  and  landed  near  the  town, 
April  30,  1745.  An  active  but  irregular 
siege  (though  the  men  were  without  tents 
and  the  proper  means  of  conducting  such 
operations)  was  terminated  June  17,  1745, 
by  the  capitulation  of  the  French  under 
Duchambon.  But  the  peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  (1748)  gave  back  all  Cape  Breton 
to  France.  The  town  was  invested  in  1758 
by  Gen.  Amherst  with  14,000  British  troops, 
20  line  ships,  18  frigates  and  other  vessels. 
After  a  tremendous  bombardment,  which 
quite  destroyed  the  town,  and  breached  the 
walls  badlv,  the  garrison  and  French  fleet 
surrendered  July  26,  1758.  The  English 
overthrew  the  fortifications  at  an  expense  of 
$50,000.  The  first  cost  was  one  hundred 
times  that  sum. 

Louisiana.  One  of  the  Southern  or  Gulf 
States  of  the  United  States,  lying  between 
Arkansas  and  Mississippi  on  the  north  and 
east,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  south,  and 
Texas  on  the  west.  The  country  was  vis- 
ited by  La  Salle,  and  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi  discovered  in  1691,  and  though 
Iberville  attempted  to  found  a  colony  in 
1699,  his  efforts  were  not  successful.  The 
country  was  transferred  to  Spain  by  France 
in  1762;  restored  to  France  in  1800;  and 
purchased  by  the  United  States  in  1803. 
That  part  of  the  Territory  now  known  as 
the  State  of  that  name  was  admitted  into 
the  Union  in  1812,  and  was  within  three 
years  afterwards  the  scene  of  the  great  battle 
of  New  Orleans,  fought  January  8,  1815, 
between  the  British  troops  under  Gen.  Pak- 
enham,  and  the  Americans  under  Gen.  Jack- 
son, in  which  the  former  were  defeated  with 
great  loss.  The  State  seceded,  and  was  the 
theatre  of  many  important  events  during 
the  civil  war  (1861-65). 

Loup  des  Anciens  (Fr.).  "Was  an  iron 
instrument,  made  in  the  shape  of  a  tenaille, 
by  means  of  which  they  grappled  the  bat- 
tering-rams, and  broke  them  in  the  middle. 

Louviers.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Eure,  sitjiated  on  the  Eure. 
It  was  sacked  both  by  Edward  III.  and 
Henry  V.  of  England. 

Lover's  VJar.  In  French  history,  a  name 
given  to  a  civil  war  in  the  year  1580,  during 
the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  It  was  so  called 
because  it  arose  from  the  jealousies  and  rival- 
ries of  the  leaders,  who  were  invited  to  meet 
at  the  palace  of  the  queen-mother. 

Loyalist.  A  person  who  adheres  to  his 
sovereign,  or  to  the  constituted  authority ; 
especially  one  who  maintains  his  allegiance 
to  his  prince  or  government,  and  defends  his 
cause  in  times  of  revolt. 

Lozenge.    In  heraldrj',  a  charge  generally 


enumerated  among  the  sub-ordinaries,  in 
the  shape  of  a  rhombus  placed  with  the 
acute  angles  at  top  and  bottom.  The  hori- 
zontal diameter  must  be  at  least  equal  to  the 
sides,  otherwise  it  is  not  a  lozenge,  but  a 
fusil.  The  term  lozengy  is  applied  to  a  field 
divided  by  diagonal  lines  crossing  one  an- 
other at  regular  intervals,  so  as  to  form  a 
diamond  pattern,  the  compartments  being 
of  alternate  tinctures. 

Lubeck.  One  of  the  three  cities  of  the 
German  empire,  situated  on  the  river  Trave, 
about  14  miles  from  the  Baltic.  Lubeck  has 
existed  since  the  11th  century,  and  received 
important  privileges  from  the  German  em- 
perors in  the  12th  century,  which  were  con- 
firmed by  the  Danes,  into  whose  power  it 
fell  in  1201.  It  was  declared  a  free  city  of 
the  empire  in  1226,  and  thereafter  main- 
tained its  independence  against  the  Danes, 
and  joined  the  other  towns  in  the  great  Han- 
seatic  League  (which  see).  With  the  de- 
cline of  the  Hanseatic  League,  it  lost  its  his- 
toric importance,  but  continued  to  flourish 
as  an  independent  city,  till  it  was  taken  and 
plundered  by  the  French,  November  6,  1806. 
In  1810  it  was  incorporated  with  the  French 
empire,  and  in  1813  the  Russians  compelled 
the  French  to  deliver  it  to  its  rightful  own- 
ers ;  but  the  "French  again  occupied  it,  until 
it  was  liberated  by  Sweden.  In  1871  it  was 
annexed  to  the  German  empire. 

Lubny,  or  Lubnu.  A  town  of  European 
Russia,  government  of  Poltava,  or  Pultowa, 
on  the  Sulla.  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  be- 
sieged this  place  for  a  considerable  time,  but 
he  did  not  succeed  in  taking  it. 

Lubricant.  A  greasy  substance  or  mix- 
ture of  substances  placed  on  the  surface  or 
in  the  cannelures  of  bullets  to  lessen  friction 
in  the  bore.  Bayberry  tallow,  beeswax, 
Japan  wax,  stearine,  graphite,  soapstone, 
etc.,  are  some  of  the  substances  used. 

Lucanians.  A  warlike  people  of  South- 
ern Italy  ;  defeated  Alexander  of  Epirus  at 
Pandosia,  332  B.C.  ;  were  subdued  by  the 
Romans,  227  ;  revolted  after  the  battle  of 
Cannae,  216  ;  were  reduced  by  Scipio,  201 ; 
again  revolted,  90 ;  admitted  as  Roman  citi- 
zens in  88. 

Luceria  (now  Lucera).  Sometimes  called 
Nuceria,  a  town  in  Apulia,  on  the  borders  of 
Samnium.  In  the  war  between  Rome  and 
Samnium,  it  was  taken  by  the  Samnites, 
321  B.C.,  and  next  by  the  Romans,  319  ;  but 
having  revolted  to  the  Samnites  in  314,  all 
the  inhabitants  were  massacred  by  the  Ro- 
mans, and  their  place  supplied  by  Roman 
colonists. 

Lucknow  (Hind.  Lahsmanavate).  A  city 
of  British  India,  capital  of  Oude,  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Goomty,  610  miles 
from  Calcutta.  In  1857,  during  the  Indian 
mutiny,  this  place  was  besieged  by  the  rebels,  i 
but  was  bravely  defended  by  the  troops' 
under  Sir  Henry  Lawrence,  and  afterwards' 
by  Gens.  Outram  and  Havelock.  The  long- 
suffering  troops  and  English  residents  were, 
finally  relieved  by  Sir  Colin  Campbell,  who 


LUCON 


291 


LUXEMBURG 


then  effected  one  of  the  most  masterly  re- 
treats on  record  in  the  annuls  of  Indian  war- 
fare. The  British  regained  possession  of  it 
in  18r,8. 

Lucon.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  dcpart- 
niciit  of  Vcndi-e,  situated  on  the  edge  of  a 
Miar>liy  plain.  The  Ki-publicans  siistaiiied 
a  defeat  under  the  walls  of  Lucon  in  1703, 
and  the  insurgent  Vendeans  besieged  the 
place  some  months  afterwards,  but  without 
success. 

Ludlow.  A  municipal  and  Parliamentary 
borough  of  England,  in  the  county  of  Salop, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Corve  and  Temc. 
The  castle,  now  a  magnificent  ruin,  was  at 
one  time  one  of  the  most  important  strong- 
holds against  the  Welsh. 

Lugo.  A  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province 
of  Kavcnna.  It  was  sacked  and  nearly  de- 
stroyed by  the  French  in  179G. 

Lugs.  The  cars  of  a  bombshell,  to  which 
the  hooks  arc  ajiplicd  in  lifting  it. 

Luncarty.  A  village  of  Scotland,  4  miles 
nortii  from  Perth,  where  the  Danes  were 
defeated  in  '.100  by  Kenneth  III. 

Lundy's  Lane,  Battle  of.  Called  also  the 
battle  of  Niagara,  and  of  Hridgewater,  was 
fought  on  the  Canadian  frontier  within  sight 
and  hearing  of  the  Falls,  July  25,  1814.  In 
this  contest  the  American  troops,  numbering 
about  4oOO,  commanded  by  Gen.  Brown, 
succeeded,  after  a  display  of  desperate  valor 
and  perseverance,  in  repulsing  about  mid- 
night a  body  of  7000  British,  and  capturing 
one  of  their  generals,  liiall,  and  7  pieces  of 
cannon.  The  losses  on  both  sides  were 
nearly  equal  (about  8')0  killed,  wounded,  and 
missing).  During  the  night  the  Americans 
fell  back  to  Chi|)|iewa,  being  unable  to  con- 
vey their  trophies  with  them  for  want  of 
means  of  trans})ortation,  and  in  the  morning 
when  they  advanced  to  Bridgewater  Mills 
they  found  the  enemy  again  occupying  the 
battle-ground,  in  pos.se.ssion  of  their  captured 
cannon,  and  having  been  reinforced  too 
strong  to  be  again  dislodged.  The  Ameri- 
cans thus  lost  all  the  substantial  fruits  of 
the  victory. 

Lunge  (a  corruption  of  allonge).  A  pass 
or  thrust  with  a  sword;  a  shove  with  a 
boarding-pike. 

Lunette.  A  field-work  consisting  of  two 
faces  forming  a  salient  angle,  or  one  pro- 
jecting towards  the  enemy,  and  two  Hanks 
parallel,  or  nearly  so,  to  the  capital  or  im- 
aginary line  bisecting  the  salient  angle.  In 
shape  it  is  like  the  gable  end  of  a  house. 
It  IS  intended  for  the  defense  of  avenues, 
farm-hou.ses,  bridges,  and  the  curtains  of 
field-works. 

Lunette.  An  iron  ring  at  the  end  of  the 
trail  of  a  field-piece,  which  is  placed  over 
the  pintle-hook  of  the  limber  in  limbering 
up  the  gun.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the 
bole  through  an  iron  plate  on  the  under  side 
of  the  stock  of  a  siege-piece,  into  which 
the  pintle  of  the  limber  passes  when  the 
piece  is  limbered. 

Lunettons.     A  smaller  sort  of  lunettes. 


Luntville.  A  well-built  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  the  Meurthe.  The 
palace  was  for  many  years  the  residence  of 
Stanislas,  king  of  I'oland.  The  first  treaty 
of  Austria  and  the  French  republic  was 
signed  in  this  town  in  1801. 

Lunge.  In  fencing  and  bayonet  exercise, 
an  extended  thrust. 

Lunt.  The  match-cord  used  for  firing 
cannon. 

Lusitania.  A  district  of  ancient  Ilis- 
pania,  c(msidered  in  its  original  meaning  a.s 
the  country  of  the  Lusitani.  It  now  com- 
prises Portugal  south  of  the  river  Douro, 
and  a  large  number  of  provinces  in  .Spain. 
The  Lusitanians,  especially  those  that  in- 
habited the  mountains,  were  much  addicted 
to  plunder,  were  the  bravest  of  all  the 
Iberians,  and  oflered  most  resistance  to  the 
Komans. 

Lustration  (Lat.  lustratio).  Sacrifices  or 
ceremonies  by  which  the  ancients  purified 
their  cities,  fields,  armies,  or  people,  defiled 
by -any  crime  or  impurity.  There  were  sev- 
eral \vays  of  performing' lustration,  viz.,  by 
fire,  by  sulphur,  by  water,  and  by  air.  The 
Roman  people  underwent  a  lustration  in  the 
Campus  Martins,  after  the  census,  which  was 
taken  every  five  years  (lustnmi),  had  been 
completed.  In  the  armies,  some  chosen 
soldiers,  crowned  with  laurel,  led  the  vic- 
tims— a  cow,  a  sheep,  and  a  bull — thrico 
round  the  army  ranged  in  battle-array  in 
the  field  of  Mars,  to  vvhich  deity  the  victims 
were  subsequently  sacrificed,  after  many  im- 
precations had  been  invoked  upon  the  ene- 
mies of  the  Romans.  The  Gothic  kings 
aboli.shed  these  ceremonies  when  they  be- 
came masters  of  Rome. 

Lutter.  A  town  of  Germany,  23  miles 
southwest  from  Brunswick,  in  the  Hartz 
district.  Christian  IV.,  king  of  Denmark, 
was  defeated  near  this  town  by  Tilly  in 
1626. 

Lutzen.  A  small  town  of  Prussia,  prov- 
ince of  Sa.vony,  famous  for  two  great  battles 
foue;ht  in  its  vicinity.  The  first  took  placo 
on  November  16,  1632,  between  the  Swedi.«h 
army  under  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  the 
Imperialists  under  AVallenstcin  ;  Gustavus 
Adolphus  was  killed,  but  the  victory  was 
sained  bv  the  Swedes.  The  second  great 
,  Wittle  was  fought  on  May  2,  1813,  some- 
I  what  farther  to  the  .south,  at  the  village  of 
j  Groszgorschen.  It  was  the  first  great  con- 
flict o(  the  united  Russian  and  Prus.-ian 
I  armies  with  the  army  of  Napoleon  in  that 
decisive  campaign.  The  allies  gained  at 
first  great  successes  ;  but  the  French  were 
left  in  possession  of  the  field  at  the  close  of 
the  dav. 

Luxemburg.  The  capital  of  the  grand 
duchv  of  Luxemburg,  situated  on  the  Else,  or 
Alzette.  The  Spaniards,  Austrians,  French, 
and  Dutch,  who  successively  held  |x>ssession 
of  the  town,  so  increased  and  strengthened 
its  fortifications  that  in  the  beginning  of  the 
l!)th  century  it  was  considered  to  be,  with 
the  exception  of   GibralUir,   the  strongest 


LYCANIENS 


292 


MACCABEES 


fortress  in  Europe.  In  18G7  it  was  declared 
neutral  ground. 

Lycaniens  {Fy.),  Hungarian  light  in- 
fantry are  so  called. 

Lydda.  An  ancient  town  of  Palestine, 
which  stood  in  the  fertile  plain  of  Sharon, 
ahout  9  miles  from  Joppa.  It  was  rebuilt 
by  Hadrian,  and  its  name  changed  to  Dioso- 
polis^  "  the  city  of  Zeus."  It  was  destroyed 
by  a  Mongol  tribe  in  1271.  The  modern 
village  of  Ludd  occupies  its  site. 

Lyers,  Out-.     See  Out-lyers. 

Lying.  To  be  actually  stationed  or  quar- 
tered in  a  given  place.  In-lying  and  out- 
lying pickets.     See  Picket. 

Lying  Out  of  Quarters.  See  Appendix, 
Articles  of  War,  31. 

Lyman  Gun.   See  Multi-charge  Guns. 

Lyon,  or  Lord  Lyon  King-at-Arms. 
The  chief  heraldic  officer  for  Scotland,  whose 
title  is  derived  from  the  lion  rampant  in  the 
royal  escutcheon.  The  Scottish  king-at- 
arms  has,  unlike  his  brother-kings  of  Eng- 
land, from  an  early  period  exercised  juris- 
diction independently  of  the  constable  and 
marshal,  holding  office  directly  from  the 
sovereign  by  commission  under  the  Great 
Seal.  In  early  times  he  was  occasionally 
designated  the  Lord  Lyon ;    but   the   now 


prevalent  custom  of  so  calling  him  seems  to 
have  arisen  from  the  circumstance  that, 
since  179G,  the  office  has  been  held  by  a 
peer.  According  to  Nesbet,  the  Lyon  has 
precedence  of  all  knights  and  gentlemen 
not  being  officers  of  state,  or  senators  of  the 
College  of  Justice.  Since  the  Union,  he  has 
ranked  next  to  Garter;  Clarencieux  and 
Norroy  follow ;  then  Ulster ;  but  it  has 
sometimes  been  maintained  that  within  Ire- 
land, Ulster  has  place  next  after  Lyon.  The 
Lyon  is  king-at-arms  to  ,the  order  of  the 
Thistle. 

Lyons,  or  Lyon  (anc.  Lugdtmuin).  A 
city  of  Prance,  capital  of  the  department  of 
the  Khone,  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Rhone  and  Saone.  A  Roman  colony  is  said 
to  have  been  established  here  in  43  b.c. 
The  city  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  time 
of  Seneca,  but  was  shortly  after  restored  by 
Nero  to  its  former  splendor.  It  was  plun- 
dered and  again  burnt  by  the  soldiers  of 
Septimius  Severus,  after  the  defeat  of  Albi- 
nus  near  it  in  197  a.d.  In  1793,  the  city 
having  refused  to  submit  to  the  Convention, 
sustained  a  memorable  siege  from  August 
8  to  October  9,  on  which  date  it  was  taken, 
and  sutfered  severely  at  the  hands  of  the 
republicans. 


M. 


McAllister,  Fort.  A  formidable  case- 
mated  earthwork,  with  bombproofs,  mount- 
ing 9  guns,  on  Genesis  Point,  about  6  miles 
above  the  mouth  of  Great  Ogeechee  River, 
Georgia,  which  was  erected  by  the  Confed- 
erates during  the  civil  war.  On  January 
27,  18G3,  it  was  attacked  by  the  ironclad 
"  Montauk,"  under  the  command  of  Capt. 
John  L.  Worden,  three  gunboats,  and  a 
mortar-schooner  ;  but  after  a  bombardment 
of  many  hours'  duration,  they  failed  to  re- 
duce it.  Another  attack  was  made  with 
like  results  on  February  1,  the  "  Montauk" 
again  participating  in  it.  A  third  attack 
was  made  on  March  8,  and  after  a  bombard- 
ment of  eight  hours  by  a  fleet  of  ironclad 
monitors  and  mortar-schooners,  under  the 
command  of  Capt.  Drayton,  they  again 
failed  to  reduce  it.  After  the  naval  attacks 
the  fort  received  additions  in  armament  and 
garrison,  and  in  1864  comprised  three  half- 
bastions  and  two  curtains,  mounted  21  guns, 
several  of  which  were  8-inch  and  10-inch 
pieces,  and  was  garrisoned  by  250  men.  On 
December  13,  18G4,  it  was  taken  by  assault 
by  a  division  of  Gen.  Sherman's  army  under 
Gen.  Hazen,  and  its  entire  garrison  and 
stores  captured.     Communication  by  water 


being  thus  opened,  the  capture  of  Savannah 
followed  on  December  21. 

Macadamized.  A  term  applied  to  roads 
covered  with  broken  stone,— from  McAdam, 
a  Scotch  engineer,  who  first  introduced  this 
method  of  road-making. 

Macana.  The  war-club  of  the  South 
American  Indians. 

Macassar,  or  Mankasser.  The  chief  set- 
tlement of  the  Dutch  in  the  island  of  Celebes, 
and  is  defended  by  Fort  Rotterdam.  In  1810 
it  surrendered  to  "the  British,  but  was  restored 
to  tlie  Dutch  in  1814. 

Maccabees.     A  family  of  patriotic  Jews, 
who  commenced  their  career  during  the  per- 
secutions of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  167  B.C., 
when  Mattathias,  a  priest,  i-esisted  the  tyr- 
anny of  the  governor.     His  son,  Judas  Mac- 
caba3us,  defeated  the  Syrians  in  three  battles, 
166  and  165  B.C.,  but  fell  in  an  ambush,  161 
B.C.     His  brother  Jonathan  made  a  league 
with  the  Romans  and  Lacedaemonians,  and 
after  an  able   administration  was  treacher-  : 
ously  killed  at  Ptolemais  by  Tryphon,  143  i 
B.C.     His  brother  and  successor,  Simon,  was  ; 
also  murdered.     The  history  of  the  Macca- 
bees is  contained  in  five  books  bearing  that 


MACE 


293 


MACHINES 


Mace.  A  strong,  short,  wooden  staff,  with 
a  spiked  metal  ball  for  a  head.  It  was  a  fix- 
vorite  weapon  with  knijijhts,  with  the  cavalry 
iintnediately  succcedinf;  them,  and  at  all 
times  with  fighting  priests,  whom  a  canon  of 
the  church  forbade  to  wield  the  sword.  No 
armor  could  resist  the  force  of  a  well-deliv- 
ered blow  from  the  mace.  The  mace  is 
Tiow  borne  before  magistrates  as  an  ensign 
of  nulhnrity. 

Macedonia.  Anciently  the  name  of  a 
country  lying  north  of  Thcssaly,  which  was 
originally  of  small  extent.  The  history  of 
3Iacedonia  is  involved  in  much  obscurity 
till  about  400  n.c,  when  the  Persians  sub- 
dued it,  so  that  the  Macedonian  king,  Alex- 
ander I.,  was  compelled  to  take  part  with 
Xerxes  in  his  invasion  of  Greece.  It  again 
regained  its  independence  upon  the  retreat 
of  the  Persians  after  the  battle  of  Platiea  in 
479  B.C.  After  a  period  of  civil  wars  Philip 
II.  ascended  the  throne  in  3;j9  u.c,  and  his 
sun  Alexander  III.,  surnamed  Alexander 
the  Great,  brought  half  the  then  known 
world  under  his  empire;  but  after  his  death 
the  Macedonian  empire  was  broken  up,  and, 
at  the  end  of  a  period  of  twenty-two  years 
of  incessant  wars,  formed  into  four  principal 
kingdoms  under  his  greatest  generals.  Ma- 
cedonia itself  fell  to  the  lot  of  Antipater, 
after  whose  death  ensued  another  period  of 
civil  wars  and  contests  for  the  throne.  The 
Macedonians  were  defeated  by  the  Romans 
in  the  great  battle  of  Cynocephalaj,  197  B.C., 
and  their  country  became  subject  to  the  Ko- 
man  power.  After  the  time  of  Constantino 
the  country  was  ravaged  by  Slavic  tribes, 
and  bv  the  7th  century  the  old  semi-Greek 
Macedonians  were  extinct,  and  in  the  latter 
ages  of  the  Byzantine  empire  their  place  was 
supplied  by  colonies  from  Asia,  many  of 
them  of  Turkish  descent. 

Macedonian  Pike,  or  Sarissa.  A  spear 
or  lance  of  great  length  used  in  warfare  by 
the  (irceks. 

Macerata.  A  town  of  Central  Italy,  in 
a  province  (formerly  a  delegation)  of  the 
same  name,  situated  on  an  eminence  between 
the  rivers  Potenza  and  Chienti,  21  miles 
southwest  of  Ancona.  The  place  was  taken 
by  assault  and  sacked  by  the  French,  in 
1799. 

Machete  (Sp.).  A  large,  heavy  knife  re- 
sembling a  broadsword,  often  2  or  3  feet  in 
length,  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  Spanish 
America  as  a  hatchet,  to  cut  their  way 
through  thickets,  and  for  various  other  pur- 
poses. 

Machicolation.  The  act  of  hurling  mis- 
siles or  pouring  various  burning  or  melted 
substances  upon  assailants  through  machi- 
colations. 

Machicolations.  The  apertures  between 
the  corbels  or  brackets  supporting  a  pro- 
jecting parapet;  the  term  is  applied  also  to 
the  parapets.  The  apertures  are  for  the 
purpose  of  allowing  projectiles  to  be  hurled 
at  an  enemy  when  he  approaches  near  the 
wall,  as  in  scaling,  undermining,  etc.     Such 


defenses  are  very  common  in  castellated  ar- 
chitecture, esfjeeially  over  gateways,  towers, 
etc. 

Machicoulis.  The  same  as  machicola- 
tion. 

Machine  Guns.     See  Battery  Guns. 

Machine,  Infernal.  This  term  has  been 
applied  to  various  deadly  contrivances,  for 
instance,  to  the  battery  gun  with  which  the 
attempt  to  assassinate  Louis  Philippe  was 
made,  as  well  as  to  the  devices  used  on  sim- 
ilar historical  occasions ;  also  to  the  fire-ship 
used  b)'  the  English  at  St.  Malo.  This  was 
a  three-decker  charged  with  powder  on  the 
first  deck;  shells,  carcasses,  etc.,  on  the 
second  ;  and  with  barrels  filled  with  com- 
bustibles on  the  third ;  the  gun-deck  was 
covered  with  old  guns  overloaded.  It  was 
intended  to  destroy  ships,  bridges,  etc. 

Machines,  Artillery.     See  Implemext.s. 

Machines  of  War,  Ancient.  Under  this 
head  is  comprehended  every  kind  of  machine 
or  engine  made  use  of  before  the  invention 
of  gunpowder,  for  overthrowing,  destroy- 
ing, and  burning  the  defenses  of  an  enemy. 
Tlioy  were  of  three  kinds, — the  first  for  pro- 
jecting arrows,  darts,  stones,  javelins,  and 
fire-arrows;  the  second  for  battering  and 
breaching  walls,  etc.  ;  and  the  third  for  cov- 
ering the  troops  thus  engaged.  Tlic}-  are 
as  follows  : 

Mitscule,  arbalest,  ballLiia,  bcl/ry,  belier. 
(Sec  appropriate  headings.) 

Bricole,  machine  for  projecting  quarrels 
or  darts. 

Cnrreau,  caiapiiUa  (which  see). 

Chat,  or  cat,  a  covered  shed,  occasionally 
fixed  on  wheels,  for  protecting  soldiers  em- 
ployed in  tilling  up  the  ditch,  preparing  the 
way  for  the  hclepole,  or  wooden  tower,  or 
for  mining  the  wall. 

Chat  ec/iine,  prickly  cat,  beam  bristling 
with  oaken  teeth,  for  the  defense  of  a  town, 
by  being  let  down  on  the  besiegers. 

'  Curbrau,  long  pole  armed  with  a  strong 
iron  harpoon  or  scythe  at  one  end,  sus- 
pended in  a  frame  placed  on  a  cart ;  by 
manoeuvring  the  other  end  they  tore  away 
the  machines  with  which  the  besieged  en- 
deavored to  seize  the  head  of  the  battering- 
ram. 

Corbeau  a  griffe,  pole  with  strong  nippers 
or  pincers,  with  which  any  object  was  seized 
and  lifted  up,  and  afterwards  broken,  if 
possible. 

Couillard,  elide,  jaudide,  machine  for 
throwing  stones. 

Cranequin,  large  stirruped  cross-bow  or 
latch.     (See  Akbalest.) 

Esprinrjal,  fnlarique,  harpe  (which  see). 

Frondibale,  long  beam  moving  in  a  ver- 
tical plane  between  two  uprights  on  an  axle 
(not  in  the  middle) ;  the  longer  arm  was 
provided  with  a  bag  or  case  containing 
stones,  and  sometimes  a  sling;  the  other 
was  heavily  loaded,  the  beam  being  placed 
horizontally,  and  suddenly  disengaged  ;  the 
weight  on  "the  shorter  limb  forceil  up  the 
other,  and  projected  the  stones  forward. 


MACIEJOVICE 


294 


MAGAZINE 


Helepole.     (See  Helepolls.) 

Hei-se.     (See  Herse.) 

Hourdcis,  hurdles  emploj'ed  by  the  he- 
sieged  to  protect  their  walls  from  the  ma- 
chines of  the  enemy. 

Lyonnois,  machine  for  defending  a  breach, 
with  a  head  like  a  treble  Jleur-de-lis  on 
wheels. 

Mangona,  machine  similar  to  the  ballista, 
generic  term  signifying  all  kinds  of  ma- 
chines. 

Mangonel,  diminutive  of  the  above,  ap- 
plied to  small  machines. 

For  the  following  machines  of  war,  see 
appropriate  headings:   Mantelet,  Manu- 

BALLISTE,      MaTAFUNDA,      MaTE-GRIFFON, 

MucHETT.E,  Onagre,  Pluteus,  Polibole, 

KiBAUDEQUIN,  SaMBUQUE,    ScORPION,    Ta- 
RIERE,    TeSTUDE,     ToLENON,     TrEBUCHET, 

Trepied,  Vione,  Vireton. 

Maciejovice.  Near  Warsaw,  Poland. 
Here  the  Poles  were  totally  defeated,  and 
their  general,  Kosciusko,  taken  prisoner, 
October  10,  1794,  after  a  murderous  action. 
Kosciusko  strenuously  endeavored  to  pre- 
vent the  junction  of  the  Kussian  and  the 
Austrian  armies. 

Mackay  Gun.  This  gun  is  made  of 
wrought  iron,  and  distinguished  from  the 
"VVhitworth  and  Lancaster  guns  by  the  fol- 
lowing characteristics  :  The  Whitworth  has 
a  hexagonal  bore  in  a  tube  of  homogeneous 
iron,  strengthened  with  hoops  forced  on  by 
hydraulic  pressure;  the  Lancaster  is  without 
grooves,  but  the  bore  is  oval ;  the  Mackay 
has  numerous  grooves,  but  the  projectile 
docs  not,  as  in  other  guns,  fit  into  them,  its 
rotation  being  imparted  by  the  rush  of  gases 
through  the  spiral  grooves  around  it.  In 
every  case  the  groove  or  oval  takes  one  turn, 
or-portion  of  a  turn,  within  the  gun. 

Mackinaw,  or  Mackinac,  Formerly 
called  Michilimackinac,  "  the  great  turtle." 
A  town  and  fort  on  an  island  of  the  same 
name  in  Lake  Huron,  about  320  miles  by 
water  north-northwest  of  Detroit,  Mich.  It 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English  on  the 
conquest  of  Canada  from  the  French ;  but 
the  Indians  in  its  neighborhood  remained 
hostile  to  their  new  masters.  The  fort  was 
captured  by  a  ruse,  and  the  inhabitants  mas- 
sacred by  the  Chippewas  under  Pontiac, 
June  4,  1763.  It  was  again  garrisoned  by 
the  British  in  the  following  year.  The 
island  came  into  possession  of  the  United 
States  in  1796,  and  was  captured  by  the 
British  and  Indians  July  17,  1812.  The 
Americans  attempted  its  recapture,  August 
14,  1814,  but  without  success. 

Macrones.  A  powerful  and  warlike  Cau- 
casian people  on  the  northeastern  shore  of 
the  Pontus  Euxinus. 

Madagascar.  An  island  of  the  Indian 
Ocean,  situated  at  some  distance  from  the 
east  coast  of  Africa,  being  separated  from 
that  continent  by  the  channel  of  Mozam- 
bique. The  French  formed  several  settle- 
ments in  different  parts  of  the  island  in 
1GG5,  but  they  were  repeatedly  driven  out 


by  the  natives.  The  English  were  also 
driven  out  of  the  island  in  1836,  and  the  old 
sj^stem  of  Fetichism  was  restored.  Mada- 
gascar is  at  present  governed  by  Kanavalona, 
a  Christian. 

Made.  A  professional  term  for  having 
obtained  a  commission,  or  being  promoted. 

Madras.  Called  by  the  natives  Chenna- 
patain,  a  maritime  city  and  fortress  of  Brit- 
ish India,  and  capital  of  the  presidency  of 
the  same  name.  It  was  taken  by  the  French 
in  1744  ;  restored  to  the  English  at  the  peace 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1749,  and  was  vainly 
besieged  by  the  French  under  Lally,  Decem- 
ber, 1758-59.  It  is  now  considered  one  of 
the  strongest  fortresses  in  India. 

Madrid.  The  capital  of  Spain,  in  New 
Castile,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Man- 
zanares.  It  is  mentioned  in  history  as  Maje- 
rit,  a  Moorish  castle.  Madrid  was  sacked 
by  the  Moors  in  1109;  retaken  and  fortified 
by  Henry  III.  about  1400;  taken  by  Lord 
Galway  in  1706 ;  and  by  the  French  in 
March,  1808.  The  citizens  of  Madrid  at- 
tempted to  expel  the  French,  and  were  de- 
feated with  much  slaughter,  May  2,  1808: 
the  French  were  compelled  to  retire,  but  the 
place  was  retaken  by  them  December  2, 
1808,  and  retained  until  Wellington  and  his 
army  entered  it,  August  12,  1812. 

Madriers.  Are  long  planks  of  broad 
wood,  used  for  supporting  the  earth  in 
mining,  carrying  on  a  sap,  making  coffers, 
caponiers,  galleries,  and  for  various  other 
purposes  at  a  siege  ;  also  to  cover  the  mouth 
of  petards  after  they  are  loaded,  and  are 
fixed  with  the  petards  to  the  gates  or  other 
places  designed  to  be  forced  open.  When 
the  planks  are  not  strong  enough  they  are 
doubled  with  plates  of  iron. 

Madura.  An  island  of  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago, situated  off  the  northeast  coast  of 
the  island  of  Java,  from  which  it  is  sepa- 
rated by  a  narrow  channel.  The  Dutch  in- 
vaded this  island  about  the  year  1747,  and 
made  slaves  of  a  great  number  of  the  inhab- 
itants. 

Maestricht.  A  town  of  Holland,  and 
capital  of  the  province  of  Limburg,  on  the 
Maas,  110  miles  southeast  from  Amsterdam. 
This  town  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1794; 
and  from  1795  till  1814  it  was  the  capital 
of  the  French  department  of  the  Lower 
Meuse. 

Magazine.      A   word   derived   from   the 
Arabic,  makhzan,  "  store-house,"  means  any 
place  where  stores  are  kept ;  but  as  a  mili- 
tary  expression,  it   always    means  a   store-  ' 
house   for   powder,  although   arms   may  at  ' 
times  be  kept  in  it.     In  military  structures  , 
the   magazines    must    be   bomb-proof,    and  ; 
therefore  necessitate  very  thick  walls  ;  they 
must  be  quite  free  from  damp,  and  should 
admit  sufficient  daylight  to  render  the  use  of 
lanterns  within  generally  unnecessary.     The 
entrance  is  protected  by  shot-proof  traverses, 
lest  an  opening  should"  be  forced  by  ricochet 
shots. 

Magazine    Guns.       Are    breech-loading 


MAGDALA 


295 


MAHKATTAS 


sninll-arms  having  a  magazine  capable  of 
hoidingseveral  cartridges  which  may  be  Jired 
in  qiiici<  succession, — the  empty  shell  being 
ejected  and  another  cartridge  conveyed  into 
the  breech  from  the  magazine  by  working 
the  mechanism  of  the  piece.  Among  Amer- 
ican magazine  guns,  the  Spencer  was  one 
of  the  first  that  proved  successful,  and  was 
extensively  used  during  the  war  of  the  Re- 
bellion, I8'n-G5.  The  magazine  was  a  tube 
in  the  stock.  The  Spencer  is  no  longer  made. 
The  Henry  was  a  contemporary,  and  used  a 
tube  under  the  barrel, — this  gun  as  now  im- 
proved is  known  as  the  Winchester,  and  is 
sold  in  every  part  of  the  globe.  The  W<ir<l- 
liiirton  and  Hotchkiss  have  txibes,  the  first 
under  the  barrel,  the  second  in  the  stock  like 
the  Spencer ;  they  arc  both  bolt  guns  as  to 
breech  mechanism.  The  Lee  uses  as  a  maga- 
zine a  kind  of  pocket  between  the  stock  and 
barrel.  This  is  readily  detached.  A  gun 
carrying  a  great  number  of  cartridges  is  the 
Kvans,  which  has  a  spiral  cartridge-carrier 
in  the  stock.  Other  guns,  the  Meigs  and 
Cttllen,  have  been  made  carrying  a  still 
greater  number,  as  many  as  forty  or  fifty,  but 
these  systems  have  not  met  with  any  con- 
siderable success.     See  Small-akms. 

Magdala.  A  strong  mountain  fortress  in 
Abyssinia,  which  King  Theodore  held 
against  the  expedition  sent  out  in  1867  by 
the  British  government  for  the  rescue  of 
their  subjects.  In  April,  18G7,  this  strong- 
hold was  taken  by  Gen.  Napier,  for  which 
he  was    created   I3aron    of    Magdala.     See 

ABY.SSINIA. 

Magdeburg.  A  fortified  city  of  Prussia, 
in  the  province  of  Sa.xony,  on  the  Elbe.  It 
was  founded  by  Otto  the  Great  in  the  10th 
century,  and  is  considered  one  of  the  strong- 
est fortresses  in  Germany.  It  suttered  great!}' 
during  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  when  it  was 
sacked,  and  its  inhabitants  massacred,  under 
the  direction  of  Tilly.  In  180G  it  was  taken 
hy  the  French,  and  anne.ved  by  them  to  the 
kingdom  of  Westphalia  ;  but  finally  restored 
to  Prussia  in  consequence  of  the  downfall  of 
Nnp-.leon  in  1814. 

Magdolum  (in  the  Old  Testament  3/(>^o0. 
A  city  of  Lower  P^gypt,  near  the  nortlieast- 
ern  frontier,  about  12  miles  southwest  of 
Pelusium,  where  Pharaoh  Necho  defeated 
the  Syrians,  according  to  Herodotus. 

Magenta.  A  tow nCf  Italy,  in  Lombardy, 
15  miles  west  from  .Milan.  "  A  great  battle 
was  fought  here  in  June,  ISoO,  between  the 
French  and  Austrians,  in  which  the  latter 
were  defeated.  The  French  were  commanded 
by  Gen.  MacMahon,  who  received  the  title 
of  Duke  of  .Magenta. 

Magetobria  (now  Moigte  de  Broie,  on  the 
Shdne).  A  town  on  the  western  frontiers  of 
theScquani,  near  which  the  Gauls  were  de- 
feated by  the  Germans  shortly  before  Cajsar's 
arrival  in  (Jaul. 

Magistral  Line.  The  tracing  or  guiding 
line  in  fortilication,— the  first  laid  down  on 
the  \york  or  on  paper, — and  from  which  the 
poeilion  of  all  the  other  works  is  determined. 


In  field  fortification  the  crest  line  of  the 
parapet  is  the  tnagistral ;  in  permanent  for- 
tifi<ation  the  cordon  or  coping  of  the  escarp 
wail  is  the  guide. 

Magna  Charta.  The  great  charter,  so 
called,  obtained  by  the  English  barons  from 
King  John  in  1215,  at  Kunny  Meade.  This 
name  is  also  given  to  the  charter  which  was 
granted  to  the  peopleof  England  in  the  ninth 
year  of  Henry  III.,  and  confirmed  by  Ed- 
ward I. 

Magnate.  A  person  of  rank  or  dignity  ; 
a  gruTidee  or  nobleman  ;  one  of  influence  or 
distinction  in  any  sphere. 

Magnesia  (now  Manissn).  A  town  of 
Lydiu,  usually  mentioned  with  the  addition 
of  ad  Si/piliim  ("at  or  near  Sypilus" )  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  Magnesia  on  the  Marauder, 
in  Ionia,  situated  on  the  northwestern  slope 
of  Mount  Sypilus.  It  is  chiefly  celebrated 
in  history  for  the  victory  gained  under  its 
walls  in  190  B.C.  by  the  twoScipios  over  An- 
tiochus  the  Great,  whereby  that  monarch 
was  forever  driven  from  Western  Asia.  The 
town  after  the  victory  of  the  Scipios  sur- 
rendered to  the  Romans. 

Magnetic,  Pertaining  to  the  magnet; 
possessing  the  properties  of  the  magnet,  or 
corresponding  properties ;  as,  a  magnetic 
needle.  Magnetic  needle,  a  slender  bar  of 
steel  magnetized  and  suspended  at  its  centre 
on  a  sharp-pointed  pivot,  so  that  it  may  take 
freely  the  direction  of  the  magnetic  meridian. 
It  constitutes  the  essential  part  of  a  mariner's 
comjiass. 

Maharajpoor.  A  small  town  in  Hindo.s- 
tan,  India.  This  place  was  the  key  of  the 
position  of  the  Mahratta  army  on  December 
20,  184.3,  when  the  battle  took  place  between 
them  and  the  British  army  under  Sir  Hugh 
Gough.  The  Mahrattas  were  totally  de- 
feated. 

Mahe.  A  seaport  in  Hindostan,  India  ; 
is  a  Frei\ch  settlement  on  the  coast  of  Mala- 
bar, and  was  taken  possession  of  by  them  in 
1722;  retaken  by  the  British  in  \H\\;  re- 
stored at  the  peace  of  Paris  in  \1C>'?,,  but  was 
again  taken  in  1793.  It  was  restored  to  the 
Frciu'h  in  1815. 

Mahrattas.  A  people  of  Hindoo  (Hindu) 
race,  inhabiting  Central  India,  south  of  the 
Ganges,  from  Gwalior  to  Goa,  and  supposed 
by  nuiny  to  be  the  descendants  of  a  Persian 
or  North  Indian  people.  They  are  first  men- 
tioned in  history  about  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century.  Under  the  leadership  of  Sevaji,  a 
freebooter  or  adventurer,  they  overran  and 
subdued  a  large  portion  of  the  emperor  of 
Delhi's  territory.  They  subsequently  were 
divided  into  tribes  under  powerful  leaders, 
and  endeavored  to  overcome  the  Mogul ;  but 
thcv  sustained  a  frightful  defeat  in  Januarv, 
17tn,  at  the  hands  of  Ahmed  Shah  Abdalli, 
the  ruler  of  Afghanistan,  on  th(>  field  of 
Paniput,  where  they  lost  50,(KH)  men,  and  all 
their  chiefs  except  Holkar.  They  still,  how- 
ever, continued  to  bo  the  hired  mercenaries 
of  the  Delhi  emperor,  till  the  growing  influ- 
ence of  the  British  compelled  them  to  look 


MAIDA 


29G 


MAISON-DU-EOI 


to  their  own  safety.  After  many  long  and 
bloody  contests  with  the  British  and  their 
allies,  in  which  sometimes  the  whole,  hut 
more  frequently  a  portion  of  the  Mahrattas 
joined,  they  were  one  by  one,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Scindiah,  reduced  to  a  state  of  de- 
pendence. This  last-mentioned  chief  having 
raised  a  powerful  army,  officered  by  French- 
men and  disciplined  after  the  "European 
method,  continued  the  contest  for  a  number 
of  years,  till  his  power  was  finally  broivcn 
in  1843.  The  Mahratta  chiefs  still  possess 
extensive  dominions  under  British  protec- 
tion. 

Maida.  A  town  of  Naples,  in  Calabria 
Ulta,  9  miles  south  from  Nicastra.  It  is 
noted  for  the  defeat  of  the  French  under 
Kegnier  by  the  British  under  Sir  John 
Stuart,  in  an  action  that  took  place  in  the 
plains  near  the  town  in  1806. 

Maiden.  An  instrument  resembling  the 
guillotine,  formerly  used  in  Scotland  for  be- 
heading criminals.  Also,  a  fortress  which 
has  never  been  taken. 

Maidstone.  A  town  of  England,  in  Kent, 
29  miles  southeast  from  London,  on  the  JVIed- 
\vay.  In  1648  this  town  was  stormed  by  the 
Parliamentary  troops. 

Mail  (Fr.  maille,  It.  maglia;  from  the  Lat. 
macula,  a  "spot,  hole,  or  mesh  of  a  net"). 
Signifies  a  metal  net-work,  and  is  ordinarily 
applied  to  such  net-work  when  used  as  body 
defensive  armor.  Well-made  mail  formed 
an  admirable  defense  against  all  weapons 
except  tire-arms,  and  its  pliability  and  com- 
parative lightness  gave  it  favor  over  the 
more  cumbrous  plate-armor. 

Mail.  To  put  a  coat  of  "mail  or  armor 
upon  ;  to  arm  defensively. 

Maillet  {Fr.).  A  mallet.  The  French 
formerly  made  use  of  this  instrument  as  an 
offensive  weapon  in  their  engagements.  In 
1351  the  mallet  was  used  at  the  famous  battle 
"des  Trente"  (of  thirty),  which  derived  its 
name  from  the  number  of  combatants  that 
fought  on  each  side.  This  extraordinary 
combat  holds  a  distinguished  place  in  the 
history  of  Brittany,  and  was  entered  into  by 
the  partisans  of  Charles  of  Blois  and  the  king 
of  France  on  one  side,  and  by  the  Count 
Montfort  and  the  king  of  England  on  the 
other.  Under  the  reign  of  Charles  VI.  a  Pa- 
risian mob  forced  the  arsenal,  and  took  out 
a  large  quantity  of  mallets,  with  which  they 
armed  themselves  for  the  purpose  of  murder- 
ing the  custom-house  officers.  The  persons 
who  assembled  on  this  occasion  were  after- 
wards called  MaiUofins.  In  the  days  of 
Louis  XII.  the  English  archers  carried  mal- 
lets as  offensive  weapons. 

Maillotin  {Fr.).  An  old  French  term 
which  signified  an  ancient  weapon  that  was 
used  to  attack  men  who  wore  helmets  and 
cuirasses.  A  faction  in  Prance  was  also  dis- 
tinguished by  this  appellation.  See  Mail- 
let. 

Mainade  {Fr.).  A  body  of  marauders 
commanded  by  a  chief. 

Main    Body.     The   line   or   corps   of  an 


army  which  marches  between  the  advance- 
and  rear-guard ;  in  camp,  the  body  which 
lies  between  the  two  wings. 

Main  Guard.     See  Guard,  Main. 

Main  Work.     In  fortification,  is  the  prin- 
cipal  wprk  as  distinguished  from  the  out-      \ 
works.  j 

Maine,  The  largest  of  the  New  England  I 
States,  and  the  most  easterly  of  the  United 
States.  The  first  settlement  was  made  in  it 
at  Phippsburg,  in  1607,  but  was  subse- 
quently abandoned.  Settlements  from  New 
Hampshire  gradually  extended  themselves 
into  it,  and  it  was  afterwards  annexed  to  r 
Massachusetts,  as  far  as  the  Kennebec  River, 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  century  it  suf- 
fered much  from  the  incursions  of  the  sav- 
ages and  the  French,  many  of  the  towns 
being  laid  waste  and  the  inhabitants  slaugh- 
tered. This  state  of  affairs  was  terminated 
by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1712.  During 
the  Revolutionary  war  Portland  was  bom- 
barded by  the  British  in  1775,  and  much 
property  destroyed.  Maine  was  admitted 
into  the  Union  as  a  State  in  1820.  Its  north- 
ern boundary  formed  a  subject  of  contro- 
versy with  Great  Britain,  which  threatened 
a  war,  but  was  settled  by  compromise  in 
1842.  During  the  civil  war,  Maine  was  one 
of  the  most  active  of  the  Northern  States  in 
the  cause  of  the  Union. 

Mainotes.  The  inhabitants  of  the  moun- 
tainous district  of  Maina,  a  peninsula  be- 
tween the  bays  of  the  Kolokythia  and  Koron, 
forming  part  of  the  province  of  Laeonia,  in 
Greece.  They  number  about  60,000,  and 
are  a  wild  and  brave  race,  but  addicted  to 
robbery.  While  the  Turks  held  possession 
of  Greece,  the  Mainotes  were  almost  com- 
pletely independent,  and  when  not  engaged 
in  a  common  struggle  against  the  Turks 
their  chiefs  were  at  war  with  each  other. 
The  Mainotes,  under  their  principal  chief  or 
bey,  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  war  for 
the  liberation  of  Greece  ;  but  subsequently 
their  independence  was  destroyed. 

Maintain.  When  any  body  of  men  de- 
fend a  place  or  post  against  the  attacks  of  an 
adverse  party,  they  are  said  to  maintain  it. 

Maintenance,  Cap  of.     Sometimes  called 
Cap  of  Dignity,  a  cap  of  crimson   velvet 
lined  with  ermine,  with  two  points  turned 
to  the  back,  originally  only  worn  by  dukes, 
but  afterwards  assigned  to  various  families 
of    distinction.      According    to    Sir    John  | 
Fearne,  "  the  wearing  of  the  cap  had  a  be-  , 
ginning   from   the   duke    or   general  of  an 
army,  who,  having  gotten   victory,  caused  ' 
the  chiefest  of  the  subdued  enemies  whom  | 
he  led  to  follow  him  in  his  triumph,  bear-  \ 
ing   his  hat  or  cap  after   him,  in  token  of) 
subjection    and    captivity."      Most   of   the 
reigning   dukes  of  Germany,   and    various 
families   belonging  to  the  peerage  both  of  j 
England  and  Scotland,  bear  their  crests  on, 
a  cap  of  maintenance.  i 

Maison-du-Roi  {Fr.).  The  king's  house- 1 
hold.  Certain  select  bodies  of  troops  were 
so  called  during  the  monarchy  of  France, 


MAITRE 


297 


MALINGERER 


find  consisted  of  the  gardes-du-corps,  or  body- 
ffuards,  the  gendarmes,  chevauxlcgers,  or 
liijht-horse,  mousquetaires,  or  musketeers,  la 
qendarmcrie,  grenadiers  a  c/ieval,  or  horsc- 
frrenadiers,  the  regiments  beloHL^ing  to  the 
Frencli  and  Swiss  guards,  and  the  ce7it  Suis- 
se.«,  or  hundred  Swiss  guards.  The  maison- 
dit-roi,  or  king's  household,  was  not  con- 
sidered a  separate  establish mont  from  the 
rest  of  the  army  until  the  reign  of  Louis  IV. 
This  cstalili-hmont  was  successively  formed 
by  ilirt'iri'iit  kings  out  of  militia  companies, 
which  they  took  into  their  body-guard. 

Maitre  d'Armes  (Fr.).  A  term  in  general 
use  among  the  French,  signif\'ing  a  fencing- 
master.  Every  regiment  has  a  jnaitre 
d'annrs  attached  to  it. 

Majesty.  A  title  applied  to  sovereigns  ; 
as,  Her  IJritannic  Majesty. 

Major.  An  otficer  ne.vt  in  rank  above  a 
captain  and  below  a  lieutenant-colonel;  the 
lowest  tield-otliccr. 

Major,  Aid- (i^r.).    See  Aid-Major. 

Major,  Brigade-.    See  Brigade-Major. 

Major,  Drum-.     See  Drum^Major. 

Major,   Etat-  {Fr.).     See   Etat- .Major. 

Major,  Farrier-.     See   Farrikii-Major. 

Major,  Fife-.     See  Fife-Major. 

Major,  Sergeant-.  See  Serge  ant-Major. 

Major,  Town-.     See  Town-Major. 

Major,  Trumpet-.  See  Trumpet-Major. 

Majorate.     The  office  or  rank  of  major. 

Majorca.  The  principal  of  the  Balearic 
Isles,  in  the  Mediterranean,  lying  about  120 
miles  to  the  east  of  Spain.  Majorca  rebelled 
against  Philip  Y.  of  Spain  in  1714  ;  but  sub- 
mitted July  14,  1715. 

Major-General.  See  General,  Major-, 
and  Gen  KRAI,  Offk-eu. 

Majority.  High  rank ;  specifically,  the 
military  rank  of  a  major. 

Make  Good.  A  phrase  used  sometimes 
in  the  wording  of  sentences  in  proceedings 
of  courts-martial  in  the  case  of  deserters  ;  as, 
he  will  niuke  good  the  time  lost  by  desertion. 

Make  Ready.     See  Ready. 

Malabar.  An  extensive  province  of  Hin- 
dostan,  in  the  presidency  of  Madras.  It  is 
supposed  that  Malabar  was,  at  a  very  early 

S^riod,  confiuered  by  a  king  from  above  the 
hauts.  It  was  invaded  by  Ilyder  Ali  in 
1760,  and  subdued  by  him  in  1701.  On  the 
downfall  of  Tippoo  Sahib,  this  country  was 
annexed  to  th.;  iJritish  dominions. 

Malabar  Guns.  Heavy  pieces  of  ord- 
nance, which  were  made  in  the  Malabar 
country,  and  were  formed  by  means  of  iron 
bars  joined  together  with  hoops.  Tiicy  were 
very  long,  and  extremely  unwieldy. 

Malacca.  A  British'settlemcnt  situated 
on  the  west  coast  of  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
about  KM)  miles  northwest  from  the  settle- 
ment of  Singapore.  This  district  was  an- 
nexed to  the  Portuguese  dominions  about 
1611,  taken  bv  the  Dutch  in  1()40.  and  given 
by  the  Dutch  to  the  English  in  IB-J.^i. 

Malacca.    The  capital  of  the  above  coun- 
trv,  is  situated  on  the  coast,  upon  the  strait 
which  hears  its  name.     In  1507  this  town  i 
20 


was  visited  by  the  Portuguese,  and  after- 
wards stormed  by  them.  It  was  subsequently 
taken  by  the  Dutch,  who  retained  po.ssession 
of  it  till  17H5,  when  it  was  occupied  by  a 
British  force. 

Malaga.  A  city  of  Spain,  in  Granada, 
on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  00  miles 
northeast  from  Gibraltar.  It  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Moors  in  714,  and  was  not 
wrested  from  them  until  1487,  when  it  was 
taken  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic.  In  1810 
it  was  occupied  by  the  Fretich,  and  remained 
in  their  possession  till  1812. 

Malakoff.  A  hill  near  Sebastopol,  on 
which  was  situated  an  old  tower  strongl}* 
fortilied  bv  the  Russians  during  the  siege  of 
1854-55.  "^The  allied  French  "and  English 
attacked  it  on  June  17-18,  1855,  and  af^ter  a 
conflict  of  forty-eight  hours  were  repulsed 
with  severe  loss.  On  September  8,  the 
French  again  attacked  the  Malakofl';  at  8 
o'clock  the  first  mine  was  sprung,  and  at 
noon  the  Fren<'h  flag  floated  over  the  con- 
quered redoubt.  In  the  Malakofi'and  Redan 
were  found  COOO  jiieces  of  cannon  of  every 
caliber,  and  rj(),000  pounds  of  gunpowder. 

Malandrins,  or  Tard-venus  (Fr.).  Com- 
panies of  banditti,  who  chose  their  own  chief, 
and  overran  France  and  Italy  in  the  14th 
century. 

Malatesta.  A  noble  Italian  family,  which 
acquired  the  lordship  of  Rimini  in  the  I3th 
century,  and  furnished  several  leaders  of  the 
Guelph  party.  Malatesta  II.  and  Galeotto 
Malatesta,  sons  of  Pandolfo  I.,  began  to  reign 
over  Rimini  in  1355.  They  had  a  great  mil- 
itary reputation,  and  next  to  the  Visconti 
were  perhaps  the  most  powerful  princes  of 
Italy.  The  former  died  in  13(54,  and  Gale- 
otto in  1385,  leaving  two  sons,  Carlo  and 
Pandolfo  III.  These  two  became  able  gen- 
erals, and  commanded  the  armv  of  Visconti, 
duke  of  ]\Iilan,  from  1393  to  'l408.  Carlo, 
who  was  lord  of  Rimini,  died  without  issue 
in  1429.  The  descendants  of  Pandolfo  III. 
possessed  Rimini  until  1528,  when  it  w:  s 
added  to  the  papal  dominions. 

Malavilly.  A  town  of  Hindostan,  in  the 
province  of  Mysore,  where  the  English 
troops  under  Gen.  Harris  defeated  Tippoo 
Sahib's  army  in  1799. 

Maldon.  A  town  of  England,  in  the 
county  of  Essex,  which  was  built  in  28  B.C. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  Roman 
colony  in  Britain  ;  was  burnt  by  Queen  Boa- 
dicea,  and  rebuilt  by  the  Romans.  It  was 
burnt  by  the  Danes' in  991,  and  rebuilt  by 
the  Saxons. 

Malignant.  In  English  history,  one  of  the 
adherents  of  the  house  of  Stuart ;  a  cavalier; 
so  called  by  the  opposite  party. 

Malinger.  To  feign  illness',  or  to  protract 
disease  ill  order  to  avoid  duty. 

Malingerer.  A  soldier  who  feigns  him- 
self sick.  Any  soldier  convicted  of  malin- 
gering, feigning  or  pnxlucing  disease,  or  of 
intentionally  protracting  his  cure  or  aggra- 
vating his  disease,  is  lialile  to  be  tried  by  a 
court-martial    for  "conduct   prejudicial    to 


MALINGERY 


298 


MAMELUKES 


good  order  and  military  discipline,"  and 
to  suffer  the  punishment  attached  to  that 
oifense. 

Malingery.  A  feigning  of  illness,  or  pro- 
tracting of  disease  in  order  to  escape  duty. 

Malkin.  A  sponge  with  a  jointed  staff  for 
cannon. 

Malleable  Iron.  Iron  which  can  be 
worked  under  the  hammer.  The  term  is 
specifically  applied  to  cast  iron  which  has 
hud  a  part  of  its  carbon  extracted  by  cemen- 
tation with  an  oxide. 

Mallet.  A  wooden  hammer,  to  drive  into 
the  ground  the  pegs  by  which  a  tent  is 
fastened  ;  it  is  likewise  used  on  various  other 
occasions,  especially  in  fortification  and 
artillery. 

Malmesbury.  A  town  of  England,  in 
"Wiltshire.  This  town  was  taken  from  the 
royalists  by  Sir  William  Walter  in  1643, 
but  it  was  soon  recovered,  and  again  taken 
a  short  time  after. 

Malo,  St.  A  seaport  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  lUe-et-Vilaine,  on  the  small 
island  of  Aron.  This  port  sustained  a  tre- 
mendous bombardment  by  the  English  under 
Admiral  Benbow  in  1C93,  and  under  Lord 
Berkely  in  July,  1695.  In  1758  the  British 
landed  in  considerable  force  in  Cancalle  Bay, 
and  went  up  to  the  harbor,  where  they  burnt 
upwards  of  a  hundred  ships,  and  did  great 
damage  to  the  town,  making  a  number  of 
prisoners. 

Maloi-Jaroslavitz.  A  town  of  Eussia,  in 
the  government  of  Kaluga.  It  is  noted  for 
being  the  scene  of  a  most  sanguinary  action 
between  the  French  and  Russians,  in  Octo- 
ber, 1812,  in  which  the  former  were  defeated. 

Malplaquet.  A  village  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  North.  It  was  the  scene 
of  a  sanguinary  battle  in  1709,  between  the 
French  under  Marshal  Villars,  and  the 
allies  commanded  by  the  Duke  of  Marlbor- 
ough and  the  Prince  Eugene,  in  which  the 
latter  were  victorious. 

Malta.  An  island  belonging  to  Great 
Britain,  situated  in  the  Mediterranean,  54 
miles  from  the  Sicilian  coast,  and  about  200 
from  Cape  Bon,  on  the  African  coast.  It  is 
strongly  fortified  around  the  capital,  Valetta, 
which  was  bui,ltby  the  Knights  of  St.  John. 
Malta  was  colonized  by  the  Carthaginians 
about  500  B.C.,  and  as  early  as  the  first 
Punic  war  it  was  plundered  by  the  Romans, 
but  did  not  come  finally  into  their  posses- 
sion until  242  B.C.  During  the  5th  century 
it  fell  successively  under  the  sway  of  the 
Yandals  and  Goths.  The  Romans,  however, 
regained  it  under  Belisarius  in  533  a.d.,  and 
kept  possession  of  it  till  it  was  conquered  by 
the  Arabs  in  870.  In  1090,  Count  Roger  of 
Sicily  drove  out  the  Arabs,  and  established 
a  popular  council  for  the  government  of  the 
island.  Charles  of  Anjou,  after  overrun- 
ning Sicily,  made  himself  master  of  it ;  but 
after  a  time,  the  houses  of  Aragon  and 
Castile  successively  held  the  island.  Subse- 
quentlj"-,  the  emperor  Charles  V.  took  posses- 
sion of  Malta,  and  in  1530  granted  it  to  the 


KnightsofSt.  John  of  Jerusalem,  from  whom 
the  Turks  had  recently  captured  their  great 
stronghold  at  Rhodes.  The  knights  raised 
by  degrees  the  stupendous  fortifications,  and, 
moreover,  spent  their  large  income  in  beau- 
tifying the  island  in  every  way.  Mean- 
while they  rendered  incessant  services  to 
Christendom  in  the  chastisement  of  the  fero- 
cious Barbary  pirates.  To  revenge  these 
acts,  the  Turks  brought  immense  forces 
against  Malta  in  1557,  and  again  in  15G5. 
The  siege  in  the  latter  year  was  carried  on 
by  the  sultan  Solyman  himself,  with  the 
flower  of  the  Ottoman  army  ;  but  the  grand 
master.  La  Valette,  opposed  a  heroic  resist- 
ance, and  he  was  forced  to  re-embark,  with 
the  loss  of  more  than  25,000  of  his  best 
troops.  The  defenders  lost  260  knights  and 
7000  Maltese  soldiers ;  and  their  gallantry 
was  the  theme  of  admiration  throughout  the 
world.  After  this  siege  the  knights  built 
Valetta.  In  1571,  they,  with  the  Maltese, 
behaved  most  courageously  at  the  battle  of 
Lepanto,  where  the  Turks  lost  30,000  men. 
Though  waging  perpetual  war  with  the 
Turks,  the  knights  continued  in  possession 
of  Malta  until  1798,  when  it  surrendered  to 
Napoleon,  and  received  a  French  garrison. 
In  1800  it  was  blockaded  by  a  British  squad- 
ron, and  was  forced  to  surrender  to  the 
English,  in  whose  possession  it  has  remained 
as  a  dependency. 

Malta,  Knights  of.  See  St.  John  of 
Jerusalem,  Kniguts  of. 

Maltese  Cross.  A  cross  of  eight  points, 
of  the  form  worn  as  a  decoration  by  the 
Hospitallers  and  other  orders  of  knight- 
hood. 

Malvern  Hill.     Near  the  James  River,  in 
Virginia.     Here,  on  the  night  of  June  30, 
1862,  all  the  divisions  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  under  Gen.  McClellan,  were  united 
in  a  strong  position,  after  five  days  of  inces- 
sant marching  and  fighting.     About  4  a.m. 
on  July  1  the  Confederate  forces  advanced 
to  storm  this  position,  but  were  mowed  down 
by  a  destructive  fire  of  grape  from  the  land 
batteries,  and  were  obliged  to  seek  shelter  in 
the  woods.     The  gunboats,  also,  which  were 
within    range,  opened  a  destructive  fire  of 
shells  on  the  enemy.     The  attack  was  a  com-  ; 
plete   failure,  the  loss  of  the   Confederates  I 
being  considerable,  while  that  of  the  Federals 
was   insignificant.     After  this  repulse,  the  '; 
Confederates  retired  to  Richmond,  and  Mc-  ' 
Clellan  pursued  his  way  to  the  James,  ar-  ,' 
riving  at  Harrison's  Landing  on  July  3.        i 

Mameliere  {Fr.).  Armor  for  the  breast,  ' 
from  which  depended  two  chains,  one  at-  | 
tached  to  the  pommel,  and  the  other  to  the  i 
scabbard  of  the  sword.  ! 

Mamelukes  (Arabic,  mamluk,  a  "  slave"). 
The  name  given  to  the  slaves  of  the  be3-s, 
brought  from  the  Caucasus,  and  who  formed 
their  armed  forces.  When  Genghis  Khan, 
desolated  a  great  part  of  Asia  in  the  13th: 
century,  and  carried  away  a  multitude  of 
the  inhabitants  for  slaves,  the  sultan  of 
Egypt  bought  12,000  of  them,  partly  Min-j 

i 


MAMERTINI 


299 


MANDARIN 


preliiins  and  Tartars,  but  mostly  Turks,  and 
formed  them  into  a  body  of  troops.  But 
tlicy  soon  found  tlieir  own  power  so  great 
that,  in  12.')4,  they  made  one  tif  their  own 
number  sultan  of  P^gypt,  foundinj' the  dy- 
nasty of  the  Baharites,  which  gave\ilace  to 
another  Mameluke  dynasty  in  1382.  The 
Caucasian  element  predominated  in  the  first 
dynasty,  the  Tartar  element  in  the  second. 
Selim  I.,  who  overthrew  the  Mameluke 
kingdom  in  1517,  was  compelled  to  j)crmit 
the  continuance  of  the  24  Mameluke  beys 
ns  governors  of  the  provinces ;  but  in 
the  middle  of  the  18th  century  they  re- 
gained such  a  preponderance  of  power  in 
Egypt  that  the  pasha  named  by  the  Porte 
was  reduced  to  a  iiomiiuil  ruler.  The  num- 
ber of  them  scattered  throughout  all  Egvpt 
was  between  10,000  and  12,000  men.  Their 
number  was  kept  up  chiefly  by  slaves 
brought  from  the  Caucasus,  from  among 
whom  the  beys  and  other  officers  of  state 
were  exclusively  chosen.  Their  last  bril- 
liant achievements  were  on  the  occasion  of 
the  French  invasion  of  Egypt,  and  during 
the  time  immediately  following  the  retire- 
ment of  the  French.  At  this  time  Murad 
Bey  stood  at  their  head.  But  in  1811  they 
were  foully  massacred  by  Mehemet  Ali. 

Mamertini.  Sons  of  Mamers,  or  Mars, 
were  Campanian  soldiers  of  Agathocles. 
They  feized  Messina,  in  Sicily,  in  281  u.c, 
and  when  closely  besieged  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians and  Hiero  of  Syracuse  in  264,  they 
implored  the  help  of  the  llomans,  which  led 
to  the  first  Punic  war. 

Mammoth  Powder.     See  Gunpowder. 

Man.  To  supply  with  men  ;  to  furnish 
with  a  sufficient  force  or  complement  of  men, 
as  for  management,  service,  defense,  or  the 
like.  Also,  to  supply  with  strength  for  ac- 
tion ;  to  prepare  for  efficiency  ;  to  fortify. 

Man,  Isle  of.  An  island  of  Great  Britain, 
in  the  Iri.-li  Sea,  nearly  equidistant  from  the 
coasts  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland. 
It  was  subdued  by  the  king  of  Northumber- 
land, 021;  by  Magnus  of  Norwav,  1092; 
ceded  to  the'Scots^  1260,  and  taken  from 
them  in  1314  by  Montacute,  afterwards  earl 
of  Salisbury  ;  it  subsequently  fell  to  the  Earl 
of  Derby. "  The  brave  Countess  of  Derby 
held  this  island  against  the  troops  of  the 
Parliament  in  1651,  after  her  husband  had 
b«cn  beheaded  at  Bt)lton,  England,  in  the 
•anie  year  for  his  devotion  to  the  royal 
oausc. 

Manassas.  A  town  in  Prince  William 
Co.,  Va.,  which  was  an  important  military 
position  during  the  civil  war,  and  where 
the  Alexandria  and  Manassas  (iap  Kailways 
meet,  near  a  creek  called  Bull  Run  ;  it  was 
held  by  the  Confederates  in  1861,  when  they 
were  attacked  by  the  Federal  general  Irviii 
McDowell.  He  began  his  march  from 
Washington  on  July  16,  and  gained  some 
•dvantagc  on  the  18th  at  Centreville.  On 
the  2l8t  was  fought  the  first  battle  of  Bull 
Run.  The  Federals,  who  began  the  fight, 
had  the  advantage  till  about  3  o'clock  p.m., 


when  the  Confederate  general  Johnston 
brought  up  reinforcements,  which  at  first 
the  Federals  took  for  their  own  troops. 
After  a  brief  resistance,  the  latter  were 
seized  with  sudden  jjanic,  and  in  spite  of 
the  utmost  efforts  of  their  officers,  fied  in 
disgraceful  rout,  abandoning  a  large  quan- 
tity of  arms,  ammunition,  and  baggage. 
The  Confederate  generals,  Johnston  and 
Beauregard,  did  not  think  it  prudent  to  pur- 
sue the  fugitives,  who  did  uol  halt  till  they 
reached  Washington.  The -Federal  army  is 
said  to  have  had  481  killed,  1011  wounded, 
and  1216  missing.  The  loss  of  the  Confed- 
erates was  stated  to  be  about  1500.  In 
March,  1862,  when  the  Army  of  the  Poto- 
mac under  Gen.  McClellan  marched  into 
Virginia,  they  found  that  the  Confederates 
had  quietly  retreated  from  the  camp  at 
Manassas.  "  On  August  30,  1862,  this  place 
was  the  site  of  another  great  battle  between 
the  Northern  and  Southern  armies.  In 
August,  Gen.  "Stonewall"  Jackson,  after 
compelling  the  Federal  general  Pope  to  re-- 
treat,  defeated  him  at  Cedar  Mountain  on 
the  9th,  turned  his  flank  on  the  22d,  and 
arriving  at  Manassas  repulsed  his  attacks 
on  the  29th.  On  the  30th,  Gen.  R.  E.  Lee 
(who  had  defeated  Gen.  McClellan  and  the 
invading  Northern  army  before  Richmond, 
June  26  to  July  1)  joined  Jackson  with  his 
army,  and  Pope  received  reinforcements 
from  Washington.  A  desperate  ct)nflict 
ensued,  which  ended  in  the  Confederates 
gaining  a  decisive  victory,  compelling  the 
Federals  to  a  hasty  retreat  to  Centreville, 
where  they  were  once  more  muted,  Septem- 
ber 1.  The  remains  of  their  army  took  ref- 
uge behind  the  lines  of  Washington  on 
September  2.  Pope  was  at  once  super- 
seded, and  McClellan  resumed  the  command 
to  march  against  the  Confederates,  who  bad 
crossed  the  Potomac  and  entered  Maryland. 

Manch,  or  Maunch.  A  charge  frequently 
used  in  heraldry  to  represent  a  sleeve  with 
long  pendent  ends,  of  the  form  worn  by 
ladies  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I. 

Manchester.  A  city  of  England,  in 
Lancashire,  on  the  Irwell.  In  the  time  of 
the  Druids,  it  was  one  of  their  principal 
stations.  It  was  one  of  the  seats  of  the 
Brigantes,  who  had  a  castle  or  stronghold 
called  Mancenion ;  and  was,  about  79,  se- 
lected by  the  Romans  as  a  station,  and 
called  Mancunium.  Called  by  the  Saxons 
Manceasire.  Taken  from  the  "Britons,  488; 
captured  by  Edwin  of  Northumbria,  620; 
taken  by  the  Danes,  877;  retaken,  923. 

Mandans.  A  tribe  of  Indians  of  the 
Dakota  family,  who  are  located  with  the 
Arickarees  and  Gros  Ventres  on  a  reserva- 
tion near  Fort  Bcrthold,  Dakota.  They 
were  hostile  to  the  Sioux,  and  more  friendly 
to  the  whites  than  the  neighboring  tribes. 
They  number  about  250. 

Mandarin.  A  general  term  applied  to 
Chinese  officers  of  every  grade  by  foreign- 
ers. It  is  derived  from  the  Portuguese 
mandar,  "  to  command";  the  Chinese equiv- 


MANDILION 


300 


MANNITE 


alent  is  kwan.  There  are  nine  ranks,  each 
distinguished  by  a  diiferent-colored  ball  or 
button  placed  on  the  apex  of  the  cap,  by  a 
peculiar  emblazonry  on  the  breast,  and  a 
different  clasp  of  the  girdle.  The  military 
mandarins  are  selected  by  the  emperor  of 
China  to  superintend  and  command  the 
militia  of  the  country. 

Mandilion.  A  soldier's  loose  coat ;  an 
outer  garment  without  sleeves. 

Mandrel.  In  forging,  is  a  rod  used  to 
preserve  the  interior  form  of  hollow-work. 
Also,  the  spindle  upon  which  an  article  is 
placed  in  shaping  it  in  a  lathe. 

Manduria  (now  Casal  Nova).  A  town  in 
Calabria,  on  the  road  from  Tarentum  to 
Hydruntum,  and  near  a  small  lake.  Here 
Archidamus  III.,  king  of  Sparta,  was  de- 
feated and  slain  in  battle  by  the  Messapians 
and  Lucanians,  338  B.C. 

Manege.  The  art  of  horsemanship  or  of 
training  horses.  Also,  a  school  for  teaching 
horsemanship,  and  for  training  horses  ;  a 
riding-school. 

Mangalore.  A  seaport  town  and  fortress 
of  Hindostan,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  in  the  province  of  Canara. 
The  Portuguese  had  a  factory  here,  which 
was  destroyed  by  the  Arabians.  In  1793 
the  town  was  taken  by  Hyder  Ali,  then  the 
Mysore  general ;  in  1768  it  was  captured  by 
a  detachment  from  Bombay  ;  but  was  shortly 
afterwards  retaken  by  Hyder.  In  1783  Man- 
galore  again  surrendered  to  a  force  from 
Bombay  ;  and  after  the  destruction  of  Gen. 
Matthews's  army,  sustained  a  long  siege  from 
Tippoo  Sahib,  and  was  gallantly  defended 
by  Col.  Campbell.  Upon  the  conclusion  of 
peace  in  1784,  it  was  restored,  and  the  forti- 
fications were  dismantled.  In  1799,  on  the 
overthrow  of  Tippoo,  it  was  finally  taken 
possession  of  by  the  British. 

Mangan  [Fr.).  This  word  is  sometimes 
written  mangon,  a  warlike  machine  formerly 
used.  The  term  itself  was  generally  adopted 
to  signify  any  species  of  warlike  machine. 
But  it  more  particularly  meant  the  largest 
and  most  powerful  machine  that  could  be 
used  for  warlike  purposes ;  whether  it  was 
practiced  to  throw  enormous  stones  against 
besieged  places,  or  to  cast  javelins,  etc.  It 
was  likewise  called  ballista,  from  the  Greek, 
tormentum,  from  the  Latin,  torquendo,  and 
sometimes  petraria,  because  stones  weighing 
upwards  of  360  pounds  were  thrown  from  it. 
This  machine  answered  the  double  purpose 
of  defending  or  attacking  fortified  places, 
and  it  was  sometimes  used  at  sea. 

Mangonel  (Fr.  mangonel,  mangoneau).  A 
very  strong  and  powerful  cross-bow,  from 
15  to  20  feet  long,  for  throwing  arrows, 
darts,  or  stones.  The  irebachet^ribaudequin, 
etc.,  were  only  a  variety  of  the  above. 

Manheim,  or  Mannheim.  A  town  of 
Germany,  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Neckar  and  the  Rhine. 
It  surrendered  to  the  French,  under  com- 
mand of  Pichegru,  September  20,  1795.  On 
October  31,  the  Austrians  under  Wurmser 


defeated  the  French  near  the  city.  Several 
battles  were  fought  with  various  success  in 
the  neighborhood  during  the  late  wars. 

Manifesto,  or  Manifest.  A  public  declar- 
ation, usually  of  a  prince  or  sovereign,  show- 
ing his  Intentions,  or  proclaiming  his  opin- 
ions and  motives  in  reference  to  some  act 
done  or  contemplated  by  him  ;  as,  a  mani- 
festo declaring  the  purpose  of  a  prince  to  be- 
gin war,  and  explaining  his  motives. 

Maniglions.  The  two  handles  on  the 
back  of  a  piece  of  ordnance. 

Manilla,  or  Manila.  A  town  of  the  island 
of  Luzon,  and  the  capital  of  the  Spanish  set- 
tlements in  the  Philippine  Islands.  It  was 
taken  by  the  English  in  1757 ;  and  again  in 
Qctober,  1762,  by  storm. 

Manipularis  (Fr.  numlpulaire).  The  chief 
officer  in  a  part  of  the  Roman  infantry  called 
manijmlus,  was  so  called.  This  officer  was 
likewise  ordinary  (Fr.  ordinaire). 

Manipulus.  So  called  from  its  standard 
or  flag,  which  was  made  of  cloth,  and  hung 
suspended  on  a  staff  with  a  hand.  The 
manipulus  was  distinguished  in  this  manner 
from  the  chief  standard  of  each  legion,  which 
was  an  eagle  of  massive  metal. 

Manipulus  (Fr.  numipule).    A  small  body 
of  infantry  originally,  so  called  among  the 
Romans  during  the  reign  of  Romulus.    Their 
ensign  was  a  hand  on  the  end  of  a  staff.    The 
manipulus  consisted  of  100  men,  and  in  the 
days  of  the  consuls  and  first  Caesars,  of  200. 
Three  manipuli  constituted  a  Roman  cohort. 
Each   manipulus   was   commanded  by  two 
ofiicers  called  centurions,  one  of  whom  acted 
as  lieutenant  to  the  other.     Every  manipu- 
lus made  two  centuries,  or  ordines.     This, 
however,  cannot  be  said  to  have  been  the 
uniform  establishment  or  formation  of  the 
manipulus ;  for  according  to  Varro  and  Vege- 
tius,  it  was  the  smallest  body  of  men  em- 
ployed in  the  Roman  armies,  and  composed 
the  tenth  part  of  a  century.     Spartian  says, 
"it  consisted  of  only  ten  soldiers."     Some 
authorities  assert  that  it  takes  its  name  from 
■manipulns,  "  a  handful  of  straw,"  the  latter 
having  been  fixed  to  a  long  pole  to  serve  as 
a  rallying   signal,  before   the   eagles   were 
adopted.     This  circumstance  has  given  rise 
to  the  modern  expression,  a  handful  of  men, 
une  poignee  de  gens.     Vegetius,  on  the  other 
hand,  says  it  comes  from  manus,  which  sig- 
nified a  small  body  or  handful  of  men  col-    i 
lected   together,    and    following    the    same    j 
standard  ;   and  Modestus  as  well  as  Varro    ■ 
state  it  to  have  been  so  called  because,  when    ' 
they  went  into  action,  they  took  each  other    j 
by  the  hand,   or   fought   all   together.      A    ] 
French  writer  conceives  that  the  manipulus    ; 
may  be  considered  as  one  of  those  parts  of  a   ' 
modern  battalion  which  are  distributed  in   , 
different  rooms,  etc.,  and   which  is  called 
tcne  chambree,  or  a  company  that  messes  to-   i 
gether.  \ 

Manly.  Having  qualities  becoming  a 
man;  firm;  brave;  undaunted;  noble,  etc. 

Mannite,  Nitro-.  A  high  explosive  re- 
sembling  nitro-glycerine   in  its  properties, 


MANCEUVRE 


301 


MANTUA 


and  made  in  an  analogous  manner  by  the 
action  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids  upon 
niannitc,  a  form  of  sugar. 

Manoeuvre,  or  Maneuver.  Management; 
dexterous  movement ;  specifically,  an  evo- 
lution, movement,  or  change  of  position 
among  military  or  naval  bodies.  To  per- 
form a  movement  in  military  or  naval  tac- 
tics; to  make  an  evolution.  Also,  to  change 
the  positions  of,  as  troops  or  ships. 

Manceuvring-wheels.  See  Okdnance, 
Cakkiaoks  fuk,  Sea-coast  Cakkiaqks. 

Manresa.  A  town  of  Spain,  in  Catalo- 
nia, .30  miles  northwest  from  JJarcelona.  It 
suffered  nmch  in  the  war  of  independence; 
and  in  ^larch,  1811,  it  was  almost  completely 
burnt  to  the  ground  by  Marshal  Macdonald. 

Mans,  Le.  A  city  of  France,  formerly 
capital  of  the  province  of  Maine,  now  of  the 
department  of  Sarthe.  The  final  struggle 
between  the  Vendean  troops  and  the  French 
republicans  took  place  here  in  1793,  in  which 
the  latter  were  victorious;  and  in  1871, 
another  battle  took  place  between  the  Ger- 
mans and  French,  in  which  the  former  were 
victorious. 

Mansoura,  or  Mansourah.  A  town  of 
Lower  Egypt,  34  miles  southwest  from  Dal- 
mietta.  Here  Louis  IX.  was  defeated  by 
the  Saracens  and  taken  prisoner,  April  5, 
1250.  Some  French  troops  which  occupied 
the  garrison  were  massacred  here  in  1798. 

Manteau  (Fr.).  This  word,  which  liter- 
ally signifies  a  cloak,  is  frequently  used 
among  the  French  to  express  the  covering 
that"  hussars  or  ^ight  infantry  troops  carry 
for  the  double  purpose  of  shielding  their 
bodies  from  the  inclemencies  of  the  weather 
in  outposts,  etc.,  and  for  spreading  over  their 
heads,  by  means  of  poles,  when  they  occa- 
sionally halt,  and  take  a  position. 

Mantelet  {Fr.).  A  large  osier  buckler 
■which  was  used  in  ancient  times  ;  it  was  held 
upright,  under  cover  of  which  archers  shot 
their  arrows.  Also  a  circular  frame  upon 
wheels  covered  with  osier  or  horse-hair,  used 
for  the  same  purpose. 

Mantes.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Seine-et-Oise,  30  miles  west- 
northwest  of  Paris.  It  was  taken  and  re- 
duced to  ashes  by  William  the  Conqueror  in 
1087. 

Mantillis.  A  kind  of  shield,  anciently 
fixed  upon  the  tops  of  ships  as  a  cover  for 
archers. 

Mantinea,orMantinoea.  Anciently acity 
of  the  Morca,  9  miles  m.rth  from  Tripolitza. 
It  is  now  the  modern  (Jrook  village  of  Pal- 
espoli.  It  was  famous  as  being  the  scene  of 
several  battles,  of  which  the  most  important 
■was  that  fought  between  the  Spartans  and 
the  Thobans  under  Epaminondas  (362  B.C.), 
in  which  the  former  were  defeated. 

Mantle.  A  long  flowing  robe,  worn  in 
the  Middle  Ages  over  the  armor,  and  fast- 
ened hy  a  fihiila  in  front,  or  at  the  right 
shoulder.  The  mantle  is  an  important  part 
of  the  official  insignia  of  the  various  orders 
of  knighthood. 


Mantlet.  A  sort  of  temporary  fortifica- 
tion intended  to  protect  the  men  working 
guns  in  embrasures,  casemates,  or  port-holes 
from  the  bullets  of  sharpshooters.  The 
mantlet  is  usually  made  to  be  hoisted  up 
while  the  gunner  takes  aim,  and  then  low- 
ered to  cover  the  whole  o])eiiing  except  a 
circular  aperture  for  the  muzzle  of  the  can- 
non. With  every  increase  in  the  range  and 
precision  of  small-arms,  mantlets  become 
more  essential  for  the  safety  of  gunners. 
Mantlets  are  made  of  thick  fir,  of  solid  oak 
l)lanks,  or  of  iron  plates,  the  last  being  pref- 
erable, as  the  lightest.  At  Sebastopol,  the 
Russians  eftectively  blocked  their  embra- 
sures by  thick  mantlets  of  plaited  rope  sus- 
pended freely.  A  mantlet  of  ])lanks  or  iron 
plates,  about  5  feet  high,  and  occasionally 
mounted  on  small  wheels,  is  also  used  to 
protect  sappers  working  at  the  end  of  a  sap, 
although  a  rolling  gabion  is  preferred  for 
this  purpose  by  many  engineers. 

Mantling,  or  Lambrequin.  A  heraldic 
ornunient  dcj^icted  as  hanging  down  from 
the  helmet,  and  behind  the  escutcheon.  It 
is  considered  to  represent  either  the  cointiso 
(an  ornamental  scarf  which  passed  round  the 
body  and  over  the  shoulder)  or  the  military 
mantle  or  robe  of  estate.  When  intended 
for  the  cointise,  it  is  cut  into  irregular  strips 
and  curls  of  the  most  capricious  forms,  whose 
contortions  are  supposed  to  indicate  that  it 
has  been  torn  into  that  ragged  condition  in 
the  field  of  battle.  When  the  mantling  is 
treated  as  a  robe  of  estate,  the  bearings  of 
the  shield  are  sometimes  embroidered  on  it. 
A  mantling  adjusted  so  as  to  form  a  back- 
ground for  the  shield  and  its  accessories  con- 
stitutes an  .4(-/nVir»(rH<o/'Jr>«s.  In  British 
heraldry,  the  mantling  of  the  sovereign  is  of 
gold  lined  with  ermine;  that  of  peers,  of 
crimson  velvet  lined  with  ermine.  Knights 
and  gentlemen  have  generally  crimson  vel- 
vet lined  with  white  satin  ;  but  sometimes 
the  livery  colors  are  adopted  instead,  as  is 
generally  the  practice  in  continental  her- 
aldry. 

Mantonet  (Fr.).  A  small  piece  of  wood 
or  iron,  which  is  notched,  for  the  purpose 
of  hanging  anything  upon  it.  The  pegs  in 
soldiers'  rooms  are  sometimes  so  called. 

Mantua.  A  fortified  city  of  Northern 
Italy,  22  miles  southwest  from  Verona. 
Mantua  is  both  by  nature  and  art  one  of  the 
strongest  places  in  Europe.  It  can  boast  of 
an  antiquity  almost  equal  to  that  of  Home, 
and  experienced  all  the  vicissitudes  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  and,  like  other  Italian  cities, 
emerged  from  them  into  liberty  and  inde- 
pendence. It  surrendered  to  the  French, 
February  2,  1797,  after  a  siege  of  eight 
months  ;  wi\s  retaken  by  the  Austrian  and 
Russian  army,  July  30^  1799,  after  a  short 
siege.  In  1800,  after  the  battle  of  Marengo, 
the  French  again  obtained  possession  of  it. 
It  was  included  in  the  kingdom  of  Italy  till 
1814,  when  it  was  restored  to  the  Austrians, 
who  surrendered  it  to  the  Italians,  October 
11,  IBOG,  after  the  peace. 


MANUAL 


302 


MAKCHER 


Manual.  Book  of  reference  ;  as,  ordnance 
manual,  etc. 

Manual.  A  prescribed  exercise  by  means 
of  which  soldiers  are  taught  to  handle  and 
use  their  weapons.  The  tnanual  of  arms  is 
the  exercise  with  the  musket ;  the  manual 
of  the  piece,  the  exercise  with  the  field-gun. 
There  are  also  'manuals  for  the  sabre,  j^istol, 
etc. 

Manuballiste  (i^r.).  A  cross-bow.  There 
were  two  kinds  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII., 
viz.,  the  latch  which  was  used  for  quarrels, 
and  ihaprodd  for  bullets. 

Manufacture  of  Ordnance.  See  Ord- 
nance, Manufacture  of. 

Manufacture  of  Powder.  See  Gunpow- 
der. 

Manx.     Pertaining  to  the  Isle  of  Man. 

Maoris.  A  New  Zealand  word  signify- 
ing tiative,  is  the  name  given  to  themselves 
by  the  inhabitants  of  New  Zealand,  and  that 
by  which  they  are  now  usually  designated. 
In  1861  war  broke  out  between  them  and 
the  British,  terminating  in  favor  of  the  lat- 
ter in  1802;  but  in  1863  the  Maoris  recom- 
menced hostilities,  and  a  formidable  con- 
spiracy was  formed  to  expel  the  British 
troops.  In  1868  they  massacred  many  set- 
tlers and  offered  a  desperate  resistance,  and 
were  not  subdued  until  the  following  year. 
They  numbered  at  that  time  about  40,000. 
They  are  now  comparatively  peaceable. 

Map.  In  a  military  and  geographical 
sense,  is  a  plane  figure,  representing  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  or  a  part  thereof,  ac- 
cording to  the  law  of  the  particular  kind  of 
projection  used  ;  distinguishing  the  situation 
of  cities,  mountains,  rivers,  roads,  etc. 

Marathon.  A  village  on  the  east  shore  of 
Attica,  20  miles  northeast  from  Athens. 
Here  on  September  28  and  29,  490  B.C.,  the 
Greeks,  only  10,000  strong,  defeated  the 
Persian  army  amounting  to  200,000,  who 
had  6400  kil'led.  The  Greek  loss  was  192 
Athenians  killed,  besides  some  Platteans  and 
slaves.  The  Greeks  were  commanded  by 
Miltiades,  Aristides,  and  Themistocles. 
Among  the  slain  was  Hippias,  the  instigator 
of  the  war.  The  Persian  army  was  forced 
to  retreat  to  Asia. 

Marathus.  An  important  city  on  the 
coast  of  Phoenicia,  opposite  to  Aradus.  It 
was  destroyed  by  the  people  of  Aradus  in 
the  time  of  the  Syrian  king,  Alexander 
Balas,  a  little  before' 150  B.C. 

Maraud.  To  rove  in  quest  of  plunder;  to 
make  an  excursion  for  booty;  to  plunder. 

Marauder.  A  rover  in  quest  of  booty  or 
plunder  ;  a  plunderer. 

Marauding.  Is  irregular  plunder  or  vio- 
lence ofl'ered  to  the  inhabitants  of  a  country 
by  the  individuals  of  an  army.  In  all  ar- 
mies where  discipline  is  maintained,  maraud- 
ing is,  at  least  professedly,  punished  by 
death  ;  the  provost-marshal  having  power  to 
inflict  that  penalty  summarily  on  all  offend- 
ers taken  in  the  act.  Marauding  is  also 
applied  to  plundering  at  sea ;  as,  the  Barbary 
corsairs  are  svstematic  marauders. 


Marburg.  A  town  of  Germany,  in  Hesse- 
Cassel,  situated  on  the  Lahn.  It  suflTered 
much  during  the  Seven  Years'  War,  1753-60. 

March.  The  movement  of  a  body  of  men 
from  one  place  to  another.  In  marching  it 
cannot  be  too  strongly  inculcated  that  every 
just  movement  and  manoeuvre  depends  upon 
the  correct  equality  of  march  established  and 
practiced  by  all  the  troops  of  the  same  army, 
and  that  when  this  is  not  attended  to  confu- 
sion must  follow  on  the  junction  of  several 
battalions.  Also,  the  distance  marched  over ; 
as,  a  march  of  20  miles. 

March.  To  cause  to  move  in  military 
array  ;  to  push  forward,  as  troops  ;  to  cause 
to  advance  in  a  steady,  regular,  or  stately 
manner. 

March.  The  military  signal  for  soldiers 
to  move;  a  piece  of  music,  designed  or  fitted 
to  accompany  and  guide  the  movement  of 
troops ;  or  a  piece  of  music  composed  after 
the  measure  of  a  march.  Also,  the  command 
for  soldiers  to  move. 

March,  The  length  of  a  day's  march  for 
troops  of  any  arm  depends,  to  a  great  extent, 
upon  the  condition  of  the  roads,  the  supply 
of  water,  forage,  etc. ;  also  upon  the  advan- 
tages to  be  gained  over  an  enemy. 

Infantry  marches  at  the  rate  in  common 
time  of  90  steps  =  70  yards  in  one  minute, 
or  2  miles  680  yards  in  an  hour ;  in  quick 
time,  110  steps  =  86  yards  in  one  minute,  or 
2  miles  1613  yards  in  an  hour;  in  double 
time,  165  steps  =  151|^  yards  in  one  minute, 
or  5  miles  275  yards  in  an  hour.  Under  or- 
dinary circumstances  infantry  should  march 
from  15  to  20  miles  a  day,  halting  about  ten 
minutes  every  hour. 

Cavalry  should  march  about  20  miles  a 
day,  and  be  kept  at  a  walk,  halting  several 
times  during  the  day,  when  the  men  should 
dismount  and  permit  the  horses  to  refresh 
themselves  by  giving  them  a  few  mouthfuls 
of  grass  and  water.  On  a  forced  march  the 
horses  should  not  be  halted,  but  they  should 
be  relieved  fifteen  minutes  every  hour  by 
dismounting  the  men  and  requiring  them  to 
march.  For  selection  of  cavalry  horses,  rate 
of  speed  at  a  trot,  gallop,  etc.,  see  Horse. 

The  march  of  artillery  should  be  governed 
by  the  movements  of  the  arms  of  the  service 
to  which  it  is  assigned  for  duty.  The  care 
of  men  and  horses  is  a  combination  of  what 
has  been  laid  down  for  cavalry  and  infantry. 
For  the  rates  of  march  of,  and  loads  carried 
by,  artillery  horses,  see  Pack  and  Draught 
Horses. 

Marchands  (Fr.).  Slop-sellers,  petty  sut- 
lers. Men  of  this  description  always  flock 
round  and  follow  an  army  on  its  march.  As 
they  generally  deal  in  articles  which  are  re- 
quired by  the  ofiicers  and  soldiers,  it  is  the 
business  of  every  general  to  see  them  prop- 
erly treated,  to  insure  their  safety,  and  to 
permit  them,  under  certain  regulations,  to 
have  access  to  the  camp. 

Marcher.  One  who  marches.  In  ancient 
times  tlie  lord  or  officer  who  defended  the 
marches  or  borders  of  a  territory. 


MARCHES 


303 


MARCHES 


Marches.  A  frontier,  a  border.  In  Eng- 
'h  history,  the  boundar\'iet\veen  Enghmd 
ind  Wales,  also  between  Eiiglund  and  Scot- 


Marches,  Combined.  When  the  move- 
ments of  the  divisions  or  corps  are  made  in- 
dependent of  each  other,  but  having  the 
same  object  in  common,  they  are  known  as 
combined  marches.  They  are  arranged  with 
the  intention  of  having  the  several  columns 
arrive  at  a  given  position  but  coming  from 
ditferent  directions.— /Vo/.  J.  li.   Wheeler. 

Marches,  Flank.  Are  marches  made  j)ar- 
allel  or  obliquely  to  the  enemy's  position. 
They  are  used  when  it  is  desired  to  turn  the 
eneniv's  position  or  attack  him  on  the  flank. 
—I'ruf.  J.  li.    Wfircler. 

Marches,  Manoeuvre.  Marches  are  some- 
times iiiadi'  by  wiiicli  an  army  gains  a  posi- 
tion, the  possession  of  which  compels  the 
enemy  to  leave  the  position  he  is  occupying. 
If  these  marches  are  under  the  observation 
of  the  enemy,  they  are  termed  "  manceuvres"  ; 
but  if  made  out  of  his  sight,  they  are  called 
mamrttrre  inarches. — Prof.  J.  B.   Wheeler. 

Marches  of  Concentration.  The  marches 
wliicli  are  made  by  several  bodies  t)f  troti]>s, 
starting  from  points  separated  from  each 
other,  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  these 
troops  together  at  some  stated  place,  are 
termed  marches  of  concentration.  Forced 
marches  are  much  used  in  concentrating 
troops,  especially  before  a  battle.  Many 
examples  are  given  in  military  history. 

Friant's  division  of  Davoust's  corps 
inarched  over  80  miles  in  forty-eight  hours 
in  1805,  to  join  Napoleon  in  the  battle  of 
Austerlitz.  Craufurd's  brigade  marched,  so 
Napier  says,  G2  miles  in  twenty-si.x  hours,  to 
join  Wellington  at  Talavera,'in  1809.  Na- 
TKjleon  marched  an  army  to  the  relief  of 
Dresden,  in  1813,  by  forced  marches  of  over 
80  miles  a  day  for  three  consecutive  days. 
The  marches  of  the  different  corps  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac  on  the  30th  of  June 
and  the  1st  of  July,  1803,  by  means  of  which 
the  army  was  concentrated  at  Gettysburg, 
are  good  examples  of  marches  of  concentra- 
tion. The  (ith  Corps  under  Gen.  Sedgwick 
made  on  this  occasion  a  march  over  30  miles. 
—Prof.  J.  R.    Whreler. 

Marches,  Route.  Route  marches  are 
used  by  troops  both  during  war  and  in  peace. 
They  are  used  in  peace  to  conduct  a  bodv  of 
troops  from  one  station  or  post  to  anotlier. 
Thev  are  used  in  war  for  the  purpose  of  as- 
sembling the  fractions  of  an  army  on  its  base 
of  operations  ;  of  conducting  troops  through 
a  district  or  country  where  there  is  no 
enemy,  etc. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  route  marches, 
according  to  the  manner  in  which  they  are 
made,  viz. :  ordinary,  forced,  and  inarches 
by  rail. 

Ordinary  route  marches  are  those  made 
along  ordinary  roads  and  where  the  length 
of  the  march  in  any  one  day  is  not  greater 
than  20  miles.  Twenty  miles  is  a  long 
march,  especially  if  the  body  of  troops  is 


large,  and  this  distance  is  taken  as  the  limit 
for  an  ordinary  march.  If  the  distance 
marched  in  any  one  day  is  greater  than 
20  miles,  the  march  is  forced. 

Forced  marches  are  extremely  exhausting 
upon  the  troops  and  should  not  exceed  30 
miles  per  daj',  although  greater  distances 
have  been  overcome  by  good  troops.  The 
number  of  forced  marches  made  in  succession 
must  be  few,  only  two  or  three,  even  for  the 
best  of  troops.  They  are  used  but  rarely  in 
time  of  peace,  and  then  only  under  pressing 
circumstances.  They  are  much  used  in  war, 
when  a  rapid  concentration  of  troops  is  to 
be  made ;  when  a  strategical  combination  is 
to  be  effected,  etc. 

Polite  marches  by  rail  are  employed  both 
in  peace  and  war.  This  kind  of  n'larch  in- 
cludes all  those  in  which  the  troops  do  not 
actually  march,  but  are  transported  bodily  to 
their  destination.  Railroads  have  become  in 
recent  years  the  great  factor  in  rapid  and 
cheap  means  of  moving  troops,  and  the  term 
"  rail"  is  therefore  applied  to  this  method 
of  conducting  troops  from  one  place  to 
another. 

This  method  is  of  especial  service  when 
the  time  given  to  the  troops  to  reach  their 
destination  is  short,  and  the  distance  is  great. 
It  is  especially  used  in  the  case  of  assembling 
armies  and  forwarding  the  reserves  and  re- 
cruits to  the  theatre  of  war.  The  late  war 
in  the  United  States,  the  war  in  1859  in 
Italy,  the  Franco-Prussian  war  in  1870,  etc., 
all  furnish  examjilcs. — Prof.  J.  B.  Wheeler. 

Marches,  Strategical.  JIarclies  which 
made  in  the  theatre  of  war,  near  an  enemy 
whose  position  is  not  exactly  known,  hav- 
ing in  general  for  their  object  the  comple- 
tion of  some  strategical  combination,  are 
designated  strategical  marches.  They  are 
used  to  conduct  an  army  to  a  position  from 
which  an  attack  can  be  made  on  the  enemy, 
or  to  a  position  in  which  the  army  can  re- 
main and  receive  an  attack  ;  in  other  words, 
to  a  position  immediately  in  the  presence  of 
the  enemy. 

Strategical  marches  are  either  ordinary  or 
forced  marches,  and  are  used  principally  to 
mass  troops  at  some  stated  point  on  the 
theatre  of  operations  before  the  enemy  can 
make  arrangements  to  prevent  it  or  can  pre- 
pare counter-movements  to  weaken  or  nullify 
the  effect  of  the  movement.  Secrecy,  celerity, 
and  good  order  are  therefore  indispensable 
requisites  for  success  in  marches  of  this  kind. 
—Prof.  J.  B.    Wheeler. 

Marches,  Tactical.  Marches  made  in  the 
immediate  vicinit}-  of  the  enemy,  and  so  near 
that  they  may  be  observed  by  him,  are  called 
tactical  marches.  Since  these  marches  are 
made  very  near  the  enemy,  greater  precau- 
tions are  required  to  guard  against  an  attack 
than  are  necessary  in  strategical  marches. 

Tactical  marches  differ  from  route  and 
strategical  marches  in  one  material  particu- 
lar, and  that  is  in  the  number  and  sizes  of 
the  wagon-trains  accompanying  the  tr(x>ps 
on  the  march.     Both  in  route  and  strategical 


MAECHFELD 


304 


MARECHAL 


marches  the  troops  are  cumbered  with  long 
and  unwieldy  wagon-trains  carrying  the 
baggage  and  supplies  of  the  army,  whereas 
in  a  tactical  march  there  are  none,  or  the 
trains  are  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Since 
the  enemy  may  attack  the  moving  columns 
at  any  minute,  everything  is  sacrificed  to  the 
important  one  of  being  ready  to  fight  at  a 
minute's  notice,  and  the  army  carries  with 
it  only  supplies  enough  for  two  or  three  days, 
and  little  or  no  baggage.  Everything  not 
essential  for  feeding  the  troops  and  not  neces- 
sary for  fighting  is  therefore  left  behind  the 
army  while  it  is  making  a  tactical  march. — 
Prof.  J.  B.  Wheeler. 

Marchfeld.  In  Austria,  where  Ottocar 
II.  of  Bohemia  was  defeated  and  slain  by 
his  rival,  the  emperor  Rodolph  of  Haps- 
burg,  August  26,  1278. 

Marching.  One  of  the  first  necessities  to 
distinguish  a  body  of  disciplined  troops  from 
a  mere  crowd, of  men  is  a  regular  cadenced 
step,  taken  by  every  individual  at  the  same 
time,  and  with  the  same  foot.  When  troops 
are  to  marcli  a  long  distance  the  route  step 
is  employed,  the  men  keeping  the  same  dis- 
tance and  their  places  in  the  ranks  as  when 
marching  on  drills,  parades,  reviews,  mus- 
ters, etc.,  where  the  cadenced  step  in  com- 
mon, quick,  or  double  time  is  employed. 
In  the  U.  S.  service  the  length  of  the  step 
in  common  and  quick  time  is  28  inches,  and 
the  cadence  is  at  the  rate  of  90  steps  per 
minute  for  common  time  and  110  for  quick 
time  ;  in  double  time  the  length  of  the  step 
is  33  inches  and  the  cadence  at  the  rate  of 
165  steps  per  minute,  but  it  may  be  increased 
to  180.  In  the  feudal  ages,  when  infantry 
fell  into  disrepute,  cadenced  marching  was 
unattended  to,  and  seems  only  to  have  been 
thoroughly  revived  by  Marshal  Saxe. 

Marching  Money.  The  additional  pay 
which  officers  and  soldiers  receive  for  the 
purpose  of  covering  the  expense  necessarily 
incurred  when  marching  from  one  jilace  to 
another. 

Marching  Order.  In  the  British  service 
a  soldier  is  said  to  be  in  marching  order 
when  he  is. fully  equipped  with  arms,  am- 
munition, and  a  portion  of  his  kit,  which 
weighs  from  30  to  35  pounds.  In  service 
marching  order,  by  the  addition  of  provis- 
ions and  some  campaigning  necessaries,  he 
carries  nearly  50  pounds.  But  heavy  march- 
ing order,  which  was  yoi  heavier,  is  now 
happily  abolished.  See  Heavy  Marching 
Order,  and  Light  Marching  Order. 

Marching  Orders.  The  orders  issued 
preparatory  to  troops  marching  ;  and  in  the 
British  service  signifies  six  days'  journey  at 
least. 

Marching  Regiments.  A  term  given  in 
England  to  those  who  had  not  any  perma- 
nent quarters,  but  were  liable  to  be  sent  not 
only  from  one  end  of  Great  Britain  to  an- 
other, but  to  the  most  distant  of  her  pos- 
sessions abroad.  Although  the  word  march- 
ing is  insensibly  confounded  with  those  of 
line  and  regulars,  it  was  originally  meant  to 


convey  something  more  than  a  mere  liability 
to  be  ordered  unon  any  service ;  for  by 
marching  the  regfilar  troops  from  one  town 
to  another,  the  inhabitants,  who  from  time 
immemorial  have  been  jealous  of  a  standing 
army,  lost  their  antipathy  to  real  soldiers, 
by  the  occasional  absence  of  regular  troops. 
At  present  the  English  guards,  infantry, 
etc.,  may  be  considered  more  or  less  as 
marching  regiments.  The  marines  and  vol- 
unteers have  stationary  quarters. 

Marcomanni.  A  powerful  confederacy 
of  ancient  Germans,  who  were  resident,  as 
their  name  imports,  on  the  borders.  They 
are  first  mentioned  in  history  by  Csesar,  and 
seem  at  that  time  to  have  dwelt  upon  the 
banks  of  the  Rhine.  From  Tacitus  and 
several  others  we  learn  that  they  soon  after- 
wards moved  westward,  under  their  king 
Maroboduus,  drove  the  Boii  out  of  Bohemia, 
and  settled  in  that  country.  After  organiz- 
ing a  government,  Maroboduus  formed  a 
league  with  the  neighboring  tribes,  for  the 
purpose  of  defending  Germany  against  the 
Romans.  He  was  thus  enabled  to  muster 
70,000  disciplined  soldiers,  and  to  conclude 
an  honorable  treaty  with  the  emperor  Tibe- 
rius in  6  A.D.  In  17  he  was  defeated  by  tUe 
Cherusci,  and  in  two  years  afterwards  he 
was  expelled  from  his  throne  by  the  Goth 
Catualda,  and  forced  to  seek  refuge  in  Italy. 
The  same  fate  soon  afterwards  befell  his  de- 
throner  and  successor,  and  the  Marcomanni 
once  more  came  under  the  sway  of  native 
kings.  After  this  they  gradually  extended 
their  dominions,  until  they  had  reached  the 
Danube,  and  had  provoked  the  jealousy  of 
the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Domitian.  Then 
began  hostilities  between  the  Romans  and 
the  jVEarcomanni,  which  led  to  the  pro- 
tracted struggle  of  the  Marcomannic  war, 
during  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  but 
was  finally  quelled  by  the  peace  of  Commo- 
dus,  in  180.  Favored,  however,  by  the  fee- 
ble rule  of  Commodus,  they  continued  their 
predatory  inroads  into  the  Roman  provinces 
of  Noricum  and  Rhoetia,  and  ventured  some- 
times as  far  as  the  defiles  of  the  Alps.  In 
270,  in  the  reign  of  Aurelian,  they  pushed 
forward  into  Italy,  and  penetrated  even  to 
Ancona,  spreading  consternation  around 
them.  After  this  period  they  disappear 
gradually,  and  are  mentioned  for  the  last 
time  among  the  hordes  of  Attila. 

Marcouf,  St.  Two  small  islands  of  France, 
in  the  department  Manche,  and  which  pro- 
tect the  roadstead  oil'  Cape  La  Hogue.  They 
were  taken  by  the  British  in  1795,  but  re- 
stored to  France  at  the  peace  of  Amiens. 
Marechal  [Fr.).  Major-general. 
Marechal  de  Bataille  {Fr.).  A  military 
rank  which  once  existed  in  France,  but  was 
suppressed  before  the  revolution,  or  rather 
confined  to  the  body-guards.  An  officer  be- 
longing to  that  corps  received  it  as  an  hon- 
orary title.  Its  original  functions,^  etc  , 
with  respect  to  general  service,  sunk  in  the 
appointments  oi marechal  de  camp  and  major- 
general.     It  was  first  created  by  Louis  Xlll. 


MAllECIIAL 


305 


MARINE 


Mnreclial-gcneral  des  logis  de  la  cavalei-ie, 
this  appointment  took  j)liice  under  Charles 
IX.  in  1694.  He  had  the  chief  direction  of 
everything  which  related  to  tlie  French  cav- 
alrv.  Marcchal  des  Ivgi.H  pour  les  vivrcs,  a 
person  belonging  to  the  quartermaster- 
general's  department  was  so  called  in  the 
old  Fn-noh  service. 

Marechal  de  Camp  (Fr.).  A  military 
rank  wliich  existed  during  the  French  mon- 
archy. The  person  invested  with  it  was  a 
general  officer,  and  ranked  next  to  a  lieu- 
tenant-general. It  was  his  duty  to  .see  the 
ariny  properly  disposed  of  in  camp  or  quar- 
ters, to  hv  present  at  ail  the  movements  that 
were  made  ;  to  be  the  first  to  mount  his 
charger,  and  the  last  to  quit  him.  He  com- 
nujnded  the  left  in  all  attacks.  The  ap- 
iit;intM)ont  under  this  distinction  was  first 
cieat.'d  l)y  Henry  IV.  in  l.J!i8. 

Marechal-General  des  Camps  et  Armees 
du  Roi  I  /•'/■.).  A  jiost  of  iiigh  dignity  and 
trust,  which  during  the  French  monarchy 
wa.s  anne.\<d  to  the  rank  of  marcchal  de 
France.  Military  writers  difl'er  with  respect 
to  the  privileges,  etc.,  which  belonged  to  this 
appointment;  it  is,  however,  generally  ac- 
knowledged that  the  general  oflScer  who 
held  it  was  intrusted  with  the  whole  man- 
agement of  a  siege,  being  subordinate  only 
to  the  constable,  or  to  any  other  inarcc/ial  de 
France,  who  was  his  senior  in  ajipointment. 

Mardchal-General  des  Logis  de  I'Armee 
{Fr.).  This  appointment,  which  existed 
during  the  old  French  government,  and  has 
since  been  replaced  by  the  chef  de  V  ctat-major , 
corresponds  with  that  of  quartermaster-gen- 
eral in  the  IJritish  service. 

Marechaussees  de  France  {Fr.).  A 
species  of  military  police  which  formerly 
existed  in  France.  During  the  French  mon- 
archy there  were  31  companies  of  marechaus- 
sees a  chcial,  t>r  mounted  policemen.  These 
companies  first  formed  for  the  pur[)0se  of 
preserving  public  tranquillitj',  and  were  dis- 
tributed in  the  ditlerent  provinces  of  the 
kingdom.  This  useful  body  of  men  was 
first  formeil  under  Thilip  I.  in  lOflO ;  they 
were  afterwards  suppressed,  and  again  re- 
established in  1720,  as  constituting  a  part  of 
the  gendarmerie  of  France.  There  were 
other  conjpanics  of  marie liaussees,  who  were 
particularly  distinguished  from  the  31  above 
mentioned  ;  such,  for  instance,  as  that  of  the 
constables,  called  the  gendarmerie. 

Marengo.  A  village  of  Italy,  in  Pied- 
mont, near  the  Bormida,  2  miles  southeast 
from  Alessandria.  Here  the  French  army, 
commanded  by  Bonaparte,  attacked  the 
Austrians,  June  14,  18(X>;  his  army  was  re- 
treating, when  the  arrival  of  Gen.  Dessaix 
turned  the  fortunes  of  the  day.  The 
•laughter  on  both  sides  was  dreadful.  By 
this  victory  Bonaparte  gained  12  strong 
fortresses,  and  became  master  of  Italy. 

Margarita.  An  island  in  the  Caribbean 
Sea  lies  t)tl'  the  coa.st  of  Venezuela,  of  which 
republic  it  forms  a  province.  This  island 
was  first  visited  by  Columbus  in  1498,  and 


has  in  more  recent  times  (181C)  been  the 
scene  of  a  bloody  warfare  between  the  revo- 
lutionists and  the  Spanish  troops  under  Gen. 
iliirillo,  in  which  the  latter  were  defeated. 

Margrave.  A  German  nobleman  corre- 
sponding in  rank  to  the  English  marquis. 
Margraclite  is  the  wife  of  a  margrave. 

Margum,  or  Margus.  A  fortified  place 
in  Mcesia  Superior,  west  of  Viminacium, 
situated  on  the  river  Margus  (now  yiorava)^ 
at  its  confluence  with  the  Danube.  Here 
Diocletian  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
Carinus. 

Maricopa  Indians.  A  tribe  of  aborigines, 
numbering  about  400,  who  are  located  with 
the  Fimas  on  a  reservation  <m  the  Gila 
Kiver,  Arizona,  about  180  miles  above  its 
mouth.  They  are  peaceable,  and  follow 
agricultural  pursuits. 

Marienbourg.  A  fortified  town  of  Bel- 
gium, situated  in  the  [>rovince  of  Namur. 
This  place  was  occupied  by  the  French  from 
lt;.V.»  till  181'). 

Marignano  (now  Malepnano).  A  village 
of  Northern  Italy,  near  Milan.  Three  bat- 
tles have  been  fought  near  here:  (1)  Fran- 
cis I.  of  France  defeated  the  Duke  of  Milan 
and  the  Swi-ss,  September  13-14,  1515;  above 
20,000  men  were  slain ;  this  conflict  has 
been  called  the  "  battle  of  the  giants."  (2) 
Near  here  was  fought  the  battle  of  Pavia. 
(See  Pavia.)  (3)  ""After  the  battle  of  Ma- 
genta, June  4,  185!),  the  Austrians  intrenched 
themselves  at  Malegnano.  Marshal  Bara- 
guay  d'Hilliers  with  li5,000  men  was  sent 
to  dislodge  them,  which  lie  did,  on  June  8, 
with  a  loss  of  about  850  killed  and  wounded. 
The  Austrians  suftered  severely. 

Marine.  A  soldier  serving  on  ship-board ; 
a  sea-soldier  ;  one  of  a  body  of  troops  trained 
to  do  duty  on  vesst'ls  of  war.  , 

Marine  Fortification.  This  kind  of  for- 
tification diflers  from  land  fortification  in 
that  the  approaches  of  the  enemy  which  are 
to  be  resisted  take  place  on  the  level  of  the 
sea,  so  that  he  can  come  near  without  having 
to  overcome  the  dangerous  slope  of  the  glacis. 
The  combat  is  simply  one  between  two  pow- 
erful batteries,  and  the  question  to  be  de- 
cided is,  whether  the  ship  or  the  fort  will 
first  be  placed  hur.'i  de  co»ibat ;  the  ship 
having  ordinarily  the  largest  number  of 
guns,  while  the  fort  has  more  solid  battle- 
ments, and  its  fewer  guns  of  great  caliber 
can  be  fired  with  a  steadiness  unattainable 
on  so  shifting  a  base  jis  the  ocean.  Under 
these  circumstances,  the  less  relief  a  sea- 
fortress  has  the  better,  the  less  likely  is  it  to 
be  hit  from  shipping.  Its  walls  are  usually 
built  perpendicular,  or  nearly  so.  The 
magazines  and  quarters  for  the  men  are 
bomb-proof,  as  also  are  the  caseniates,  from 
which  the  guns  are  usually  fired,  although 
sometimes,  as  in  the  martello  tower,  the 
gun  is  worked  on  top  of  the  structure.  Sea 
fortifications  may  be  of  various  importance, 
the  simplest  being  the  battery  consisting  of 
a  mere  parapet  formed  in  a  clitt'or  on  a  hill, 
and  mounted  with  guns  to  command  the 


MAKINE3 


306 


MARKSMANSHIP 


sea ;  these  are  generally  built  in  such  con- 
cealed sit-uations,  that  it  is  hoped  the  hostile 
ship  will  not  perceive  them  until  they  actu- 
ally open  fire.  These  are  numerous  all 
around  the  British  coast.  Next  greater  in 
importance  is  the  martello  tower  (which 
see).  More  powerful  still  are  the  breach- 
forts,  such  as  those  which  on  either  shore 
defend  the  entrance  to  Portsmouth  harbor, 
England.  These  are  constructed  of  the 
most  solid  masonry,  and  armed  with  guns 
of  the  heaviest  caliber,  sweeping  the  very 
surface  of  the  sea  so  as  to  strike  an  approach- 
ing ship  between  wind  and  water.  The 
guns  are  usually  in  bomb-proof  casemates, 
and  the  fort  is  often  defended  on  the  land 
side,  if  the  coast  be  level ;  if,  however, 
higher  ground  be  behind,  this  would  be 
useless,  and  then  the  sea-front  alone  is  de- 
fensible. Most  terrible  of  all  sea-forts,  how- 
ever, are  the  completely  isolated  forts  with 
perpendicular  faces  and  two  and  three  tiers 
of  heavy  guns.  Such  are  the  tremendous 
batteries  which  render  Cronstadt  almost  un- 
approachable, and  by  which  Spithead  and 
Plymouth  Sound,  England,  are  now  being 
fortified.  These  forts  are  generally  large, 
with  all  the  requisites  for  a  garrison  to 
maintain  itself;  against  them  wooden  ships 
stand  no  chance,  and  in  the  American  civil 
war.  Fort  Sumter,  at  Charleston,  has  shown 
itself  no  mean  antagonist  for  ironsides.  In 
the  new  forts,  as  Spithead,  etc.,  iron  is  to  be 
employed  as  the  facing,  in  plates  of  such 
vast  thickness  and  weight  that  it  is  sup- 
posed no  ship  can  ever  possess  any  compar- 
able power ;  and  as  they  are  to  be  armed 
with  guns  the  smallest  of  which  will  prob- 
ably be  300-pounders,  it  is  expected  that 
they  will  be  able  to  destroy  any  fleet  that 
could  be  s^nt  against  them.  At  the  present 
day,  the  value  of  sea  fortifications  is  dis- 
puted, as  iron-plated  vessels  may  pass  them 
with  impunity,  unless  the  artillery  in  the 
fort  be  so  heavy  as  to  destroy  the  armor  of 
the  ships.  In  the  long  run,  however,  it  is 
apparent  that  the  fort  can  command  the 
greater  power ;  for  its  armor  may  be  of  any 
thickness,  while  that  of  the  ship  must  be 
limited  by  her  floating  powers,  and  on  the 
other  hand,  the  limit  to  the  size  of  artillery 
must  be  sooner  reached  in  a  ship  than  in  a 
solid  and  stationary  fortress. 

Marines,  Corps  of.  In  the  U.  S.  service 
is  a  body  of  troops  who  serve  at  the  ditferent 
naval  stations,  and  on  board  ships  of  war. 
The  men  are  drilled  in  all  respects  as  infan- 
try, and  therefore,  when  on  shore,  are  ordi- 
nary land  forces.  On  board  ship,  their  ordi- 
nary functions  are  as  sharpshooters  in  time 
of  action,  and  at  other  times  to  furnish  sen- 
tries for  guarding  the  stores,  gangways,  etc. ; 
and  they  are  useful  as  exercising  a  good  con- 
trol over  the  less  rigidly  disciplined  sailors. 
They  are  also  instructed  as  guns'  crews,  and 
when  not  on  guard,  are  subject  to  the  orders 
of  the  naval  ofl[icers  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  seamen.  The  corps  was  first  established 
in  the  United  States  in  1775,  and  was  per- 


manently organized  by  act  of  Congress  in 
1798.  By  this  act,  marines  were  made  liable 
to  do  duty  at  the  call  of  the  President  in 
any  of  the  forts  or  posts  of  the  United 
States,  and  were  placed  on  the  footing  of 
infantry  soldiers,  as  far  as  regards  pay  and 
allowances.  When  detached  for  duty  with 
the  army,  marines  are  subject  to  the  Articles 
of  War ;  at  all  other  times  they  are  subject 
to  the  laws  and  regulations  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  navy.  The  corps  numbers  about 
2000  men  commanded  by  a  colonel.  The 
corps  has  undergone  many  changes  in  re- 
spect of  numbers,  equipment,  drill,  and 
methods  of  recruiting  since  its  organization, 
and  was  never  in  a  better  state  of  discipline 
and  efl[iciency  than  now.  No  man  is  en- 
listed who  is  unable  to  read  and  write,  under 
5  feet  6  inches  high,  or  over  thirty-five  years 
of  age.  It  is  organized  into  battalions  for 
duty  on  shore,  and  into  "guards,"  or  com- 
panies, for  service  afloat,  each  having  its 
proper  complement  of  officers,  non-commis- 
sioned officers,  musicians,  and  privates,  and 
is  considered  an  indispensable  auxiliary  to 
the  navy.  Civilians  between  twenty  and 
twenty-five  years  of  age  are  eligible  at 
present  to  appointment  as  lieutenants  in  line 
of  promotion,  and  are  stationed  at  the  head- 
quarters of  the  corps  in  Washington  for 
their  preliminary  instruction.  In  the  Brit- 
ish service,  besides  the  infantry,  there  is  a 
division  of  marine  artillery.  In  rank,  ma- 
rine ofiicers  correspond  with  army  officers 
of  the  same  grade,  according  to  seniority; 
they  are  usually  appointed  from  civil  life. 

Maritime.  Bordering  on,  or  situated 
near,  the  ocean  ;  connected  with  the  sea  by 
site,  interest,  or  power. 

Mark.  That  toward  which  a  missile  is 
directed  ;  a  thing  aimed  at ;  what  one  seeks 
to  hit  or  reach. 

Mark,  St.,  Knights  of.  An  order  of 
knighthood  which  formerly  existed  in  the 
republic  of  Venice,  under  the  protection  of 
St.  Mark  the  Evangelist. 

Mark  Time.  To  mark  time  is  to  move 
each  leg  alternately  in  quick  or  ordinary 
time,  without  gaining  ground.  This  is  fre- 
quently practiced  when  a  front  file  or  column 
has  opened  too  much,  in  order  to  afford  the 
rear  an  opportunity  of  getting  up ;  and  some- 
times to  let  the  head  of  a  column  disengage 
itself,  or  a  body  of  troops  file  by,  etc. 

Marker.  The  soldier  who  forms  the  pivot 
of  a  wheeling  column,  or  marks  the  direc- 
tion of  an  alignment.  Also,  the  one  who  re- 
cords the  number  of  hits  and  misses  made  by 
soldiers  at  target  practice. 

Marks,  Inspection.  Are  certain  marks 
cut  on  cannon  to  show  the  number  of  the 
gun,  the  name  of  the  founder,  name  of  in- 
spector, weight  of  the  piece,  etc.  Condemned 
shot  are  also  marked.  See  Inspection  of 
Projkctilks. 

Marksman.  One  who  is  skillful  to  hit  a 
mark  ;  one  who  shoots  well. 

Marksmanship.  The  skill  of  a  marks- 
man. 


MARLINS 


307 


MARSUAL 


Marlins.  Are  tarred  white  skeins  or 
ioiii?  wrouths  or  lines  uf  untwisted  hemp, 
dipped  in  pitch  or  tar,  with  which  tables 
and  other  r()|)es  arc  wrapped  round,  to  pre- 
vent their  frettincj  and  rubbing  in  the  blocks 
or  pulleys  through  which  they  pass.  The 
same  serves  in  artiller}'  upon  ropes  used 
for  rigging  gins,  usually  put  up  in  small 
parcels  called  skeins. 

Maron  (/•'/•.).  A  piece  of  brass  or  copper, 
about  tiie  size  of  a  crown,  on  which  the 
hours  for  going  the  rounds  were  marked  in 
the  t>ld  French  service.  Several  of  these 
were  put  into  a  small  bag,  and  deposited  in 
the  hands  of  the  major  of  the  regiment,  out 
of  wiiich  they  were  regularly  drawn  by  the 
sergeants  of  companies,  for  the  officers  be- 
longing to  them.  The  hours  and  half  hours 
were  engraved  on  each  maron.  These  pieces 
were  numbered  one,  two,  etc.,  to  corres|)ond 
with  the  several  periods  of  the  night;  so 
that  the  officer,  for  instance,  who  was  to  go 
to  the  10  o'clock  rounds,  had  as  many  ma- 
rons  marked  ten  as  there  were  posts  or 
guard-houses  which  he  was  directed  to  visit. 
Thus  on  reacliing  the  first,  after  having 
given  the  mot,  or  watch-word,  to  the  cor- 
poral, he  delivers  into  his  hands  the  maron 
marked  one.  These  marons  being  pierced 
in  the  middle  are  successively  strung  by  the 
different  corporals  upon  a  piece  of  wire, 
from  which  they  slide  into  a  bo.K  called  Iwitc 
mix  rondes,  or  bo.x  belonging  to  the  rounds. 
This  box  is  carried  next  morning  to  the 
major,  who  keeps  the  key ;  and  who  on 
opening  it  can  easily  ascertain  whether  the 
rounds  have  been  regularly  gone  by  count- 
ing the  ditlerent  marons,  and  seeing  them 
successively  strung. 

Maroons.  A  name  given  to  runaway 
negroes  in  Jamaica.  When  the  island  was 
conquered  from  the  Spaniards  a  number  of 
their  negroes  fled  to  the  hills  and  became 
very  troublesome  to  the  colonists.  A  war 
of  eight  years'  duration  ensued,  when  the 
Maroons  capitulated  on  being  permitted  to 
retain  their  free  settlements,  about  1730. 
In  IT'.t-j  tlicy  again  took  arms,  but  they  were 
speedily  suppressed. 

Marquee,  or  Markee.  An  outer  fly,  or 
roof-clotli  of  a  tent  ;  also,  a  large  lield-tent 

Marquis,  or  Marquess.  The  degree  of 
nobility  wliich  in  tlic  peerage  of  England 
ranks  next  to  a  duke.  Marquises  were  orig- 
inally commanders  on  the  borders  or  fron- 
tiers of  countries,  or  on  the  sea-coast,  which 
they  were  bound  to  protect.  In  England, 
the  title  of  marquis  was  used  in  this  sense 
as  early  as  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  when 
there  were  marquises  or  lords-marchers  of 
the  borders  of  Scotland  and  Wales  ;  and  the 
foreign  equivalent  of  niarkgraj  was  common 
on  the  continent. 

Marrons.  In  jiyrotechny,  arc  small  paper 
shells  filli'd  with  grained  jiowder  and  primed 
with  short  pieces  of  quick-match.  They 
form  piirt  of  the  decorations  of  signaf- 
rpckcts. 

Marrucini.     A  brave  and  warlike  people 


in  Italy  of  the  Sabellian  race,  occui)ying  a 
narrow  slip  of  country  along  the  right  bank 
of  the  river  Atermus.  Along  with  the  Marsi, 
Peligni,  and  otiier  Sabellian  tribes,  they 
fougiit  against  Rome;  and,  togetlier  with 
them,  they  submitted  to  the  Romans,  304 
B.C.,  and  concluded  a  peace  with  the  repub- 
lic. 

Marsacii.  A  people  in  Gallia  Belgicu,  on 
one  of  the  islands  formed  by  the  Rhine, 
which  first  became  known  to  the  Romans 
througli  the  war  with  Civilis. 

Marsaglia.  Near  Turin,  in  Italy.  A 
battle  took  place  here  on  September  24, 
1093,  in  which  Catinat  defeated  Prince  Eu- 
gene and  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  This  battle 
and  place  are  memorable  for  being  the  first 
at  wiiich  bayonets  were  used  at  the  ends  of 
muskets,  and  to  this  the  French  owed  the 
victory. 

Marsala  (Arab.  Marsa  Alia,  "the  port  of 
God").  A  maritime  town  of  Sicily,  in  the 
province  of  Trapani,  about  19  miles  south- 
southwest  of  the  port  of  Trapani.  Marsala 
has  recently  acquired  historic  interest  as  the 
point  where  Garibaldi,  eluding  the  vigilance 
of  the  Neapolitan  fleet,  landed  with  his  he- 
roic thousand,  and  began  the  romantic  cam- 
paign which  terminated  the  kingdom  of  the 
two  Sicilies  so  ignominiously. 

Marseillaise.  The  name  by  which  the 
grand  soni,'  of  the  first  French  revolution  is 
known.  Tiic  circumstances  which  led  to  its 
composition  are  as  folb^ws.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  1792,  when  a  column  of  volunteers 
was  about  to  leave  Strasburg,  the  mayor  of 
the  city,  who  gave  a  bantjuet  on  the  occa- 
sion, asked  an  officer  of  artillery,  named 
Rouget  de  Lisle,  to  compose  a  song  in  their 
honor.  His  request  was  complied  with,  and 
the  result  was  the  Marseillaise, — both  verse 
and  music  being  the  work  of  one  night.  De 
Lisle  entitled  the  piece  ^'■Chnnt  de  Guerre  de 
VAnnee  da  J{/ti>i."  Next  day  it  was  sung 
with  that  rapturous  enthusiasm  that  only 
Frenchmen  can  exhibit,  and  instead  of  600 
volunteers,  1000  marched  out  of  Strasburg. 
Soon  from  the  whole  army  of  the  North  re- 
sounded the  thrilling  and  fiery  words,  Aux 
amies!  Au.rarrncs !  Nevertheless,  the  song 
was  still  unknown  in  Paris,  and  was  first  in- 
troduced there  by  Barbiiroux,  when  he  sum- 
moned the  youth  of  Marseilles  to  the  capital 
in  July,  1792.  It  was  received  with  transports 
by  the  Parisians,  who — ignorant  of  its  real 
authorship — named  it  '■'■  Ili/mne  des  Marseil- 
lai.s,"  which  name  it  has  borne  ever  since. 

Marseilles  (anc.  Massiiia).  A  city  in  the 
south  of  France,  the  capital  of  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Mouths-of-the-Rhone,  situated 
on  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It  was  founded 
bv  the  Phocajans  about  «tK»  n.c. ;  was  an  ally 
of  Rome,  218  B  c. ;  taken  by  Julius  Caesar 
after  a  long  siege,  49  n.r. ";  by  Euric  the 
Visigoth,  470;  sacked  by  the  Saracens,  839; 
united  to  the  crown  of  France,  1482.  Mar- 
seilles opposed  the  revolutitmary  govern- 
ment, and  was  reduced  August  23,  1793. 

Marshal  (^Fr.  rnarichal).     A  term  which 


MAKSHAL 


308 


MARTIAL 


originally  meant  a  groom  or  manager  of  the 
horse,  though  eventually  the  king's  marshal 
became  one  of  the  principal  officers  of  state 
in  England.  The  royal  farrier  rose  in  dignity 
with  the  increasing  importance  of  the  cheva- 
lerie,  till  he  became  conjointly  with  the  con- 
stable the  judge  in  the  Curice  Martiales,  or 
courts  of  chivalry.  "When  the  king  headed 
his  army  in  feudal  times,  the  assembled 
troops  were  inspected  by  the  constable  and 
marshal,  who  fixed  the  spot  for  the  encamp- 
ment of  each  noble,  and  examined  the  num- 
ber, arms,  and  condition  of  his  retainers. 
"With  these  duties  was  naturally  combined 
the  regulation  of  all  matters  connected  with 
armorial  bearing  standards,  and  ensigns. 
The  constable's  functions  were  virtually 
abolished  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  and 
the  marshal  became  thenceforth  the  sole 
judge  in  questions  of  honor  and  arms.  (See 
Earl  Marshal.)  In  France,  the  highest 
military  officer  is  called  a  marshal,  a  dignity 
which  originated  early  in  the  13th  century. 
There  was  at  first  only  one  marcchal  de 
France,  and  there  were  but  two  till  the  time 
of  James  I.  Their  number  afterwards  be- 
came unlimited.  Originally,  the  marshal 
was  the  esquire  of  the  king,  and  commanded 
the  vanguard  in  war  ;  in  later  times,  the 
command  became  supreme,  and  the  rank  of 
the  highest  military  importance.  See  Field- 
Marshal. 

Marshal.  To  dispose  in  order ;  to  ar- 
range in  a  suitable  manner ;  as,  to  marshal 
troops  or  an  army. 

Marshal  of  Scotland,  Earl.  An  officer 
who  had  command  of  the  cavalry  under  the 
constable.  This  office  was  held  hy  the  family 
of  Keith,  but  forfeited  by  rebellion  in  1715. 

Marshal,  Provost-.  See  Provost-Mar- 
shal. 

Marshaler  (written  also  marshaller).  One 
who  marshals. 

Marshaling  of  Arms.  In  heraldry,  is 
the  combining  of  different  coats  of  arms  in 
one  escutcheon,  for  the  purpose  of  indicating 
family  alliance  or  office. 

Marsi.  A  brave  people  of  Southern  Italy, 
who,  after  several  contests,  yielded  to  the 
Romans  about  301  B.C.  During  the  civil 
wars  they  and  their  allies  rebelled,  having 
demanded  and  been  refused  the  rights  of 
Roman  citizenship,  91  B.C.  After  many  suc- 
cesses and  reverses,  they  sued  for  and  ob- 
tained peace  and  the  rights  they  required, 
87  B.C.  The  Marsi  being  Socii  of  the  Ro- 
mans, this  was  called  the  Social  war. 

Marsilly  Carriage.  A  naval  gun-carriage 
having  but  one  set  of  trucks,  one  of  the 
transoms  resting  directly  on  the  deck.  It  is 
used  in  the  U.  S.  navy  for  mounting  the 
9-inch  Dahlgren  in  broadside. 

Marston  Moor.  Near  the  city  of  York, 
England.  The  Scots  and  Parliamentary 
army  were  besieging  York,  when  Prince 
Rupert,  joined  by  the  Marquis  of  Newcastle, 
determined  to  raise  the  siege.  Both  sides 
drew  up  on  Marston  Moor,  July  2,  1644,  and 
the  contest  was  long   undecided.     Rupert, 


commanding  the  right  wing  of  the  royalists, 
was  opposed  by  Oliver  Cromwell,  at  the  head 
of  troops  disciplined  by  himself.  Cromwell 
was  victorious ;  he  drove  his  opponents  off 
the  field,  followed  the  vanquished,  returned 
to  a  second  engagement  and  a  second  vic- 
tor}'. The  prince's  artillery  was  taken  and 
the  royalists  never  recovered  the  blow. 

Marta,  or  Martha  Santa.  A  town  of 
New  Granada,  South  America,  capital  of  a 
province  of  the  same  name  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Magdalena.  It  was  repeatedly 
sacked  by  pirates  during  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries;  and  in  1672  was  completely  pil- 
laged by  a  French  and  an  English  vessel. 
It  suffered  much  from  the  attacks  of  the  In- 
dians during  the  revolutionary  war,  and 
does  not  appear  to  have  regained  its  former 
importance. 

Marteau  d'Armes  (F?-.).  An  offensive 
weapon,  so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  a 
hammer. 

Martel-de-fer.  A  hammer  and  pick  con- 
joined, used  by  horse-soldiers  in  the  Middle 
Ages  to  break  and  destroy  armor. 

Martello  Towers.  Are  round  towers  for 
coast  defense,  about  40  feet  high,  built  most 
solidly,  and  situated  on  the  beach.  They 
occur  in  several  places  round  the  coast  of 
Great  Britain ;  but  principally  opposite  to 
the  French  coast,  along  the  southern  shore 
of  Kent  and  Sussex,  where,  for  many  miles, 
they  are  within  easy  range  of  each  other. 
They  were  mostly  erected  during  the  French 
war,  as  a  defen.se  against  invasion.  Each 
had  walls  of  5J  feet  thickness  and  was  sup- 
posed to  be  bomb-proof.  The  base  formed 
the  magazine ;  above  were  two  rooms  for 
the  garrison,  and  over  the  upper  of  these  the 
flat  roof,  with  a  4J  feet  brick  parapet  all 
round.  On  this  roof  a  heavy  swivel-gun 
was  to  be  placed  to  command  shipping, 
while  howitzers  on  each  side  were  to  form  a 
flanking  defense  in  connection  with  the 
neighboring  towers.  Although  the  cost  of 
these  little  forts  was  very  great,  they  are 
generally  considered  to  have  been  a  failure. 
The  name  is  said  to  be  taken  from  Italian 
towers  built  near  the  sea,  during  the  period 
when  piracy  was  common  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, for  the  purpose  of  keeping  watch  and 
giving  warning  if  a  pirate-ship  was  seen  ap- 
proaching. This  warning  was  given  by 
striking  on  a  bell  with  a  hammer  (Ital.  7nar- 
tello),  and  hence  these  towers  were  called 
tari-i  da  martello. 

Martial.  Pertaining  to  war ;  suited-  to 
war;  military,  as,  martial  music;  a  martial 
appearance;  given  to  war;  warlike;  brave, 
as,  a  martial  nation  or  people  ;  belonging  to 
war,  or  to  an  army  and  navy ;  opposed  to 
civil ;  as,  martial  law  ;  a  court-martial. 

Martial  Law.  An  arbitrary  law,  pro- 
ceeding directly  from  the  military  power, 
and  having  no  immediate  constitutional  or 
legislative  sanction.  When  it  is  imposed 
upon  any  specified  district,  all  the  inhab- 
itants, and  all  their  actions,  are  brought 
within  its  dominion.    It  is  founded  on  para- 


MARTIALIZE 


309 


MASK 


mount  necessity,  extends  to  matters  of  civil 
as  well  as  of  criminal  jurisdiction,  and  is 
jirociainied  only  in  times  of  war,  insurrec- 
tion, rebellion,  or  other  threat  emer<;ency. 
It  is  so  far  distinct  from  military  law,  which 
atl'ects  only  the  troops  and  forces.  Martial 
law  may,  in  fact,  be  termed  a  subjection  to 
the  Articles  of  War.  In  a  hostile  country 
it  consists  in  the  suspension,  by  the  occupy- 
ing military  authority,  of  the  civil  and  crim- 
inal law,  and  of  the  domestic  administration 
and  government  in  the  occupied  jiiace  or  ter- 
ritory, and  in  the  substitution  of  military 
rule  and  force  for  the  same,  as  well  as  in  the 
dictation  of  general  laws,  as  far  sis  military 
lU'ces^ity  requires  this  suspension,  substitu- 
tion, or  dictation,  and  is  simply  military  au- 
thority exercised  in  accordance  with  the  laws 
and  usages  of  war.  Military  oppression  is 
not  martial  law,  it  is  the  abuse  of  the  power 
wliidi  tliat  law  confers.  As  martial  law  is 
executed  by  military  force,  it  is  incumbent 
u|ion  those  who  administer  it  to  be  strictly 
guided  by  the  principles  of  justice,  honor, 
and  humanity, — virtues  adorning  a  soldier 
even  more  than  other  men,  for  the  very  rea- 
son that  he  possesses  the  power  or  his  arms 
against  the  unarmed.  Martial  law  atl'ects 
chiefly  the  police  and  collection  of  public 
revenue  and  taxes,  whether  imposed  by  the 
expelled  government  or  by  the  invader,  and 
t  refers  mainly  to  the  supjiort  and  efficiency 
I  of  the  army,  its  safety,  and  the  safety  of  its 
I         operations. 

I  Martialize.     To   render   warlike ;    as,   to 

I         martialize  a  people. 

Martinet  (so  called  from  an  officer  of  that 
I         name  in  the  French  army  under  Louis  XIV.). 
A  strict  disciplinarian  ;  one  who  lays  stress 
on  the  rigid  adherence  to  the  details  of  dis- 
cipline, or  to  forms  and  fixed  methods. 

Martinetism.     Kigid  adherence  to  disci- 
pline. 
Martini-Henry  Rifle.    See  Small-arms. 
Martinique.     An  island  in  the  West  In- 
dies, the  must  northern  and  one  of  the  larg- 
est of  tlio  NN'indward  group.     It  was  taken 
,        from  the  French  by  the  British  in  February, 
17fi2;  restored  to  France  at  the  peace  of  the 
I        following  year  ;  again  taken  March  10,  1 71>4 ; 
restored  at  the  peace  of  Amiens  in  1802; 
and  was  again  captured  February  23,  1801). 
I        It  reverted  to  its  French  masters  in  1815. 

Martin's  Shell.  A  hollow  spherical  pro- 
I  jcctile  lined  witli  loam  and  fllled  with  molten 
j        iron, — used  for  incendiary  purposes. 

Martlet.  In  heraldry,  a  bird  resembling 
j  a  swallow,  with  long  wings,  very  short  beak 
j  and  tliighs,  and  no  visible  legs,  borne  on  the 
1  shield  as  «  mark  of  cadency  by  tiie  fourth  son. 
Maryland.  One  of  the  thirteen  original 
SuUes  of  the  United  States,  and  one  of  the 
Central  Atlantic  States.  Maryland  was  first 
settled  in  lti;Jl,  by  a  party  from  Virginia, 
and  in  I«;82  by  a  colony  of"  Koman  C'atliolic 
gentry  from  England,  "under  a  grant  to  the 
second  Lord  Baltimore,  when  it  received  its 
present  name  in  honor  of  the  English  queen, 
Henrietta  Maria.     From  1G42  to   1043  the 


Virginian  and  English  colonies  were  at  per- 
petual warfare,  and  the  governor  of  the 
English  colony,  Philip  Calvert,  was  obliged 
to  leave,  but  in  lti4t;  he  returned,  the  rebel- 
lion having  ended.  Maryland  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  two  French  wars,  the  Kevo- 
lution,  and  the  war  of  1812-14,  when  it  was 
twice  invaded  by  the  Briti.'ih,  who  were  gal- 
lantly repulsed  from  North  Point,  near 
Baltimore,  Se{>tember  13,  1814,  although 
they  had  gained  a  temporary  triumjih  a  few 
weeks  before  at  Bladensburg.  In  the  war 
of  18t)l-tj0,  its  sympathies  were  with  the 
South,  and  the  first  blood  of  the  war  was 
shed  in  Baltimore,  several  Massachusetts 
volunteers  having  been  killed  on  their  way 
to  Washington.  The  State  was  the  scene  of 
several  battles  during  the  civil  war,  and  suf- 
fered greatly  from  the  contending  armies. 
Maryland  was  organized  as  a  State  in  IIH). 

Masada.  A  fortress  on  the  shore  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  built  by  Jonathan  Maccabieus, 
and  afterwards  greatly  strengthened  by 
Herod,  as  a  i)lace  of  refuge  for  himself.  It 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  liomans  after  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem,  the  garrison  having 
devoted  themselves  to  self-destruction. 

Mascara.  A  town  of  Algeria,  48  miles 
southeast  from  Oran.  The  town  was  taken 
and  nearly  destroyed  by  the  French  in  1835, 
and  occupied  a  second  time  by  Gen.  Bugeaud 
in  1841,  sincewhich  timeagarrisonof  French 
troops  has  been  constantly  maintained  there. 

Mascat,  or  Muscat.  A  large  seaport  of 
Arabia,  standing  on  a  peninsula  on  the  north- 
east coast  of  the  province  of  Oman.  In  1507 
it  was  taken  by  Albuquerque.  For  nearly 
150  years  after,  it  continued  in  the  possession 
of  the  Portuguese.  About  the  year  1648, 
however,  it  was  retaken  by  the  natives,  who 
have  ever  since  retained  it. 

Mascled  Armor.  A  kind  of  armor  some- 
times worn  by  the  Norman  soldiers,  com- 
posed of  small  lozenge-shaped  plates  of  metal 
fastened  on  a  leathern  or  quilted  under-coat. 

Mascoutins.  A  tribe  of  Indians  of  Al- 
gonkin  stock,  wlio  formerly  inhabited  the 
region  of  the  Upper  Lakes.  They  after- 
wards moved  to  the  Wisconsin  River,  and 
subsequenth-  settled  on  the  Ohio.  In  17'>5 
they  fought  against  Col.  Croghan  on  the 
Wabash  River,  and  attacked  Col.  Clarke  in 
1777.  Their  name  is  now  lost  among  the 
numerous  petty  tribes  that  reside  in  Kansas. 

Mask.  A  military  expression  used  in 
several  senses.  A  masked  battery  is  one  so 
constructed  with  grassy  glacis,  etc.,  as  to  be 
hidden  from  the  view  of  the  enemy,  until,  to 
his  surprise,  it  suddenly  opens  fire  upon 
him, — on  his  flank,  perhaps.  The  fire  of  a 
battery  is  masked  when  some  other  work,  or 
body  of  friendly  troops,  intervener  in  the 
line  of  fire,  and  precludes  the  use  of  the 
guns.  A  fortress  or  an  army  is  masked 
when  a  superior  force  of  the  enemy  holds  it 
in  check,  while  some  hostile  evolution  is 
being  carried  out. 

Mask.  A  wire  cage  to  protect  the  face  in 
fencing. 


MASK 


310 


MASSACRE 


Mask  Wall.  In  permanent  fortification, 
is  the  scarp  wall  of  casemates. 

Mason  and  Dixon's  Line.  The  line 
which  divides  Pennsylvania  from  Maryland, 
running  on  the  parallel  of  39°  43^  26^^. 
The  boundary  between  the  colonial  posses- 
sions of  the  lords  Baltimore  and  of  the  Penn 
family  had  been  a  subject  of  almost  contin- 
ual dispute  from  the  first  settlement  of  the 
country.  At  length,  in  1760,  the  contend- 
ing parties  having  agreed  upon  a  compro- 
mise, appointed  commissioners  to  settle  de- 
finitively the  limits  between  the  two  terri- 
tories. Surveyors  were  employed  by  both 
sides,  but  their  progress  appeared  rather  slow; 
the  proprietors  who  resided  in  England  de- 
cided to  send  Charles  Mason  and  Jeremiah 
Dixon,  two  distinguished  mathematicians 
and  astronomers,  to  complete  the  work. 
They  arrived  in  Philadelphia  in  November, 
1768,  and  by  the  autumn  of  17G7  had  care- 
fully surveyed  and  marked  a  line  of  nearly 
250  miles,  extending  for  the  most  part 
through  a  dense  forest  and  passing  over  a 
number  of  mountain  ridges.  This  line, 
dividing  as  it  does  the  free  State  of  Pennsyl- 
vania from  Maryland,  which  was  formerly 
a  slave  State,  has  been  often  referred  to,  in 
popular  language,  as  the  boundary  between 
freedom  and  slavery  in  the  United  States. 

Mass.  In  statics,  is  the  amount  of  mat- 
ter contained  in  a  body.  In  dijnnmics,  is 
that  measure  of  the  matter  in  a  body  which 
determines  its  relation  to  force.  The  ac- 
cepted measure  is  the  weight  divided  by  the 
force  of  gravity.     See  Force  or  Gravity. 

Mass.  A  word  signifying  the  concentra- 
tion of  troops  ;  the  formation  of  troops  in 
column  at  less  than  half  distance.  To  jnass 
troops,  is  to  concentrate  them  by  this  ar- 
rangement on  a  certain  point.  A  column 
is  closed  in  mass  when  the  sub-divisions  have 
less  than  half  distance. 

Massachusetts.  One  of  the  thirteen 
original  States  of  the  American  Union,  and 
oldest  of  the  New  England  States.  It  was 
discovered  by  the  Cabots  in  1497.  In  1614 
it  was  visited  by  Capt.  John  Smith.  In 
1620  the  "Mayflower"  sailed  from  South- 
ampton with  102  Puritan  settlers,  and 
landed  at  Plymouth  December  22.  One 
half  of  them  died  from  cold  and  hardship 
the  first  year.  In  1637,  the  colony  suft'ered 
from  Indian  massacres;  and  in  King  Philip's 
war  (1675)  12  towns  and  600  houses  were 
burned.  The  war  of  the  Revolution  of  1776 
began  in  Massachusetts  with  the  battles  of 
Lexington  and  Bunker  Hill.  It  adopted 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  1788. 

Massachusetts  Indians.  A  general 
name  given  to  all  the  tribes  of  aborigines 
inhabiting  the  country  in  which  the  colonies 
of  Plymouth  and  Massachusetts  Bay  were 
founded.  The  five  principal  tribes  were 
the  Nausets,  Pokanokets,  or  Wampanoags, 
Massachusetts,  Pennacobks,  and  Nipmucks. 
They  were  nearly  all  exterminated  in  King 
Philip's  war  (1675).  At  present  about  1500 
Indians  reside  in  Massachusetts. 


Massacre.  The  killing  of  human  beings 
by  indiscriminate  slaughter,  murder  of 
numbers  with  cruelty  or  atrocity,  or  con- 
trary to  the  usages  of  civilized  people  ;  cold- 
blooded destruction  of  life ;  butchery  ;  car- 
nage. The  following  are  among  the  most 
remarkable  : 

Before  Christ. — Of  all  the  Carthaginians 
in  Sicily,  397  ;  2000  Tyrians  crucified  and 
8000  put  to  the  sword  for  not  surrendering 
Tyre  to  Alexander,  331  ;  2000  Capuans, 
friends  of  Hannibal,  by  Gracchus,  211; 
dreadful  slaughter  of  the  Teutones  and 
Ambrones  near  Aix,  by  Marius,  the  Roman 
general,  200,000  being  left  dead  on  the  spot, 
102 ;  the  Romans  throughout  Asia,  women 
and  children  not  excepted,  massacred  in  one 
day,  by  order  of  Mithridates,  king  of  Pon- 
tus,  88 ;  great  number  of  Roman  senators 
massacred  by  Cinna,  Marius,  and  Sertorius, 
87 ;  again,  under  Sylla  and  Catiline,  his 
minister  of  vengeance,  82 ;  at  Perusia, 
Octavianus  Caesar  ordered  300  Roman  sena- 
tors and  other  persons  of  distinction  to  be 
sacrificed  to  the  manes  of  Julius  Caesar,  40. 

After  Ch7-ist. — At  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem 1,100,000  Jews  are  said  to  have  been 
put  to  the  sword,  70;  the  Jews,  headed 
by  one  Andrse,  put  to  death  many  Greeks 
and  Romans  in  and  near  Cyrene,  115  ;  Cas- 
sius,  a  Roman  general  under  the  emperor 
M.  Aurelius,  put  to  death  300,000  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Seleucia,  165;  at  Alexandria, 
many  thousands  of  citizens  were  massacred 
by  order  of  Antoninus,  215 ;  the  emperor 
P'robus  is  said  to  have  put  to  death  400,000  of 
the  barbarian  invaders  of  Gaul,  277  ;  massa- 
cre of  the  Gothic  hostages  by  Valens,  378; 
of  Thessalonica,  when  7000  persons  invited 
into  the  circus  were  put  to  the  sword  by 
order  of  Theodosius,  390 ;  of  the  circus  fac- 
tions at  Constantinople,  532 ;  massacre  of  i 
the  Latins  at  Constantinople  by  order  of 
Andronicus,  1184;  of  the  Albigenses  and 
"VValdenses,  commenced  at  Toulouse,  1208; 
thousands  perished  by  the  sword  and  gibbet 
of  the  French  in  Sicily,  1282  (see  Siciliant 
Vespers);  at  Paris,  of  the  Armagnacs,  at 
the  instance  of  John,  duke  of  Burgundy, 
1418;  of  the  Swedish  nobility  at  a  feast,  by 
order  of  Christian  II.,  1520;  of  Protestants 
at  Vassy,  March  1,  1562;  of  70,000  Hugue- 
nots, or  French  Protestants,  in  France, 
August  24,  1572  (see  Bartholomew,  St.); 
of  the  Christians  in  Croatia  by  the  Turks, 
when  65,000  were  slain,  1592;  of  the  pre- 
tender Demetrius  and  his  Polish  adherents, 
May  27,  1606  ;  of  the  Protestants  in  the 
Valteline,  Northern  Italy,  July  19,  1620; 
of  the  Protestants  at  Thorn,  put  to  death 
under  a  pretended  legal  sentence  of  the 
chancellor  of  Poland  for  being  concerned  in 
a  tumult  occasioned  by  a  Roman  Catholic 
procession,  1724;  all  the  Protestant  powers 
in  Europe  interceded  to  have  this  unjust 
sentence  revoked,  but  unavailingly  ;  at 
Batavia,  12,000  Chinese  were  massacred  by 
the  natives,  October,  1740,  under  the  pretext 
of  an  intended  insurrection  ;  at  the  taking 


MASSACRE 


311 


MASSELOTTE 


of  Ismail  by  the  Russians,  30,000  old  and 
vount(  were  slain,  December,  1790;  of 
i'rench  royalists  (see  Septembrizers),  Sep- 
tember 2,  1792  ;  of  Poles  at  Praga,  1794  ;  in 
St.  Domingo,  where  Dessalines  made  proc- 
lamation for  the  massacre  of  uU  the  whites, 
March  29,  1804,  and  many  thousands 
perished ;  insurrection  at  iSIadrid,  and  mas- 
sacre of  the  French,  May  2,  1808;  massacre 
of  the  Mamelukes  in  the  citadel  of  Cairo, 
March  1,  1811  ;  massacre  of  Protestants  at 
Nismes,  perpetrated  by  the  Catholics,  May, 
1815;  massacre  at  Scio,  April  22,  1822;  de- 
struction of  tlie  Janissaries  at  Constanti- 
nople, June  14,  1820;  above  500  Kabyles 
surtocated  in  a  cave  in  Algeria,  June  18,  1845 
(see  Dahra);  massacre  of  Christians  at 
Aleppo,  October  Hi,  1850;  of  Maronites 
bv  Druses  in  Lebanon,  June,  1800;  and  of 
Christians  at  Damascus,  July  9-11,  18G0. 
See  Dkuses  and  Damascus. 

In  British  Ifi.^ton/.—Of^OO  English  nobles 
on  Salisbury  Plain  by  Hengist,  about  450; 
of  the  monks  of  Bangor,  to  the  nuraber  of 
1200,  by  Ethelfrid,  king  of  Bernicia,  G07  or 
612;  of  the  Danes  in  the  southern  counties 
of  England  in  the  night  of  November  13, 
1002,  and  the  23d,  by  Ethelred  II.  At 
London  it  was  most  bloody,  the  churches 
being  no  sanctuarj'.  Among  the  rest  was 
Gunilda,  sister  of  Swein,  king  of  Denmark, 
left  in  hostage  for  the  performance  of  a 
treaty  but  newly  concluded.  Of  the  Jews 
in  England  ;  some  few  pressing  into  West- 
minster Hall  at  Richard  I.'s  coronation, 
•were  put  to  death  by  the  people,  and  a  false 
alarm  being  given  that  the  king  had  ordered 
a  general  massacre  of  them,  the  people  in 
many  parts  of  England  slew  all  they  met. 
In  York,  500  who  had  taken  shelter  in  the 
castle  killed  themselves  rather  than  fall  into 
the  hands  of  the  multitude,  1189.  Of  the 
Bristol  colonists,  at  CuUen's  Wood,  Ireland 
(see  CuLLENs  Woou),  1209;  of  the  Eng- 
lish factory  at  Amboyna,  in  order  to  di.s- 
mssess  its  members  of  the  Spice  Islands, 
February,  1G24;  massacre  of  the  Protestants 
in  Ireland,  in  O'Neill's  rebellion,  October 
28,  1641.  Upwards  of  30,000  British  were 
killed  in  the  commencement  of  this  rebellion. 
In  the  first  three  or  four  days  of  it,  40,000 
or  50,000  of  the  Protestants  were  destroyed. 
Before  the  rebellion  was  entirely  suppressed, 
154,0(X)  Protestants  were  massacred  ;  of  the 
Ifacdonalds  of  Glencoe  (see  Glencoe),  Feb- 
ruarv  13,  1092;  of  184  men,  women,  and 
children,  chiefly  Protestants,  burnt,  shot,  or 
pierced  to  death  by  pikes,  perpetrated  by  the 
insurgent  Irish,  lU  the  barn  of  ScuUabogue, 
Ireland,  in  1798;  of  Europeans  at  Meerut, 
Delhi,  etc.,  by  mutineers  of  the  native  In- 
dian army.  May  and  June,  1857;  of  Euro- 
peans at  Kalangan,  on  the  south  coast  of 
Borneo,  May  1,  1859;  of  the  Europeans  at 
Morant  Bay,  Jamaica,  bv  the  infuriated 
negroes,  October  11-12,  18fi"5.    See  Jamaica. 

In  American  History. — Massacre  of  about 
900  French  Protestants  (soldiers,  women, 
children,  the  aged  and  sick)  in  Florida,  by 


the  Spaniards  under  Melendcz  de  Aviles,  on 
September  21,  1505;  of  about  347  English 
on  March  22,  1022,  and  of  300  English  on 
April  18,  1044,  by  Indians  in  Virginia;  of 
about  100  Algonkin  Indians,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Manhattan,  bv  the  Dutch,  on 
February  25-20,  1043;  of  200  people  at  La 
Chine,  Isle  of  M(jntreal,  by  Iroquois,  Au- 
gust 25,  1089;  of  a  large  number  of  the  in- 
habitants at  Haverhill,  Mass.,  by  the;  French 
under  Des  Chaillons  and  Uertel  de  Rouville, 
assisted  by  100  picked  Canadians  and  a 
number  of  Algonkin  Indians,  August  29, 
1708;  of  the  English  at  Pocotaligo,  Caro- 
lina, by  the  Yamassees  and  their  confeder- 
ates, on  April  15,  1715;  of  a  colony  of 
French,  in  the  southwest,  near  the  banks  of 
the  Mississippi,  by  the  Natchez  Indians,  No- 
vember 28,  1729;  of  about  30  English  sol- 
diers, by  Indians,  allies  of  the  French,  after 
the  cajjitulation  of  Fort  William  Henry, 
August  19,  1757;  of  some  3(J0  settlers, 
chiefly  boys  and  old  men,  by  British  soldiers, 
Seneca  Indians,  and  Tories,  in  W)'oming 
Valley,  Pa.,  on  June  30,  1778  (sec  Wyoming 
Valley)  ;  of  a  party  of  emigrants,  by  In- 
dians in  Mountain  Meadows,  Utah,  1857; 
of  about  1000  settlers  in  Western  Minne- 
sota, by  Sioux  Indians  in  1802;  of  the  gar- 
rison of  Fort  Pillow,  Tcnn.,  bv  the  Confed- 
erates, April  13,  1804;  of' part  of  the 
garrison  of  Fort  Phil  Kearney  (near  the 
fort),  by  Indians,  December,  18G0;  of  five 
companies  of  the  7th  U.  S.  Cavalry  under 
Gon.  Custer,  by  Sioux  Indians,  June  25, 
1S70. 

Massacrer.     One  who  massacres. 

Massagetae.  An  ancient  Scythian  people 
(probably  the  ancestors  of  the  Goths),  who 
invaded  Asia  about  035.  In  a  conflict  with 
them  Cyrus  the  Great  was  killed,  529  n.c. 

Massa-Lubrenze,  or  Massa-de-Sorrento. 
A  town  of  Na])les,  on  the  gulf  of  the  same 
name,  19  miles  south  of  the  city  of  Naples. 
It  was  sacked  by  the  Turks  in  1558. 

Masse  (Fr.).  A  species  of  stock-purse, 
which,  during  the  French  monarchy,  was 
lodged  in  the  hands  of  the  regimental  treas- 
urer or  paymaster,  for  every  sergeant, 
corporal,  drummer,  and  soldier.  The 
amount  retained  for  each  sergeant  was  rinpt 
deniers  per  day,  and  dix  deniers  for  eacli 
of  the  other  ranks,  according  to  the  es- 
tablishment, not  the  effective  number  of 
each  battalion.  Out  of  these  stoppages  a 
settled  and  regular  masse,  or  stock-purse, 
was  made  up,  and  at  the  end  of  every  month 
it  was  paid  into  the  hands  of  the  major  or 
officer  intrusted  with  the  interior  manage- 
ment of  the  corps,  and  was  then  appropri- 
ated to  defray  the  expense  of  clothing  the 
diflerent  regiments,  and  lodged  in  the  hands 
of  the  directors  or  inspector-general  of 
clothing. 

Masse  d'Armes  (Fr.).  A  warlike  weapon, 
which  was  formerly  u^ed.  It  consisted  of  a 
long  pole  with  a  large  iron  head. 

Masselotte  {/■>.).  A  French  term  which  is 
used  in  foundery,  signifying  that  superfluous 


MASSIE 


312 


MATTIACI 


metal  which  remains  after  a  cannon  or  mor- 
tar has  been  cast,  and  which  is  saved  or  filed 
off,  to  give  the  piece  its  proper  form. 

Massie  (Fr.).  A  short  stick  or  rod,  used 
by  artificers  in  making  cartridges. 

Master,  Baggage-.  An  inspector  of 
roads,  formerly  an  appointment  in  the 
Eritish  service. 

Master,  Barrack-.  Sec  Barrack-Mas- 
ter. 

Master-General.   See  Ordnance  Board. 

Master-General,  Barrack-.  Formerly  an 
officer  with  the  rank  of  major-general,  in 
the  British  service,  who  was  vested  with 
considerable  powers.  His  duties  consisted 
in  keeping  all  barracks  in  repair,  and  all 
supplies  of  barrack  furniture,  utensils,  and 
other  stores  for  the  troops,  were  furnished 
by  him,  as  also  a  proper  quantity  of  good 
and  sufficient  firing,  candles,  and  other 
stores.  He  also  supplied  forage  to  the 
cavalry. 

Master-General,  Scout-.  See  Scout- 
Mastkr-General. 

Master-Gunners.  In  the  British  service 
are  pensioned  sergeants  of  artillery,  who  are 
placed  in  charge  of  the  stores  in  small  tow- 
ers or  forts  ;  they  are  divided  into  three 
classes,  of  which  those  in  the  first  class  re- 
ceive 5  shillings,  in  the  second,  3  shillings 
and  6  pence,  and  in  the  third,  3  shillings 
per  day.  They  are  now  borne  in  the  Coast 
Brigade  of  Koyal  Artillery,  but  the  office 
has  much  degenerated  in  importance  since 
it  was  first  created,  at  least  as  early  as  the 
time  of  Henry  VIII. 

Mastery.     Victory  in  war. 

Matafunda.  An  ancient  machine  of  war, 
which  was  used  for  throwing  stones,  prob- 
ably by  means  of  a  sling. 

Matagorda.  A  small  fort  and  militarj' 
post  in  the  south  of  Spain,  contiguous  to 
Cadiz.  On  February  22,  1810,  Capt.  (after- 
wards Lieut. -Gen.  Sir  Archibald)  Maclaine 
was  posted  here  with  a  force  of  about  140  men. 
The  French  cannonaded  the  work  with  field 
artillery  all  the  next  day  ;  but  the  garrison 
were  immovable.  On  March  21,  the  fire  of  48 
guns  and  mortars  was  directed  on  the  little 
fort  for  thirty  hours;  when  64  men  out  of 
the  140  having  fallen.  Gen.  Graham  sent 
boats  to  carry  off  the  survivors,  and  the  fort 
was  surrendered. 

Matan.  One  of  the  Philippine  Islands, 
lying  to  the  east  of  Zebu,  where  Magellan 
was  killed  in  a  skirmish  with  the  natives  in 
1520. 

Matarieh.  A  village  of  Lower  Egypt,  in 
the  province  of  Ghizeh,  which  stands  on  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Heliopolis,  5  miles  north- 
east from  Cairo.  The  Turks  were  defeated 
here  by  the  French  in  1800. 

Match.  A  preparation  invented  to  retain 
fire  for  the  service  of  artillery,  mines,  fire- 
works, etc.  For  different  kinds  in  use  and 
their  composition,  see  Laboratory  Stores. 

Match.  A  bringing  together  of  two  par- 
ties suited  to  one  another,  as  for  a  trial  of 
skill  or  force,  a  contest,  or  the  like ;  as,  spe- 


cifically, a  contest  to  try  strength  or  skill ; 
an  emulous  struggle. 

Matchlock.  The  lock  of  a  musket  con- 
taining a  match  for  firing  it ;  hence,  a  mus- 
ket fired  by  means  of  a  match. 

Mate-griffon.  An  ancient  machine,  the 
destroyer  and  terror  of  the  Greeks,  which 
projected  both  stones  and  darts. 

Materiel.  All  cannon,  small-arms,  car- 
riages, implements,  ammunition,  etc.,  neces- 
sary for  war  purposes,  used  in  contradis- 
tinction to  personnel.     See  Personnel. 

Mathematics.  That  science,  or  class  of 
sciences,  which  treats  of  the  exact  relations 
existing  between  the  quantities  or  magni- 
tudes, and  of  the  methods  by  which,  in  ac- 
cordance with  these  relations,  quantities 
sought  are  deducible  from  other  quantities 
known  or  supposed.  It  is  usually  divided 
into  pure,  which  considers  magnitude  or 
quantity  abstractly,  without  relation  to  mat- 
ter ;  and  mixed,  which  treats  of  magnitude 
as  subsisting  in  material  bodies,  and  is  con- 
sequently interwoven  with  physical  consider- 
ations ;  and  to  this  branch  may  be  referred 
astronomy,  geography,  hydrography,  hy- 
drostatics, mechanics,  fortification,  gunnery, 
mining,  and  engineering.  The  knowledge 
of  military  mathematics  is  applicable  to  all 
the  operations  of  war,  where  everything  con- 
sists in  proportion,  measure,  and  motion, 
bringing  into  play  the  several  important 
sciences  already  enumerated,  a  certain  pro- 
ficiency in  most  of  which  is  absolutely  req- 
uisite to  the  formation  of  a  good  and  skill- 
ful officer. 

Matras  {Fr.).  A  sort  of  dart  which  was 
anciently  used,  and  which  was  not  sufficiently 
pointed  to  occasion  anything  more  than  a 
bruise. 

Matron.  A  woman,  generally  the  wife 
of  some  well-behaved  and  good  soldier,  who 
is  employed  to  assist  in  the  hospital,  do  the 
washing,  etc.,  and  is  under  the  direction  of 
the  surgeon,  by  whom  she  is  originally  ap- 
pointed to  the  situation. 

Matrosses.  Were  soldiers  in  the  royal 
regiment  of  artillery  in  the  British  service, 
who  assisted  the  gunners  in  loading,  firing, 
and  sponging  the  great  guns.  The  term  is 
now  obsolete  in  the  service,  and  "the  duty  is 
done  by  the  gunners. 

Matter.  That  with  regard  to  which  any- 
thing takes  place, — the  subject  of  action, 
complaint,  discussion,  legal  action,  or  the 
like.  A  word  used  in  reference  to  courts- 
martial.  The  specific  charges  which  are 
brought  against  a  prisoner,  and  to  which 
the  court  must  strictly  confine  itself.  Also 
applied  to  the  evidence  before  a  legal  tri- 
bunal. Neil)  matter  is  new  evidence  not  be- 
fore considered. 

Mattiaci.  A  people  in  Germany,  whodwelt 
on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Khine,  between 
the  Main  and  the  Lahn,  and  were  a  branch 
of  the  Chatti.  They  were  subdued  by  the 
llomans,  who,  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  had 
fortresses  and  silver  mines  in  their  country. 
After  the  death  of  Nero  they  revolted  against 


MATTOCK 


313 


MECHANICAL 


thfi  Romans,  and  took  part  with  the  Chatti 
and  otlier  German  tribes  in  tlie  siege  of  Mo- 
guntiaciini.  From  this  time  they  disappear 
from  liistnry;  and  their  country  was  subse- 
quently inhabited  l»y  the  Aiemanni. 

Mattock.  A  pioneer  tool,  resembling  a 
pickaxe,  but  having  two  broad  sharp  edges 
instead  of  points. 

Mattress.  A  quilted  bed  ;  a  bed  stuffed 
with  hair,  moss,  or  other  soft  material,  and 
qnillcd.  Mattresses  are  much  used  by  offi- 
cers on  carupaigns. 

Mattucashlash.  An  ancient  Scotch  wea- 
pon sometimes  called  armpit  dagger,  which 
was  worn  under  thearm|>it,  ready  to  be  used 
on  coming  to  close  quarters.  This,  with  a 
broad  sword  and  shield,  completely  armed 
the  Highlanders. 

Maubenge.  A  town  of  France,  in  the 
d(partm(,'nt<jf  Nord,  situated  on  the  Sambrc, 
not  far  from  the  frontiers  of  Helgium.  The 
town  is  well  fortified,  the  defenses  being  by 
the  famous  Vauban.  The  town  traces  its 
origin  back  to  the  7th  century,  and  being 
situated  near  the  frontier,  has  be«;n  an  ob- 
ject t)f  great  contention.  It  has  been  taken 
no  less  than  ten  times  since  the  loth  century, 
and  finally  by  the  allies  in  1815. 

Maul.  A  heavy  beater,  or  hammer,  usu- 
ally shod  with  iron,  used  in  driving  piles, 
etc. 

Mauritania,  or  Mauretania.  The  an- 
cient name  of  the  northwestern  part  of 
Africa,  corresponding  in  its  limits  to  the 
present  sultanate  of  Morocco  and  the  west- 
ern portion  of  Algeria.  It  derived  its  name 
from  its  inhabitants,  the  Mauri  (Moors). 
The  country  was  conquered  by  the  Romans, 
who  founded  many  colonies  in  it,  and  in  49 
B.C.  Julius  Ca?sar  appointed  Bogudes  and 
Bocohoris  joint  kings  of  Mauritania.  In 
429  the  Vandal  king  Genseric,  at  the  invita- 
tion of  Count  Boniface,  crossed  the  Straits 
of  Gades,  and  Mauritania,  with  other  Afri- 
can provinces,  fell  into  the  hands  of  tlie 
barbarian  conquerors.  Belisarius  destroyed 
the  kingdom  of  the  Vandals,  and  Maurita- 
nia again  became  a  Roman  province  under 
an  Eastern  e.xarch.  In  ()98,  when  the  Arabs 
made  the  final  conquest  of  Africa,  the 
Moors  adopted  the  religion,  name,  and 
origin  of  their  conquerors,  and  sunk  back 
into  their  more  congenial  state  of  Moham- 
medan savages. 

Mauritius,  or  The  Isle  of  France.  An 
island  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  lying  about  500 
miles  cast  fnmi  Madagascar,  and  forming  a 
colony  of  (ireat  Britain.  This  island  was 
discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1505,  and 
in  1598  it  was  taken  by  the  Dutch.  In  1810 
it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  English. 

Mauser  Gun.  Is  the  army  service  breech- 
loading  rille  used  since  1874  by  the  German 
infantry.  It  was  invented  in' 1871,  and  de- 
rives its  name  from  Mauser,  a  gunsmith  of 
"Wurtemberg,  who  modified  and  greatly  im- 
proved it.  Its  advantages  t>ver  the  needle- 
gun,  the  weapon  used  in  the  Franco-German 
war,  arc  numerous.  It  is  lighter,  weighing 
21 


j  about  two  pounds  less,  and  carrying  a  heavier 
charge  of  powder  and  a  lighter  ball,  is  of 
longer  range,  being  effective  at  1300  yards; 
the  manner  of  loading  it  is  simpler,  and  it 
can  be  fired  with  greater  rapidity. 

Maximum  Charge.     See  CnAKCiK. 

Maya.  A  gorge  in  the  Pyrenees,  between 
BidasMju  and  Nivelle,  the  scene  of  an  action 
in  July,  181.3,  in  wliich  the  French  were 
worsted  by  the  English,  under  Gen.  Stewart. 

Mayaguez.  A  town  and  port  of  the  island 
of  Pocto  Rico.  An  adventurer  named  Du- 
condray  took  this  town  in  1822,  and  made  an 
attempt  to  establish  an  independent  republic. 

Maynard's  Primer.  Consisted  of  a  coil 
of  paper  tape  containing  small  charges  of 
percussion-powder  placed  at  certain  intervals. 
The  coil  was  placed  in  a  circular  cavity  on 
the  outside  of  the  lock-plate.  The  cocking 
of  the  piece,  by  unwinding  the  coil,  brought 
successive  charges  over  the  nipple,  when  they 
were  ex])loded  by  the  fall  f)f  the  hammer. 

Maynard's  Rifle.  One  of  the  first,  if  not 
the  first  rifle  in  which  a  metallic  cartridge 
was  used.  It  was  describetl  in  an  official  re- 
port to  the  U.  S.  Chief  of  Ordnance  in  185G. 
This,  as  well  as  the  primer  mentioned  above, 
was  the  invention  of  Dr.  E.  Maynard.  This 
ritle  in  imj. roved  form  is  still  in  the  market. 

Meal  Powder.     Sec  (Junpowdkr. 

Measure.  To  compute  or  ascertain  the 
extent,  quantity,  dimensions,  or  capacity  of, 
by  a  certain  rule  fir  standard. 

Measure  of  Velocity.  In  projectiles  and 
mechanics,  is  the  space  passed  over  by  a 
moving  body  in  any  given  time.  The  space 
therefore  must  be  divided  into  as  many 
equal  parts  as  the  time  is  conceived  to  be 
divided  into:  the  quantity  of  space  answer- 
ing to  such  jwrtion  of  time  is  the  measure 
of  the  velocity. 

Measures.  For  powder  arc  cylindrical 
copper  vessels  of  various  sizes  for  determin- 
ing the  charges  of  shells,  cannon,  etc. 

Meaux.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Seine-ot-Marne,  23  miles 
northeast  from  Paris.  After  a  siege  of  sev- 
eral months,  this  place  was  taken  bv  the 
English  in  1520. 

Mecca.  A  city  of  Arabia,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Ilejaz,  and  of  the  district  Belud- 
el-IIaram.  This  was  the  birthplace  of  Mo- 
hammed, and  the  cradle  of  the  Mu.ssulman 
creed.  In  1804  and  1807,  it  was  taken  by 
the  Wahabees,  and  in  1818,  bv  Ibrahim 
Pasha. 

Mechanical  Manoeuvres.  The  applica- 
tion of  the  nieehatiical  jxiwers  in  mounting, 
di.-mounting,  shifting,  and  transporting  ar- 
tillery. 

Mechanical  Powers.  Certain  simple  ma- 
chines, such  as  the  lever  and  its  modifica- 
tions, the  wheel  and  axle,  the  pulley,  the  in- 
clined plane  with  its  modifications,  the  screw, 
and  the  wedge,  which  convert  a  snuiU  force 
acting  through  a  great  space  into  a  great 
force  acting  through  a  small  space,  or  vice 
versa,  and  arc  used  separately  or  in  combina- 
tion. 


MECHANICS 


314 


MEDIA 


Mechanics.  That  science,  or  branch  of 
applied  mathematics,  which  treats  of  motion, 
and  develops  the  effects  of  powers  or  mov- 
inn;  forces,  so  far  as  they  are  applied  to  ma- 
chines. 

Mechanicsville.  In  Henrico  Co.,  Va. 
Near  here,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Chicka- 
hominy,  on  the  east  side  of  Beaver  Dam 
Creek,  a  battle  was  fought  on  June  26, 1862, 
between  the  Confederate  forces,  under  Gen. 
Lee,  and  the  Federal  troops,  under  Gen. 
McClellan,  in  which  the  former  were  com- 
pelled to  retreat  with  great  lo.ss.  The  fight 
was  mainly  sustained  on  the  Federal  side  by 
the  brigades  of  Gens.  Reynolds  and  Seymour, 
and  lasted  about  seven  hours,  during  the 
greater  part  of  which  time  the  Federal  ar- 
tillery kept  up  a  destructive  fire  on  the  enemy 
as  they  essayed  to  charge  the  lines,  each  suc- 
cessive attempt  only  ending  in  renewed  di.s- 
aster.  Their  loss  was  said  to  be  about  3000, 
while  that  of  the  Federals  did  not  exceed  300. 

Mechlin,  or  Malines.  A  town  of  Bel- 
gium, in  the  province  of  Antwerp,  situated 
on  the  Dyle.  It  was  founded  in  the  6th 
century  ;  destroyed  by  the  Normans  in  884; 
sacked  by  the  Spaniards,  1572  ;  taken  by  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  1578,  and  by  the  English, 
1580;  frequently  captured  in  the  17th  and 
18th  centuries,  partaking  in  the  evil  fortunes 
of  the  country. 

Mecklenburg.  Formerly  a  principality 
in  Lower  Saxony,  now  independent  as  the 
two  grand  duchies  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
and  Mecklenburg-Strelitz.  The  house  of 
Mecklenburg  claims  to  be  descended  from 
Genseric  the  Vandal,  who  ravaged  the  West- 
ern empire  in  the  5th  century,  and  died, 
477.  During  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  Meck- 
lenburg was  conquered  by  Wallenstein,  who 
became  its  duke,  1628  ;  it  was  restored  to  its 
own  duke,  1630.  After  several  changes,  the 
government  was  settled  in  1701  as  it  now 
exists  in  the  two  branches  of  Schwerin  and 
Strelitz.  In  1815  the  dukes  were  made 
grand  dukes,  and  they  joined  the  new 
North  German  Confederation  by  treatv, 
August  21,  1866. 

Medal.  Is  a  piece  of  metal  in  the  form 
of  a  coin,  struck  to  commemorate  some  re- 
markable event,  or  in  honor  of  some  distin- 
guished person,  but  having  no  place  in  the 
currency.  Medals  belong  to  two  periods, 
ancient  and  modern,  separated  by  u  wide 
interval.  To  the  former  belong  those  pieces 
issued  in  ancient  Rome,  known  as  medal- 
iions,  and  made  of  gold,  silver,  or  copper. 
They  are  generally  supposed  to  have  been 
struck  on  occasions  similar  to  those  on  which 
medals  are  coined  in  modern  times,  on  the 
accession  of  an  emperor,  on  the  achievement 
of  an  important  victory,  or  as  specimens  of 
workmanship.  Modern  medals  date  from 
the  14th  century,  but  few  were  struck  prior 
to  the  15th.  In  more  recent  times,  it  has 
become  customary  to  confer  medals  as  marks 
of  distinction  for  eminent  worth  or  noble 
conduct,  but  more  particularly  for  naval  or 
military  services.     Such  medals  of  honor  are 


seldom  of  great  intrinsic  value,  their  worth 
depending  on  the  associations  connected 
with  them.  During  the  Revolutionary  war 
Congress  conferred  these  marks  of  honor  on 
several  military  and  naval  heroes,  who  dis- 
tinguished themselves  by  their  valor  or 
achievements  during  that  eventful  period. 
In  the  U.  S.  service,  at  present,  bronze 
medals  of  honor  are  conferred  on  enlisted 
men  in  the  army,  navy,  and  marine  corps 
for  gallantry  in  action,  or  extraordinary 
heroism  in  the  line  of  their  duties.  In  the 
English  military  service,  similar  medals  are 
granted.  They  are  generally  of  silver,  and 
have  ribbons  attached,  with  clasps  or  small 
bars,  each  of  which  bears  the  name  of  a  par-  i 
ticular  engagement.  Good-service  medals 
of  silver  are  also  distributed  among  meri- 
torious soldiers,  sailors,  and  marines. 

Medals  of  Honor.     See  Medals. 

Medeah,  or  Medeyah.  A  fortified  town 
of  Algeria,  40  miles  southwest  from  Algiers. 
This  town  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1820. 

Media.  In  ancient  times,  the  name  of 
the  northwestern  part  of  Iran,  which  was 
bounded  by  the  Caspian  Sea  on  the  north, 
Persia  on  the  south,  Parthia  on  the  east,  and 
Assyria  on  the  west.  The  Medians  were  in 
language,  religion,  and  manners  very  nearly 
allied  to  the  Persians.  After  they  had 
shaken  off  the  yoke  of  the  Assyrians,  their 
tribes  united  about  708  B.C.,  chose  Dejoces 
for  their  chief,  and  made  Ecbatana  their 
capital.  His  son  Phraortes,  or  Arphaxad, 
subdued  the  Persians.  Cyaxares,  the  son  of 
Phraortes,  in  alliance  with  Nabopolassar, 
king  of  Babylon,  overthrew  the  Assyrian 
empire  about  604  B.C.,  spread  the  terror  of 
his  arms  as  far  as  Egypt  and  the  farthest 
bounds  of  Asia  Minor,  and  vanquished  the 
brigand  hordes  of  Scythia,  who  had  carried 
their  ravages  as  far  as  Syria.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Astyage,  who  was  deposed 
(560  B.C.)  by  his  own  grandson  Cyrus,  king 
of  Persia  ;  and  from  this  time  the  two  na- 
tions are  spoken  of  as  one  people.  After  the 
death  of  Alexander  the  Great  (324  B.C.),  the 
northwest  portion  of  Media  became  a  sepa- 
rate kingdom,  and  existed  till  the  time  of 
Augustus ;  the  other  portion,  under  the 
name  of  Great  Media,  forming  a  part  of  the  i 
Syrian  monarchy.  Media  was  on  several  .! 
occasions  separated  from  Persia.  In  152 
B.C.,  Mithridates  I.  took  Great  Media  from 
the  Syrians,  and  annexed  it  to  the  Parthian 
empire,  and  about  30  B.C.,  it  had  a  king  of 
its  own,  named  Artavasdes,  against  whom 
Mark  Antony  made  war.  Under  the  Sassa- 
nian  dynasty,  the  whole  of  Media  was  united 
to  Persia.  It  became,  during  the  14th  and  : 
15th  centuries,  the  stronghold  of  the  Turko-  ' 
man  tribes.  In  early  times  the  Medes  were 
a  warlike  race,  and  were  distinguished  for 
their  skill  with  the  bow.  They  were  also  ■ 
celebrated  for  their  horsemanship,  and  it  I 
was  from  them  that  the  Persians  adopted  | 
this  and  other  favorite  exercises  and  ac-  ' 
quirements.  In  subsequent  times,  they  ap- 
pear to  have  become  efl'eminated  by  luxury.  : 


MEDIATOR 


315 


MEER 


Mediator.  Any  state  or  power  which  in- 
tcTferos  to  Jidjust  ii  quarrol  between  any  two 
or  ninrL-  pcwcrs,  is  called  a  mediator. 

Medical  Department.  This  department 
of  an  army,  next  to  the  tomniissariat,  i.s  tlie 
mo.st  important  of  all  the  non-combatant 
sections.  The  suri^ical  treatment  of  the 
wounded  in  actual  lii^hting,  and  still  more 
the  combat  with  disease  engendered  by 
crowdint^,  unhealthy  stations,  and  the  reck- 
less liabits  of  the  soldiery,  necessitate  a  larj^e 
medical  stafl";  for,  on  an  average  of  the 
whole  army,  it  is  found  that  the  rate  of  sick- 
ness is  at  least  quadruple  that  for  the  civil 
population.  In  tlie  IJrilish  army  every  bat- 
talion, when  at  home  or  in  the  temperate 
zone,  has  a  surgeon  and  an  assistant-surgeon  ; 
when  in  India  or  the  tropics,  another  assist- 
ant-surgeon is  added.  The  medical  depart- 
ment is  governed  by  a  director-general,  who 
is  a  member  of  the  AV^ar  Oflice,  and  has 
charge  of  the  surgical,  medical,  and  sanitary 
arrangements  of  the  army.  In  the  United 
States  every  military  post  has  at  least  one 
medical  officer  and  sometimes  two,  as  the 
nature  of  tlie  climate  or  the  strength  of  the 
command  demands,  all  of  whom  are  under 
the  command  of  a  surgeon-general,  who 
ranks  as  brigadier-general,  and  is  perma- 
nently established  at  Washington,  D.  C. 
He  has  full  control  over  everything  that 
pertains  to  the  medical  department  of  the 
army.  Officers  of  the  medical  department 
are  assistant-surgeons,  with  the  rank  of  tirst 
lieutenants  of  cavalry  the  first  five  years  of 
their  service  thereafter,  till  promoted  to  the 
gradeof  surgeon,  when  they  receive  the  rank, 
pa)',  and  emoluments  of  captain. 

Medical  Director.  In  the  U.  S.  service, 
an  officer  who  is  placed  on  duty  at  the  head- 
quarters of  a  military  geograjiiiical  division 
or  department,  and  who,  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  surgeon-general,  has  control  of 
the  medical  department  within  the  limits  of 
the  command  in  which  he  is  serving. 

Medical  School.  At  Netley,  England, 
an  instilutiiui  is  established  for  the  technical 
education  of  medical  officers  for  the  British 
and  Indian  military  service.  Candidates  are 
examined  competitively  in  the  ordinary  sub- 
jects of  professional  knowledge;  and,  pass- 
ing satisfactorily  through  that  ordeal,  are 
then  re(|uired  to  attend  for  six  months  at  the 
Military  Medical  School.  As  the  school  is 
attached  to  the  Royal  Victoria  Hospital, 
wliich  is  the  great  invalid  depot  for  the  whole 
army,  the  students  have  ample  opportunity 
of  seeing  theorv  exemplified  in  practice. 

Medical  Staff.  This  branch  of  the  Brit- 
ish army  is  under  the  control  of  an  expe- 
rienced officer,  stationed  at  headquarters, 
under  the  denomination  of  '"director-gen- 
eral." Immediately  under  his  command  are 
a  number  of  inspectors-general,  deputy  in- 
spectors-general, and  a  corps  of  statl'-sur- 
Koons.  The  locality  of  all  the  officers  su]K)r- 
ainate  to  the  director-general  is  determined 
by  the  force  to  which  they  may  be  attached. 
All  the  regimental  surgeons  and  assistant- 


surgeons  make  their  reports  to  and  consult 
the  stat^'-officer  who  is  placed  in  their  district. 
The  director-general  is  paid  from  the  civil 
department  of  the  government.  A  deputy 
inspector-general  of  hosi)itals  must  have 
served  five  years  at  home,  or  three  years 
abroad  in  this  rank,  before  he  shall  bo  eligi- 
ble to  the  highest  rank  of  inspector-general. 

The  medical  board  consists  of  three  or  four 
medical  officers,  who  may  be  convened  by 
an  order  through  the  Secretary  of  AVar,  for 
the  inspection  of  wounded  officers,  in  order 
to  secure  them  a  provision  for  life,  according 
to  the  regulations  regarding  pensions,  etc. 

Medicine-chest.  Is  composed  of  all  sorts 
of  medicines  necessary  for  a  campaign,  to- 
gether with  such  chirurgical  instruments  as 
are  useful,  fitted  up  in  chests  and  portable. 
The  army  is  supplied  with  these  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  government. 

Medina.  Or  more  fully,  Medinat  Al 
Nabi  (City  of  the  Prophet),' the  holiest  city 
throughout  Mohammedanism  next  to  Mecca, 
and  second  capital  and  stronghold  of  Hedjaz 
in  Western  Arabia.  In  this  city  Mohammed 
was  protected  when  he  fled  from  Mecca, 
September  13,  G22,  others  say  July  15,  022. 
(See  Hkoika.)  Medina  was  taken  by  the 
Wahabees  in  1804;  retaken  by  the  pasha  of 
Egypt  in  1818. 

Medina  de  Rio  Seco.  A  town  of  Spain, 
25  miles  northwest  of  Valladolid,  on  the  Se- 
guillo,  an  atlluent  oi  the  Douro.  Here  Bessi- 
eres  defeated  the  Spaniards,  July  15,  1808. 

Medjidie.  A  Turkish  order,  instituted  in 
1852,  and  conferred  after  the  Crimean  cam- 
paign, to  a  considerable  extent,  on  British 
officers.  It  has  five  classes  ;  and  the  decora- 
tion, which  dilfers  in  size  for  the  difi'erent 
classes,  is  a  silver  sun  of  seven  tri|)le  rays, 
with  the  device  of  the  crescent  and  star  al- 
ternating with  the  rays.  On  a  circle  of  red 
enamel,  in  the  centre  of  the  decoration,  is 
the  legend  in  Turkish,  whose  signification  is 
"zeal,  honor,  and  loyalty,"  and  the  date 
12(38,  the  Mohammedan  year  corresponding 
to  1852  ;  the  sultan's  name  is  inscribed  ^n  a 
gold  field  within  this  circle.  The  first  three 
classes  suspend  the  badge  round  the  neck 
from  a  red  ribbon  having  green  borders,  and 
the  fourth  and  fifth  classes  wear  it  attached 
to  a  similar  ribbon  on  the  left  breast.  A 
star,  in  design  closely  resembling  the  badge, 
is  worn  on  the  left  breast  by  the  first  class, 
and  on  the  right  breast  by  the  second  class. 

Meeanee,  or  Miyani.  A  village  in  Sinde, 
Hindostan,  on  the  Indus,  (J  miles  north  of 
Hyderabad,  is  celebrated  as  the  scene  of  a 
great  battle  between  Sir  Charles  Napier  and 
the  ameers  of  Sinde,  February  17,  1848.  Sir 
Charles's  force,  composed  partly  of  Euro- 
peans, and  partly  of  natives,  amounted  to 
only  '2Sm  men  ;  'that  of  his  foes  to  22,000, 
yet"  the  latter  were  totally  routed,  losing  in 
killed  and  wounded  5000,  while  Sir  Charles's 
loss  was  only  25tJ.  The  result  of  this  victory 
was  the  conquest  and  annexation  of  Sinde. 

Meer  Bukshy.  In  the  East  Indies,  a. 
chief  paymaster. 


MEER 


m 


MEMBERS 


Meet  Tozuk.  In  the  East  Indies,  a  mar- 
shal whose  business  is  to  preserve  order  in  a 
procession  or  line  of  march,  and  to  report 
absentees. 

Meerut,  Merut,  or  Mirut.  The  chief  town 
of  a  district  of  the  same  name  in  British 
India,  on  the  Kali  Nuddi,  about  42  miles 
northeast  from  Delhi.  Here  on  May  10, 
1857,  the  native  troops  revolted,  shooting 
their  own  European  officers,  and  massacring 
the  European  inmates  without  respect  to  age 
or  sex. 

Megalopolis  (now  Sinano,  or  Sinanu). 
The  most  recent,  but  the  most  important  of 
the  cities  of  Arcadia,  was  founded  on  the 
advice  of  Epaminondas,  after  the  battle  of 
Leuctra,  371  B.C.,  and  was  formed  out  of  the 
inhabitants  of  38  villages.  It  was  situated 
near  the  frontiers  of  Messenia,  on  the  river 
Helisson.  It  was  for  a  time  subject  to  the 
Macedonians,  but  soon  after  the  death  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  it  was  governed  by  a 
series  of  native  tyrants,  the  last  of  whom 
united  the  city  to  the  Achcean  League,  234 
B.C.  It  became,  in  consequence,  opposed  to 
Sparta,  and  was  taken  by  Cleomenes,  who 
destroyed  a  great  part  of  the  city,  222. 
After  the  battle  of  Sellasia  in  the  following 
year  it  was  restored  by  Philopcemen. 

Megara.  An  ancient  city  of  Greece,  capi- 
tal of  the  territorj'  Megaris,  was  situated  8 
stadia  (1  mile)  from  the  sea,  opposite  the 
island  of  Salamis,  about  26  miles  from  Athens 
and  31  miles  from  Corinth.  In  461-445  B.C. 
the  Athenians  had  possession  of  the  country, 
but  it  subsequently  became  annexed  to  At- 
tica, and  Megaris  formed  one  of  the  four 
ancient  divisions  of  Attica.  It  was  next 
conquered  by  the  Dorians,  and  was  for  a  time 
subject  to  Corinth  ;  but  it  finally  asserted  its 
independence,  and  rapidly  became  a  wealthy 
and  powerful  city.  The  government  was 
originally  an  aristocracy,  as  in  most  of  the 
Doric  cities  ;  but  Theagenes,  one  of  the  com- 
mon people,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
popular  party,  and  obtained  the  supreme 
power  about  620  B.C.  Theagenes  was  after- 
ward expelled,  and  a  democratical  form  of 
government  established.  After  the  Persian 
wars,  Megara  was  for  some  time  at  war  with 
Corinth,  and  was  thus  led  to  form  an  alli- 
ance with  Athens,  and  to  receive  an  Athenian 
garrison  in  the  city,  461  ;  but  they  were  ex- 
pelled in  441.  The  city  was  taken  and  its 
walls  destroyed  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  ;  it 
was  again  taken  by  the  Romans  under  Q. 
Metellus ;  and  in  the  time  of  Augustus  it 
had  ceased  to  be  a  place  of  importance. 

Meggheteriarque  (Fr.).  The  command- 
ing officer  of  a  body  of  men  ;  who  formerly 
did  duty  at  Constantinople,  and  were  called 
Heterienyies,  being  composed  of  soldiers  who 
were  enlisted  in  the  allied  nations. 

Mehadpore,  Mehidpoor,  Mahedpore,  or 
Maheidpoor.  A  town  of  Hindostan,  Gwalior 
dominions,  22  miles  north  of  Odjein.  Here 
Sir  Thomas  Hislop  and  Sir  John  Malcolm 
defeated  the  Ma,hrattas  under  Holkar,  De- 
cember 21,  1817. 


Meigs  Gun.     See  Magazine  Guns. 

Melanippus.  The  name  of  four  Trojan 
warriors,  who  fought  valiantly  in  the  wars 
of  their  native  country. 

Melazzo  (West  Sicily).  Here  Garibaldi, 
on  July  20-21,  1860,  defeated  the  Neapoli- 
tans under  Gen.  Bosco,  who  lost  about  600 
men  ;  Garibaldi's  loss  being  167.  The  latter 
entered  Messina;  and  on  July  30  a  conven- 
tion was  signed  by  which  it  was  settled  that 
the  Neapolitan  troops  were  to  quit  Sicily. 
They  held  the  citadel  of  Messina  till  March 
13,  1861. 

Melee  {Fr.).  A  military  term,  which  is 
used  among  the  French  to  express  the  hurry 
and  confusion  of  a  battle.  Melee  corre- 
sponds with  the  English  expression  "  thick 
of  the  fight." 

Melegnano.     See  Marignano. 

Melfi.  A  town  of  Naples,  province  of 
Basilicata  (Potenza),  75  miles  east-north- 
east of  Naples,  and  34  south  of  Foggia.  It 
was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Norman  pos- 
sessions in  Southern  Ital}',  and  was  defended 
by  walls,  now  in  a  ruinous  condition,  and  by 
an  ancient  Norman  castle.  The  town  was 
taken,  and  18,000  of  its  inhabitants  massa- 
cred bv  the  French,  under  Lautrec  de  Foix, 
in  1528. 

Meloria,  or  Melora.  A  small  island  in 
the  Mediterranean,  oft' the  coast  of  Tuscany, 
4  miles  west  of  Leghorn.  Near  Meloria  the 
Pisan  fleet  defeated  the  Genoese  in  1241, 
capturing  many  bishops  going  with  much 
treasure  to  a  council.  The  total  destruction 
of  the  Pisan  fleet  on  August  6,  1284,  by  the 
Genoese  near  the  same  place,  after  a  most 
sanguinary  conflict,  was  considered  to  be  the 
just  punishment  of  impiety. 

Melos  (now  Milo).  One  of  the  Cyclades 
in  the  ^gean  Sea,  colonized  by  the  Spar- 
tans about  1116  B.C.;  it  was  captured  during 
the  Peloponnesian  war,  after  a  seven  months' 
siege,  by  the  Athenians,  who  massacred  all 
the  men  and  sold  the  women  and  children  as 
slaves,  416  B.C. 

Melrose.  A  village  at  the  foot  of  the 
Eildon  Hills,  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Tweed.  It  is  famous  for  the  ruins  of  its 
noble  abbey  founded  by  King  David  I.  in 
1136,  its  original  pile  having  been  destroyed 
during  the  Wars  of  the  Succession.  Mel- 
rose was  burned  by  Kenneth,  king  of  Scots, 
in  839. 

Melton-Mowbray.  A  town  of  England, 
in  Leicestershire,  situated  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Wreak  and  Eye.  It  is  remarkable  as 
the  scene  of  a  defeat  of  the  Parliamentary 
troops  by  the  royalists  in  1644. 

Melun.  An  ancient  town  of  France, 
capital  of  the  department  of  Seine-et-Marne, 
28  miles  southeast  from  Paris.  It  was  the 
Melodutiujn  of  the  Romans  ;  was  taken  by 
Clovis  in  494  ;  was  stormed  five  times  during 
the  9th  century  by  the  Northmen,  and  fell 
into  the  hands  of  "the  English  after  a  siege 
of  six  months  in  1419,  and  was  held  by  them 
for  ten  years. 

Members.     Officers  are  so  called  who  are 


MEMBERS 


317 


MENTANA 


detailed  by  orders  to  sit  on  general  or  garri- 
son courts-martial. 

Members,  Supernumerary.  In  case  su- 
permunorary  members  are  detailed  for  a 
"court-martial,  they  are  sworn,  and  it  is  right 
that  they  should  sit  and  be  present  at  all  de- 
liberations even  when  the  court  is  cleared,  in 
order  to  be  prepared  to  take  the  place  of 
any  absent  member.  Until  then  they  have 
no  voice. 

Memel.  A  town  and  seaport  of  East 
Prussia,  on  the  small  river  Dange,  adjacent 
to  the  Ciirische  Half,  74  miles  northeast  from 
KiJiiigsberg.  It  is  strongly  fortified.  It 
was  taken  by  Teutonic  knights  about  1328. 

Memmingen.  A  town  of  Bavaria,  circle 
of  Swabia,  situated  on  a  tributary  of  the 
I  Her.  It  is  noted  as  the  scene  of  a  victory 
gained  by  the  French  under  Moreau  over 
the  Austrians,  May  10,  1800. 

Memoir.  Is  the  title  given  by  military 
officers  to  those  plans  which  they  offer  to 
their  government  or  commanders  on  sub- 
jects ri'lating  to  war  or  military  economy. 

Memoirs.  In  military  literature,  a  spe- 
cies of  history,  written  by  persons  who  had 
Bome  share  in  the  transactions  they  relate, 
answering  in  some  measure  to  what  the 
Romans  c»\\  co7)i7ne}itarii,  "commentaries." 
Hence  Cicsar's  Commentaries,  or  the  mem- 
oirs of  his  campaigns. 

Memorial.      An  address   to  the  govern- 
ment on  anv  matter  of  public  service. 
I  Memphis.     A  celebrated  Egyptian  city, 

situated  in  the  Delta,  or  Lower  Egypt. 
During  the  attempts  of  the  native  rulers  to 
throw  otf  the  Persian  rule,  Memphis  was  an 
important  strategic  point.  Ochus  inflicted 
severe  injury  on  this  town,  having  plun- 
dered the  temples  and  thrown  down  the 
walls  after  he  had  driven  out  Nectanebus. 
Ptolemy  VIII.  destroyed  the  city.  It  fell 
with  the  rest  of  Egypt  under  the  Roman 
rule,  and  afterwards  w^as  conquered  by 
Amru  Ben  Abas  (639-40). 

Memphis.  A  flourishing  city  and  port  of 
entry  of  Shelby  Co.,  Tenn.  During  the 
civil  war,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Union 
forces,  after  a  short  naval  tight,  Juno  (3, 
18(J2,  and  in  1804,  Gen.  Forrest  made  a  raid 
upon  it,  capturing  a  great  number  of  pris- 
oners. 

Men,  Battalion.  All  the  soldiers  belong- 
ing to  the  different  companies  of  an  infan- 
try regiment  were  so  called,  except  those  of 
the  two  Hank  companies. 

Men,  Camp-color.  Soldiers  under  the 
immediate  command  and  direction  of  the 
quartermaster  of  a  regiment.  Their  busi- 
ness is  to  assist  in  marking  out  the  lines  of 
an  encampment,  etc.  ;  to  carry  the  camp 
colors  to  the  field  on  days  of  exercise,  and 
fix  them  occasionally  for  the  purpose  of  en- 
abling the  troops  to  take  up  correct  points 
in  marching,  etc.  So  that  in  this  respect 
they  frequently,  indeed  almost  always,  act 
as  guides,  or  what  the  French  call  jalon- 
neurs.  They  are  likewise  employed  in  the 
trenches,  and  in  all  fatigue  duties. 


Menace.  A  hostile  threat.  Menacing 
words  used  in  the  presence  of  a  court-mar- 
tial are  punishable  in  accordance  with  Ar- 
ticle of  War  8G.     See  Apfendi.x. 

Menai  Strait  (between  the  Welsh  coast 
and  the  isle  of  Anglesey).  Suetonius  Pau- 
linus,  when  he  invaded  Anglesey,  trans- 
ported his  troops  across  this  strait  in  flat- 
bottomed  boats,  while  the  cavalry  swam 
over  on  horseback,  and  attacked  the  Druids 
in  their  last  retreat.  Their  horrid  practice 
of  sacrificing  their  captives,  and  the  oppo- 
sition he  met  with  so  incensed  the  Roman 
general,  that  he  gave  the  Britons  no  quar- 
ter, throwing  all  that  escaped  from  that  bat- 
tle inta  fires  which  they  had  prepared  for 
thedestructionof  himself  and  his  army  in  61. 

Menapii.  A  powerful  people  in  the  north 
of  Gallia  Belgica,  who  originally  dwelt  on 
both  banks  of  the  Rhine,  but  were  after- 
wards driven  out  of  their  possessions  on  the 
right  bank  by  the  Usipetes  and  Tenchteri, 
and  inhabited  only  the  left  bank  near  its 
mouth,  and  west  of  the  Mosa. 

Mendavia.  A  town  of  Spain,  province 
of  Navarre,  37  miles  southwest  from  Pam- 
plona. Cajsar  Borgia,  the  infamous  .son  of 
Pope  Alexander  VI.,  was  killed  here  in  a 
skirmish  in  1507. 

Mende.  A  town  of  France,  capital  of 
an  arrondissement  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Lot.  This  town  was  forti- 
fied in  1151  ;  it  suflered  much  in  the  civil 
wars  of  the  Reformation,  and  was  taken  no 
less  than  seven  times. 

Menehould,  St.  A  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  the  Marne,  situated  on 
the  Aisne,  2(3  miles  northeast  of  Chalons  ; 
it  was  taken  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1653. 

Menin.  A  fortified  town  of  Belgium, 
province  of  West  Flanders,  on  the  Lys, 
31  miles  southwest  of  Ghent.  It  has  under- 
gone a  great  number  of  sieges,  and  in  the 
17th  and  18th  centuries  was  frequently  taken 
by  the  French. 

Menomonees.  A  tribe  of  Indians,  of 
Algonkin  stock.  They  number  about  1500, 
are  partially  civilized,  and  reside  on  a  reser- 
vation near  Green  Bay,  Wis. 

Men's-harness.     See  Implements. 

Mensuration.  That  branch  of  applied 
geometry  which  gives  rules  for  finding  the 
length  of  lines,  the  areas  of  surfaces,  or  the 
volumes  of  solids,  from  certain  simple  data 
of  lines  and  angles.  Every  military  officer 
should  be  acquainted  with  mensuration. 

Mentana.  A  small  village,  13  miles  from 
Rome.  Here  Garibaldi  and  his  volunteers, 
numbering  between  3000  and  4(HX»,  after 
having  intrenched  his  positions  at  Montero- 
tondo  and  Mentana  on  their  march  towards 
Tivoli,  on  November  3,  1867,  were  totally 
defeated  by  the  papal  and  French  troops, 
under  Gens.  Kanzler  and  Polhos,  after  a  se- 
vere conflict,  in  which  Gen.  Failly  said 
"  the  Chassepot  rifles  did  wonders."  There 
were  about  5000  men  on  each  side,  but  the 
Garibaldians  were  very  badly  armed.  The 
loss  of  the  papal   and   French   troops  wa* 


MENTONNIERE 


318 


MESS 


about  200  killed  and  wounded ;  that  of 
Garibaldi  about  800.  Garibaldi  crossed  the 
Italian  frontier,  and  was  arrested  at  Cor- 
rese,  and  eventually  sent  to  Caprera. 

Mentonniere  (/>.).  Chin-piece;  chin- 
strap  ;  chin-piece  of  a  helmet  is  so  called. 

Mentz  (Ger.  Mainz,  Fr.  Mai/ence,  anc. 
Moguniiaciun).  A  city  of  Germany,  in  the 
grand  duchy  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  Mentz  was  founded 
by  the  Romans  in  the  2d  century,  and  in 
406  was  destroyed  by  the  Vandals  ;  but  after 
lying  in  ruins  for  some  centuries  it  was  re- 
stored by  Charlemagne,  and  attained  great 
prosperity  after  the  time  of  Bonifacius.  In 
the  Thirty  Years'  War,  it  was  taken  by  the 
Swedes,  and  in  1688  by  the  French,  but  was 
restored  at  the  subsequent  peace.  At  the 
end  of  1792,  it  surrendered  to  the  French. 
Next  year  it  was  taken  by  the  Austrians. 
By  the  peace  of  Luneville,  concluded  in 
1801,  it  was  formally  ceded  to  France,  and 
in  1815  it  was  assigned  to  Hesse-Darmstadt. 
The  town  is  strongly  fortified,  and  is  one  of 
the  strongest  places  in  Europe,  serving  as  a 
defense  for  Germany  on  the  side  of  France. 
On  the  other  side  of  the  Rhine  stands  the 
suburb  of  Castel,  which  is  also  fortified. 

Mequinenza.  A  town  and  port  of  Spain, 
on  the  Ebro,  in  the  province  of  Huesca, 
Aragon,  64  miles  southeast  from  Huesca. 
It  is  defended  by  a  fortress,  which  was  taken 
by  the  French  in  1810. 

Mercara.  A  town  and  fortress  in  the 
south  of  India.  It  was  built  by  Hyder 
Ali  in  1773,  after  he  had  conquered  the 
country.  Tippoo  Sahib  gave  it  up  to  the 
rajah  of  Coorg  in  1792.  It  was  taken  pos- 
session of  by  the  British  in  1834. 

Mercenaries.  Soldiers  serving  for  pay  in 
a  foreign  service. 

Mercia.  One  of  the  largest  of  the  seven 
kingdoms  of  the  Heptarchy  (which  see). 
It  comprised  the  counties  from  the  Thames 
to  Yorkshire,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Crida  in  585.  Three-quarters 
of  a  century  later,  Mercia  was  conquered 
for  a  time  by  Northumbria  ;  but  it  recovered 
its  independence,  which  it  retained  until 
Egbert  subdued  it,  when  it  was  included 
in  the  kingdom  of  Wessex. 

Merida.  A  town  of  Spain,  province  of 
Estremadura,  on  the  Guadiana,  35  miles 
east  from  Badajos.  It  was  built  by  the 
Romans  ;  taken  by  the  Moors  in  713  ;  taken 
from  them  in  1229;  taken  by  the  French, 
January,  1811.  Near  this  town,  at  Arroyas 
Molinos,  the  British  army  under  Gen.  (af- 
terwards Lord)  Hill  defeated  the  French 
under  Gen.  Girard,  after  a  severe  engage- 
ment, October  28,  1811.  The  British  took 
Merida  from  the  French  in  1812,  Gen. 
Hill  leading  the  combined  forces  of  Eng- 
lish and  Spanish  troops. 

Merionethshire.  The  most  southern 
countj'  of  North  Wales,  situated  at  the 
middle  of  the  Welsh  coast.  Here  Owen 
Gwynedd  defeated  Henry  II.,  and  brave 
Glyndwr  rose  in  arms  at  the  call  of  friend- 


ship and  patriotism  to  resist  the  usurper  of 
the  throne  of  gentle  Henry,  and  the  en- 
slaver of  his  loved  Wales.  Tradition  and 
records  tell  of  bloody  deeds  done  here  in 
those  and  later  days  by  freebooters,  daring' 
and  cruel. 

Merit.  To  earn  by  active  service,  or  by 
any  valuable  performance ;  to  have  a  right 
to  claim  as  reward ;  to  deserve.  Also,  the 
quality  or  relation  of  deserving  well  or  ill. 

Merit,  Certificate  of.  In  the  U.  S.  army 
a  certificate  which  is  given  by  the  President, 
upon  the  recommendation  of  commanding 
officers,  to  enlisted  men  who  have  distin- 
guished themselves  in  the  service.  The 
holder  of  each  certificate  is  entitled  to  ?2 
per  month. 

Merit,  Order  of.  A  military  distinction 
given  to  officers  or  soldiers  for  some  signal 
service,  the  badge  of  which  is  generally 
expressive  of  the  service.  Such  was  the 
medal,  or  order  of  merit,  presented  by  the 
Austrian  emperor  to  the  olficers  of  the 
15th  British  Light  Dragoons  for  their 
bravery  in  the  affair  of  Villers  en  Couche 
in  1794. 

Meritorious.  Possessing  merit  or  desert ; 
deserving  of  reward  or  honor. 

Merkin.  A  mop  to  clean  a  cannon.  See 
Malkin. 

Merlin.     A  handspike. 

Merlon.  The  mass  of  earth  of  the  par- 
apet between  two  embrasures,  generally 
from  15  to  18  feet  in  length.  Also,  the  pro- 
jection on  the  top  of  a  crenellated  wall. 

Merovingians.  The  first  Frankish  dy- 
nasty in  Gaul.  The  name  is  derived  from 
Merwig,  or  Merovasus,  who  ruled  about  the 
middle  of  the  5th  century,  having  united  a 
few  tribes  under  his  sway.  His  grandson, 
Clovis,  or  Clodwig,  greatly  extended  his 
dominions,  and  on  his  death  divided  his 
kingdom  among  his  four  sons,  one  of  whom, 
Chlotar,  or  Chlotaire  I.,  reunited  them  under 
his  own  sway  in  558.  On  his  death,  in  561, 
the  kingdom  was  again  divided  into  four 
parts, — ^Aquitaine,  Burgundy,  Neustria,  and 
Austrasia.  His  grandson,  Clotaire  II.,  again 
united  them  in  613  ;  but  after  his  death,  in 
628,  two  kingdoms,  Neustria  and  Austrasia, 
were  formed,  in  both  of  which  the  Merovin- 
gian kings  retained  a  merely  nominal  power, 
the  real  power  having  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  mayors  of  the  palace.  The  dynasty 
of  the  Merovingians  terminated  with  the  de- 
position of  Childoric  IV.,  in  752,  and  gave 
place  to  that  of  the  Carlovingians. 

Merseburg.  A  town  of  Prussian  Saxony, 
capital  of  a  circle  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
Saale.  It  was  near  this  town  that  the  em- 
peror Henry  the  Fowler  gained  his  famous 
victor}'  over  the  Hungarians  in  934.  Rudolf 
of  Swabia  was  here  defeated  and  slain  by 
Henry  IV.  in  1080. 

Mesolonghi.     See  Missolonghi. 

Mess.  The  law  is  silent  with  regard  to 
messes  in  the  army.  Executive  regulations 
have  been  made  on  the  subject,  but  without 
law  it  is  impossible  to  put  messes  on  a  proper 


MESSAGE 


319 


METIER 


footing.  In  En2;land,  an  allowance  is 
granted  by  the  soveroiuin  in  aid  of  the  ex- 
jiense  of  officers'  messes ;  and  every  officer 
on  appointment  to  a  corps  subscribes  one 
month's  pay  to  the  mess-fnnd.  All  the  offi- 
cers of  the  corps  mess  together.  (See  Guard 
Mkss. )  In  France,  the  several  grades  mess 
separately ;  lieutenants  and  sub-lieutenants 
forming  two  tables,  ca|)tains  another,  and 
field-officers  of  different  grades  generally 
eating  separately  also.  Generals  and  colo- 
nels of  the  French  service  receive  an  allow- 
ance for  table  expenses,  not  sufficient  to  keep 
open  house,  but  enough  to  enable  them  to 
entertain  guests.  In  the  British  navy  there 
are  generally  three  messes,  namely,  the 
ward-room  mess,  the  gun-room  mess,  and 
the  engineers'  mess;  in  the  U.  S.  navy  there 
are  two:  the  ward-room  and  steerage  messes. 
Enlisted  soldiers  and  seamen,  in  the  army 
and  navy  respectively,  mess  together  in 
tables  comprising  a  certain  number,  accord- 
ing to  squads  or  rating ;  but  this  has  no  ref- 
erence to  the  technical  meaning  of  messing 
as  applied  to  officers,  and  is  merely  for  the 
purpose  of  economy  of  fuel  and  labor  in  the 
cooking  of  their  rations. 

Message.  Word  sent ;  more  especially  a 
dispatch  sii^'naled  or  telegraphed. 

Messenia.  A  district  in  the  southwest  of 
the  Peloponnesus.  At  an  early  period  after 
the  Doric  conquest,  it  rose  to  power  and  opu- 
lence. It  is  chiefly  noted  for  its  two  wars 
with  Sparta,  known  as  the  Messenian  Wars, 
the  first  of  which  lasted  from  74.]  to  724  B.C., 
and  the  second  from  685  to  ti^H  i?  c.  In  both 
instances  the  Athenians  we;-e  defeated,  and 
in  consequence,  a  great  part  of  them  emi- 
grated to  Sicily,  where  they  took  possession 
of  Zancle,  which  then  received  the  name  of 
Messana,  the  present  Messina  (which  see). 

Messina.  A  city  in  the  northeast  of  the 
island  of  Sicily,  situated  on  a  strait  called 
the  Faro  di  Messina,  which  separates  Italy 
from  Calabria.  It  is  9  miles  northwest  from 
Reggio,  in  Calabria.  The  town  is  entirely 
surrounded  with  walls  and  protected  by  de- 
tached forts  and  a  citadel,  which  stands  on 
the  neck  of  the  curved  promontory  that  forms 
the  harbor.  It  was  seized  by  the  Mamertini 
about  281  u.o.  It  belonged  for  many  ages  to 
the  Roman  empire  ;  was  taken  by  the  Sara- 
cens about  829.  Roger  the  Norman  took  it 
from  them  by  surprise  about  1072.  It  revolted 
against  Charles  of  Anjou.  and  was  succored 
by  Peter  of  Aragon,  1282;  revolted  in  favor 
of  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  l(;7r.;  the  Spaniards 
punished  it  severely,  1(578;  headquarters  of 
British  forces  in  Sicily  prior  to  1814;  an  in- 
surrection took  place  here  which  was  sub- 
dued vSeptember  7,  184.^.  (iaribaldi  entered 
Messina  after  his  victory  at  Malazzo,  July 
20-21,  1800;  the  citadel  surrendered  to 
Cialdini,  March  13,  1801. 

Mestre  de  Camp  General  ( Fr.).  The 
next  officer  in  rank,  in  tlio  old  French  cav- 
alry si-rvio',  to  the  colonel-general.  This 
appointment  was  created  under  Henry  II. 
in  1552.     Mestre  de  camp  gcniral  ilea  dra- 


gonns,  an  appointment  which  first  took  place 
"under  Louis  XIV.  in  1(;84. 

Metal.  Broken  stone,  etc.,  used  as  a  road 
cover. 

Metal.  In  heraldry,  the  metals  in  use 
arc  gold  and  silver,  known  as  or  and  argent. 
The  field  of  the  escutcheon  and  the  charges 
which  it  bears  may  be  of  metal  as  well  as  of 
color.  It  is  a  rule  of  blazon  that  metal 
should  not  be  placed  on  metal,  or  color  on 
color. 

Metals  for  Cannon.  See  Ordnaxce, 
Mktai.s  fou. 

Metapontum,  or  Metapontium.  A  city 
of  Magna  (Jn.-ria;  was  siiuiUcd  on  the  Tar- 
entiiie  (Julf,  14  niili^s  tVom  Ileraclea,  and  24 
from  Tarentum.  The  Metaj>ontines  a^sjitcd 
the  Athenians  in  their  Sicilian  exjicdition 
(41.5  B.C.);  they  embraced  the  side  of  Pyr- 
rhus  in  his  war  with  the  Romans,  and  after 
its  conclusion  fell  under  the  Roman  yoke. 
When  Hannibal  invaded  Italy,  the  Metu- 
pontines  after  the  battle  of  Canute  were  well 
disposed  to  him  ;  but,  on  account  of  a  gar- 
rison of  Romans,  were  unable  openly  to 
desert  to  him  till  212  B.C.,  when  the  city  was 
occupied  by  a  Carthaginian  garrison.  When 
Hannibal  was  compelled  to  leave  Italy  he 
removed,  along  with  his  own  troops,  the  in- 
liabitants  of  Metapontum  ;  and  from  that 
time  the  city  disa]>pears  from  history. 

Metaurus  (now  Meiauro).  A  river  in 
Central  Italy,  where  Hasdrubal,  brother  of 
Hannibal,  was  defeated  and  slain,  207  B.C., 
when  marching  with  abundant  reinforce- 
ments for  the  latter.  The  Romans  were  led 
by  Livius  and  Claudius  Nero,  the  consuls. 
The  latter  commanded  the  head  of  Has- 
drubal to  be  thrown  into  his  brother's  camp. 
This  victory  saved  Rome. 

Meter,  or  Metre.  The  French  standard 
of  linear  measure,  intended  to  be  the  ten- 
millionth  part  of  the  earths  quadrant,  from 
the  equator  to  the  pole.  It  is  equal  to 
39..']70  Hriti.sh,  or  39.309  American  inches. 

Methone  (Modon).  An  ancient  city  of 
Messenia;  was  situated  on  the  southwest 
coast.  At  the  close  of  the  second  Messenian 
war  it  was  given  by  the  victorious  Lace- 
daemonians to  the  exiled  Nauplians,  but  was 
restored  to  its  rightful  owners  by  Epami- 
nondas.  An  unsuccessful  attack  was  made 
upon  Methone  by  the  Athenians  in  413  B.C. 
It  was  made  a  free  city  by  the  emperor 
Trajan, 

Metier  (Fr.).  Literally  means  any  calling 
or  business.  In  a  military  sense,  it  is  pecul- 
iarly applicable  to  those  nations  which  keep 
up  large  standing  armies,  and  make  war 
their  principal  object  and  pursuit.  Cheva- 
lier Folard  gives  the  fidlowing  definition  rela- 
tive to  the  question  which  is  often  discussed 
on  the  subject  of  war,  namely,  whether  war 
be  a  trade  or  a  science.  The  English  call 
it  a  profession.  Folard,  however,  distin- 
guishes it  in  this  manner  :  Ln  purrrc  est  une 
metier  pour  les  igimrans,  et  une  science  pour 
les  habilea  grns,  '*  war  in  the  apprehension, 
and  under  the  management  of  ignorant  per- 


METRIC 


320 


MEXICO 


sons  is  certainly  a  mere  trade  or  business, 
but  among  able  men  it  becomes  an  impor- 
tant branch  of  science." 

Metric  System.  The  French  system  of 
measures,  founded  upon  the  metre.  The 
system  is  decimal,  and  includes  measures  of 
length,  area,  volume,  and  weight. 

Metulum.  The  chief  town  of  the  lapydes 
in  Illyricum  ;  was  near  the  frontier  of  Li- 
burnia,  and  was  situated  on  two  peaks  of  a 
steep  mountain.  Augustus  nearly  lost  his 
life  in  reducing  this  place,  the  inhabitants  of 
which  fought  against  him  with  desperate 
courage. 

Metz  (anc.  Divodiirum).  A  city  and  for- 
tress of  Alsace-Lorraine,  situated  on  the  Mo- 
selle. It  was  the  Roman  Dlvodicricm,  or 
Metl,  capital  of  the  Mediomatrici,  a  powerful 
Gaulish  tribe  (whose  name  it  took  at  a  later 
date),  and  of  the  kingdom  of  Austrasia,  or 
Metz,  in  the  6th  century  ;  but  in  985,  Otho 
II.  made  it  a  free  imperial  city,  and  there- 
after it  was  used  by  the  German  emperors 
as  a  barrier  against  France.  It  was  besieged 
by  Charles  VII.  in  1444,  and  could  only 
preserve  its  freedom  by  the  payment  of 
100,000  crowns.  At  length  Henry  II.  ob- 
tained possession  of  it  in  1-552  ;  and  although 
it  was  besieged  by  Charles  V.  with  an  army 
of  100,000  men,  his  efforts  were  completely 
baffled  by  the  skill  and  energy  of  the  Duke 
of  Guise,  and  by  the  courage  and  constancy 
of  the  townsmen  ;  so  that  the  French  con- 
tinued in  possession  of  the  town  till  it,  along 
with  Toul  and  Verdun,  was  formally  secured 
to  them  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia  in  1G48. 
During  the  Franco-German  war  (1870-71) 
the  emperor  Napoleon  III.  arrived  at  Metz, 
and  assumed  the  chief  command,  July  28, 
1870.  After  the  disastrous  defeats  at  Worth 
and  Forbach,  August  6,  the  whole  French 
army,  except  the  corps  of  MacMahon,  De 
Failly,  and  Douay,  was  concentrated  here, 
August  10,  11,  and  by  delay  was  hemmed  in 
by  the  Germans.  Marshal  Bazaine  assumed 
the  chief  command  on  August  8,  and  on 
August  14  he  was  attacked  at  Courcelles,  a 
little  east  of  Metz.  On  August  16,  Bazaine 
advanced  from  the  fortress,  but  was  attacked 
by  the  second  army,  under  command  of 
Prince  Frederick  Charles,  at  Vionville,  and 
was  compelled  to  retreat  to  Metz.  But  on 
August  17,  Bazaine  massed  his  troops  for  a 
decisive  conflict,  and  on  August  18  he  gave 
battle  at  Gravelotte  (which  see),  but  was 
compelled  to  retreat  again,  and  was  shut  up 
in  the  city.  Prince  Frederick  Charles  now 
surrounded  the  city,  and  then  began  one  of 
the  greatest  sieges  of  history.  After  many 
brilliant  sallies  Bazaine  was  compelled  to 
surrender,  October  27,  on  account  of  starva- 
tion and  sickness,  with  an  army  including 
3  marshals,  66  generals,  173,000  men,  in- 
cluding the  imperial  guard,  400  pieces  of 
artillery,  100  mitrailleuses,  and  53  eagles 
and  standards ;  and  on  October  29  the  Ger- 
mans entered  Metz.  All  the  army  that  sur- 
rendered was  compelled  to  go  to  Germany 
as  prisoners  of  war.     In  May,  1871,  Metz 


was  ceded  to  the  German  empire  by  the 
peace  of  Frankfort,  and  its  fortifications 
greatly  strengthened. 

Meurtrieres  ( Fr. ) .  Small  loop-holes,  suf- 
ficiently large  to  admit  the  barrel  of  a  rifle 
or  musket,  through  which  soldiers  may  fire, 
under  cover,  against  an  enemy.  They  like- 
wise mean  the  cavities  that  are  made  in  the 
walls  of  a  fortified  town  or  place. 

Mexico.  A  federal  republic  of  North 
America,  next  to  the  United  States.  It  was 
conquered  by  the  Spaniards  under  Cortez  in 
1521,  and  remained  as  a  Spanish  dependency 
for  300  years  ;  and  after  a  long  struggle  with 
the  mother-country,  which  commenced  in 
1810,  it  shook  oft"  the  Spanish  yoke  in  1821, 
and  declared  its  independence.  In  1824  the 
country  was  declared  a  federal  republic,  with 
a  constitution  similar  to  that  of  the  United 
States,  and  its  independence  was  acknowl- 
edged by  Spain  in  1836.  About  this  time 
Texas,  which  was  then  the  most  northeastern 
of  the  Mexican  states,  withdrew  from  the 
federal  league  and  became  an  independent 
republic.  The  Mexican  general,  Santa  Anna, 
was  sent  to  reduce  them  to  subjection,  but  he 
was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  the  Tex- 
ans.  In  1845,  Texas  was  annexed  to  the 
United  States  and  admitted  into  the  Union 
as  a  State.  This  led  to  a  war  between  Mex- 
ico and  the  United  States,  by  which  the 
former  lost  all  her  northern  provinces,  con- 
sisting of  Utah,  California,  and  New  Mexico, 
which  were  ceded  to  the  United  States  in 
1848.  From  this  time  the  history  of  Mexico 
consists,  for  the  most  part,  of  a  long  series 
of  insurrections,  revolutions,  and  political 
changes,  which  followed  each  other  in  rapid 
succession.  Santa  Anna,  who  had  been 
driven  into  exile  shortly  after  his  disgrace 
in  Texas,  was  recalled  and  made  dictator  in 
1853.  He  was  succeeded  in  power  by  Gens. 
Carera,  Alveraz,  Comonfort,  and  Zulagoa. 
When  the  last  named  was  made  dictator  in 
1858,  Benito  Juarez,  the  Indian  statesman,  , 
was  declared  constitutional  president  by  the  j 
liberal  party  ;  a  civil  war  ensued,  anarchy  j 
and  confusion  reigned  supreme  in  the  coun-  ' 
try ;  but  Juarez,  taking  advantage  of  the 
dissensions  between  Zulagoa  and  Miramon, 
the  leaders  of  two  opposite  sections  of  the 
party  that  was  hostile  to  his  government,  at 
last  gained  the  ascendency,  and  entered  the 
capital  as  president  of  the  Mexican  republic 
in  January,  1861.  In  the  same  year,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  enormities  practiced  by 
Juarez  and  his  partisans,  and  the  outrages 
committed  on  European  merchants  resident 
in  the  country,  the  governments  of  England, 
France,  and  Spain  formed  a  triple  alliance, 
and  sent  an  expedition  to  Mexico  to  demand  ' 
satisfaction  for  the  injuries  inflicted  on  the 
subjects  of  their  respective  countries,  and  to 
endeavor  to  bring  about  a  more  settled  state  ; 
of  aflairs.  Vera  Cruz  was  occupied  by  the  i 
allied  forces,  and  this  event  was  followed  ; 
soon  after  by  the  convention  of  Soledad, 
signed  in  February,  1862,  in  which  the  gov- 
ernment of  Juarez  engaged  to  comply  with    \ 


Mi:ZIERES 


321 


MILAN 


the  requisitions  of  tlie  allies.  But  the  French 
governnu-nt  disapproved  of  the  convention, 
and  although  the  forces  of  Kngland  and 
iSpiiin  were  withdrawn  in  compliance  with 
its  terms,  Napoleon  III.  determined  to  ad- 
vance on  the  capital,  with  the  view  of  effect- 
ing the  overthrow  of  Juarez  and  placing  the 
government  of  the  country  on  a  settled  basis. 
The  French  troops  were,  however,  delayed 
for  some  months  before  Puebla,  which  caj)it- 
ulated  on  May  18,  18G3,  and  entered  Mexico 
on  the  8th  of  the  following  month,  amid  the 
acclamations  of  the  people,  who  had  become 
weary  of  the  intestine  strife  that  had  so  long 
convulsed  the  land,  and  which  had  been  pro- 
duced by  the  jealousy  and  rivalry  of  the 
party  loaders  who  had  aspired  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  government.  This  event  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  proclamation  of  the  empire  and 
the  nomination  of  Maximilian,  the  brother  of 
the  presentomj)eror  of  Austria,  as  the  first  em- 
peror of  Mexico  under  the  new  regime.  The 
republican  leaders  were  violently  opposed  to 
this  measure,  and  Maximilian  by  his  sever- 
ity towards  them  alienated  the  affections  of 
many  of  his  original  supporters.  At  length, 
on  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  troops  at 
the  demand  of  the  United  States,  the  re- 
publicans advanced  into  Central  Mexico. 
Muximiliiin  with  a  Mexican  force  vainly 
attempted  to  oppose  them,  and  was  captured 
and  shot  at  Queretaro,  June  19,  18(57. 

Mezidres.  An  ancient  and  well-built 
town  of  France,  the  cajiital  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Ardennes,  situated  on  a  peninsula 
formed  by  the  Meuse.  In  1520,  the  Cheva- 
lier Bayard  successfully  defended  this  place 
against  40,000  Spaniards  under  the  Count 
of  Nassau,  and  in  1815  it  held  out  for  two 
months  against  the  Prussians,  but  was  at 
length  obliged  to  capitulate. 

Miami  Indians.  A  tribe  of  aborigines, 
of  Algoiikin  stock,  who  formerly  resided  in 
Ohio  and  Indiana.  In  the  war  of  1812, 
they  fought  against  the  United  States  as 
allies  of  the  British.  In  1840  the  majority 
of  the  tribe  removed  to  Kansas,  on  a  reser- 
vation in  which  State  a  remmint  still  resides. 

Michigan.  One  of  the  Northern  Central 
States  of  the  United  States.  It  was  colo- 
nized by  the  French,  near  Detroit,  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  17th  century,  but,  like 
other  French  colonies  in  America,  did  not 
progress  rapidly.  At  the  peace  of  17(33,  it 
came,  with  the  other  French  possessions  in 
North  America,  under  the  dominion  of  Great 
Britain,  and  so  remained  till  the  breaking 
out  of  the  American  Kevolution,  when  it 
passed  to  the  United  States.  On  the  expul- 
sion of  the  French,  the  celebrated  Indian 
chief  Pontiac  seized  the  occasion  to  rid  the 
country  of  the  hated  whites  by  a  general  up- 
rising, and  simultaneous  attacks  On  all  the 
forts  of  the  English  on  the  lakes.  :Mackinaw 
was  taken  by  stratagem,  and  the  garrison 
mercilessly  butchered.  Detroit  was  besieged 
for  some  months  by  Pontiac,  with  (iOO  In- 
dians; but  it  held  o"ut  till  the  Indian  allies, 
becoming  weary  of  the  siege,  retired  and  left 


I  Pontiac  no  choice  but  to  make  peace.  Tho 
British  surrendered  Detntit  to  the  United 
States  in  179(5.  In  1805,  Michigan,  which 
up  to  that  jtcriod  had  been  a  part  of  the 
Northwest  Territory,  was  formed  into  a  sep- 
arate government.  In  1812,  it  became  the 
scene  of  some  stirring  events  in  the  war 
with  Great  Britain.  Lying  contiguous  to 
Canada,  it  was  invaded  in  the  very  com- 
mencement of  that  struggle,  and  its  capital 
(Detroit)  surrendered  August  15,  1812,  by 
Gen.  Hull,  under  circumstances  which  led 
to  his  displacement  from  his  command.  Pre- 
vious to  this  Fort  Mackinaw  had  been  taken 
by  the  enemy.  In  January,  1813,  a  cruel 
massacre  by  the  savages  of  a  party  of  Amer- 
ican prisoners  took  place  at  Freiichtown,  but 
soon  after,  Gen.  Harrison  drove  the  enemy 
out  of  the  Territory  of  Michigan,  and  re- 
moved the  seat  of  war  into  Canada.  Michi- 
gan became  an  independent  member  of  tho 
American  Confederacy  in  1837.  During  tho 
civil  war,  she  contributed  greatly  to  the 
cause  of  the  Union,  and  sent  over  90,000 
men  to  the  field. 

Micmacs.  A  tribe  of  Indians  numbering 
about  4000,  who  reside  principally  in  New 
Foundland,  Prince  Edward  Island,  and 
Nova  Scotia.  They  were  formerly  faithful 
allies  of  the  French  in  their  wars  with  the 
New  England  colonies,  and  with  the  Eng- 
lish, against  whom  they  maintained  a  hostile 
attitude  until  about  17G0. 

Middle  Ages.  The  ages  or  period  of  time 
about  equally  distant  from  the  decline  of  the 
Roman  empire  and  the  revival  of  letters  in 
EurojM',  or  from  the  8th  to  the  15th  century 
of  the  Christian  era. 

Middle  Assembling-bar.  SeeORDXANCE, 
Cakkiaoes  kok,  Thk  Caisson. 

Middle-chest.  The  front  ammunition- 
chest  on  the  body  of  the  caisson, — so  called 
because  it  is  between  the  hind  chest  and  the 
limber-chest  when  the  caisson  is  limbered. 

Middle-man.  The  man  who  occupies  a 
central  pcjsition  in  a  file  of  soldiers. 

Midea.  A  town  in  Argolis,  of  uncertain 
site;  is  said  to  have  been  originally  called 
Persepolis,  because  it  had  been  fortified  by 
Perseus.     It  was  destroyed  by  the  Argives. 

Midianites.  An  Arab  race,  descended, 
according  to  Scripture,  from  Midian,  the  son 
of  Abraham  by  Keturah.  They  occupied 
the  greater  part  of  the  country  between  the 
north  side  of  the  Arabian  Gulf  and  Arabia 
Felix  as  far  as  the  Plains  of  Moab.  Tho 
Midianites  were  very  troublesome  neighbors 
to  the  Israelites  till  Gideon's  victory  over 
them  (about  1249  «.c.),  after  which  they 
gradually  disappeared. 

Mignon  (Fr.).  Picked  soldier,  now  called 
ilife. 

Milan  {Mediolaniim,  capital  of  the  ancient 
Liguria).  A  city  of  Italy,  the  capital  of  the 
province  of  Lombardy,  78  nules  northeast 
from  Turin;  is  reputed  to  have  been  built 
by  tho  Gauls  about  408  n.c.  It  was  conquered 
by  the  Roman  consul  Marcellus,222  B.C.  It 
was  the  seat  of  government  of  tho  Western 


MILAZZO 


322 


MILITARY 


empire  in  286;  plundered  by  Attila  in  452; 
taken  by  the  emperor  Frederick  I.,  1158;  it 
rebelled"  and  was  taken  by  Frederick  and  its 
fortifications  destroyed  in  1102;  but  was  re- 
built and  fortified  in  1169.  The  Milanese 
were  defeated  by  the  emperor  Frederick  II. 
in  1237  ;  and  the  city  was  conquered  by  Louis 
XII.  of  France  in "1499.  The  French  were 
expelled  by  the  Spaniards  in  1525,  and  the 
city  annexed  to  the  crown  of  Spain  in  1540; 
ceded  to  Austria,  1714.  It  was  conquered 
by  the  French  and  Spaniai-ds  in  1743;  re- 
verted to  Austria  upon  Sicily  and  Naples 
being  ceded  to  Spain  in  1748;  seized  by  the 
Freiich,  June  30,  1796,  retaken  by  the  Aus- 
trians,  1799;  regained  by  the  French,  May 
31,  1800.  The  Milanese  revolted  against  the 
Austrians,  March  18,  1848,  but  submitted 
August  5, 1848.  Another  insurrection  was  at- 
tempted in  1853,  but  with  disastrous  results. 
On  June  8, 1859,  by  the  peace  of  Villa  Franca, 
Lombardy  was  annexed  to  Piedmont,  and 
Victor  Emmanuel  became  sovereign  of 
Milan. 

Milazzo  (anc.  Mylff).  A  fortified  seaport 
on  the  north  coast  of  Sicily,  18  miles  west  of 
Messina.  It  was  founded  about  700  B.C.,  and 
has  been  the  scene  of  manj'  battles.  It  was 
taken  bj'  Laches  in  427  B.C.  It  was  off  Mylaj 
that  the  Romans,  under  their  consul  Duilius, 
gained  their  first  naval  victory  over  the 
Carthaginians,  and  took  50  of  their  ships, 
260  B.C.  Here  also  Agrippa  defeated  the  fleet 
of  Sextus  Pompeius,  36  B.C.  On  July  20, 
1860,  Garibaldi  with  2500  men  defeated 
7000  Neapolitans,  at  Milazzo,  and  compelled 
the  garrison  to  evacuate  the  fortress. 

Mileage.  An  allowance  for  traveling,  as 
so  much  by  the  mile;  especially  in  the  United 
State.«,  an  allowance  made  to  military  officers 
to  defray  the  expenses  of  their  journeys  on 
duty  when  not  traveling  with  troops. 

Milesian.  A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Ire- 
land, descended  according  to  the  legendary 
history  of  the  country  from  King  Milesius 
of  Spain,  whose  two  sons  conquered  the 
island  1300  B.C.,  and  established  a  new  order 
of  nobility. 

Milesian.  Pertaining  to  Ireland,  from 
the  tradition  that  King  Milesius  of  Spain 
once  conquered  the  country. 

Miletus.  A  flourishing  Greek  city  of 
Ionia,  in  Asia  Minor,  was  situated  on  the 
north  side  of  the  peninsula  of  Mt.  Grion,  at 
the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Latmus,  nearly 
opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Meander.  At  the 
time  of  the  Ionian  emigration  to  Asia  Minor 
it  existed  as  a  town,  but  when  the  lonians 
arrived  in  Asia,  Neleu's  and  a  company  of 
his  followers  seized  Miletus,  put  to  death  all 
the  male  inhabitants,  who  were  Carians  or 
Leleges,  and  took  the  women  for  their  wives. 
Miletus  became  for  a  time  a  prosperous  city 
under  the  rule  of  Lydia  and  Persia,  but  in 
500  B.C.  it  revolted  against  Persia,  and  after 
repeated  defeats  in  the  field,  the  city  was  be- 
sieged by  land  and  by  sea,  and  finally  taken 
by  storm  in  494  B.C.  The  city  was  plun- 
dered and  its  inhabitants  massacred,  and  the 


survivors  Avere  transplanted  to  a  place  called 
Ampe,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Tigris.  The 
town  itself  was  given  up  to  the  Carians. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
Miletus  threw  oft'  the  yoke  imposed  upon 
her  by  Athens,  and  in  a  battle  fought  under 
the  very  walls  of  the  city,  the  Milesians  de- 
feated their  opponents  ;  the  Athenian  admi- 
ral, Phrynichus,  abandoned  the  enterprise. 
In  334  B.C.,  Alexander  the  Great  took  the 
city  by  assault,  and  destroyed  a  part  of  it, 
but  it  continued  to  flourish,  until  it  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Turks  and  other  barbarians. 

Milford  Haven.  A  town  of  Wales,  in 
Pembrokeshire,  6  miles  northwest  from  Pem- 
broke. Here  the  Earl  of  Richmond,  after- 
wards Henry  VII.,  landed  on  his  way  to  en- 
counter Richard  III.,  whom  he  defeated  at 
Bosworth,  1485. 

Milice.     An  old  term  for  militia. 

Militancy.  Warfare.  This  term  is  obso- 
lete. 

Militant.  Engaged  in  warfare  ;  fighting ; 
combating  ;  serving  as  a  soldier. 

Militantly.  In  a  militant  manner.  This 
term  is  rarely  used. 

Militar.     Military.     This  term  is  obsolete. 

Militarily.  In  a  military  or  soldierly 
manner. 

Militarist.  One  devoted  to  military  pur- 
suits. 

Military.  Pertaining  to  soldiers,  to  arms, 
or  to  war ;  having  to  do  with  the  afTairs  of 
war;  as,  a  military  parade  or  appearance; 
military  discipline.  Engaged  in  the  service 
of  soldiers  or  arms  ;  as,  a  military  man. 
Warlike;  becoming  a  soldier ;  as,  military 
bravery,  military  virtue.  Derived  from  the 
service  or  exploits  of  a  soldier;  as,  military 
renown.  Conformable  to  the  customs  or 
rules  of  armies  or  militia ;  as,  the  conduct 
of  the  officer  was  not  military.  Performed 
or  made  by  soldiers  ;  as,  a  military  election. 

Military.  The  whole  body  of  soldiers; 
soldiery;  militia;  the  army. 

Military  Academies.  The  great  improve- 
ments made  in  the  art  of  war  in  modern 
times,  in  weapons,  drill,  discipline,  etc.,  has 
made  warfare  more  of  a  science  and  less  of  a 
trial  of  brute  force  than  formerly,  and  hence 
the  necessity  for  a  body  of  trained  ofiicers 
capable  of  moving,  directing,  and  bringing 
into  effective  operation  all  the  appliances  of 
war  with  which  modern  armies  are  furnished. 
As  this  special  training  cannot  be  obtained 
at  ordinary  educational  establishments,  spe- 
cial schools  for  the  purpose  have  been  estab- 
lished in  all  civilized  countries.  A  few  of 
them  are  here  noted. 

Great  Britain. — The  Royal  Military 
Academy,  an  establishment  at  Woolwich, 
through  which  must  pass  all  candidates  for 
the  artillery  and  engineers.  It  was  insti- 
tuted in  1741,  but  the  present  structure  was 
not  erected  until  1805.  It  usually  contains 
about  200  cadets.  The  age  of  admission  is 
sixteen,  and  the  vacancies  are  open  to  public 
competition.  The  parents  or  guardians  have 
to  make  annual  payments  for  the  support  of 


MILITARY 


323 


MILITARY 


the  cadets  as  long  as  they  remain  at  the 
academy,  the  amount  being  greater  for  the 
son  of  a  civilian  than  of  a  military  or  naval 
officer.  "When  the  term  of  instruction — 
which  comprises  the  subjects  of  a  thorough 
general  education,  the  higher  mathematics, 
fortification,  gunnery,  and  military  duty — 
is  completed,  the  cadets  compete  for  vacan- 
cies in  the  engineers  and  artillery,  those  who 
pass  the  best  examination  being  allowed  a 
choice  of  either  branch  of  the  service.  All 
who  obtain  commissions  in  the  engineers 
proceed  to  Chatham  for  further  instruction  in 
their  professional  duties  ;  the  artillery  cadets 
at  once  join  the  artillery  as  lieutenants. 

lioj/nl  Milifnri/  College,  Sand/iur.if,  is  an 
institution  for  the  training  of  candidates  for 
coniniissions  in  the  cavalry  and  infantry. 
The  course  is  limited  to  one  year  immediately 
before  entering  the  army,  and  the  subjects 
of  instruction  confined  to  the  higher  mathe- 
matics, modern  languages,  and  military  sci- 
ence. Entrance  is  on  the  nomination  of  the 
commander-in-chief;  and  the  payment  by 
the  cadets'  parents  or  guardians  varies  ac- 
cording to  their  circumstances  and  rank. 
No  jtayment  is  made  for  what  are  called 
"Queen's  Cadets,"  who  must  be  orphans. 
Commissions  in  the  cavalry  and  infantry 
are  given  to  the  cadets  in  the  order  of  merit 
at  the  end  of  the  year. 

The  Stnf  Cullcfjc  was  founded  in  1858, 
about  2  miles  from  Sandhurst,  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  higher  instruction  to  30  officers 
aspiring  to  appointments  on  the  stall".  To 
be  entitled  to  compete  for  entrance,  an  officer 
must  have  been  three  years  in  active  service, 
must  have  passed  the  qualifying  examination 
for  a  captaincy,  and  must  have  the  recom- 
mendation of  his  commanding  officer.  A 
very  strict  examination  decides  which  among 
the  competitors  shall  be  admitted  to  the  col- 
lege, one  only  being  eligible  from  any  bat- 
talion. The  course  lasts  two  j'cars.  At 
the  end  of  each  year  there  is  an  examina- 
tion ;  that  of  the  second  fixing  the  order  of 
the  candidates'  choice  for  stall'  employment. 
After  passing  the  Stutf  College  the  officer  is 
attached  for  duty,  for  a  short  period,  to  each 
of  the  arms  with  which  he  may  not  have 
already  served.  He  then  becomes  eligible 
for  appointment  to  the  stall',  as  opportunity 
mav  occur.  There  are  also  the  Koyal  School 
of  Military  Engineers  at  Chatham,  for  the 
instruction  of  engineer  officers,  the  Koyal 
Military  School  at  Dublin,  and  professional 
schools  for  officers  and  enlisted  men,  as  the 
School  of  Musketry  at  Hy  the,  and  the  School 
of  Gunnery  at  Shoeburyness. 

Franck'  —  The  celebrated  Pulyfcchnic 
School  hi  Paris  was  established  by  the  Na- 
tional Convention,  September  28,  1704.  Bv 
a  decree  of  July  IC,  1804,  Nan.iloon  placed 
it  under  a  military  regime.  No  attempt  be- 
ing made  to  impart  a  general  education, 
candidates  are  required  to  have  a  thorough 
genenil  knowledge  before  they  are  admitted. 
The  preliminary  examination  of  candidates 
for  admission  comprises  mathematics,  phys- 


ics, chemistry,  history,  German,  etc. ;  in 
fact,  the  candidate  to  be  successful  should 
have  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science.  Ad- 
mission is  open  to  competition  ;  a  board  of 
examiners  passes  through  the  country  once 
every  year,  and  examines  all  who  present 
themselves,  possessing  the  requii-ite  qualifi- 
cations of  age,  etc.  A  list  is  made  out  from 
the  proceedings  of  the  board,  and  the  num- 
ber of  candidates  highest  in  order  of  merit 
for  whom  there  are  vacancies  admitted.  The 
age  of  admission  is  from  sixteen  to  twenty 
years,  or  if  the  candidate  is  in  the  army,  to 
twenty-five.  This  school  prepares  students 
for  various  branches  of  the  public  service, 
for  the  staff,  engineers,  artillery,  for  the 
corps  of  hydrographical  engineers,  engineers 
of  roads  and  bridges  and  of  mines,  the  de- 
partment of  powder  and  saltpetre,  etc.  The 
number  of  cadets  is  usually  about  350,  and 
the  course  of  instruction  two  years.  After 
the  final  examination  the  first  30  or  40  can- 
didates usually  select  civil  emjdoyment  un- 
der the  government,  those  next  in  merit 
choose  the  artillery  and  engineers,  and  are 
sent  to  the  School  of  Application,  to  pass 
through  a  technical  course.  The  remaining 
students  either  fail  to  qualify,  and  leave  the 
school,  or  receive  commissions  in  the  line, 
subordinate  situations  in  the  government 
service,  civil  or  colonial,  or  they  retire  into 
civil  life  altogether. 

The  Special  Militari/  School  at  St.  Cyr,  near 
Versailles,  was  established  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  candidates  for  commissions  in  cavalry 
and  infantry.  The  age  of  admission  is  the 
same  as  for  the  Polytechnic  School,  and 
pupils  are  entitled  to  partial  or  entire  state 
aid  if  they  need  it,  as  are  also  those  of  the 
Polytechnic.  The  course  of  instruction  is 
two  years,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  more 
promising  students  pass  to  the  Staff  School, 
and  thence,  after  a  thorough  course,  to  the 
etat-major  of  the  army  ;  the  remaining  stu- 
dents pass  as  subalterns  into  the  cavalry  and 
infantry,  selecting  the  arm  of  the  service  in 
which  they  desire  to  serve  according  to  the 
order  of  merit  in  which  they  graduate. 
There  are  also  the  School  of  Application  for 
Engineers  and  Artillery,  the  Scliool  of  Ap- 
plication for  the  Staff,  the  Cavalry  School  at 
Saumur,  fi>r  one  year's  instruction  to  officers 
of  that  arm,  and  the  School  of  Musketry  at 
Vincennes. 

Prussia. — The  Prussian  system  of  mili- 
tary education  differs  from  that  of  France, 
in  that  competition  is  but  sparingly  resorted 
to,  the  object  being  to  give  a  good  general 
and  professional  education  to  all  theofficers, 
rather  than  a  specially  excellent  training  to 
a  select  few.  For  this  purpose  there  are 
established  seven  cadet  schools,  one  senior,  at 
Berlin,  and  six  junior,  situated  at  Hen>burg, 
Culm,  Oranicnstein,  Ploen,  Potsdam,  and 
Wahlstatt.  The  ago  of  admission  to  tho 
junior  schools  is  frt)m  ten  to  eleven  years, 
and  tho  usual  course  of  instruction  is  for 
four  years,  and  two  or  three  at  the  senior 
school,   followed  by    the  finishing   term   of 


MILITARY 


324 


MILITARY 


nine  months  at  a  division  school,  when  grad- 
uates are  eligible  to  commissions.  Some, 
however,  are  sent  to  the  army  to  earn  their 
commissions  as  other  candidates.  Others 
pass  an  additional  j-ear  at  the  senior  cadet 
school,  in  which  case  the  term  at  the  division 
school  is  dispensed  with.  After  completing 
their  course  at  the  junior  schools,  students 
pass  to  the  senior  school  without  examina- 
tion. They  may  also  be  admitted  to  the 
senior  school  without  passing  through  the 
junior  grade,  provided  they  come  up  to  the 
required  standard  of  qualification.  Aspir- 
ants for  commissions  must  enter  the  ranks, 
and  within  six  months  pass  a  good  examina- 
tion in  general  and  liberal  knowledge  if  they 
are  not  graduates  of  a  cadet  school.  Those 
who  are  graduates  are  not  examined.  After 
some  further  service  the  candidate  goes  for 
nine  months  to  one  of  the  division  schools, 
which  are  eight  in  number,  situated  at  An- 
clam,  Cassel,  Engers,  Erfurt,  Hanover, 
Metz,  Neisse,  and  Potsdam  Here  he  com- 
pletes his  professional  education,  and  if  he 
passes  the  final  examination,  is  eligible  for 
the  next  vacancy  in  the  line,  but  cannot  be 
commissioned  unless  the  officers  of  the  corps 
are  willing  to  accept  him  as  a  comrade. 
Candidates  for  commissions  in  the  artillery 
and  engineer  corps,  after  graduating  from  the 
cadet  school  or  passing  an  examination  from 
the  army,  must  pass  nine  months  at  the  Ar- 
tillery and  Engineer  School,  after  which  they 
receive  a  provisional  appointment  as  sub- 
lieutenants. Upon  graduating,  after  two 
more  terms  of  nine  months  each,  they  are 
commissioned  as  lieutenants.  But  the  cul- 
mination of  Prussian  military  education  is 
the  Statf  School,  or  War  Academy,  which 
presents  the  highest  prizes  in  the  profession, 
and  competition  for  which  is  open  to  all  ofii- 
cers  of  the  army  who  have  had  three  years' 
service,  and  can  produce  testimonials  of 
good  conduct,  ability,  etc.,  from  their  superi- 
ors. Admission  is  by  competitive  examina- 
tion, usually  about  40  of  the  applicants  be- 
ing selected.  The  course  of  study  lasts  three 
years.  During  three  months  of  each  year 
the  officers  are  sent  to  do  military  duty  with 
arms  of  service  or  corps  not  their  own.  Of 
the  40  who  pass  through  the  Staff'  School  each 
year,  8  or  10  only  are  sent  to  the  topographi- 
cal department  of  the  stafl*.  There  they 
serve  two  or  three  years,  at  the  expiration 
of  which  time  two  are  selected  from  the 
number,  and  appointed  captains  on  the  staflT. 
The  remainder  return  to  their  regiments  or 
corps,  sometimes  receiving  appointments  in 
the  division  schools. 

Austria. — The  Austrian  military  system 
of  training  is  very  elaborate,  and  commences 
at  an  early  age, — boys  intended  for  military 
service  beginning  their  professional  almost 
contemporaneously  with  their  general  edu- 
cation. There  are  schools  of  various  orders 
for  training  non-commissioned  officers  and 
for  officers,  and  senior  departments  for  im- 
parting more  extended  instruction  to  both 
classes.     Candidates  for  appointment  as  non- 


commissioned officers  pass  by  competition 
through  the  lower  houses,  where  they  remain 
till  eleven  years  old,  the  upper  houses,  which 
detain  them  till  fifteen,  and  the  school  com- 
panies, whence,  after  actual  apprenticeship 
to  service,  a  few  pupils  pass  to  the  academies 
as  aspirants  for  commissions,  and  the  others 
are  drafted  into  the  service  as  non-commis- 
sioned officers.  For  the  education  of  officers 
there  are  four  cadet  houses,  each  containing 
200  pupils.  The  boys  are  pledged  to  the 
service  by  their  parents  at  the  age  of  eleven, 
after  which  the  state  takes  charge  of  them. 
At  fifteen  they  pass  according  to  qualifica- 
tion to  the  academy  for  the  line,  the  engineer 
or  artillery  academy,  and  four  years  later 
receive  their  commissions  in  the  arms  of  the 
service  for  which  they  have  graduated.  The 
young  officer's  chance  of  entering  the  Staff 
School — and  therefore  the  staff — depends 
upon  his  place  at  the  final  academic  exami- 
nation. 

The  Staff  School  consists  of  30  pupils  se- 
lected by  competitive  examination  from  all 
arms  of  the  service,  15  entering  each  year. 
The  course  of  instruction  is  two  years.  To 
be  qualified  for  admission  a  candidate  must 
have  served  two  years  with  his  regiment, 
and  be  over  twenty-one  and  under  twenty- 
six  years  of  age.  The  students  receive  ap- 
pointments in  the  staff  corps  according  to 
the  order  of  merit,  immediately  after  the 
final  examination,  if  there  are  vacancies;  if 
there  are  none,  they  return  to  their  regiments 
until  vacancies  occur.  If  the  successful 
candidate  is  a  second  lieutenant,  he  is  pro-  I 
moted  to  the  rank  of  first  lieutenant ;  if  a 
first  lieutenant,  he  is  promoted  captain  after 
three  j'ears'  service.  j 

Russia. — Has  22  military  colleges  for  the  ' 
guards  and  line,  containing  over  7000  cadets, 
a  school  of  ensigns  for  the  guards,  an  artil- 
lery and  an  engineer  school,  averaging  over 
8000  military  students.  There  is  also  an 
imperial  staff  school,  into  which  20  or  25 
officers  enter  each  year  after  examination. 
The  term  of  instruction  is  for  two  years. 
Upon  graduation,  the  most  distinguished 
scholar  is  at  once  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
captain  on  the  stall",  and  all  the  graduates 
are,  from  time  to  time,  as  vacancies  occur, 
attached  to  the  staff,  but  not  immediately  j 
proijioted  in  it.  | 

Italy,  Spain,  and  other  powers  have  also  ' 
their  military  academies,  but  those  already 
given  may  be  considered  a  fair  type  of  all.  It 
need  only  be  stated  that  the  educational 
status  of*  the  Italian  officers  is  considered 
very  high. 

The     United    States. — The    Military  , 
Academy  at  West  Point  is  the  only  govern-  j 
ment  institution  in  the  United  States  for  j 
the  military  training   of  cadets   and  their 
preparation  for  the  duties  of  officers.     The 
necessity  for  such  an  institution  Avas  recog-  ; 
nized  at  an  early  date  in  the  history  of  the 
country.     A  committee  of  Congress  which 
had  visited   the  Continental  army  at  New 
York  recommended  the  establishment  of  a 


MILITARY 


325 


MILITARY 


military  academy  in  their  report,  October  3, 
1776.  'The  subject  was  subsequently  brought 
to  the  notice  of  Congress  on  several  occa- 
sions, but  without  result  until  1794,  when 
provision  was  made  for  the  establishment  of 
4  battalions  of  engineers  and  artillerists,  8 
cadets  to  be  attached  to  each  battalion.  The 
number  was  increased  to  5*5  in  1798,  and 
provision  made  for  procuring  books  and  ap- 
paratus for  their  instruction.  By  the  act  of 
March  KJ,  1802,  determining  the  military 
peace  establishment,  the  artillerists  and  en- 
gineers were  made  two  distinct  corps  ;  40 
cadets  were  attached  to  one  regiment  of 
artillery,  and  10  to  the  corps  of  engineers, 
said  corps  to  be  stationed  at  "West  Point, 
and  to  constitute  a  military  academy.  The 
act  also  provided  that  the  senior  engineer 
officer  present  should  be  superintendent  of 
the  academy,  and  authorized  the  Secretary 
of  War  to  procure  the  necessary  books,  ap- 
paratus, etc.,  for  the  institution.  Another 
act,  dated  February  28,  1803,  authorized 
the  President  to  appoint  teachers  of  French 
and  drawing.  At  the  expiration  of  live 
years,  however,  further  legislation  was 
deemed  necessary,  and  on  April  12,  1808,  a 
bill  was  passed  which  added  15(i  members 
to  the  corps  of  cadets.  By  the  act  of  April 
19,  1812,  it  was  declared  that  the  Military 
Academy  should  consist  of  the  corps  of  en- 
gineers, the  teachers  of  French  and  drawing 
already  provided  for,  a  professor  of  natural 
philosophy,  a  professor  of  mathematics,  and 
a  professor  of  engineering,  with  an  assistant 
for  each  professor.  Provision  was  also  made 
for  a  chaplain,  who  was  to  officiate  as  pro- 
fessor of  geography,  physics,  and  history. 
The  number  of  cadets  was  limited  to  200; 
the  requirements  for  admission,  terms  of 
study  and  service,  and  rate  of  pay  and 
emoluments  were  also  prescribed.  But  the 
commencement  of  its  great  success  as  an 
educational  institution,  and  the  reputation 
which  the  academy  possesses  for  its  elevat- 
ing and  disciplinary  government,  dates  from 
July,  1817,  when  Brevet  Maj.  Sylvanus 
Thayer,  of  the  engineer  corps,  assumed 
command  as  superintendent.  He  was  an 
early  gradvuite  of  the  academy,  had  served 
with  distinction  in  the  war  of  1812,  and 
having  studied  in  the  military  schools  of 
France,  had  acquired  matured  views  fc?r  the 
government  of  such  an  institution.  He  or- 
ganized and  perfected  a  system  of  manage- 
ment, which  he  carried  into  successful  opera- 
tion for  sixteen  years,  and  which,  with  but 
little  modification,  is  followed  to-day.  In 
1818  the  department  of  geograiiby,  history, 
and  ethics  was  organized,  and  the  chaplain 
appointed  professor ;  the  clerical  and  secu- 
lar duties  tlius  combined  have  ever  since  re- 
mained inseparable.  A  professorship  of 
chemistry,  mineralogy,  and  geology  was 
created  by  act  of  July  5,  1838"^  andean  as- 
sistant authorized,  "  to  be  taken  from  the 
officers  of  the  line,  or  cadets."  In  May, 
1846,  the  teachers  of  French  and  drawing 
were  styled  professors,  and  the  appointment 


of  assistants  was  authorized.  In  1857  a 
professorship  of  the  Spanish  language  was 
established.  By  act  of  Congress  approved 
June  23,  1879,  whenever  a  vacancy  occurs 
in  the  office  of  professor  of  the  French  or 
Spanish  language,  both  these  offices  shall 
cease,  and  the  remaining  one  of  the  two 
professors  shall  be  professor  of  modern  lan- 
guages. A  professorship  of  law  has  also 
been  established,  which  is  held  by  an  officer 
of  the  bureau  of  military  justice.  Tho 
academic  staff  consist  of  the  superintendent; 
the  commandant  of  cadets,  who  is  instructor 
of  artillery,  cavalry,  and  infantry  tactics,  and 
is  charged  with  the  disciftline  of  the  cadets, 
having  usually  8  officers  detailed  from  the 
line  of  the  army  as  assistants ;  and  of  the  pro- 
fessors of  civil  and  military  engineering  and 
science  of  war,  of  natural  and  experimental 
philosophy,  of  mathematics,  of  history,  geog- 
raphy, and  ethics  (chaplain),  of  chemistry, 
mineralogy,  and  geology,  of  drawing,  of 
French,  of  Spanish,  and  of  law,  all  of  whom 
have  one  or  more  commissioned  officers  as  as- 
sistants. There  are  also  detailed  on  duty 
several  officers  of  the  engineer  and  ordnance 
corps  as  instructors  in  practical  military  en- 
gineering, military  signals  and  telegraphing, 
and  in  ordnance  and  gunnery.  A  sword- 
master  is  also  employed.  The  military  statf 
consists  of  an  adjutant;  a  treasurer,  quarter- 
master and  commissary,  of  the  battalion  of 
cadets;  a  quartermaster,  surgeon,  and  assist- 
ant surgeon.  In  1843  the  custom  which  had 
prevailed  of  appointing  one  cadet  from  each 
Congressional  district  received  the  sanction  of 
law,  and  thus  the  number  was  limited  to  the 
number  of  Representatives.  But  as  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  and  the  army  and  navy 
were  not  represented,  the  President  was  cm- 
powered  to  appoint  1  cadet  from  the  former 
and  10  cadets  "at  large,"  the  latter  to  bo 
selected  annually  from  the  army  or  navy,  or 
any  other  quarter  at  his  option,  without  re- 
gard to  Congressional  districts.  The  age  for 
admission  is  from  seventeen  to  twenty-two 
years,  except  when  the  candidate  has  served 
one  year  in  the  war  of  the  Rebellion,  in 
which  case  he  may  be  admitted  up  to 
twenty-four,  and  the  course  of  instruction 
is  fixed  at  four  years.  Candidates  must  be 
able  to  read  and  write  well,  have  a  good 
knowledge  of  grammar,  of  geography,  and 
history,  particularly  of  the  United  States, 
and  of  arithmetic,  including  vulgar  and 
decimal  fractions.  Examinations  arc  held 
annually  on  January  1  and  June  1.  All 
newly-appointed  cadets  must  report  for  ex- 
amination by  June  25,  and  none  are  exam- 
ined after  September  1,  unless  detained  by 
sickness  or  other  unavoidable  cause,  when 
they  may  be  examined  with  the  fourth  class 
vn  January  1,  and  if  fouiul  competent  may 
proceed  with  that  class.  Each  cadet  on  ad- 
mission takes  the  oath  of  allegiance  and 
binds  himself  to  serve  the  United  States  for 
eight  years,  unless  sooner  discharged.  For 
purposes  of  instruction,  the  cadets  are  di- 
vided into  four  classes,  the  fourth  being  tho 


MILITARY 


326 


MILITARY 


junior  class,  and  for  matters  of  discipline 
the  permanent  organization  is  that  of  a 
battalion  of  infantry  composed  of  four  com- 
panies. During  their  academic  course  cadets 
receive  $500  a  year  and  one  ration  a  day. 
Upon  graduating,  the  cadets  highest  in  merit 
are  usually  commissioned  as  second  lieuten- 
ants and  appointed  to  the  engineer  corps, 
those  next  in  order  of  merit  to  the  artillery, 
and  the  remainder  to  the  cavalry  and  in- 
fantry. Those  for  whom  no  vacancies  exist 
at  graduation  are  attached  to  regiments  or 
corps  as  additional  second  lieutenants,  and 
promoted  second  lieutenants  as  soon  as  a 
vacancy  occurs  in  the  arm  to  which  they 
are  attached.  By  act  of  Congress  approved 
June  23,  1879,  each  member  of  the  gradu- 
ating classes  of  1879-80  may  elect,  with  the 
assent  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  to  receive 
the  sum  of  $750  and  mileage  to  the  place  of 
his  residence  in  lieu  of  an  appointment  in 
.  the  army,  except  in  the  event  of  war,  until 
two  years  after  his  graduation.  There  is 
also  an  artillery  school  at  Fort  Monroe, 
Ya.,  for  the  training  of  officers  and  enlisted 
men.  The  school  is  entirely  conducted  by 
commissioned  officers,  and  the  course  of 
instruction  is  one  year. 

Military  Asylum.     See  Soldier's  Home. 

Military  Asylum,  Royal.  See  Asylum, 
Royal  Military. 

Military  College.  See  Military-  Acad- 
emies (Sandhurst). 

Military  Column.  See  Column,  Mili- 
tary. 

Military  Discipline.  Next  to  the  forming 
of  troops,  military  discipline  is  the  first  ob- 
ject that  presents  itself  to  our  notice:  it  is 
the  soul  of  all  armies ;  and  unless  it  be  es- 
tablished among  them  with  great  prudence, 
and  supported  with  unshaken  resolution, 
soldiers  become  a  contemptible  rabble,  and 
are  more  dangerous  to  the  very  state  that 
maintains  them  than  even  its  declared  ene- 
mies.    See  Discipline. 

Military  Execution.  The  ravaging  or 
destroying  of  a  country  or  town  that  refuses 
to  pay  the  contribution  inflicted  upon  them. 
Also,  the  punishment  inflicted  by  the  sen- 
tence of  a  court-martial. 

Military  First  Principles.  Is  the  bodily 
training  for  a  soldier,  to  make  him  hardy, 
robust,  and  capable  of  preserving  health 
amidst  fatigue,  bad  weather,  and  change  of 
climate  ;  to  march  at  such  possible  pace,  for 
such  length  of  time,  and  with  such  burden, 
as  without  training  he  would  not  be  able  to 
do. 

Military  Frontier,  The.  A  crown-land  of 
the  Austrian  empire,  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Croatia,  Slavonia,  and  theWojwodschaft, 
on  the  east  by  Transylvania  and  Wallachia, 
on  the  south  by  Turkey  and  Dalmatia,  and 
on  the  west  by  the  Adriatic,  comprising  an 
area  of  12,800  square  miles.  The  military 
frontier  owes  its  origin  as  a  crown-land  to 
the  necessity  of  having  a  permanent  body  of 
defenders  on  the  borders  during  former  wars, 
and  especially  during  wars  with  the  Turks. 


In  the  15th  century  the  Austrians  had  gained 
from  the  Turks  certain  tracts  of  territory  on 
the  banks  of  the  Save  and  Danube.  These 
tracts  they  colonized,  making  it,  however,  a 
condition  that  the  colonists  must  render 
military  service  against  the  Turks.  The 
Warasdin  frontier  originated  in  the  same 
manner  under  Ferdinand  I.  In  the  17th 
century  the  Petrinier  frontier,  which  at  a 
later  period  received  the  name  of  the  Banat 
frontier,  was  erected.  The  military  stations 
along  the  frontier  serve  a  threefold  purpose, 
— the  defense  of  the  country,  the  prevention 
of  smuggling,  and  the  prevention  of  the 
spread  of  contagious  disease  into  the  terri- 
tories of  the  Austrian  empire.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  this  crown-land  enjoy  peculiar  privi- 
leges. Their  immigrant  ancestors  received 
only  the  temporary  use  of  lands  consigned 
to  them ;  but  in  1850  a  law  was  passed 
making  over  the  land  to  the  occupiers  as 
their  own  property.  This  right  of  property 
does  not  belong,  however,  to  individuals, 
but  to  the  family  in  a  united  sense.  The 
oldest  member  of  a  family  is  intrusted  with 
the  management  of  the  land  ;  his  partner 
ranks  equal  with  hrm,  and  they  each  receive 
a  double  share  of  the  profits.  All  who  are 
able  to  bear  arms  are  sworn  to  the  service 
from  their  twentieth  year.  The  soldier  of 
the  frontier,  who  is  clothed  as  well  as  armed 
and  supplied  with  ammunition  by  govern- 
ment, finds  it  his  duty  not  only  to  watch 
and  protect  the  frontier,  but  to  preserve 
peace  and  order  in  the  interior,  and  to  go 
on  foreign  service  when  required.  Only  the 
smaller  portion  of  the  forces  of  the  military 
frontier  is  retained  in  readiness  for  active 
service,  while  the  remainder  pursue  their 
ordinary  employments.  To  facilitate  the 
accomplishment  of  the  purposes  aimed  at  by 
the  military  frontier,  the  cordon,  a  series  of 
guard-houses  along  the  whole  frontier,  af- 
fording accommodation  to  from  4  to  8  men, 
as  well  as  larger  ones,  accommodating  12 
men  and  a  junior  officer,  has  been  instituted. 
Within  this  line  are  the  officers'  posts. 
Without  announcing  himself  at  the  posts, 
no  one  is  allowed  to  pass  the  boundary ;  and 
after  permission  is  given  the  passenger  must 
remain  a  longer  or  shorter  time  at  the  quar- 
antine establishment,  in  order  that  all  in- 
trodftction  of  disease  may  be  prevented. 

Military  Indications.  Officers  should 
study  attentively  the  customs  of  their 
enemy,  their  hours  for  dining,  commen- 
cing their  marches,  etc.,  and  the  many 
indications  of  intended  movements  which 
an  enemy  may  unwittingly  afford.  The 
collection  of  boats,  heavy  guns,  scaling- 
ladders,  gabions,  etc.,  at  particular  places, 
are  indications  that  must  always  precede 
the  passage  of  rivers,  sieges,  etc.  If  large 
magazines  of  stores  or  provisions  are  col- 
lected anywhere,  it  is  clear  that  no  retreat  is 
contemplated ;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
parks  of  heavy,  or  spare  guns,  ammunition, 
engineer  stores,  etc.,  are  being  sent  to  the 
rear,  a  retreat  is  imminent,  or  being  pre- 


MILITARY 


327 


MILITARY 


pared  for.  The  dust  raised  by  coliimns  is  a 
fair  guide  iu  some  countries  as  to  the  num- 
bers and  composition  of  th(!  force  marching. 
That  raised  by  cavalry  forms  a  high,  ligiit 
cloud,  by  infantry,  a  lower  and  dense  one, 
by  parks  and  baggage,  one  more  dense  still. 
With  a  good  glass  you  can  sometimes  learn 
from  the  manner  in  which  troops  move,  and 
from  their  dress,  whetlier  they  are  regulars 
or  militia,  or  if  tiicy  belong  to  any  special 
corps.  The  manner  and  bearing  of  peof)le 
in  a  liostile  country  is  usually  a  fair  indica- 
tion of  the  public  spirit  and  feeling  ;  if  they 
are  gloomy  and  anxious,  it  is  an  indication 
of  want  of  confidence  in  their  cause,  and 
that  their  troops  are  distant ;  whilst  if  they 
are  excited  and  insolent,  it  shows  that  they 
rely  upon  assistance  near  at  hand,  and  an- 
ticipate success  from  the  number  and  etR- 
ciency  of  their  army.  In  following  a  re- 
treating army  much  can  be  learned  from  its 
trail;  if  the  debris  of  arms,  accoutrements, 
etc.,  lie  about,  there  is  a  want  of  transport, 
and  it  is  a  sign  of  demoralization,  according 
to  the  extent  to  which  it  is  the  case  ;  a  large 
number  of  graves  indicates  the  existence  of 
disease  in  the  enemy's  army.  The  places 
where  they  lialted  for  the  night  should  be 
carefully  examined ;  and  all  indications 
carefully  noted.  Did  they  bivouac  or  pitch 
tents;  was  their  camp  laid  out  with  regu- 
larity; were  their  cooking-places  neatly 
made.  Is  their  track  strewn  with  dead 
or  dying  transport  animals;  have  they 
plundered  the  inhabitants  or  burnt  their 
crops  or  houses;  have  they  effectually  or 
only  partially  destroyed  the  bridges,  etc. 
The  most  insignificant  circumstance  al!brds 
sometimes  whole  pages  of  information  to 
officers  who,  having  studied  the  manners 
and  customs  of  an  enemy,  know  liow  to 
interpret  thorn  aright.  Officers  command- 
ing small  detached  parties  sent  out  on  rec- 
onnoitring duties  may  many  times  avoid 
falling  into  the  hands  of  strong  patrols  or 
detachments  by  learning  their  proximity 
from  their  track  if  crossed  anywhere  ;  the 
number  and  composition  of  such  detach- 
ments may  easily  lio  estimated  from  it. 

Military  Knights.  See  Knights,  Mili- 
tary. 

Military  Law.     Sec  Law,  Military. 

Military  Mines.     See  Mines,  Military. 

Military  Necessity.  As  understood  by 
modern  civili/.cd  nations,  consists  in  the 
necessity  of  those  measures  which  are  indis- 
pensable for  securing  the  ends  of  war,  and 
which  are  lawful  according  to  the  modern 
law  and  usages  of  war.  Military  necessity 
admits  of  all  direct  destruction"  of  life  oV 
limb  of  armed  enemies,  and  of  other  persons 
whose  destruction  is  incidentally  unavoidable 
in  the  armed  contests  of  war;"  it  allows  of 
the  capturing  of  every  armed  enemy,  and 
every  enemy  of  importance  to  the  hostile 
government,  or  of  peculiar  danger  to  the 
captor;  it  allows  of  all  destruction  of  prop- 
erty, and  obstruction  of  the  ways  and  chan- 
nels of  traffic,  travel,  or  communication,  and 


of  all  withholding  of  sustenance  or  means 
of  life  from  the  enemy  ;  of  the  appropriation 
of  whatever  an  enemy'.s  country  affords 
necessary  for  the  subsistence  and  safety  of 
the  army,  and  of  such  deception  as  does  not 
involve  the  breaking  of  good  faith,  either 
positively  pledged,  regarding  agreements 
entered  into  during  the  war,  or  sujiposed  by 
the  modern  law  of  war  to  exist.  Men  who 
take  up  arms  against  one  another  in  public 
war  do  not  cease  on  this  account  to  be  moral 
beings,  responsible  to  one  another,  and  to 
God.  Military  necessity  does  not  admit  of 
cruelty,  that  is,  the  infliction  of  suffering 
for  the  sake  of  sufiering,  or  for  revenge,  or 
of  maiming  or  wounding,  except  in  fight,  or 
of  tt)rture  to  extort  confessions.  It  does  not 
admit  of  the  use  of  poison  in  any  way,  or  of 
the  wanton  devastation  of  a  district. "  It  ad- 
mits of  deception,  but  disclaims  acts  of  per- 
fidy; and  in  general,  military  necessity  does 
not  inwlude  any  act  of  hostility  which  makes 
the  return  to  peace  unnecessarily  difficult. 

Military  Orders.  Keligious  associations 
which  arose  from  the  mixture  of  the  reli- 
gious enthusiasm  and  the  chivalrous  love  of 
arms  which  almost  etiually  formed  the 
characteristic  of  mediaeval  society.  The  first 
origin  of  such  associations  may  be  traced  to 
the  necessities  of  the  Christian  residents  of 
the  Hr)ly  Land,  in  which  the  monks,  whose 
first  duty  had  been  to  serve  the  jiilgrims  in 
the  hospital  at  Jerusalem,  were  compelled  by 
the  necessity  of  self-defense  to  assume  the 
character  of  soldiers  as  well  as  of  monks.  (See 
Saint  John  of  Jerusalem.)  The  order 
of  the  Templars  (see  Templar,  Knights) 
was  of  singular  origin.  Those  of  Alcan- 
tara and  Calatrava  (which  see),  in  Spain, 
had  for  their  immediate  object  the  defense 
of  their  country  against  the  Moors.  These 
orders  as  well  as  that  of  Avis  in  Portugal, 
which  was  instituted  with  a  similar  view, 
followed  the  Cistercian  rule,  and  all  three 
ditf'ercd  from  the  Templars  and  the  Knights 
of  St.  John  in  being  permitted  by  their  in- 
stitute to  marry  once.  The  same  privilege 
was  enjoyed  in  the  Savoyard  order  of 
Knights  of  St.  Maurice,  and  the  Flemish 
order  of  St.  Hubert.  Un  the  contrary,  the 
Teutonic  Knights,  who  had  their  origin  in 
the  Crusades  (see  Grand  Master),  were 
bound  by  an  absolute  vow  of  chastity. 
AVith  the  varying  conditions  of  society, 
these  religious  associations  have  at  various 
times  been  abolished  or  fallen  into  disuse ; 
but  most  of  them  still  subsist  in  the  form  of 
orders  of  knighthood,  and  in  some  of  them, 
attempts  have  recently  been  made  to  revive, 
with  certain  modifications,  the  monastic 
character  which  they  originally  possessed. 

Military  Positions.    See  Positions,  Mil- 

ITAHV. 

Military  Punishment.   See  Punishment, 

Mll.l  I  AKY. 

Military  Regulations.  The  rules  and 
regulations  by  which  the  discipline,  fornm- 
tions,  field-exercise,  and  movements  of  the 
whole  armv  are  directed,  to  be  observed  in 


MILITAET 


328 


MILITIA 


one  uniform  system.  See  Army  Regula- 
tions. 

Military  Science.  See  Logistics,  Strat- 
agem, Strategy,  Tactics,  and  War. 

Military  Secretary.  An  officer  on  the 
personal  stafl"  of  generals  in  high  command. 
His  duties  are  to  conduct  the  correspondence 
of  his  chief,  and  to  transact  a  great  amount 
of  confidential  business,  which  would  dan- 
gerously occupy  the  time  of  the  general 
himself.  In  the  British  service  the  military 
secretary  to  the  commander-in-chief  is  usu- 
ally a  general  officer.  To  a  commander-in- 
chief  in  the  field,  he  is  for  most  part  below 
that  rank,  while  to  a  general  commanding 
a  division  only,  an  assistant  military  secre- 
tary is  allowed.  His  staflf  pay  is  of  course 
additional  to  the  officer's  regimental  or 
unattached  pay. 

Military  Service.  In  the  feudal  ages,  a 
tenure  of  lands  by  knight's  service,  accord- 
ing to  which  the  tenant  was  bound  to  per- 
form service  in  war  unto  the  king,  or  the 
mesne  lord,  of  whom  he  held  by  that  tenure. 
As  the  king  gave  to  the  great  nobles,  his 
immediate  tenants,  large  possessions  forever, 
to  hold  of  him  for  this  or  that  service  or 
rent,  so  they  in  time  parceled  out  to  such 
others  as  they  liked,  the  same  lands  for  rents 
and  services  as  they  thought  good.  And 
these  services  were  divided  into  two  sorts, 
chivalry  and  socage ;  the  first  whereof  was 
martial  and  military,  whereby  the  tenant  was 
obliged  to  perform  some  noble  or  militarj'' 
office  unto  his  lord.  This  was  of  two  kinds : 
either  regal,  that  is,  held  only  by  the  king, 
or  common,  when  held  of  a  common  person. 
That  which  was  held  only  of  the  king  was 
called  servitium,  or  serjeantia,  and  was  again 
divided  into  grand  and  petit  serjeantry. 
The  grand  serjeantry  was  where  one  held 
lands  of  the  king  by  service,  which  he  ought 
to  do  in  his  own  person;  as,  to  bear  the 
king's  banner  or  spear,  to  lead  his  horse,  or 
to  find  a  man-at-arms  to  fight,  etc.  Petit 
serjeantry  was  when  a  man  held  lands  of  the 
king,  to  yield  him  annually  some  small 
thing  towards  his  wars,  as  a  sword,  dagger, 
bow,  etc.  Chivalry  that  might  be  holden 
of  a  common  person  was  termed  scutapium, 
or  escunge;  that  is,  service  of  the  shield, 
which  was  either  uncertain  or  certain.  Es- 
cuage  uncertain  was  likewise  twofold :  first, 
where  the  tenant  was  bound  to  follow  his 
lord,  by  going  in  person  to  the  king's  wars, 
or  sending  a  sufficient  man  in  his  place,  there 
to  be  maintained  at  his  cost  so  long  as  was 
agreed  upon  between  the  lord  and  his  first 
tenant  at  the  granting  of  the  fee.  The  days 
of  such  service  seem  to  have  been  rated  by 
the  quantity''  of  land  so  holden  ;  as,  if  it  ex- 
tended to  a  whole  knight's  fee,  then  the 
knight  was  to  follow  his  lord  forty  days  ;  if 
but  a  half  a  knight's  fee,  then  twenty  days  ; 
and  if  a  fourth  part,  then  ten  days,  etc.  'The 
other  kind  of  this  escuage  was  called  castle- 
ward,  where  the  tenant  was  obliged  by  him- 
self or  some  other,  to  defend  a  castle  as  often 
as  it  should  come  to  his  turn. 


Military  Stores.     See  Stores,  Military. 

Military  Tenure.  Tenure  of  land,  on 
condition  of  performing  military  service. 

Military  Train.  A  h  ighly  important  corps 
of  the  army  of  Great  Britain,  of  which  the 
function  is  to  transport  the  provisions,  am- 
munition, and  all  other  material,  together 
with  the  wounded  in  time  of  battle.  It  was 
formed  after  the  Crimean  war,  on  the  disso- 
lution of  the  Land-Transport  Corps.  In  the 
year  1863  it  comprised  6  battalions,  in  all 
1840  officers  and  men.  The  corps  ranks  after 
the  Royal  Engineers,  and  is  classed  as 
Mounted  Infantry,  the  officers  receiving  in- 
fantry rates,  and  the  men  cavalry  rates  of 
pay.  The  men  are  armed  with  carbine  and 
sword,  but  rather  for  defensive  than  aggres- 
sive purposes.  Attached  to  each  battalion 
are  166  horses,  with  proportionate  wagons 
and  ambulances.  It  is  proper  to  observethat 
the  Military  Train  constitutes  the  nucleus  of 
a  transport  service  for  a  large  army,  and 
that  in  time  of  war  it  would  be  expanded  by 
the  addition  of  thousands  of  horses  or  mules, 
and  the  incorporation  of  many  hundred 
drivers,  etc.  The  advantage  of  possessing 
even  a  few  men  ready  trained  and  capable  of 
directing  the  movements  of  others  was  amply 
demonstrated  by  the  failures  of  the  Crimea 
in  1854-56 ;  so  that  Parliament  votes  un- 
grudgingly the  expense  of  this  corps,  al- 
though in  time  of  peace  it  is  comparatively 
without  employment.  It  is  now  termed  the 
Army  Service  Corps. 

Military  Ways.  The  large  Roman  roads 
which  Agrippa  caused  to  be  made  through 
the  empire  in  the  reign  of  Augustus  for  the 
marching  of  troops  and  conveying  of  car- 
riages. They  were  paved  from  the  gates  of 
Rome  to  the  utmost  limits  of  the  empire. 
The  British  have  constructed  a  military  road 
throughout  India,  with  wells  and  other  ac- 
commodations at  certain  distances. 

Militia.     From  the  Latin  miles,  a  "sol- 
dier," a  term  which  was  formerly  synony- 
mous with  "  military,"  or  the  whole  fighting 
force  of  a  country,  but  in  modern  times  has 
come  to  signify  the  domestic  force  for  the  de- 
fense of  a  nation,  as  distinguished  from  the 
regular  army,   which  can  be  employed  at 
home  or  abroad  in  either  aggressive  or  defen- 
sive operations.     Every  nation  has  a  reserve, 
under  its  law  military,  upon  which  its  de- 
fense would  fall  on  the  discomfiture  of  the 
regular  army  ;  but  the  system  ditfers  in  each 
country.     France  has  her  Gardes  Nationaux, 
Prussia  the  La7idwehr  and  Landsturm,  and    ^ 
similar  organizations  exist  in  other  European    | 
states.     It  also  comprehends   the  volunteer    \ 
organizations  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United    : 
States.     The  laws  of  the  United  States  re-    ^ 
quire  the  enrollment  into  the  militia  of  all 
able-bodied  males  between  the  ages  of  eigh-    ^ 
teen  and  forty-five  years,  with  certain  ex-   . 
ceptions  specified  in  general  and  State  laws.    | 
The  militia  of  each  State  is  required  to  be   | 
arranged  into   companies,  battalions,    regi-    ; 
ments,  brigades,  and  divisions,  as  the  Legis- 
lature of  the  State  may  direct,  and  it  shall    ; 


MILITIA-MAN 


329 


MINIE 


be  subject  to  military  duty  and  shall  serve  a 
definite  time.  These  organizations  are  to  be 
ofKcered  by  the  respective  States,  the  {grades 
and  number  of  officers  beiny  named  in  the 
laws  requirin£x  enrollment.  The  Constitu- 
tion of  tlie  United  States  has  given  the  power 
to  Congress  to  j)rovide  for  "  calling  forth  the 
militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the  Union, 
suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  invasions." 
(Congress  by  legislation  has  given  the  Presi- 
dent, the  authority  to  call  forth  the  militia 
under  certain  exigencies,  as  has  been  fre- 
quently done.  When  called  into  actual  ser- 
vice of  the  United  States,  the  militia  receive 
jmy  from  the  government,  and  are  subject  to 
the  Kulesand  Articles  of  War.  The  militia 
is  therefore  a  part  and  parcel  of  the  army  of 
th>!  United  States,  although  in  common  use 
the  term  is  limited  to  mean  the  regular  army 
alone.  The  organized  militia  of  the  United 
States  numbers  r_'.'),OOG  men,  the  number  of 
men  available  for  military  duty  unorganized, 
is  0,508,105. 

Militia-man.     One   who  belongs   to    the 
militia. 

Mill,  Gunpowder-.     Is  a  machine  used  for 
mixing  or  incdrpurating  the  ingredients  of 
which  gunpowder  is  composed.     The  opera- 
tion was  formerly  effected  as  follows :  The 
ingredients  being  duly  proportioned  and  put 
into  the  mortars  of  the  mills,  which  are  hol- 
low pieces  of  wood,  each  capable  of  holding 
20  pounds   of    paste,   are   incorporated   by 
means  of  the  pestle  and  spindle.     There  are 
I        24  mortars  in  each  mill,  where  are  made  each 
day  480  pounds  of  gunpowder,  care  being 
I        taken  to  sprinkle  the  ingredients  in  the  mor- 
I        tars  with  water  from  time  to  time,  lest  they 
!        should   take   fire.     The  pestle  is  a  piece  of 
I         wood    10   feet    high,  and    4.}  inches    broad, 
I        armed  at  the  bottom  with  a  round  piece  of 
I        metal.     It   weighs   about  60  pounds.     For 
more  modern  methods  of  incorporation,  see 

GUNl'OWUKK. 

Mill  Springs.  A  village  of  Wayne  Co., 
Ky.,  about  100  miles  south  of  Frankfort. 
Near  here  a  Federal  force  under  Gen.  Geo. 
H.  Thomas  defeated  a  Confederate  army 
I  under  Gen.  G.  B.  Crittenden,  January  19, 
I  18G2.  In  this  engagement  the  Confederate 
I        general  F.  K.  Zollicoffer  was  killed. 

Mill-cake.     The   incorpf>rated    materials 
for  guiipiiwder,  in  the  form  of  a  dense  mass 
I       or  cake,  ready  to  be  subjected  to  the  process 
;        of  gramilaticm. 

Milliken's  Bend.  A  village  of  Madison 
Parish,  La.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi River,  about  2.")  miles  above  Vicks- 
burg.  On  June  G,  18G8,  the  Confederates 
I  under  Gen.  McCuUough  made  an  attack  on 
I  this  place,  which  was  defended  by  a  body  of 
colored  troops  and  part  of  an  Iowa  regiment, 
and  were  repulsed  after  a  severe  engagement. 
Mim  Bashy.  In  the  East  Indies,  a  com- 
maiulvr  of  KHK)  Imrse. 

Minas,  Sabbatha.     A  fort  in  Babylonia, 
built  in  ilu  time  of  the  later  Roman  empire 
on  the  site  of  Seleucia,  which  the  Romans 
had  destroyed. 
22   ■ 


Mincio.  A  river  of  Lombardy,  Italy. 
Here  the  Austrians  were  repulsed  by  the 
French  under  Brune,  December  25-27,1800, 
and  by  Eugene  Beauharnais,  February  8, 
1814,  near  Valeggio. 

Minden.  A  strongly  fortified  town  of 
Prussia,  in  Westphalia,  situated  on  the 
Weser,  35  miles  southwest  from  Hanover. 
In  its  neighborhood  the  battle  of  Minden 
was  fought,  on  August  1,  1759,  between  the 
English,  Hessians,  and  Hanoverians  (under 
Prince  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick),  and  the 
French  were  beaten  and  driven  to  the  ram- 
parts of  Minden.  Lord  George  Sackvillo 
(afterwards  Lord  Germaine),  who  com- 
manded the  British  and  Hanoverian  horse, 
for  some  disobedience  of  orders  was  tried  by 
a  court-martial  on  his  return  to  England, 
found  guilty,  and  dismissed  April  22,  17G0. 
He  was  afterwards  restored  to  favor,  and 
became  secretary  of  state,  1776. 

Mines,  Military.  Constitute  one  of  the 
nK)St  important  departments  in  military  en- 
gineering, and  a  very  formidable  accessory 
both  in  the  attack  and  defense  of  fortresses. 
A  military  mine  consists  of  a  gallery  of 
greater  or  less  length,  run  from  some  point 
of  safety  under  an  opposing  work,  or  under 
an  area  over  which  an  attacking  force  must 
pass,  and  terminating  in  a  chamber,  which, 
being  stored  with  gunpowder,  can  bo  ex- 
ploded at  the  critical  moment.  Mines  are  of 
use  to  the  besiegers  in  the  overthrow  of 
ramparts  and  formation  of  a  breach  ;  the 
co««i'er?rti«f.s  of  the  besieged  in  undermining 
the  glacis  over  which  the  assaulting  column 
must  charge,  and  blowing  them  into  the 
air,  or  in  destroying  batteries  erected  for 
breaching,  are  equally  serviceable.  But  far 
above  the  actual  mischief  wrought  by  the 
mine — often  very  great — is  its  moral  influ- 
ence on  the  troops,  and  especially  on  the 
assailants.  Mines  are  either  vertical, — when 
they  are  called  shafts, — horizontal,  or  in- 
clined, in  either  of  which  ca.<es  they  are 
"  galleries, "i  be  word  "ascending"  or  "de- 
scending" Deing  added,  if  there  be  inclina- 
tion. The  dimensions  range  from  the  "great 
gallery,"  6  feet  0  inches  by  7  feet,  to  the 
"smail  branch," — the  last  diminutive  of 
the  gallery, — which  has  but  2  feet  G  inches 
height,  with  a  breadth  of  2  feet.  The  most 
frequent  work  is  the  "common  gallery,"'  4 
feet  G  inches  by  3  feet,  which  is  considered 
the  easiest  for  the  miner. 

Mini*  Ball.  A  ball  or  bullet  of  peculiar 
construction.  It  is  cast  hollow  for  nearly 
two-thirds  of  its  length,  and  into  the  open- 
ing of  the  internal  cylinder  there  is  intro- 
duced a  small  concave  piece  of  iron,  which 
the  powder  at  the  moment  of  firing  forces 
into  the  slug,  spreading  it  open,  and  causing 
it  to  fit  perfectly  to  the  barrel.  Hence  a 
great  increase  in  the  precision  of  aim  and 
the  extent  of  range. 

Minie  Rifle.  '^A  species  of  fire-arm,  in- 
vented by  Capt.  Minie,  from  whom  it  re- 
ceives its"  name.  It  is  certain  in  aim,  and 
fatal  in  its  results  at  800  yards 


MINING 


330 


MIRE 


Mining.  In  military  affairs,  is  the  art  of 
blowing  up  any  part  of  a  fortification,  build- 
ing, etc.,  by  gunpowder.  The  art  of  mining 
requires  a  perfect  knowledge  both  of  fortifi- 
cations and  geometry ;  and  by  these  previous 
helps,  the  engineer  may  be  qualified  to  as- 
certain correctly  the  nature  of  all  manner 
of  heights,  depths,  breadths,  and  thicknesses ; 
to  judge  perfectly  of  slopes  and  perpendicu- 
lars, whether  they  be  such  as  are  parallel  to 
the  horizon,  or  such  as  are  visual ;  together 
with  the  true  levels  of  all  kinds  of  earth. 
To  which  must  be  added,  a  consummate  skill 
in  the  quality  of  rocks,  earths,  masonry,  and 
sands  ;  the  whole  accompanied  with  a  thor- 
ough knowledge  of  the  strength  of  all  sorts 
of  gunpowder. 

Minion.  An  ancient  form  of  ordnance  of 
small  size,  the  caliber  of  which  was  about  3 
inches. 

Minister.  Is  one  who  acts  not  by  any 
inherent  authority  of  his  own,  but  under 
another.  Thus,  in  England  all  ministers 
act  under  a  supreme  authority,  which  is 
vested  in  the  sovereign,  lords,  and  commons, 
to  whom  they  are  responsible.  In  military 
matters,  there  is  not  only  a  war  minister, 
but  a  secretary  at  war,  who  likewise  acts 
conjointly  with  the  secretary  of  state.  All 
dispatches  and  papers  of  consequence  relat- 
ing to  the  army  must  first  pass  through  the 
secretary  of  state,  and  the  war  minister,  be- 
fore they  are  laid  before  Parliament,  or  other- 
wise acted  upon  by  the  secretary  at  war. 
The  common  arrangements  of  corps,  direc- 
tions with  respect  to  marching,  are  trans- 
mitted to  the  secretary  at  war,  and  to  the 
quartermaster-general's  office,  without  pre- 
viously passing  through  the  secretary  of 
state,  or  war  minister.  See  Secretary  of 
War. 

Minnesota.  One  of  the  Northwestern 
States  of  the  American  Union.  The  country 
was  visited  by  white  traders  as  early  as  1654, 
but  very  few  settlements  were  made  in  it  until 
about  1845.  The  eastern  part  of  the  State 
formed  a  portion  of  the  French  possessions 
which  were  ceded  to  the  British  in  1763,  and 
by  them  to  the  United  States  in  1783.  The 
remaining  part  belonged  to  the  Louisiana 
Territory,  which  was  purchased  from  the 
Trench  in  1803.  The  country  was  traversed 
by  an  exploring  expedition  under  Gen. 
Pike  in  1805.  A  territorial  government  was 
organized  in  1849,  and  in  1853  Minnesota 
was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State. 
The  State  suffered  severely  in  1862  from  an 
inroad  of  the  Sioux,  who  destroyed  whole 
settlements.  They  were  soon  afterwards, 
however,  summarily  punished,  and  removed 
from  the  State  altogether. 

Miijnetarees.  A  tribe  of  Indians,  for- 
merly a  branch  of  the  Crows,  but  now  affili- 
ated to  the  Mandans,  who  reside  on  the 
Upper  Missouri.  They  have  always  been 
friendly  to  the  whites,  and  hostile  to  the 
Sioux,  at  whose  hands  they  have  suffered 
severely.     They  number  about  400. 

Minor,     Under  age.     Minors  will  not  be 


enlisted  in  the  army  of  the  United  States 
without  the  consent  of  their  parents  or 
guardians.  If  any  have  enlisted  and  it  be- 
comes known,  the  Secretary  of  War,  on 
demand,  is  required  to  grant  the  discharges 
from  the  army  of  minors  who  have  enlisted 
without  the  consent  of  their  parents  or  guar- 
dians. 

Minorca.  One  of  the  Balearic  Islands 
(which  see)  in  the  Mediterranean.  It  was 
captured  by  Lieut.-Gen.  Stanhope  and  Sir 
John  Leake  in  1708,  and  was  ceded  to  the 
British  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713; 
taken  by  the  Spanish  and  French  in  July, 
1756,  and  Admiral  Byng  fell  a  victim  to 
public  indignation  for  not  relieving  it.  It 
was  restored  to  the  British  at  the  peace  in 
1793  ;  besieged  by  the  Spaniards,  and  taken 
February  5,  1782;  captured  by  the  British 
under  Gen.  Stuart,  without  the  loss  of  a 
man,  November  15,  1798;  but  was  given  up 
at  the  peace  of  Amiens  in  1802. 

Minturnse  {Minfur)ie}isis ;  now  Trajetto). 
An  important  town  in  Latium,  on  the  fron- 
tiers of  Campania ;  was  situated  on  the 
Appia  Via,  and  on  both  banks  of  the  Liris, 
and  near  the  mouth  of  this  river.  It  was 
an  ancient  town  of  the  Ausones,  or  Aurunci, 
but  surrendered  to  the  Romans  of  its  own 
accord,  296  B.C.  In  its  neighborhood  Marius 
was  taken  prisoner. 

Minute.  A  hasty  sketch  taken  of  any- 
thing in  writing.  Hence  minutes  of  a  gen- 
eral or  regimental  court-martial. 

Minute-gun.  A  gun  discharged  every 
minute,  as  a  signal  of  distress  or  mourning. 

Minute-man.  A  man  enlisted  for  service 
wherever  required,  and  ready  to  march  at  a 
moment's  notice  ; — a  term  used  in  the  Amer- 
ican Revolution. 

Minutes  of  Councils  in  the  Military  De- 
partment. The  notification  of  orders  and 
regulations,  which  are  directed  to  be  observed 
by  the  British  army  in  India,  are  so  called. 
These  minutes  receive  the  sanction  of  the 
governor-general  in  council,  and  are  the 
result  of  previous  communications  from  the 
court  of  directors  in  Europe.  The  answer 
to  the  French  word,  residtat,  which  was  pro- 
fixed  to  all  orders  and  regulations  that  were 
occasionally  issued  by  the  military  boards,  or 
conseils  de  guerre.,  for  the  government  of  the 
army.  The  term,  jugernent  d'un  conseil  de 
guerre,  corresponded  with  our  minutes  of  a 
general  or  garrison  court-martial,  and  ex- 
pressed not  only  the  minutes,  but  the  sen- 
tence of  the  court. 

Miquelets  {Fr.).  Bandits,  who  have  in- 
fested the  Pyrenean  Mountains ;  armed 
mountaineers  of  the  P^'renees  ;  the  name  is  , 
now  borne  by  the  captain-general's  guard;  1 
in  1808,  Napoleon  organized  a  corps  of 
niiquelets  Frangnis,  who  rendered  good  ser- 
vices. _       j 

Miqueletti.     A  small  body  of  mountain    ] 
fusiliers,    who    formerly    belonged    to    the 
Neapolitan  army. 

Mire  {Fr.).  In  the  French  artillery,  a 
piece  of  wood  about  4  inches  thick,  1  foot 


MIREUR 


331 


MISSOLONGHI 


high,  nnd  2 J  feet  long,  which  is  used  in 
jKiinting  cannon. 

Mireur  (/">.).  An  instrument  employed 
in  coast  batteries  for  ascertaining  wliether 
the  enemy's  ships  are  within  the  range  of 
the  guns,  and  thus  to  prevent  the  gunners 
from  expending  their  shot  unnecessarily. 

Mirmillones.  A  class  of  Koman  gladia- 
tors;  said  to  have  been  so  called  from  their 
liaving  tlu;  image  of  a  fish  on  their  helmets. 
Tlieir  arms  were  like  those  of  the  Gauls; 
hence  we  find  that  they  were  also  called  Galli. 
They  were  usually  matched  with  the  retiarli 
or  Thracians. 

Mirror.     See   Inspection  of   Cannon  ; 

also  LOOKINO-GLASS    SlONALINO. 

Misbehavior  before  the  Enemy.  See 
Ari-KNDix,  Articlks  OK  Wau,  42. 

Miscellaneous.  An  item  or  charge  in  the 
estimates  of  the  British  army,  so  distin- 
guished as  yniscellnneous  services;  the  same 
as  our  contingent  expenditures. 

Misconduct  at  Divine  Service.  See  Ap- 
PK.vDi.v,  Akticles  of  War,  52. 

Misconduct  in  Time  of  War.  See  Ap- 
PENi>i.\,  Articles  of  War,  55,  56,57,  and 
58. 

Misericorde  (Fr.).  A  short  dagger,  which 
the  cavalry  formerly  used,  for  the  purpose  of 
dispatching  an  enemy  who  would  not  ask 
quarter  or  mercy. 

Misnomer.  The  mistaking  of  the  true 
name  of  a  person  ;  the  using  of  one  name 
for  another.  If  a  prisoner  plead  a  misnomer 
before  a  court-martial,  the  court  may  ask 
the  prisoner  what  is  his  real  name,  and  call 
upon  him  to  plead  to  the  amended  charge. — 
Hough. 

Miss.  To  fail  to  hit ;  to  fly  wide  ;  as,  the 
bullet  missed  its  mark. 

Missile.  Capable  of  being  thrown;  adapted 
for  hurling,  or  to  bo  projected  from  the 
hand,  or  from  any  instrument  or  engine  ;  as, 
to  wing  the  missile  dart. 

Missile.  A  weapon  thrown  or  intended 
to  be  thrown,  for  doing  execution;  as,  a 
lance,  an  arrow,  or  a  bullet. 

Missing.  Wanting ;  not  present  when 
called  or  looked  for;  lost;  as,  100  soldiers 
are  wounded  and  missing. 

Mississagas.  A  tribe  of  Indians  of  Al- 
gonkin  stock,  who  formerly  resided  on  the 
north  shore  of  Lake  Huron,  but  are  now 
found  to  the  number  of  700  in  Ontario. 
They  were  one  of  the  Confederate  tribes  of 
the  "  Seven  Nations,"  fought  as  allies  of  the 
French  against  the  English  (1743-48),  sided 
with  the  English  in  the  seven  years'  war 
against  the  French  and  in  the  war  against 
Pontiac,  and  aided  the  Canadian  forces 
against  the  United  States  in  the  war  of  1812. 

Mississippi.  One  of  the  Southwestern 
States  of  tlio  American  Confederacy.  It 
Was  first  visited  by  Europeans  about  the 
year  1540,  when  De'Soto,  with  10(X)  follow- 
ers, crossed  the  State  on  an  expli>ring  expe- 
dition from  Florida,  and  remained  in  it  for 
nearly  a  year.  This  party  having  su tiered 
•everely  by  attacks  from  the  aborigines,  no 


other  attempt  was  made  to  establish  a  per- 
manent colony  till  1(;82,  when  La  Salle  de- 
scended the  Mississippi  and  visited  this  re- 
gion, lie  returned  in  two  years  with  a  party 
which  he  intended  to  settle  in  Mississippi, 
but  meeting  with  misfortunes,  the  colony 
never  reached  its  destination.  The  next 
attempt  at  settlement  was  made  by  Iberville, 
but  with  no  successful  result.  The  settle- 
ment at  Fort  Rosalie  (now  Natchez)  in  1710, 
by  some  Frenchmen  under  Bienville,  was 
generally  considered  the  first  permanent 
colony.  A  general  massacre  of  the  white 
inhabitants  by  the  savages  took  place  in 
1728,  but,  as  in  every  other  contest  oetween 
the  Indians  and  the  whites,  victory  ulti- 
mately rested  with  the  latter.  Other  con- 
flicts in  173t],  173'J,  and  1752,  though  carried 
on  for  a  time  with  varying  success,  had  the 
same  result.  At  the  peace  of  Paris,  in  17G3, 
Mississippi  became  a  part  of  the  English  ter- 
ritory. Soon  after  a  portion  of  the  French, 
so  inhumanly  driven  by  the  English  from 
Nova  Scotia,  settled  in  Mississippi  ;  and  in 
1768  commenced  an  emigration  from  the 
Eastern  colonies  by  way  of  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  Rivers.  In  17'J8  the  United 
States  having  attained  the  rights  of  the 
British  government  in  this  region,  erected  it 
into  a  Territory,  and  in  1817  it  was  admitted 
into  the  Union  as  an  independent  State. 
Mississippi  was  one  of  the  first  of  the  South- 
ern States  to  secede  from  the  Union,  and  it 
suffered  severely  during  the  civil  war.  It 
was  the  scene  of  several  engagements,  raids, 
etc.,  the  most  important  being  the  battles  of 
luka,  Corinth,  siege  and  capture  of  Vicks- 
burg,  and  raids  to  Meridian. 

Missive.  Intended  to  be  thrown,  hurled, 
or  ejected  ;  missile.  "  The  missive  weapons 
fly." 

Missolonghi,  or  Mesolonghi.  A  town  of 
Greece,  in  the  government  of  yEtolia,  is 
separated  from  the  sea  by  a  large  lake.  It 
is  noted  for  the  memorable  siege  it  sustained 
in  1825-2G.  In  the  beginning  of  1825  it  was 
garrisoned  by  5000  Greeks,  who  were  com- 
manded by  Nothi  Bozzaris ;  and  on  April 
25  of  the  same  year  a  Turkish  force  of  20,000 
under  Reshid  Pasha  appeared  before  Misso- 
longhi, which  was  poorly  fortified.  On  May 
11,  the  first  bombardment  began,  and  for  the 
space  of  two  months  afterwards  the  town 
was  exposed  to  numerous  bombardments  and 
assaults  ;  but  the  defenders  were  not  less 
active  in  answering  the  enemy's  fire,  and 
making  sallies  from  their  defenses,  by  which 
means  they  succeeded  in  repelling  their 
assailants,  and  inflicting  on  them  considera- 
ble loss.  During  this  time  they  were  supplied 
with  ammunition  and  provisions  by  the  fleet 
which  was  stationed  at  the  entrance  of  the 
lake;  but  on  July  10.  a  superior  Turkish 
fleet,  after  compelling  the  ships  of  Greece  to 
retire,  succeeded  in  landing  a  strong  reinforce- 
ment to  the  besiegers.  The  assaults  on  the 
town  were  then  renewed  with  increased  fury, 
and  the  cannonade  of  the  Turks  carried  de- 
struction  to   iU   frail   ramparta   and  death 


MISSOUKI 


332 


MOABITES 


among  the  ranks  of  its  brave  defenders.  Yet 
the  garrison,  though  reduced  to  the  number 
of  4000,  continued  to  maintain  their  ground 
until,  in  the  month  of  August,  the  Greek 
fleet  appeared  in  the  offing,  and  by  defeating 
the  Turkish  squadron  relieved  Missolonghi 
for  a  time  from  the  blockade.  But  the  sultan 
was  resolved  at  all  hazards  to  reduce  this 
stronghold  of  liberty ;  and  in  the  end  of 
November  the  Greek  ships  were  again  driven 
off,  and  the  blockade  renewed  by  the  com- 
bined Turkish,  Egyptian,  and  Barbary  fleets. 
In  the  beginning  of  182G  the  besieging  army 
was  reinforced  by  the  arrival  of  14,000  troops 
under  Ibrahim  Pasha,  who  took  command 
of  all  the  besieging  forces.  On  January  25, 
a  bombardment  was  commenced,  which  lasted 
for  three  days,  and  reduced  the  town  to 
ruins,  but  could  not  shake  the  resolute 
courage  of  the  Greeks.  The  repeated  assaults 
of  the  enemy  were  still  repulsed  with  great 
loss.  At  last,  reduced  to  the  utmost  ex- 
tremities by  famine,  and  seeing  on  all  sides 
nothing  but  the  ships  and  tents  of  the  enemy, 
yet  never  entertaining  any  thought  of  sur- 
render, the  Greeks  determined  to  force  their 
way  through  the  opposing  ranks.  Although 
by  treachery  the  enemy  was  made  aware  of 
their  design,  and  thus  prepared  to  meet  them, 
they  were  not  able  to  prevent  nearly  2000  of 
the  besieged  from  making  their  way  to  the 
mountains.  Many  prisoners  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Turks,  and  the  remainder,  who 
were  unable  from  their  wounds  or  weariness 
to  accompany  their  fellows,  continued  to 
defend  themselves  among  the  ruins  until  the 
explosion  of  a  powder-magazine,  destroying 
alike  friends  and  foes,  put  an  end  to  the 
bloody  conflict.  Such  was  the  siege  of  Mis- 
s  )longhi,  which  attracted,  during  its  con- 
tinuance, the  eyes  of  all  Europe,  and  in 
which  the  Greeks  showed  themselves  the 
worthy  sons  of  the  heroes  of  Marathon  and 
Thermopylae. 

Missouri.  One  of  the  Central  States  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  the  first  organized 
wholly  west  of  the  Mississippi  River.  The 
French  were  the  earliest  settlers  in  the 
country,  having  built  a  fort  there  in  1719. 
By  the  treaty  of  1763  it  was  ceded  to  Spain, 
with  all  the  territory  west  of  the  Mississippi. 
Spain  being  at  war  with  England  during  the 
American  Revolution,  her  colonies  were 
harassed  by  the  English  and  their  Indians 
allies.  In  1780,  a  body  of  British  and 
Indians  attacked  and  besieged  St.  Louis, 
killing  60  of  its  defenders.  The  siege  was 
raised  by  Col.  Clark,  an  American,  who 
came  to  the  relief  of  the  place  with  500  men. 
In  1800  Spainrestoredtheterritory  to  France, 
and  it  passed  to  the  United  States  by  pur- 
chase in  1803.  After  the  admission  of  Lou- 
isiana as  a  State  in  1812,  the  remaining 
portion  of  the  territory  received  the  name  of 
Missouri,  from  which  was  separated  the 
State  of  that  name  in  1821.  Though  the 
State  officially  declared  itself  in  favor  of  the 
Union  in  1861,  many  of  its  prominent  citi- 
zens sided  with  the  Confederates.     It  was 


the  scene  of  several  engagements  during  the 
civil  war. 

Missouria  Indians.  A  tribe  of  Dakota 
stock,  who  reside  at  the  Otoe  agency,  Ne- 
braska. They  number  about  200,  and  are 
progressing  favorably  in  the  arts  of  civili- 
zation. 

Mithridatic  War.  The  name  of  the  cele- 
brated contest  carried  on  for  a  long  series 
of  years  by  the  Romans  against  Mithri- 
dates  VI.,  king  of  Pontus.  It  was  caused 
by  the  massacre  of  about  100,000  Romans 
by  Mithridates,  88  B.C.,  and  remarkable  for 
its  duration,  its  many  sanguinary  battles, 
and  the  cruelties  of  its  commanders.  Mith- 
ridates having  taken  the  consul  Aquilius, 
made  him  ride  on  an  ass  through  a  great 
part  of  Asia,  crying  out  as  he  rode,  "I  am 
Aquilius,  consul  of  the  Romans."  He  is  said 
to  have  killed  him  by  causing  melted  gold 
to  be  poured  down  his  throat,  in  derision  of 
his  avarice,  85  B.C. 

Mitigate.  To  diminish  the  severity  of  ; 
as,  to  mitigate  punishment;  to  reduce  in 
amount  of  severity,  as  a  penalty.  See  Ap- 
PK>-Dix,  Articles  of  War,  112. 

Mitraille  [Fi-.).  Small  pieces  of  old  iron, 
such  as  heads  of  nails,  etc.,  with  which 
pieces  of  ordnance  are  sometimes  loaded. 

Mitrailleur.  A  gun  in  which  several  bar- 
rels are  combined  in  order  to  produce  a 
greater  effect  by  the  rapid  succession  of  a 
number  of  shots.  Mitrailleures  existed  as 
early  as  the  14th  century.  They  were  called 
killing-organs  at  that  time.  The  Scaligers 
at  the  end  of  the  14th  century,  the  Protest- 
ant princes  of  Germany  in  the  Smalkaldian 
war,  and  Austria  in  the  war  against  Turkey, 
used  this  kind  of  gun.  But  the  ancient 
mitrailleur  differs  from  the  modern  both  in 
dimensions  and  in  the  positions  of  the  bar- 
rels. A  peculiar  kind  of  mitrailleur  was 
the  espingol,  each  barrel  being  loaded  with 
several  shots,  which,  by  a  slowly-burning 
charge,  were  discharged  one  after  the  other. 
The  espingol  was  used  not  only  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  but  also  recently, — by  the  Danes 
in  184V50,  and  1863-64.  At  the  storming 
of  Diippel  the  Prussians  took  about  thirty 
such  guns.  In  modern  times  the  term  has 
been  specifically  applied  to  certain  battery 
guns  employed  by  the  French  in  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war.  (See  Battkry  Gun.)  In  the 
U.  S.  Light  Artillery  Tactics  the  term  mi-  i 
trailleur  is  applied  to  the  Gatling  gun.  | 

Mitylene,  or  Midulu  (anc.  Lesbos).  An  | 
island  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  belong- 
ing to  Turkey,  and  lying  off  the  west  coast  ' 
of  Asia  Minor.  Mitylene  sufiered  much  in  | 
the  Greek  war  of  independence,  in  the  j 
course  of  which  it  lost  nearly  the  half  of  its  I 
inhabitants.     (See  Mytilene.) 

Moabites.  A  tribe  descended  from  Moab, 
the  son  of  Lot,  and  consequently  related  to  j 
the  Hebrews;  they  inhabited  the  moun-  ! 
tainous  country  east  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  Jordan  and  of  the  Dead  Sea.  In  the 
time  of  the  Judges,  the  Jews  were  for  eigh- 
teen years  under  the  yoke  of  the  Moabites,    | 


MOAT 


333 


MOGADOR 


■who  were  afterwards  made  tributary  by 
David,  but  about  900  }}.c.  shook  off  their 
allegiance  to  the  Jewish  kings,  and  after 
the  Assyrians  invaded  the  land  of  Judah, 
took  part  with  the  Chaldeans  against  the 
Jews. 

Moat.  The  ditch  round  the  ramparts  of  a 
fortress  may  be  either  wet — i.e.,  full  of  water 
— or  dry.  In  the  latter,  which  is  the  com- 
moner case,  the  depth  should  not  be  less 
than  12  feet,  nor  the  width  under  24.  The 
more  perjtendicular  the  walls,  so  much  the 

frcater  will  be  the  obstruction  to  the  enemy, 
n  regular  works  the  walls  are  usually 
revetcd  with  masonry,  that  at  the  foot  of  the 
rampart  being  the  scarp  or  escarp,  and  that 
below  the  covered  way  the  counterscarp. 
Sec  Ditch. 

Mobile,  A  city  and  capital  of  Mobile 
Co.,  Ala.,  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Jlobile  Kiver,  immediately  above  its  en- 
trance into  the  bay  of  the  same  name.  It 
was  founded  by  Bienville  in  1711,  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  English  in  ITfJ'J, 
was  taken  by  the  Spani.sh  general  Galvez  in 
1780,  and  was  confirmed  to  Sj)ain  by  the 
treaty  of  1783.  Mobile  was  blockaded  by 
the  Federal  fleet  in  May,  18G1.  In  18»J4  the 
Confederates  constructed  several  ironclads 
and  gunboats,  and  threatened  to  raise  the 
blockade.  On  August  5,  Admiral  Farragut 
with  his  fleet  passed  Forts  Morgan  and 
Gaines,  the  Confederate  fortifications  guard- 
ing the  entrance  to  Mobile  Bay,  captured 
the  ram  "Tennessee"  and  the  gunboat 
"Selma,"  and  efl'cctually  crippled  the 
"Gaines."  "With  the  co-operation  of  the 
land  forces,  the  forts  were  soon  captured, 
and  the  city  was  effectually  cut  off  from  ex- 
ternal commerce.  Mobile  was  evacuated 
by  the  Confederates,  and  surrendered  to 
Gen.  Canbv  and  Kear-Admiral  Thatcher, 
April  12,  180.5,  about  KXK)  prisoners,  150 
guns,  and  a  large  quantity  of  ammunition 
and  supplies  falling  into  the  hands  of  the 
Federals. 

Mobilization.  The  calling  into  active 
service  troops  not  previously  on  the  war 
establishment. 

Mobilize.  To  call  into  active  service  ; 
— applied  to  troops  which,  though  enrolled, 
were  not  previously  on  the  war  establish- 
ment. 

Moccasin  (Algonkin,  makisin).  A  shoe 
or  Cover  for  the  foot,  made  of  deer-skin  or 
soft  leather,  without  a  sole,  and  ornamented 
on  the  upper  side  ;  the  customary  shoe  worn 
by  the  American  Indians. 

Mbckern.  A  town  of  Prussian  Saxony, 
13  miles  ea.«t  of  Madgcburg,  on  the  Ehlo. 
Here  the  French  army  under  Eugene  Beau- 
harnais  was  defeated  hy  the  Prussians  under 
York,  April,  1813,  and  here  Bliicher  de- 
feated the  French,  October  Ki,  1813. 

Modena  (anc.  Muiimi).  A  fortified  city 
of  Northern  Italy,  24  miles  west-northwes"t 
of  Bologna,  capital  of  the  former  duchy  of 
the  same  name.  In  ancient  times  Mutina 
•was  an  important  town  of  Gallia  Cispadana, 


situated  on  the  Via  ^Emilia  ;  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Romans  in  218  B.C.,  who  estab- 
lifthed  a  colony  here  thirty-five  years  later  ; 
in  117  B.C.  the  settlers  were  disturbed  by  an 
incursion  of  the  Ligurians,  who  for  a  short 
time  held  possession  of  the  town,  but  were 
ultimately  e.xpelled  by  Consul  Claudius  ;  it 
was  held  by  M.  Brutus  against  the  victori- 
ous Pompcy  ;  sustained  a  siege  of  about 
four  months  against  the  trooiis  of  Mark 
Antony ;  besieged  and  taken  by  Constan- 
tino in  312  ;  was  laid  waste  by  Attila  in  452. 
The  modern  town  is  surrounded  with  walls, 
and  defended  by  bastions  and  a  citadel ;  was 
governed  by  the  house  of  Este  from  1288  till 
1700,  when  the  last  male  of  that  house,  the 
reigning  duke,  Hercules  III.,  was  expelled 
by  the  French.  By  the  treaty  of  Campo 
Formio  the  Modenese  po-ssessions  were  in- 
corporated with  the  Cisalpine  republic,  1797, 
and  with  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  1805.  The 
Archduke  Francis  of  Este,  son  of  the  Arch- 
duke Ferdinand  of  Austria,  and  of  Mary, 
the  heiress  of  the  last  duke,  was  restored  in 
1814.  Modena  was  annexed  to  Sardinia 
March  18,  1800. 

Modocs.  A  treacherous  tribe  of  Indians 
of  the  Klamath  nation.  In  1872  they  left 
the  Klamath  reservation  under  the  leader- 
ship of  their  chief.  Captain  Jack,  and  re- 
fused to  return.  Military  aid  was  invoked 
to  compel  them,  and  the  troops  were  fired 
upon  by  the  Indians,  who  retreated  to  the 
almost  inaccessible  fastnesses  of  the  lava- 
beds.  Here  they  lield  out  until  June  5, 
1873,  by  which  time  nearly  all  were  killed 
or  captured.  Captain  Jack  and  some  of  the 
principal  men  of  his  tribe  were  tried  by 
military  commission  for  the  murder  of  Gen. 
Canby  and  Mr.  Thomas,  Indian  peace  com- 
missioner, who  were  treacherously  slain  in 
April  while  attending  a  conference  with  the 
Indians  outside  the  camp.  Captain  Jack 
and  three  others  were  hanged  October  3, 
1873,  and  the  remainder  of  the  tribe  deported 
to  Indian  Territorj*. 

Moesia.  A  Roman  province  in  Europe. 
It  was  invaded  by  the  Romans,  when  C. 
Scribonius  Curio  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Moesians  (75  B.C.),  but  not  until  the  reign  of 
Augustus  was  it  finally  subdued,  29  B.C.  A 
line  of  fortresses  was  then  planted  for  its 
defense  along  the  southern  bank  of  the 
Danube.  The  principal  of  these  were  after- 
wards known  as  Singidunum  (Belgrade), 
Viminacium,  and  Axiopolis.  It  was  suc- 
cessfully invaded  by  the  Goths,  numbers  of 
whom  eventually  settled  here.  In  the  7th 
century  invading  hordes  of  liulgarians  and 
Sclavonians  founded  the  kingdoms  of  Bul- 
garia and  Scrvia,  which  now  comprise  the 
territory  of  ancient  Mre>sin. 

Mogador,  Mogodor,  or  Suerrah.  A  sea- 
port town  of  .Morocco,  on  the  Atlantic.  132 
miles  southwest  from  Morocco.  Mogador  is 
walled  and  fortified;  but  its  defenses,  which 
are  the  work  of  Genoese  engineers,  arc  of  no 
great  strength ;  its  harbor,  although  much 
exposed,  is  considered  the  best  on  the  coast. 


MOGNIONS 


334 


MOLDAVIA 


Mogador  was  bombarded  in  1844  by  a 
French  fleet  under  the  Prince  de  Joinville, 
on  which  occasion  it  suffered  severely. 

Mognions  {F?:).  A  sort  of  armor  for  the 
shoulders. 

Mograbian.  A  soldier  of  a  branch  of  the 
Turkish  infantry  composed  of  the  peasants 
of  the  northern  part  of  Africa,  who  sought 
to  better  their  condition  by  entering  foreign 
service. 

Mogul  Empire,  The.  An  empire  which 
at  one  time  extended  over  the  greater  part 
of  Northern  India.  It  was  founded  by  Sul- 
tan Baber,  a  descendant  of  Tihiur  (or  Tamer- 
lane), in  1526,  and  lasted  until  1749,  when 
the  Mogul  army  was  totally  defeated  by  the 
liohillas,  and  the  empire  was  broken  up  into 
a  number  of  petty  sovereignties.  In  1857, 
Mohammed  Bahadur,  the  last  king  of  Delhi 
and  head  of  the  Mogul  empire,  joined  in 
the  Indian  mutiny,  and  was  transported  to 
Kangoon  (1858),  where  he  soon  after  died. 

Mohacs.  A  town  of  Southern  Hungary, 
on  the  western  arm  of  the  Danube.  It  owes 
its  historical  importance  to  the  great  battle 
fought  here,  August  29,  1526,  between  Louis 

11.  of  Hungary,  with  25,000  Hungarians, 
and  the  sultan  Solyman,  at  the  head  of  about 
200,000  Turks,  the  battle  resulted  in  the 
disastrous  defeat  of  the  Hungarians,  who 
lost  their  king,  seven  bishops,  many  nobles 
and  dignitaries,  and  upwards  of  22,000  men. 
A  second  battle  was  fought  here  on  August 

12,  1687,  when  the  Turks  in  their  turn  were 
defeated  by  an  Austro-Hungarian  army 
under  Charles  of  Lorraine. 

Mohammerah.  A  Persian  town  near  the 
Euphrates  ;  captured,  after  two  hours'  can- 
nonading, by  Sir  James  Outram,  during  the 
Persian  war,  March  2G,  1857. 

Mohawks,  or  Maquas.  A  warlike  tribe 
of  Indians  who  formerly  inhabited  the  val- 
ley in  the  State  of  New  York  which  bears 
their  name.  They  were  allied  with  the 
Onondagas,  Oneidas,  Senecas,  Cayugas,  and 
Tuscaroras,  the  confederation  constituting 
what  was  known  as  the  "  Five  Nations." 
They  were  allies  of  the  English  in  their  wars 
with  the  French,  and  in  the  Kevolutionary 
war.  After  the  peace  of  1788  they  removed 
to  Upper  Canada,  and  settled  on  Grand 
Kiver  upon  lands  procured  for  them  by  their 
chief.  Brant. 

Mohegans,  or  Mohicans.  A  tribe  of  In- 
dians of  Algonkin  stock,  who  formerly  in- 
habited a  considerable  part  of  New  England, 
and  a  part  of  New  York.  The  town  oif  Nor- 
wich, Conn.,  called  Mohegan  bj^  the  Indians, 
is  situated  about  the  centre  of  their  ancient 
country.  When  the  English  first  settled  at 
Hartford,  Uncas,  the  chief  of  the  tribe, 
formed  a  treaty  of  amity  with  them,  which 
appears  to  have  been  generally  observed. 
The  Mohegans  were  long  the  sworn  foes  of 
the  Narragansetts.  The  latter,  under  their 
chief,  Miantonomoh,  invaded  the  Mohegan 
country  in  1643,  but  were  defeated  by  Un- 
cas, who  captured  Miantonomoh  and  put 
him  to  death  in  September  of  that  year.    In 


1645,  the  Narragansetts,  under  Passacus,  the 
brother  of  Miantonomoh,  burning  to  avenge 
the  death  of  that  chief,  again  invaded  the 
Mohegan  territory.  On  this  occasion  they 
were  more  successful.  They  laid  waste  the 
country  in  all  directions,  and  compelled 
Uncas  and  his  warriors  to  take  refuge  in 
his  strong  fortress  at  Shantock,  which  they 
would  probably  have  become  masters  of  but 
for  the  timely  assistance  of  the  English,  who 
furnished  a  supply  of  provisions  to  the  be- 
sieged. The  invasion  was  again  repeated, 
and  with  almost  fatal  effect  to  Uncas.  The 
English  again  saved  him,  however,  and  after 
nearly  twenty  years  of  strife  the  hatchet  was 
at  length  buried  between  these  tribes. 

Mohilow.  A  town  in  Russia,  where  the 
Russian  army  under  Prince  Bagration  was 
signallj-  defeated  by  the  French  under  Mar- 
shal Davoust,  prince  of  Eckmiihl,  July  23, 
1812. 

Mohrungen.  A  town  of  East  Prussia, 
62  miles  south-southwest  of  Konigsberg. 
The  French  defeated  the  Russians  here  in 
1807. 

Moienne  (Fr.).  A  piece  of  ordnance, 
which  is  now  called  a  4-pounder,  and  which 
is  10  feet  long,  was  formerly  so  called. 

Moineau.  A  small,  flat  bastion,  raised  in 
front  of  an  intended  fortification,  to  defend 
it  against  attacks  from  small-arms. 

Mojave  Indians.  A  tribe  of  aborigines, 
of  Apache  stock,  residing  in  Arizona.  They 
number  about  2100,  of  whom  about  one- 
third  are  located  on  a  reservation  on  the 
Colorado  River,  and  about  an  equal  number 
(known  as  Mojave  Apaches)  at  the  San  Car- 
los agency,  Arizona. 

Moldavia.  A  province  in  the  northeast- 
ern part  of  Turkey  in  Europe.  The  princes 
of  Moldavia  were  formerly  called  voyvodes, 
or  military  leaders,  a  name  which  was  after- 
wards changed  by  the  Turks  to  that  of  hos- 
podars,  which  is  still  retained.  In  the  13th 
century  Moldavia  was  frequently  disturbed 
by  civil  war,  occasioned  by  rival  claimants 
for  the  crown,  and  these  dissensions  rose  to 
such  a  height  that  the  country  was  divided 
into  two  parts,  one  of  which  acknowledged 
the  sovereignty  of  Poland,  and  the  other 
that  of  Hungary.  A  union  was,  however, 
soon  after  effected,  and  Moldavia  became 
subject  to  Hungary,  paying  at  the  same  time 
a  tribute  to  the  Poles.  In  1536  Moldavia 
came  under  the  protection  of  the  sultan  ;  for 
a  considerable  time  after  this  period,  it  was 
the  scene  of  constant  wars  between  the  Poles 
and  Turks,  until  the  claims  of  the  former  to 
the  sovereignty  of  the  state  were  finally 
abandoned  in  1621,  and  peace  concluded  be- 
tween Turkey  and  Poland;  in  1738,  during 
the  war  of  Austria  and  Russia  against  Tur- 
key, Moldavia  was  invaded  by  a  Russian 
force,  and  occupied  for  two  years,  but  was 
evacuated  after  the  peace  of  Belgrade;  in 
1769  it  was  again  occupied  by  the  Russians, 
and  became  for  a  short  time  subject  to  the 
czar,  but  was  restored  to  Turkey  in  1774;  in 
1789  this  unfortunate  principality  was  again 


MOLDED 


335 


MONGOLIA 


the  scene  of  contest  between  Russia  and 
Turkey,  until  the  peace  of  Jassy  in  1792, 
when  the  Russian  frontier  was  fixed  bj'  the 
Dneister;  in  the  war  of  1807-12,  Moldavia 
again  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Russians, 
who,  by  the  treaty  of  Hucharest,  acquired 
possession  of  Bessarabia,  and  thus  extended 
their  frontier  to  the  Pruth.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Greek  war  in  1820  an  in- 
surrection broke  out  in  the  Danubian  prin- 
cipalities, but  it  was  suppressed  by  the  Turks ; 
in  1828  another  war  between  Turkey  and 
Russia  broke  out,  and  Moldavia  was  occu- 
pied by  the  Russians  without  opposition 
until  peace  was  established  by  the  treaty  of 
Adrianople  in  1829.  A  conspiracy  was 
formed  in  1810,  to  unite  the  principalities  of 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia  into  one  state,  but 
without  success.  In  1848  the  influence  of 
revolutionarj'  sentiments  was  felt  in  Molda- 
via ;  the  peojile  of  Jassy  demanded  a  new 
constitution,  and,  although  the  hospodar 
successfully  resisted  this  movement,  he  laid 
down  his  authority  in  the  same  year.  In 
1853  a  Russian  army  took  possession  of  Mol- 
davia and  Wallachia;  after  attempting  in 
vain  to  cross  the  Danube  in  Walhichia,  the 
Russians,  in  the  spring  of  1854,  crtissed  that 
river  at  Galatz,  and  seized  the  fortresses  in 
the  Dubrudscha  ;  they  then  proceeded  to  lay 
siege  to  ISilistria,  but  this  town  was  so  vigor- 
ously defended  that  they  were  obliged  to 
■raise  the  siege,  and  the  British  and  French 
troops  having  arrived  at  Varna,  the  Russian 
army  evacuated  the  principalities  in  the  au- 
tumn of  18o4  ;  the  hospodars  then  returned 
to  their  respective  governments,  and  the 
principalities  were  occupied  by  an  Austrian 
army.  At  a  conference  at  Paris,  August  19, 
1858,  it  was  decided  that  the  principalities 
should  thenceforth  be  called  the  United 
Principalities  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia, 
and  should  have  in  common  a  central  com- 
mission and  court  of  appeal,  but  be  governed 
by  ditVercnt  hospodars,  to  be  elected  by  the 
people,  and  ccinlirmcd  by  the  Porte. 

Molded  Powder.     See  Gunpowder. 

Mole.  A  mound  or  massive  work  formed 
of  large  stones  laid  in  the  sea,  extended 
cither  in  a  right  line  or  an  arc  of  a  circle 
before  a  port,  which  it  serves  to  defend  from 
the  violence  of  the  waves,  thus  protecting 
ships  in  harbor ;  also,  sometimes  the  harbor 
itself. 

Molino  del  Rey.  A  range  of  massive 
stone  buildings,  about  500  yards  long,  form- 
ing the  western  side  of  an  inclosure  which 
surrounds  the  rock  and  castle,  groves  and 
fields  of  Chapultepec,  2  miles  southwest  of 
the  city  of  Mexico.  These  buildings  were 
occupied  by  the  troops  of  Santa  Anna  in 
September,  1847,  to  intercept  the  march  of 
the  American  army  under  command  of  Gen. 
Scott  upon  the  city  of  Mexico.  They  were 
attacked  on  the  morning  of  the  8th  by  Gen. 
"Worth's  division,  and,  after  a  severe  con- 
test, the  buildings  were  captured,  with  a  loss 
to  the  Americans  of  787  killed  and  wounded 
(including  59  officers),  out  of  3147,  the  whole 


number  engaged.  The  Mexican  forces  num- 
bered about  10,000  men. 

Mollwitz.  A  village  of  Pru.ssian  Silesia; 
to  the  east  of  it  lies  the  celebrated  battle- 
field where  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia  gained 
his  first  victory  over  the  Austrians,  April 
10,  1741. 

Moluccas,  or  Spice  Islands.  A  numer- 
ous group  of  islands  in  the  Asiatic  Archi- 
pelago, situated  between  Celebes  on  the  west, 
and  New  Guinea  on  the  east,  and  stretching 
from  lat.  2°  N.  to  lat.  9°  S.  They  were  dis- 
covered by  the  Portuguese  about  1510;  be- 
came dependencies  of  Holland,  1795;  during 
the  French  war  of  179(i,  however,  they  were 
taken  by  the  British,  wlio  held  po.ssession  of 
them  tiil  1800,  when  they  were  returned  to 
Holland.  The  islands  were  again  occupied 
by  the  British  in  1810,  but  were  finally  re- 
stored to  the  Dutch  in  1814,  by  the  treaty  of 
Paris. 

Molycrium.  A  town  in  the  most  south- 
erly part  of  ^Ktolia  ;  it  was  founded  by  the 
Corinthians,  but  was  afterwards  taken  pos- 
session of  by  the  yEtoiians. 

Mombas.  A  seaport  town  of  Africa,  on 
a  small  island,  in  a  bay  on  the  coast  of  Zan- 
zibar. It  was  first  visited  by  the  Portuguese 
under  Vasco  de  Gama  in  1498.  In  1505, 
Francisco  de  Almeida,  the  Portuguese  vice- 
roy of  India,  took  and  burnt  the  town  ;  in 
1529  the  Portuguese  returned  and  repeated 
their  work  of  destruction,  and  retained  the 
city  from  that  date  to  1720,  when  Mombas 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  imam  of  Muscat, 
but  he  was  soon  dispos.sessed  by  a  rebellion 
of  the  inhabitants.  It  was  under  British 
protection  from  1824  to  1820,  and  is  now 
governed  by  an  Arab  sheikh. 

Momentum.  Is  that  force  possessed  by  a 
body  in  motion;  and  is  measured  by  the 
product  of  the  mass  of  the  body  into  its  ve- 
locity. 

Mona  (now  Anrjleacy).  An  island  off  the 
coast  of  the  Ordovices,  in  Britain ;  it  was 
invaded  by  Suetonius  Paulinus,  61,  and  was 
conquered  by  Agricola,  78. 

Moncontour.  A  town  near  Poitiers,  in 
Frftnee.  Here  Admiral  Coligny  and  the 
French  Protestants  were  defecated  by  the 
Duke  of  Anjou,  October  3,  1509. 

Mondovi.  A  town  of  Northern  Italy, 
near  tiie  river  Ellero,  about  47  miles  south 
from  Turin.  Tlie  town  is  defended  by  walls 
and  a  small  citadel,  and  contain?  a  great 
number  of  religious  h<uises.  The  French, 
under  Napoleon  I.,  defeated  the  Sardinian 
troo)>s,  under  Colli,  near  this  town  in  1790, 
and  in  1799  the  town  was  sacked  by  the 
French  under  Soult. 

Monghir.  A  town  of  Hindostan,  East 
Indies,  situated  on  the  southern  bank  of  the 
Ganges.  It  was  an  object  of  contention  be- 
tween the  kings  of  Behar  and  Bengal  in  the 
earlv  part  of  the  IGth  century  ;  taken  by  the 
British  in  1703. 

Mongolia.  A  vast  district  in  Asia.  Its 
present  boundaries  east  and  north  are  Man- 
churia and  Siberia,  respectively,  and  on  the 


MONGOLS 


33G 


MONTENEGRO 


south  and  west  Thibet  and  Turkestan  ;  but 
these  boundaries  have  varied  sjreatly  at  dif- 
ferent periods  of  history.  The  whole  of 
what  is  now  usually  recognized  as  Mongolia 
is  considered  to  belong  to  the  Chinese  em- 
pire.    See  Taktary. 

Mongols.     See  Taktary. 

Monmouth,  Battle  of.  Was  fought  June 
28,  1778,  between  the  Revolutionary  forces 
under  Gen.  Washington  and  the  British 
under  Sir  Henry  Clinton.  Gen.  Washing- 
ton, whose  army  of  about  12,000  men  was 
encamped  at  Valley  Forge,  being  informed 
of  the  intention  of  the  enemy  to  evacuate 
Philadelphia  and  proceed  to  New  York, 
placed  his  forces  in  a  condition  to  march  im- 
mediately in  pursuit.  Accordingly,  when 
intelligence  of  the  evacuation  reached  him, 
he  broke  up  his  encampment,  and  detaching 
a  small  force  under  Gen.  Arnold  to  take  pos- 
session of  Philadelphia,  marched  rapidly 
with  his  whole  army  toward  the  Delaware. 
On  the  morning  of  June  28  the  advance  of 
the  Colonial  army,  under  Gen.  Leo,  became 
engaged  with  the  enemy's  rear  on  the  plain 
near  Monmouth  Court-house,  in  New  Jersey; 
but  the  English  line  being  soon  reinforced, 
the  Americans  were  compelled  to  give  way, 
upon  which  Lee  ordered  a  retreat.  Gen. 
Washington,  who  was  riding  ahead  of  the 
main  body  of  his  army,  met  the  retreating 
force,  and  peremptorily  ordered  Lee  to  re- 
form his  troops  and  hold  his  position.  This 
he  for  a  time  partially  effected,  but  was  being 
again  driven  back,  when  the  main  body  of 
the  army  arrived  to  his  assistance.  The 
battle  now  became  general,  and  under  the 
inspiring  influence  of  their  commander-in- 
chief  the  Americans  fought  with  such  des- 
perate resolution  that  the  British  were  at 
length  obliged  to  give  waj'.  Washington 
made  preparations  to  follow  up  his  advan- 
tage, but  owing  to  the  broken  character 
of  the  ground,  and  twilight  coming  on  be- 
fore a  proper  disposition  of  his  troops  could 
be  made,  the  attack  was  postponed  until  next 
morning.  When  morning  dawned,  how- 
ever, it  was  found  that  Sir  Henry  Clinton 
with  his  whole  force  had  retreated  during 
the  darkne.ss  of  the  night  toward  Sandy 
Hook,  and  Washington,  on  account  of  the 
heat  of  the  weather  and  the  fatigue  of  his 
men,  did  not  pursue  them.  This  was  one  of 
the  most  severely  contested  battles  of  the 
war.  The  American  loss  was  227  killed  and 
wounded,  the  English  was  a  little  greater. 

Monomachy  (Fr.  moncnnachie).  A  single 
combat,  or  the  fighting  of  two,  hand  to 
hand.  It  is  derived  from  the  Greek.  A 
duel  may  properly  be  called  a  monomachy. 

Mons  (Flemish,  Berghen).  A  strongly- 
fortified  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  province 
of  Hainault,  on  the  Trouille,  33  miles  south- 
west from  Brussels.  It  has  been  frequently 
besieged  and  taken;  in  1709  it  was  taken  by 
the  allies  under  Marlborough  and  Eugene; 
in  1746  by  Marshal  Saxe ;  and  in  the  wars 
of  the  French  revolution  in  1792-94  it  was 
taken   alternately  by   the   French  and  the 


allies,  the  former  of  whom  held  the  town 
from  1784  to  1814. 

Monsoon.  A  wind  blowing  half  the  year 
in  one  direction,  and  the  other  half  in  the 
opposite; — a  term  applied  particularly  to 
certain  winds  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  which 
blow  from  the  southwest  from  April  to  Octo- 
ber, and  from  the  northeast  the  rest  of  the 
year.  The  term  is  sometimes  used  to  desig- 
nate similar  winds  in  other  parts  of  the 
globe. 

Mont  St.  Jean.  A  village  of  Belgium ; 
it  is  near  the  scene  of  the  battle  of  Waterloo, 
called  by  the  French  the  battle  of  Mont  St. 
Jean. 

Montana  Territory.  A  Territory  of  the 
United  States,  which  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  British  possessions,  east  by  Dakota, 
south  by  Wyoming  and  Idaho,  and  west  by 
Idaho.  This  Territory  has  been  overrun  by 
hostile  Indians,  who,  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  military,  are  being  rapidly  sub- 
jugated. It  was  formed  into  a  separate 
Territory  in  May,  1864,  before  which  time 
it  formed  part  of  Idaho. 

Montauban.  A  town  of  France,  capital 
of  the  department  of  Tarn-et-Garonne,  342 
miles  south  by  west  from  Paris.  At  the 
Reformation  the  people  embraced  the  Prot- 
estant cause  ;  and  the  town  was  ineffectually 
besieged  by  the  adverse  party  in  1580.  It 
afterwards,  in  1621,  resisted  for  three  months 
the  assaults  of  Louis  XIII.,  and  did  not 
yield  till  after  the  fall  of  Rochelle  in  1629. 
The  fortifications  were  soon  after  destroyed. 

Montbeliard,  or  Montbelliard.  A  town 
of  France,  in  the  department  of  Doubs,  48 
miles  northeast  from  BesanQon.  It  was  in 
former  times  a  place  of  some  strength,  and 
the  capital  of  a  county  that  originally  formed 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy,  but  was 
transferred  to  the  Wiirtemberg  family  in 
1395.  Although  twice  taken  by  the  French 
in  the  17th  century,  it  was  not  finally  ceded 
to  them  till  1796. 

Monte  Aperto,  Battle  of.     See  Siena. 

Monte-Baldo.  A  mountain  of  Lombardy ; 
the  Austrians  were  defeated  in  its  vicinity 
by  the  French  in  1797. 

Montebello  Casteggio.  A  village  of 
Northern  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Voghera; 
here  the  Austrians  were  defeated  by  a  French 
army  under  Gen.  Lannes,  after  a  desperate 
conflict,  June  9,  1800;  in  the  last  Italian 
war  the  Austrians  were  again  defeated  here 
by  the  united  armies  of  the  French  and 
Piedmontese  in  May,  1859.  , 

Montemaggiore  Belsito.  A  town  of  the 
island  of  Sicily,  31  miles  southeast  of  Pa- 
lermo. It  was  occupied  by  the  Saracens 
when  they  first  took  possession  of  the  coun- 
try. 

Montenegro.  A  principality  of  Europe, 
situated  between  the  Turkish  eyalets  of 
Bosnia  and  Albania,  and  separated  from  the 
Adriatic  by  the  narrow  strip  of  land  known 
as  the  circle  of  Cattaro,  in  Austrian  Dalma- 
tia.  The  Montenegrins  are  Slavs  of  the 
Servian   race,   knit  "together   in   clans   and 


MONTENOTTE 


337 


MONT-PAGNOTE 


families,  and  have  many  flights  amonij  tliem- 
selves,  which  are  perpetuated  by  the  heredi- 
tary obi  illation  of  avengint;  blood.  Monte- 
negro belonged  in  the  Middle  Ages  to  the 
great  Servian  kingdom,  but  after  the  dis- 
memberment of  the  latter,  and  its  conquest 
by  the  Turks  at  the  battle  of  Kossovo  (1380), 
the  Montenegrins,  under  their  prince,  who 
was  of  the  royal  blood  of  Servia,  maintained 
their  independence,  though  compelled  to  re- 
linquish the  level  tracts  of  land,  and  confine 
themselves  to  the  mountains,  in  1485.  The 
Turks  continued  to  assert  their  claims  to 
^Montenegro,  but  they  were  only  defeated  in 
their  plans,  and  in  1710  the  Montenegrins 
.sought  and  obtained  the  protection  of  Kus- 
sia,  the  c/.ar  agreeing  to  grant  an  annual 
subsidy  on  condition  of  their  harassing  the 
Turks  by  inroads.  In  1860  the  Montene- 
grins excited  an  insurrection  against  the 
Turkish  rule  in  Herzegovina,  which  was 
soon  suppressed,  and  in  return  they  them- 
selves were  so  hard  pressed  by  the  Turks 
that  they  were  glad  to  agree  to  a  treaty 
(September  8,  1862)  by  which  the  sover- 
eignty of  the  Porte  over  Montenegro  was 
recognized. 

Montenotte.  A  small  village  of  North- 
ern Italy  ;  here  the  Austrians  were  defeated 
bv  the  French  under  Bonaparte,  April  12, 
ITOC. 

Monter  (Fr.).  This  word  means  to  rise 
from  one  rank  to  another  in  the  way  of  pro- 
motion, as  from  lieutenant  to  captain,  etc., 
or  from  having  the  command  of  the  young- 
est company  to  be  promoted  to  that  of  the 
oldest. 

Montereau.  A  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Seine-et-Marne.  In  its  im- 
mediate vicinity  Napoleon,  on  February  18, 
1814,  gained  his  last  victory  over  the  allies. 

Morjterey.  A  city  of  Mexico,  capital  of 
the  state  of  Nucvo  Leon,  about  85  miles  east 
by  north  of  Saltillo.  Gen.  Taylor  with  an 
army  of  about  tKXH)  men,  the  first  division 
under  Gen.  Worth,  appeared  before  this 
place,  September  21,  184ti.  It  was  defended 
by  a  force  of  about  lO.UOO  3Iexicans  under 
Gen.  Ampudia.  In  a)>proaching  the  city 
the  first  obstacles  to  be  overcome  were  two 
batteries,  which  were  in  a  commanding  posi- 
tion. These  were  soon  taken  and  their  guns 
turned  on  a  third  battery  erected  in  a  large 
stone  building,  called  the  Bishop's  Palace. 
This  was  stormed  on  the  morning  of  the  22d, 
and  a  vigorous  sortie  of  the  garrison  having 
been  repulsed,  the  Americans  entered  the 
city  witn  the  flying  Mexicans.  During  the 
day  a  feigned  attack  on  the  defenses  in  front 
was  soon  converted  into  a  real  one,  and  after 
a  severe  contest  the  Americans  entered  the 
city,  though  with  great  sacrifice  of  life  ;  for 
every  street  was  barricaded,  and  guns  were 
pointed  from  almost  every  wall.  On  the 
morning  of  the  28d,  the  defenses  on  the  op- 
posite side  wore  assaulted  and  carried  by  the 
division  of  Gen.  Worth,  and  the  garrison 
soon  after  surrendered. 

Monterey.     A  port  of  entry  and  capital 


of  tliecounty  of  the  same  name  in  California, 
about  'J5  miles  south-southeast  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. It  wius  once  a  populous  and  thriving 
city,  but  has  greatly  declined  since  the  rise 
of  San  Francisco.  Being  led  to  suppose  that 
war  existed  between  the  United  States  and 
Mexico,  Commod<ire  Sloat  took  this  place 
July  7,  184(5,  and  raised  the  American  flag 
without  opposition. 

Montero.  A  military  cap  and  hood  for- 
merly worn  in  camp. 

Monterotondo.  A  town  of  Central  Italy, 
situated  about  2fj  miles  south-southwest  of 
Uieti.  An  engagement  took  place  here  Oc- 
tober 25,  1867,  between  the  French  and  pon- 
tifical troops  and  the  volunteers  of  Garibaldi, 
in  which  the  latter  were  victorious. 

Montevideo.  The  capital  of  the  republic 
of  Uruguay,  in  South  America.  It  was 
taken  by  the  British  forces  under  Sir  Sam- 
uel Auchmuty,  February  3,  1807,  but  was 
evacuated  by  them  July  7  of  the  same  year, 
in  consequence  of  the  severe  repulse  the 
British  met  with  at  Buenos  Ayres  (which 
see).  Montevideo  was  given  up  to  Uruguay 
in  1828. 

Montgomery.  The  capital  of  the  State  of 
Alabama.  A  convention  of  delegates  from 
the  Southern  States  met  here  February  4, 
1861,  to  organize  a  provisional  government 
for  the  seceded  States,  which  were  thereafter 
to  be  known  as  the  Confederate  States  of 
America,  and  Montgomery  was  chosen  as 
the  seat  of  government.  Richmond  being 
afterwards  made  the  capital  of  the  Con- 
federacy, the  seat  of  government  was  trans- 
ferred thither  on  May  20  in  the  same  year. 

Montiel  (Spain),  Battle  of.  Took"  place 
on  March  14,  1369,  between  Peter  the  Cruel, 
king  of  Castile,  and  his  brother,  Henry  of 
Transtamare,  aided  by  the  French  warrior, 
Bertrand  du  Guesclin.  Peter  was  totally 
defeated,  and  afterwards  treacherously  slain. 

Montilla.  A  town  of  Spain,  in  Andalusia  ; 
in  1508  the  fortifications  of  this  place  were 
destroyed  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic. 

Montlhery  (Seine-et-Oise,  France).  The 
site  of  an  indecisive  battle  between  Louis 
XI.  and  a  party  of  his  nobles,  termed  '-The 
League  of  the  Public  Good,"  July  16,  1465. 

Montmartre.  A  village  of  France  im- 
mediately to  the  north  of  Paris,  and  stand- 
ing within  the  new  line  of  fortifications;  it 
was  the  scene  of  some  sharp  fighting  in 
March,  1814. 

Montmirail.  A  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  Marne ;  Bonaparte  de- 
feated the  Russians  near  this  place  in  1814. 

Montmorency,  or  Montmorenci.  The 
name  of  a  noble  French  family,  whose  celeb- 
rity dates  as  far  back  as  the  1 1th  century,  and 
which  has  pnxluced  many  famous  princes, 
peers,  and  generals.  Among  them  were  6 
constables  and  11  marshals  of  France. 

Mont-Pagnote  [Fr.].  In  fortification,  an 
eminence  whore  persons  post  themselves  out 
of  the  reach  of  cannon,  to  see  a  camp,  siege, 
battle,  etc.,  without  being  exposed  to  danger. 
It  is  also  called  the  post  of  the  invulncrables. 


MONTREAL 


338 


MORMONS 


Montreal.  The  largest  city  of  the  Do- 
minion of  Canada  and  of  British  America  ; 
it  was  surrendered  to  the  English  by  the 
French,  September  8,  1700;  taken  by  the 
Americans,  November  12,  1775,  and  retaken 
by  the  English,  June  15,  1776. 

Montserrat.  A  West  India  island,  dis- 
covered by  Columbus  in  1493;  it  has  several 
times  been  taken  by  the  French,  but  was 
secured  to  the  British  in  1783. 

Moodkee.  A  small  town  of  Hindostan  ; 
it  is  only  remarkable  for  a  victory  gained  by 
the  British  over  a  greatly  more  numerous 
force  of  the  Sikhs  on  December  18,  1845. 

Mook.  A  village  of  Holland,  in  the 
province  of  Limburg  ;  Louis  of  Nassau  was 
defeated  by  the  Spaniards  near  this  place  in 
1574,  and  was  slain  in  the  action. 

Mooltan,  or  Moultan.  A  city  of  India, 
in  the  Punjab ;  this  place  was  stormed  by 
Eunject  Sing,  1818;  it  was  taken  by  the 
British  after  a  protracted  siege,  in  January, 
1849. 

Moon.  A  crescent-formed  outwork.  See 
Half-moon. 

Moors.  Formerly  the  natives  of  Mauri- 
tania (which  see),  but  afterwards  the  name 
given  to  the  Numidians  and  others,  and  now 
applied  to  the  natives  of  Morocco  and  the 
neighborhood.  They  assisted  Genseric  and 
the  Vandals  in  the  invasion  of  Africa,  429, 
and  frequently  rebelled  against  the  Roman 
emperors.  They  resisted  for  a  time  the  pro- 
gress of  the  Arab  Mohammedans,  but  were 
overcome  in  707,  and  in  1019  by  them  intro- 
duced into  Spain,  where  their  arms  were 
long  victorious.  In  1063  they  were  defeated 
in  Sicily  by  Robert  Guiscard.  The  Moorish 
kingdom  of  Granada  was  set  up  in  1237, 
and  lasted  till  1492,  when  it  fell  before 
Ferdinand  V.  of  Castile.  The  expulsion 
of  the  Moors  from  Spain  was  decreed  by 
Charles  V.,  but  not  fully  carried  into  eflFect 
till  1609,  when  the  bigotry  of  Philip  III. 
inflicted  this  great  injury  on  his  country. 
About  1518  the  Moors  established  the  pirati- 
cal states  of  Algiers  and  Tunis.  In  the 
history  of  Spain  the  Arabs  and  Moors  must 
not  be  confounded. 

Mootiana.  In  the  East  Indies,  the  sol- 
diers are  so  called,  who  are  employed  to  col- 
lect the  revenue. 

Moppat.  An  early  name  for  a  sponge  of 
a  cannon. 

Moquis.  A  body  of  Pueblo  Indians, 
in  Arizona,  numbering  about  1700,  inhabit- 
ing seven  villages  in  the  region  southwest 
of  the  Navajoes.  Their  towns  would  be 
almost  impregnable  to  an  Indian  assault. 
Each  pueblo  is  built  around  a  rectangular 
court,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  15  feet 
high,  the  top  of  which  forms  a  landing, 
upon  which  the  doors  of  the  houses  open. 
The  exterior  walls,  which  are  of  stone,  have 
no  openings,  and  would  have  to  be  scaled  or 
battered  down  before  access  could  be  gained 
to  the  interior.  The  successive  stories  are 
set  back,  one  behind  the  other.  The  lower 
rooms  are  reached  through  trap-doors  from 


the  first  landing  ;  the  latter  is  reached  by 
means  of  detached  ladders.  The  houses  are 
three  rooms  deep,  and  open  from  the  interior 
court ;  the  arrangement  is  as  strong  and 
compact  as  could  be  well  devised ;  but  as 
the  court  is  common,  and  the  landings  are 
separated  by  no  partitions,  it  involves  a 
certain  community  of  residence. 

Morat.  An  old  town  of  Switzerland, 
situated  on  a  lake  of  the  same  name,  in  the 
canton  of  Friburg.  Charles  the  Bold  of 
Burgundy  was  defeated  before  Morat  by  the 
Swiss  in  1476. 

Moravia.  An  Austrian  province,  occu- 
pied by  the  Slavonians  about  458,  and  con- 
quered by  the  Avars  and  Bohemians  who 
submitted  to  Charlemagne.  About  1000  it 
was  subdued  by  Boleslas,  king  of  Poland, 
but  recovered  by  Ulric  of  Bohemia  in  1030. 
After  various  changes,  Moravia  and  Bohe- 
mia were  amalgamated  into  the  Austrian  do- 
minions in  1526.  Moravia  was  invaded  by 
the  Prussians  in  1866. 

Morea.  The  name  borne  by  the  ancient 
Peloponnesus  since  the  Middle  Ages,  if  not 
from  as  early  a  period  as  the  4th  century  ; 
it  forms  the  most  southern  part  of  Greece. 
Morea  was  overrun  by  the  Goths  and  Van- 
dals, and  became  a  prey  in  the  second  half  of 
the  8th  century  to  bands  of  Slavic  invaders, 
who  found  it  wasted  by  war  and  pestilence. 
Gradually,  however,  these  barbarians  were 
subdued  and  Grecianized  by  the  Byzantine 
emperors.  In  1207  Morea  was  conquered 
by  French  knights  ;  part  of  the  country  was 
reconquered  in  1261  by  the  Byzantine  em- 
peror Michael  VIII.  Pal^eologus ;  but  in 
1460  the  greater  part  of  the  Morea  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Turks,  who  retained  pos- 
session of  it  down  to  the  period  of  the  Greek 
revolution,  except  from  1687  to  1715,  when 
it  was  held  by  the  Venetians. 

Morella.  A  strongly-fortified  town  of 
Spain,  province  of  Castellon-de-la-Plana.  It 
was  taken  by  Philip  V.  in  1707,  surprised  in 
1838  by  Cabrera,  and  retaken,  after  a  brave 
defense,  by  Espartero  in  1840.  During  the 
last  civil  war,  the  walls  and  magazines  of  the 
citadel  were  destroyed. 

Morgarten.  A  mountain  of  Switzerland, 
5  miles  north  from  Schwyz,  where,  in  No- 
vember, 1315,  the  first  battle  was  fought  for 
Swiss  independence.  On  this  occasion  20,000 
of  the  Austrian  forces  were  defeated  by  j 
1300  Swiss.  In  1798  the  French  were  also 
defeated  here  by  the  Swiss. 

Morglay.  A  deadly  weapon  ;  a  great 
sword. 

Morion.  An  iron  or  steel  head-piece 
worn  by  a  man-at-arms  in  the  days  when 
armor  was  used.  It  was  distinguished  from 
the  helmets  of  the  knights  and  esquires  in 
having  neither  visor  nor  beaver.  Under 
the  Norman  laws,  every  yeoman  between 
certain  ages  was  bound  to  keep  his  morion 
readj'^  for  service. 

Mormons.  A  modern  sect  who  profess 
the  religious  doctrines  of  one  Joseph  Smith. 
Polygamy  is  one  of  the  prominent  features 


MORNE 


MORTAR- WAGON 


of  their  religion.  The  sect  has  its  headquar- 
ters at  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 

Morne.  The  head  of  the  lance  used  in 
tiltinic  or  other  peaceful  encounters.  It  was 
curved  so  that  an  adversary  might  be 
unhorsed,  but  not  wounded,  by  a  stroke. 

Morning  Gun.  The  gun  lired  at  the  first 
note  of  reveille  in  military  barracks,  forts, 
etc. 

Morning  Star.  A  weapon  consisting  of 
a  ball  with  projecting  spikes  attached  by  a 
chain  to  a  short  start".  Used  as  late  as 
the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  by  the  train-bands 
of  London. 

Morocco.  An  empire  in  Northern  Africa, 
formerly  Mauritania.  In  1051  it  was  sub- 
dued for  the  Fatimite  caliphs,  by  the  Alma- 
ravides,  who  eventually  extended  their  do- 
minion into  Spain.  They  were  succeeded 
by  the  Almohades  (112i),  the  Merinites 
(1270),  and  in  lolOby  theScherifs,  pretended 
descendants  of  Mohammed,  the  now  reign- 
ing dynasty.  The  Moors  have  had  frequent 
wars  with  the  French,  Spaniards,  and  Por- 
tuguese, due  to  piracy. 

Moron,  or  Moron-de-la-Frontera.  A 
town  of  Andalusia,  Spain,  ubovit  32  miles 
northeast  of  Seville.  On  a  hill  east  of  the 
town  are  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  castle  erected 
by  the  Moors,  which  was  one  of  the  most 
important  strongholds  in  Spain  for  several 
centuries.  It  was  blown  up  by  the  French 
in  1812. 

Morris  Island.  A  low  sand  island,  about 
5  miles  long,  on  the  south  side  of  Charleston 
harbor,  S.  C.  A  Confederate  battery  erected 
on  its  northern  extremity  aided  in  the  cap- 
ture of  Fort  Sumter,  April  12-13,  18(51, 
after  which  Fort  "Wagner  and  other  bat- 
teries were  erected  for  the  defense  of  Charles- 
ton. An  expedition  against  the  city  having 
been  contemplated,  the  military  occupation 
of  the  island  by  the  Federals,  and  the  erec- 
tion of  land-batteries  for  the  reduction  of 
Fort  Sumter  were  deemed  necessary.  As 
the  latter  was  a  task  requiring  engineering 
skill,  the  duty  was  assigned  to  Gen.  Q.  A. 
Gillmore,  who  took  command  of  the  depart- 
ment. He  took  possession  of  the  south  end 
of  the  island  on  July  10,  1863,  and  on  the 
11th  and  ISth  made  two  attempts  to  capture 
Fort  Wagner  near  the  north  end  by  assault, 
his  object  being  to  get  within  more  ert'ective 
breaching  distance  of  Fort  Sumter.  His 
efforts,  however,  were  unsuccessful,  and  it 
■was  accordingly  determined  to  reduce  Fort 
Wagner  by  a  regular  siege.  Gen.  Gillmore 
commenced  by  the  erection  of  parallels, 
which  he  pushed  forward  with  such  dili- 
gence in  spite  of  all  dilKcultios,  that  by 
August  13  his  works  were  within  about  400 
yards  of  Wagner.  On  the  morning  of  the 
17th,  having  completed  his  batteries,  which 
numbered  about  GO  pieces,  and  obtained  the 
range,  his  guns  opened  fire  on  Sumtor. 
The  fleet,  consisting  of  the  frigate  "Iron- 
sides" and  the  monitors,  aided  by  some 
wooden  gunboats,  made  an  attack  at  the 
same  time  upon  Fort  Wagner  and  Fort 


Gregg,  another  Confederate  work,  both  of 
which  were  nearly  silenced.  On  August 
2tj,  having  completed  a  parallel  and  sap 
which  extended  very  close  to  Fort  Wagner, 
Gen.  Gillmore  determined  to  possess  a  ridge 
of  sand  which  interposed,  and  was  necessary 
to  the  success  of  his  operations.  It  was 
constantly  occupied  by  a  strong  body  of  the 
enemy's  pickets  and  at  night  by  a  force  pro- 
tected by  rifle-pits.  A  bombardment  of  the 
position  was  made  just  befon;  dark,  after 
which  it  was  carried  by  the  24th  Massa- 
chusetts, and  one  company  of  North  Caro- 
lina troojjs  captured.  After  a  terrific  bom- 
bardment of  forty-two  hours,  September 
5-6,  it  was  determined  to  carry  the  place 
by  storm  on  the  next  day,  but  during  the 
night  the  enemy  evacuated  the  fort,  and 
Gen.  Gillmore  became  master  of  the  whole 
island. 

Morris-pike.     An  ancient  Moorish  pike. 

Mortar.  Short  cannon  for  throwing  shells, 
usually  fired  at  angles  from  45°  to  60°  eleva- 
tion, called  "vertical  fire,"  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  fire  of  long  cannon,  usually  made 
at  low  angles.  Mortars — so  called  from 
their  similarity  of  form  to  the  mortar  for 
pulverizing,  which  has  retained  its  familiar 
shape  from  the  earliest  ages — are  believed  to 
have  been  the  first  guns  used,  and,  though 
changed  from  age  to  age  frequently  in  form 
of  chamber,  size,  audi  projectile,  all  ages 
have  found  them  too  useful  in  their  special 
way  to  suppress  or  essentially  alter  them. 
The  "Coehorn"  mortar — so  called  from  the 
famous  Dutch  engineer.  Gen.  Coehorn,  who 
first  proposed  them  in  1074 — is  to-day  in 
use,  of  the  same  pattern  and  for  the  like 
service  then  suggested.  Monster  mortars 
have  been  constructed  from  time  to  time,  in 
the  hope  of  producing  immense  destruction 
in  bombardments  with  single  shells  contain- 
ing a  large  quantity  of  powder.  The  most 
recent  of  these,  the  monster  mortar  made  by 
Mallet  for  the  British  government,  weighing 
114,000  pounds,  with  a  bore  of  36  inches 
and  a  shell  of  2912  pounds,  failed  to  be  of 
any  service.  Perhaps  the  most  unique  mor- 
tars ever  made  were  to  be  found  in  the  island 
of  Malta  in  the  last  century.  The  solid  rock 
had  been  hollowed  out  into  immense  mor- 
tars, some  of  them  6  feet  wide  at  the  mouth. 
These  tremendous  fougassrs  (the  proper 
term  for  them)  were  to  bo  tilled  with  stones, 
shells,  and  missiles  of  various  kinds,  to  de- 
scend in  a  crushing  shower  upon  an  enemy 
attempting  a  landing.  For  ditt'erent  kinds 
of  mortars  now  in  use,  see  Okunaxce. 

Mortara.  A  walled  town  of  Italy,  situ- 
ated on  the  right  bank  of  the  Arbogna,  14 
miles  south-southeast  of  Novara.  In  774, 
the  Lombards  were  here  defeated  by  Charle- 
magne with  great  slauirhtcr. 

Mortar-bed.     See  Bkds,  and  Okdnakce, 

CAKKIA<iKS   FOR. 

Mortar-fuze.    See  Laboratory  Stores. 
Mortar-piece.     An  old  term  for  a  mortar. 
Mortar-scraper.     See  Implkments. 
Mortar-wagon.     A  wagon  used  to  trans- 


MOKTFONTAINE 


340 


MOUSER 


port  mortars,  mortar-beds,  spare  guns,  and 
projectiles.  See  Ordnance,  Carriages  for. 

Mortfontaine.  A  village  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  the  Oise,  in  the  castle  of 
which  peace  between  France  and  the  United 
States  was  signed  in  1800. 

Mortimer's  Cross.  Four  cross-roads  about 
6  miles  northwest  from  Leominster,  in  Here- 
fordshire, England,  where  the  Yorkists  de- 
feated the  Lancastrians  in  1461. 

Mortlach.  A  parish  of  Scotland,  in  Banft- 
shire.  In  this  parish  the  Danes  were  de- 
feated by  Malcolm  II.  in  the  11th  century. 

Mortne.     See  Morne. 

Moscow.  A  city  of  Russia  in  Europe, 
situated  on  the  river  Moskwa,  375  miles 
southeast  from  St.  Petersburg.  It  was  the 
ancient  capital  of  Russia,  and  was  founded 
about  1147.  It  was  plundered  by  Timur, 
1382;  by  the  Tartars,  1451  and  1477;  rav- 
aged by  Ladislas  of  Poland  in  Kill.  It  was 
entered  by  Napoleon  I.  and  the  French,  Sep- 
tember 14,  1812;  the  governor,  Rostopchin, 
ordered  it  to  be  set  on  fire  (11,840  houses 
burnt,  besides  palaces  and  churches),  Sep- 
tember 15,  1812.  It  was  evacuated  by  the 
French  in  October,  1812. 

Moskirch  (Baden).  Here  the  Austrians 
were  defeated  by  Moreau  and  the  French, 
May  5,  1800. 

Moskwa,  Battle  of.     See  Borodino. 

Moslem.  Pertaining  to  the  Mohammed- 
ans. 

Moss-troopers.  A  name  formerly  applied 
to  the  raiders  and  cattle-thieves  who  infested 
the  borders  of  England  and  Scotland. 

Mothir  al  Moolk.  In  the  East  Indies, 
fortifications,  barricades,  intrenchments,  or 
breastworks,  are  so  called. 

Motion.  Each  movement  in  the  manual 
of  arms  is  divided  into  motions  to  facilitate 
instruction  of  re<?ruits. 

Motion  of  Projectiles.    See  Projectiles. 

Moton.  In  ancient  armor,  a  small  plate 
covering  the  armpits  of  a  knight,  used  when 
plate-armor  was  worn. 

Motto.  In  heraldry,  is  a  word  or  short 
sentence  which  forms  an  accompaniment  to 
a  coat  of  arms,  crest,  or  household  badge. 
In  modern  heraldry  it  is  customary  to  place 
the  motto  in  an  escrol  either  above  the  crest 
or  below  the  shield. 

Motya.  An  ancient  town  in  the  north- 
west of  Sicily,  situated  on  a  small  island 
(now  Isola  dl  Mezzo) ^  only  6  stadia  from  the 
coast.  It  passed  from  Sicily  into  the  hands 
of  the  Carthaginians  ;  was  taken  from  them 
by  Dionysius  of  Syracuse  about  397  B.C.,  and 
was  finally  captured  by  the  Carthaginian 
general  Himilco,  who-  transplanted  all  its 
inhabitants  to  the  town  of  Lilyba3um.  From 
this  time  it  disappears  from  history. 

Moulinet.  A  circular  swi  ng  of  the  weapon 
in  sword  exercise. 

Moultrie,  Fort.     See  Fort  Moultrie. 

Mound.  A  bulwark  for  otfense  or  de- 
fense. 

Mound.  In  heraldry,  a  representation  of 
a  globe,  surmounted  with  a  cross  (generally) 


pattee.  As  a  device,  it  is  said  to  have  been 
used  by  the  emperor  Justinian,  and  to  have 
been  intended  to  represent  the  ascendency 
of  Christianity  over  the  world.  The  royal 
crown  of  England  is  surmounted  by  a  mound, 
which  first  appeared  on  the  seal  of  William 
the  Conqueror,  though  the  globe  without  the 
cross  was  used  earlier. 

Mount.  The  means  or  opportunity  for 
mounting,  especially  a  horse  ;  and  the  equip- 
ments necessary  for  a  mounted  horseman. 

Mount.  To  place  one's  self  on,  as  a  horse 
or  other  animal,  or  anything  that  one  be- 
strides or  sits  upon  ;  to  bestride.  Hence,  to 
put  on  horseback  ;  to  furnish  with  animals 
for  riding;  to  furnish  with  horses.  "To 
mount  the  Trojan  troop."     See  Dismount. 

Mount.  To  put  anything  that  sustains 
and  tits,  for  use;  as,  to  mount  a  gun  on  a 
carriage.  To  prepare  for  being  worn  or 
otherwise  used,  as  a  sword-blade  by  adding 
the  hilt  and  scabbard.  A  ship  or  a  fort  is 
said  to  mount  cannon  when  they  are  ar- 
ranged for  use  in  and  about  it. 

Mount.  A  word  of  command  in  the  cav- 
alry exercise  for  the  men  to  mount  their 
horses. 

Mount  a  Breach,  To.  To  run  up  in  a 
quick  and  determined  manner  to  any  breach 
made  in  a  wall,  etc.  To  mount  guards  to  do 
guard  duty  in  a  town,  garrison,  camp,  etc. 

Mount  Desert  Island.  A  mountainous 
island  in  the  Atlantic,  and  in  Hancock  Co., 
Me. ;  is  14  miles  long  and  7  wide.  The 
French  settled  it  in  1608;  they  were  driven 
out  by  the  English  in  1616.  The  English 
settled  it  in  17G1. 

Mountain  Artillery.  A  species  of  light 
artillery  which  is  used  in  the  United  States 
and  other  countries  in  mountain  warfare. 
See  Mountain  Battery. 

Mountain  Battery.  A  battery  of  moun- 
tain pieces.  The  pieces  and  carriages  are 
carried  separately  upon  the  backs  of  animals, 
by  means  of  pack-saddles  of  special  con- 
struction. These  have,  however,  of  late 
been  almost  entirely  superseded  for  this  pur- 
pose by  the  aparejo.  A  portable  forge  also 
accompanies  each  battery,  and  is  carried  with 
a  bag  of  coal  upon  a  pack-saddle. 

Mountain-carriage.  See  Ordnance,  Car- 
riages FOR. 

Mountain-gun.  See  Mountain  Artil- 
lery. 

Mountain-howitzer.  The  howitzer  used 
in  the  U.  S.  service  is  a  12-pounder  brass 
gun  of  old  pattern  with  cylindrical  chamber. 
The  gun  weighs  220  pounds  and  has  an  ex- 
treme length  of  37.21  inches.  This  gun  is 
ignored  in  the  Light  Artillery  Tactics. 

Mounted  Troops.     Cavalry. 

Mounting  Guard.  See  Guard  Mount- 
ing. 

Mourne.  That  part  of  a  lance  or  halbert 
to  which  the  steel  or  blade  is  fixed. 

Mouser.  In  the  British  army,  a  sobriquet 
which  was  sometimes  used  in  sport  to  dis- 
tinguish the  battalion  men  from  the  flank 
companies.     It  was  indeed  generally  applied  ' 


MOUSQUETAIRES 


341 


MUNDA 


to  thein  by  the  grenadiers  and  lijiht  bobs, 
meaning  that  while  the  latter  are  detached, 
the  former  remain  in  quarters,  like  cats  to 
watcli  the  mice,  etc. 

Mousquetaires,  or  Musketeers.  A  body 
of  horse-soldiers  under  the  old  French  re- 
gime, raised  by  Louis  XI 11.  in  l(i22.  This 
corps  was  considered  a  military  school  for 
the  French  nobility.  It  was  disbanded  in 
104G,  but  was  restored  in  1()57.  A  second 
company  was  created  in  lOGO,  and  formed 
Cardinal  Mazarin's  guard. 

Mouth.     Sec  MuzzLK. 

Mouth.  The  outer  opening  of  an  embra- 
sure. 

Movement.  A  term  used  to  express  the 
changes  of  position  which  troops  undergo  in 
performing  their  evolutions. 

Mow.  To  cut  down  with  speed  ;  to  cut 
down  indiscriminately,  or  in  great  numbers 
or  quantity  ;  to  sweep  away  ;  as,  a  discharge 
of  grape-shot  mows  down  whole  ranks  of 
men. 

Moyan.     A  species  of  early  artillery. 

Moyen  (/'>.).  The  bastions  which  are 
constructed  on  the  angles  are  called  royal 
bastions.  Some  engineers  have  distinguished 
those  bastions  by  the  name  of  moyens  roy- 
ttux,  or  medium  royals,  whose  flanks  con- 
tain from  90  to  lOO'toises. 

Moyenne  (i'V.).  An  ancient  4-pounder, 
10  feet  long,  weighing  1300  pounds.  In  the 
time  of  Charles  IX.  (1572)  it  was  a  2^- 
pounder. 

Moyenne  Ville  (F?-.).  A  term  formerly 
given  by  the  French  to  any  town  in  which 
the  garrison  was  equal  to  a  third  of  the  in- 
habitants, and  which  was  not  deemed  sutli- 
ciently  important  to  bear  the  expense  of  a 
citadel ;  more  especially  so  because  it  was 
not  in  the  power  of  the  inhabitants  to  form 
seditious  meetings  without  the  knowledge  of 
the  soldiers  who  were  quartered  on  them. 

Moyens  C6tes  (Fr.).  In  fortification,  are 
those  sides  which  contain  from  80  to  120 
toises  in  extent.  They  are  always  fortified 
with  bastions  on  their  angles.  The  moyens 
cbtia&Tfi  generally  found  along  the  extent  of 
irregular  places,  and  each  one  of  these  is 
individually  subdivided  into  small,  mean, 
and  great  sides. 

Mozyr.  A  town  in  the  southeast  of  the 
government  of  Minsk,  in  European  Russia, 
situated  on  the  Pripet,  a  tributary  of  the 
Dnieper.  It  is  a  town  of  considerable  an- 
tiquity, and  played  a  rather  important  part 
in  the  wars  between  the  various  Russian 
princes  previous  to  the  Tartar  invasion.  It 
was  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the  Tartars 
in  1240. 

Muff  and  Collar.     See  Ordnance,  Car- 

KIAUKS  FOR  LiMHER. 

Muffle.  To  wrap  with  something  that 
dulls  or  renders  sound  inaudible;  to  deaden 
the  sound  of;  as,  to  muffle  a  drum. 

Mufti.  The  civilian  dress  of  a  military 
officer  when  otT  duty;  hence,  a  citizen's 
dress,  as  distinguished  from  military  uni- 
form. 


Muhlagis.  Turkish  cavalry  composed  of 
exp(;rt  hor.-emen,  who  generally  attend  the 
beglierbeys.     They  are  not  very  numerous. 

Muhlberg .  A  town  of  Prussian  Saxony, 
situated  on  the  Elbe.  Here,  on  April  24, 
1547,  a  battle  was  fought  between  Johann- 
Friedrich,  elector  of  Saxony,  and  the  em- 
peror Charles  V.,  a  battle  fraught  with  the 
most  imyiortant  results  to  the  cause  of  Prot- 
estantism in  Germany.  The  battle  was 
soon  decided  in  favor  of  the  emperor;  the 
elector  was  taken  prisoner,  and  stri])ped  of 
his  territories.  From  this  time  till  1552,  the 
Catholics  were  triumphant  in  Germany. 

Muhldorf.  In  Bavaria,  near  which  place 
Frederick,  duke  of  Austria,  was  defeated 
and  taken  prisoner  by  Louis  of  Bavaria, 
September  28,  1322. 

Mulct.  A  soldier  is  said  to  be  mulcted  of 
liis  pay  when  put  under  fine  or  stojipages 
for  necessaries,  or  to  make  good  some  dilapi- 
dations committed  by  him  on  the  property 
of  the  people  or  the  government. 

Mule.     See  Pack  and  Dkaugut  Ani- 

MAL.S. 

Mullet.  In  heraldry,  is  a  charge  in  the 
form  of  a  star,  generally  with  five  points, 
intended  to  represent  a  spur-rowel.  It  is  a 
mark  of  cadency  assigned  to  tlie  third  son. 

Multan.or  Mooltan.  An  ancient  and  im- 
portant city  of  India,  in  the  Punjab,  200 
miles  southwest  from  Lahore.  Multan  is  a 
military  station,  with  a  small  redoubt  in  the 
rear  of  the  cantonment.  In  1849  it  was 
taken  by  the  British  troops  under  Gen. 
"VVhish,  and  annexed  with  its  territory  to 
the  Briti.-li  possessions. 

Multi-charge  Gun.  Many  attempts  have 
been  made  by  inventors  to  utilize  the  ac- 
celerating efi'ect  on  the  projectile  of  several 
charges  successively  fired  in  a  gun.  Lyman's 
multi-charge  gun  has  aseries  of  pockets  along 
the  bore,  the  charges  in  which  are  succes- 
sively fired  as  the  projectile  passes  them. 
BetiKcmer  proposed  plan  is  to  use  a  gun  of 
great  length.  The  charges  are  placed  sepa- 
rately in  holes  at  the  breech,  to  be  fired  in 
succession  by  electricity. 

Multiple  Lines.  In  fortification,  several 
lines  of  detached  walls  for  tlie  defense  of  a 
position. 

Munchengftatz.  A  town  of  Bohemia,  on 
the  Iser,  8  miles  northeast  from  Jungbunz- 
lau  ;  it  was  taken  by  the  Pru.«sians  under 
Prince  Frederick  Charles,  after  a  severe  ac- 
tion, June  28,  180(3.  The  Austrians  lost 
about  300  killed  and  UXK)  prisoners,  and  the 
prince  gained  about  12  miles  of  country. 
There  is  a  palace  here,  in  which  the  emperors 
of  Austria  and  Russia  and  the  king  of  Prus- 
sia met  in  1833. 

Munda.  A  Roman  colony  and  an  im- 
portant town  in  Hispania  Bnetica,  situated 
on  a  small  river,  and  celebrated  on  account 
of  two  battles  fought  in  it-«  neighborhood, 
the  victory  of  Cn.  Scipio  over  the  Cartha- 
I  ginians  in  216  h.c,  and  the  important  vic- 
j  tory  of  Julius  C«5sar  over  the  sons  of  Pom- 
I  pey  in  45. 


MUNICH 


342 


MUSKET 


Munich  (Ger.  Miinchen).  The  capital  of 
the  kingdom  of  Bavaria,  situated  on  the 
Iser,  117  miles  southeast  from  Stuttgart.  It 
was  taken  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden 
in  1632 ;  by  the  Austrians  in  1704,  1741,  and 
1743;  and  by  the  French  under  Moreau, 
July  2,  1800. 

Munifice  (Lat.  munifex),  Fr.  A  Eoman 
soldier  who  was  subje'cted  to  every  kind  of 
drudgery-work  in  camp. 

Munimell.  A  stronghold,  fortification,  etc. 

Munition.  Whatever  materials  are  used 
in  war  for  defense,  or  for  annoying  an  enemy ; 
ammunition ;  also,  stores  and  provisions ; 
military  stores  of  all  kinds. 

Munkacs.  A  market-town  of  East  Hun- 
gary, 80  miles  northeast  from  Debreczin.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Imperialists  in  1687,  after 
a  siege  of  three  years. 

Munsees,  or  Minsees.  A  tribe  of  Indians 
of  Algonkin  stock,  who  were  closely  allied 
to  the  Delavvares.  Man}^  of  them  became 
converts  to  Christianity.  A  few  of  them 
now  reside  on  the  reservation  of  the  Stock- 
bridge  Indians  in  Wisconsin,  and  about  60 
are  settled  in  Kansas. 

Miinster.  A  city  of  Germany,  on  the 
small  river  Aa,  77  miles  northeast  from  Co- 
logne. It  is  the  capital  of  a  government  of 
the  same  name  in  Prussian  Westphalia.  It 
was  seized  by  the  French  in  1806;  part  of 
the  duchy  of  Berg,  1809  ;  annexed  to  France, 
1810;  ceded  to  Prussia,  1815.  It  was  the 
headquarters  of  the  Anabaptists  under  John 
Leyden,  who  defended  it  against  the  bishop 
of  Munster,  1534-35.  Here  was  signed  the 
treaty  of  Westphalia  or  Munster,  October 
24,  1648. 

Munsterthal.  Two  valleys  of  Switzer- 
land, one  in  the  canton  Grisons,  the  other  in 
Berne,  where,  in  1444,  the  battle  of  St.  Jacob 
was  fought  between  the  French  and  Swiss, 
when  the  latter  were  nearly  annihilated. 

Muotta  Valley.  A  secluded  valley  of 
Switzerland,  canton  of  Schwytz,  traversed 
by  the  river  Muotta,  an  affluent  of  Lake 
Lucerne.  .  Here  a  sanguinary  struggle  took 
place  in  1799,  between  the  French  under 
Lecourbe,  Mortier,  and  Massena,  and  the 
Eussians  under  Suwarrow.  The  latter  was 
hemmed  in  on  all  sides,  but  by  a  desperate 
onslaught  he  cut  his  way  through  the  French 
lines,  and  made  a  masterly  retreat. 

Muradal,  Battle  of.     See  Tolosa. 

Murage.  Money  appropriated  to  the  re- 
pair of  military  works;  anciently  so  called. 

Mural  Crown.  In  Roman  antiquity,  a 
golden  crown,  or  circlet  of  gold,  indented  so 
as  to  resemble  a  battlement ;  bestowed  on 
him  who  first  mounted  the  wall  of  a  besieged 
place,  and  there  lodged  a  standard. 

Murcia.  An  old  kingdom  in  the  south- 
east of  Spain,  now  divided  into  the  modern 
provinces  of  Murcia  and  Albacete.  It  was 
conquered  by  the  Arabs  in  711  (712,  713)  ; 
after  the  fall  of  the  caliphate  of  Cordova,  it 
became  an  independent  Arab  kingdom,  but 
six  years  afterward  was  subjugated  by  King 
Ferdinand  II.  of  Castile. 


Murcia.  A  city  of  Spain,  capital  of  tho 
ancient  kingdom  and  modern  province  of  its 
own  name,  30  miles  north-northwest  of  Car- 
thagena.  It  was  taken  by  the  Moors  in 
713 ;  wrested  from  them  by  Ferdinand  of 
Castile.  In  1810  it  was  taken  and  sacked  by 
the  French. 

Murderer.  A  great  piece  of  artillery. 
Among  the  ordnance  given  up  to  Monk 
with  Edinburgh  Castle  in  16.50  is  mentioned 
"  The  great  iron  murderer,  Muckle  Meg." 

Murdresses.  In  ancient  fortification,  a 
sort  of  battlement  with  interstices,  raised  on 
the  tops  of  towers  in  order  to  fire  through. 

Muret  (Southern  France).  Here  the  Al- 
bigenses  under  the  Count  of  Toulouse  were 
defeated  by  Simon  de  Montfort,  and  their 
ally,  Peter  of  Aragon,  killed,  September 
12,  1213. 

Murfreesboro'.  A  town  and  capital  of 
;^utherford  Co.,  Tenn.,  about  30  miles  south- 
east of  Nashville.  A  Federal  force  which 
occupied  this  place  in  1862  was  surprised  and 
captured  by  a  body  of  Confederates  under 
Gen.  Forrest.  Near  here,  on  December  31, 
1862,  the  Army  of  the  Ohio  under  Gen. 
Rosecrans  encountered  the  Confederates  un- 
der Gen.  Bragg,  and  a  desperate  battle  en- 
sued, continuing  at  intervals  and  with  vary- 
ing success  until  January  3,  1863,  when  the 
Confederate  army  retreated,  and  Gen.  Eose- 
crans  occupied  Murfreesboro'.  The  Federal 
loss  was  about  8500  killed  and  wounded,  and 
3600  missing ;  the  Confederates  represented 
their  loss  at  10,000,  of  which  9000  were  killed 
and  wounded.  This  battle  is  known  as  the 
battle  of  Murfreesboro',  or  of  Stone  River. 

Murviedro.  A  fortified  town  of  Spain  in 
the  province  of  Valencia,  17  miles  north  from 
Valencia.   It  was  taken  by  Hannibal  219  B.C. 

Muscule,  or  Testude.  In  ancient  times, 
a  machine  of  war;  a  mantelet;  shed;  low, 
long,  and  sharp-roofed  shed,  which  enabled 
the  besiegers  to  advance  to  and  sap  the  wall 
of  the  besieged. 

Music.  A  general  term  for  the  musicians 
of  a  regimental  band. 

Music,  Phrygian.  A  martial  sort  of  an- 
cient music,  which  excited  men  to  rage  and 
battle;  by  this  mode  Timotheus  stirred  up 
Alexander  to  arms. 

Musicians.  See  Band,  Drummer,  Fif- 
ER,  and  Trumpeter. 

Musket,  or  Musquet  (Fr.  tnousquet).  The 
fire-arm  for  infantry  soldiers,  which  suc- 
ceeded the  clumsy  arquebuse,  and  has  itself 
given  way  before  the  rifie  (which  see).  The 
first  muskets  were  matchlocks  ;  after  which 
came  wheel-locks,  asnaphans  or  snaphance 
muskets,  and  lastly  percussion  muskets, 
which  were  a  vast  improvement  both  for 
accuracy  and  lightness  on  all  which  had 
gone  before.  Compared,  however,  to  the 
present  rifle,  the  musket  was  a  heavy,  ugly, 
and  ineffective  weapon. 

Musket  Baskets.  These  are  about  a  foot 
or  a  foot  and  a  half  high,  8  or  10  inches 
diameter  at  bottom,  and  a  foot  at  the  top,  so 
that  being  filled  with  earth  there  is  room  to 


MUSKETEER 


343 


M  YL  JC 


lav  a  musket  between  them  at  the  bottom, 
bJiii!;  sot  on  low  breastworks,  or  parapets,  or 
upon  such  as  are  beaten  down. 

Musketeer.  A  soldier  armed  with  a  mus- 
ket. 

Musketoon.  An  f)bsolete  weapon  ;  was 
a  sliort  musket  of  very  wide  bore,  carrying 
u  ball  of  ;j  ounces,  and  sometimes  bell- 
muulhed  like  a  blunderbuss.  Also  one  who 
was  armed  with  such  a  weapon. 

Musket-proof.  Capable  of  resisting  the 
effects  of  iiiuskct-balls. 

Musketry.  Muskets  in  general  or  collec- 
tively.    "  The  rattle  of  musketry." 

Musselburgh.  A  royal  burgh  of  Scot- 
land, county  of  Mid- Lothian,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Esk,"o  miles  east  of  Edinburgh.  The 
town  is  historically  important  on  account  of 
the  battle  of  Pinkie,  which  was  fought  in 
tlie  neighborhood  in  1547,  when  the  Scottish 
army  was  defeated  by  the  English  under  the 
Earl  of  Somerset. 

Mustang.  The  wild  horse  of  the  prairies 
in  .Mexico,  California,  etc.  It  is  small, 
Lardy,  and  easily  sustained. 

Muster.  A  review  of  troops  under  arms, 
fully  equipped,  in  order  to  take  an  account 
of  their  numbers,  inspect  their  arms  and  ac- 
coutrements, and  examine  their  condition. 
In  the  U.  S.  service  troops  are  mustered 
bi-monthly.  During  the  civil  war,  the  mus- 
tering in  and  mustering  out  of  troops  (into  or 
out  of  the  U.  S.  service)  were  performed  by 
8taff-ofBcei"s,  called  commissaries  of  musters. 

Muster-book.  A  book  in  which  military 
forces  are  registered. 

Muster-fiie.     A  muster-roll. 

Muster-master.  One  who  takes  an  ac- 
count of  troops,  and  of  their  arms  and  other 
military  apparatus.  This  title  is  not  known 
in  the  U.  S.  army.  The  person  who  per- 
forms these  duties  is  called  a  mustering  offi- 
cer, or  an  in-spcctinq  otHcer. 

Muster-roll.  A  roll  or  register  of  the 
men  in  each  company,  troop,  or  regiment. 

Muta  (Syria).  Hero  Mohammed  and  his 
followers  defeated  the  Christians  in  his  first 
conflict  with  them,  0:20. 

Mutilated.  In  a  military  sense,  signifies 
wounded  in  such  a  manner  as  to  lose  the  use 
of  a  limb.  A  battalion  is  said  to  be  muti- 
lated when  its  divisions,  etc.,  stand  unequal. 

Mutina.     See  M(JI>ena. 

Mutine.  To  mutiny;  a  mutineer.  This 
term  is  obsolete. 

Mutineer.  One  guilty  of  mutiny  ;  a  per- 
son in  military  or  naval  service,  who  rises  in 
opposition  to  the  authority  of  the  officers, 
vrho  openly  resists  the  government  of  the 
army  or  navy,  or  attempts  to  destroy  due 
suborili  nation. 

Mutinous.  Disposed  to  mutiny  or  resist 
the  authority  of  laws  and  regulations,  espe- 
cially in  an  army,  or  openly  resisting  such 
authority  ;  tiirbu'lent  ;  seclitfous. 

Mutinously.     In  a  mutinous  manner. 

Mutinousness.  The  quality  or  state  of 
being  mutinous;  seditiousness. ' 

Mutiny.   Insurrection  against  constituted 


authority,  particularly  military  authority ; 
open  and  violent  resistance  to  the  authority 
of  officers  ;  concerted  revolt  against  the  rules 
of  discipline ;  hence,  generally,  forcible  re- 
sistance to  rightful  uuthorit}'  on  the  part  of 
subordinates.  Violent  commotion  ;  tumult ; 
uproar;  strife. 

Mutiny.  To  ri.se  against  lawful  authority 
in  the  military  service;  to  excite,  or  to  be 
guilty  of  mutiny,  or  mutinous  conduct;  to 
revolt  against  one's  superior  officer  or  right- 
ful authority. 

Mutiny  Act.  In  Great  Britain,  an  annual 
act  of  Parliament  fixing  the  strength  of  the 
army  for  the  military  year,  which  com- 
mences April  1,  and  ends  March  ;51,  and  im- 
posing certain  penalties  fur  ofienses  con- 
nected with  the  army.  It  also  authorizes 
the  sovereign  to  issue  Articles  of  War. 

Muzzle.      See    Ordnance,   Nomkncla- 

TUKE. 

Muzzle  Velocity.  Velocity  at  the  muzzle. 
See  Initial  A'ki.ocity. 

Muzzle-ring.  The  metallic  ring  or  circle 
that  surrounds  the  mouth  of  a  cannon  or 
other  ]Mece. 

Muzzle-sight.  A  front  sight  placed  on 
or  near  the  muzzle. 

Mycale  (now  Samsum).  A  mountain  in 
the  south  of  Ionia,  in  Asia  Minor,  north  of 
the  mouth  of  the  Meander.  It  forms  the 
western  extremity  of  Mcjunt  Mcssogis,  and 
runs  far  out  into  the  sea,  opposite  to  Samos, 
forming  a  sharp  promontory,  which  was 
called  Mycale,  or  Trogilium  (now  Cape  St. 
Maria).  This  cape  and  the  southeast  prom- 
ontory of  Samos  (Posidonium)  overlap  one 
another,  and  the  two  tongues  of  land  are 
separated  by  a  strait  only  about  three- 
fourths  of  a  mile  in  width,  which  is  re- 
nowned in  Greek  history  as  the  scene  of  the 
victory  gained  over  the  Persian  fleet  by 
Leotychides  and  Xanthippus,  479  B.C. 

Mycalessus.  An  ancient  and  important 
city  in  Bfeotia,  mentioned  by  Ilomer,  situ- 
ated on  the  road  from  Aulis  to  Thebes.  In 
413  B.C.,  some  Thracian  mercenaries  in  the 
pay  of  Athens  surprised  and  sacked  the  town 
and  butchered  the  inhabitants.  From  this 
blow  it  never  recovered,  and  was  in  ruins  in 
the  time  of  Pausanias. 

Mycenae,  sometimes  Mycene  (now  Kar- 
x-af(i).  An  ancient  town  in  Argolis,  about 
()  miles  northeast  of  Argos  ;  it  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  Perseus  in  2  n.c.  After 
the  conquest  of  Peloponnesus  by  the  Dorians, 
it  ceased  to  be  a  place  of  importance.  It 
still,  however,  continued  an  independent 
town  till  4(38  B.C.,  when  it  was  attacked  by 
the  Argives,  whose  haired  the  Mycen:i?an3 
are  said  to  have  incurred  by  the  part  they 
took  in  the  Persian  war  in  favor  of  the  Greek 
cause.  The  massive  walls  of  Mycenie  resisted 
all  the  attacks  of  the  Argives  ;  but  the  in- 
habitants were  at  length  compelled  by  famine 
to  abandon  their  town.  They  effected  their 
escape  and  took  refuge,  some  at  Cleon», 
some  in  Achaia,  and  others  in  ^lucedonia. 

Mylae.     See  Milazzo. 


MAYONNESUS 


344 


NAGPORE 


Myonnesus  (now  Cajte  Hypsili).  A 
promontory  of  Ionia,  with  a  town  and  a  lit- 
tle island  of  the  same  name,  forming  the 
northern  headland  of  the  Gulf  of  Ephesus. 
Here  the  Komans,  under  the  prastor  L. 
jEmilius,  gained  a  great  naval  victory  over 
Antiochus  the  Great,  190  B.C. 

Myriarch.  A  captain  or  commander  of 
10,000  men. 

Myrmidons.  The  soldiers  who  accompa- 
nied Achilles  in  the  expedition  against  Troy. 
Rough,  desperate  characters  banded  under 
a  leader. 

Mysore,  Maheshasoora,  or  Maisur.  A 
raj  or  native  principality  of  Southern  India. 
It  was  ruled  by  Hyder  Ali,  who  acquired 
the  sovereignty  in  1761,  and  afterwards  by 
his  son  Tippoo  Sahib,  who  was  slain  when 
Seringapatam  (May  4,  1799)  was  stormed 
and  taken,  and  the  country  occupied  by  the 
British,  who  set  up,  in  the  same  year,  an 
heir  of  the  ancient  Hindoo  royal  family  of 
Mysore  to  rule  in  his  stead.  The  state  is 
now  subsidiary  to  the  British. 


Mytilene,  Mitylene,  or  Metelin.  The  city 
of  Lesbos.  At  the  beginning  of  the  7th  cen- 
tury B.C.,  the  possession  of  its  colony,  Sigeum, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Hellespont,  was  disputed 
in  war  between  the  Mytileneans  and  Athe- 
nians, and  assigned  to  the  latter  by  the 
award  of  Periander,  tyrant  of  Corinth. 
Mytilene  submitted  to  the  Persians  after 
the  conquest  of  Ionia  and  ^olis,  and  fur- 
nished contingents  to  the  expeditions  of 
Cambyses  against  Egypt  and  of  -Darius 
against  Scythia ;  it  was  active  in  the  Ionian 
revolt;  became  again  subject  to  Persia,  and 
took  part  in  the  expedition  of  Xerxes  against 
Greece.  After  the  Persian  war  it  formed  an 
alliance  with  Athens,  and  remained  one  of 
the  most  important  members  of  the  Athe- 
nian confederacy.  In  428  B.C.  it  headed  a 
revolt  of  the  greater  part  of  Lesbos,  the 
progress  and  suppression  of  which  forms  one 
of  the  most  interesting  episodes  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Mytilene 
fell  under  the  power  of  the  Romans  after  the 
Mithridatic  war. 


*^ 


N. 


Naas.  A  town  of  Ireland,  in  the  county 
of  Kildare,  18  miles  southwest  from  Dublin. 
Here  the  insurgent  Irish  were  defeated  by  a 
body  of  the  king's  forces,  May  24,  1798; 
the  insurgents  lost  about  300  killed  and 
many  wounded. 

Nabataei,  or  Nabathae  (in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Nebaioth).  An  Arabian  people,  de- 
scended from  the  eldest  son  of  Ishmael,  had 
their  original  abodes  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  the  Arabian  peninsula,  east  and 
southeast  of  the  Moabites  and  Edomites. 
After  the  Babylonian  conquest  of  Judisa, 
the  Nabathteans  extended  west  into  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula  and  the  territory  of  the 
Edomites.  They  resisted  all  the  attacks 
of  the  Greek  kings  of  Syria.  Under  Au- 
gustus the  Nabathaeans  are  found,  as  nom- 
inal subjects  of  the  Roman  empire,  assisting 
uElius  Gallius  in  his  expedition  into  Arabia 
Felix ;  under  Trajan  they  were  conquered 
by  A.  Cornelius  Palma,  and  Arabia  Petraaa 
became  a  Roman  province,  105-107.  The 
Mohammedan  conquest  finally  overthrew 
the  power  of  the  Nabathseans. 

Nachod.  A  town  of  Bohemia,  near 
where  the  Prussians,  under  their  crown 
prince,  defeated  the  Austrians  after  a  severe 
conflict,  June  27,  1866.  In  this  battle,  the 
superiority  of  the  Prussian  Uhlans  over 
the  Austrian  cavalry  was  demonstrated. 

Nafels.  A  small  town  of  Switzerland, 
in  the  canton  of  Glarus,  4  miles  north  from 


Glarus.  Here  in  1388,  1500  men  of  Glarus, 
under  Matthias  am  Buhl,  overthrew  an 
Austrian  force  of  from  6000  to  8000  men. 
The  event  is  still  celebrated  yearly. 

Nagarkana.  In  the  East  Indies,  the 
place  where  all  the  drums  and  war-music 
are  kept,  is  so  called. 

Naggur  (Ind.).  The  principal  drum  in 
Asiatic  armies,  commonly  allowed  only  to 
persons  of  high  dignity  ;  the  bass  drum. 

Nagpore,  Nagpur,  or  Nagpoor.     A  city 
of  British  India,  capital  of  the  province  of 
the  same  name,  430  miles  in  a  direct  line 
east-northeast   from   Bombay.      The  rajahs 
of  Nagpore,  now  an  extinct  dynasty,  were 
the  rulers  of  a  state  which  was  a  branch  of 
the  great  Mahratta  confederacy.    Its  founder 
was  Parsojee,  originally  a  private  soldier. 
Ragojee,  one  of  the  successors  of  Parsojee, 
united    his    forces   in    1803   with   those  of 
Scindia  in  the  war  against  the  British  con-      > 
sequent   on    the    treaty   of    Bassein.      The     \ 
victories  of  Assaye  and  Argaum  compelled      | 
him  to  sue  for  peace,  and  by  a  treaty  con- 
cluded in  1804,  he  surrendered  the  province 
of    Cuttack.      Appa    Sahib,   his  successor, 
concluded  a  treaty  with    the   British   gov- 
ernment,  but   on   November   26,   1817,   he     , 
made   an    attack   on    the  British   troops^  at     ( 
Seetabuldee,  an  eminence  on  the  outskirts     j 
of  the  town  of  Nagpore.     The  British  force 
only  1400  strong,  under  Col.  Scott,  was  op- 
posed to  a  body  of   20,000  native  troops;     ■ 


NAIGUE 


345 


NAPLES 


but  the  best  dispositions  which  the  sudden- 
ness of  the  attack  allowed  were  promptly 
made.  A  noble  cliarc^e,  headed  vy  Capt. 
Fitzgerald  with  a  small  ])arty  of  cavalry, 
upon  a  large  body  of  the  enemy's  horse, 
decided  the  fortune  of  the  day,  which  ended 
in  the  defeat  of  the  natives. 

Naigue,  Naick,  or  Naik.  A  native  non- 
commissioned officer  among  Indian  and 
Anglo-Asiatic  troops,  whose  functions  are 
Bomewhat  analogous  to  those  performed 
among  European  troops  by  the  drill-ser- 
geant. 

Nail  Cannon,  To.  See  Spike  Cannon, 
To. 

Nail-ball.  A  round  projectile  with  an 
iron  i)iii  protruding  from  it,  to  prevent  its 
turning  in  the  bore  of  the  piece. 

Nairs.  A  native  military  tribe  of  the 
Malabar  coast.  They  affirm  that  they  are 
the  oldest  nobility  in  the  world.  Their 
pride  on  this  supposition  is  greater  than  that 
of  the  Rajpoots.  In  1755,  the  kingof  Trav- 
ancore,  with  the  assistance  of  a  French  offi- 
cer called  Launoy,  disciplined  10,000  Nairs 
in  the  method  of  European  infantry. 

Najera.  A  town  of  Spain  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Logrono.  Near  this  ])lace  Edward 
the  Black  Prince  defeated  Henry  de  Trasta- 
mere,  and  re-established  Peter  the  Cruel  on 
the  throne  of  Castile,  April  3,  13(J7. 

Naked  Bullet.  Grooved  or  cnnnchired 
bullet  as  distinguished  from  the^jn^cAc^/  6m/- 
let. 

Namur.  A  city  of  Belgium,  capital  of 
the  province  of  the  same  name,  33  miles 
southwest  from  Liege.  It  has  been  fortified 
from  the  earliest  period  of  its  history ;  in 
1692  its  defensive  works  were  repaired  and 
strengthened  by  Coehorn  ;  was  taken  in  the 
following  year  by  Louis  XIV.  and  Vauban, 
the  latter  of  whom  added  considerable  to  its 
original  strength  ;  in  1695  it  sustained  a 
long  siege  against  "William  III.  of  England, 
and  was  taken  ;  seized  by  the  French  in  the 
beginning  of  the  18th  century,  but  ceded  to 
Austria  in  1713.  In  1781  the  emperor  Jo- 
seph expelled  the  Dutch  garrison.  In  1792 
it  was  occupied  by  the  French,  but  retaken 
by  the  Austrians'in  1793.  In  1794  it  was 
again  occupied  by  the  French,  who  kept  it 
till  the  Netherlands  were  given  up  by  the 
French  government  in  1814  ;  and  after  hav- 
ing been  gallantly  defended  by  its  French 
conquerors  in  1815,  against  the  Prussians 
under  Pirch,  it  was  finally  restored  to  the 
Netherlands  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo, 
and  at  once  put  into  thorough  repair.  The 
works  were  demolished  again  in  18(3G  with 
the  exception  of  the  citadel. 

Nana.  In  the  East  Indies,  the  title  which 
is  given  to  a  chief  of  the  :Mahrattas.  It 
more  properly  signifies  the  acting  head  of 
the  government,  and  general  of  the  forces. 

Nancy.  A  city  of  France,  the  capital  of 
the  department  of  the  Meurthc,  situated  on 
the  Meurthe,  30  miles  soiith  from  Met/. ;  it 
was  the  capital  of  Lorraine  and  the  residence 
of  the  dukes  of  that  country  in  the  13lh  cen- 


tury. After  taking  Nancy,  November  29, 
1475,  and  losing  it,  October  5,  1470,  Charles 
the  Bold  of  Burgundy  was  defeated  and 
slain  beneath  its  walls  l)y  Rene  II.,  duke  of 
Lorraine,  and  the  Swiss,  January  5,  1477. 
Nancy  on  the  retreat  of  MacMahon's  army, 
and  expecting  the  German  armv,  surren- 
dered to  four  Uhlans,  August  12, "1870. 

Nankin,  Nanking,  Kianning-Foo,  or 
Kiangning-Fu.  The  ancient  capital  of 
China,  now  the  chief  town  of  the  prcnince 
of  Kiangsu,  is  situated  about  3  miles  from 
the  south  bank  of  the  river  Yang-tse-Kiang, 
about  100  miles  from  its  mouth.  On  Aug- 
ust 4,  1842,  the  British  ships  arrived  at 
Nankin,  and  were  kept  before  this  place  till 
the  final  treaty  of  August  29,  between  China 
and  Great  Britain,  was  signed  and  ratified. 
The  rebel  Tae-pings  (Taipings)  took  it  on 
March  19-20,  1853.  It  was  recaptured  by 
the  imperialists,  July  19,  1804. 

Nantes  (anc.  Condivicnum,  afterwards 
Namnete.i,  or  Nannetes).  An  important 
commercial  town  of  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Loire-Inferieure,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Loire,  about  30  miles  from  its 
mouth,  208  miles  southwest  of  Paris.  The 
history  of  Nantes  reaches  back  to  the  time 
of  the  Romans,  in  whose  hands  it  seems  to 
have  remained  until  the  beginning  of  the 
5th  century,  when  they  were  driven  from 
the  town.  In  445  it  valiantly  withstood  a 
siege  of  sixty  days  by  the  Huns.  It  was 
captured  by  the  Normans  in  853  and  859, 
and  held  in  possession  by  them  for  nearly  a 
century,  after  which  the  town  suffered  many 
sieges, — in  1343  by  the  English  ;  in  1380  by 
the  Earl  of  Buckingham,  when  it  was  re- 
lieved by  Oliver  of  Clisson  ;  and  again  in 
1491  by  Charles  VIII.  It  suffered  much 
froni  the  Vendean  civil  war  of  1793.  In 
June  of  that  year  the  Vendean  army, 
50,000  strong,  under  Cathelineau,  laid  siege 
to  the  city,  then  defended  by  Gens.  Beysser 
and  Canclaux,  but  were  repulsed  with  great 
loss, — their  general  being  among  the  slain. 
Here  took  place  the  wholesale  drowning 
(termed  Noyades)  of  the  royalists  in  the 
Loire,  by  command  of  the  brutal  Carrier, 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  republicans,  No- 
vember, 1793.  It  was  from  Nantes  that 
Prince  Charles  Edward  embarked  for  Scot- 
land in  1745. 

Nantes,  Edict  of.  The  name  given  to 
the  famous  decree  published  in  that  citv  by 
Ilenry  IV.  of  France,  April  13,  1598,  which 
secured  to  the  Protestant  portion  of  his  sub- 
jects freedom  of  religion. 

Naples.  A  province  of  Italy,  occupying 
the  southern  part  of  the  Italian  peninsula, 
formerly  the  continental  division  of  the  old 
kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  It  began  with 
a  (ireek  colony  named  Parthenope  (about 
1000  B.C.),  wliich  wi\s  afterwards  divided 
into  Pahepolis  (the  old)  and  Neapolis  (the 
nexv  city),  from  which  latter  the  present 
name  isderived.  The  colony  was  ctmquered 
br  the  Romans  in  the  Samnito  war,  326 
b!c.     Naples,  after  resisting  the  power  of 


NAPLES 


346 


NAEBONNE 


the  Lombards,  Franks,  and  Germans,  was 
subjugated  by  the  Normans,  under  Roger 
Guiscard,  king  of  Sicily,  in  1131.  Naples 
was  conquered  by  Theodoric  the  Goth  in 
493 ;  retaken  by  Belisarius  in  536 ;  taken 
again  by  Totila  in  543 ;  retaken  by  Narses 
in  542;  conquered,  and  the  kingdom  of  the 
Two  Sicilies  founded  by  lloger  Guiscard  II. 
in  1131.  Here  occurred  the  massacre  called 
the  Sicilian  Vespers  (which  see),  March  30, 
1282.  The  territory'  was  invaded  by  Louis, 
king  of  Hungary,  in  1349;  seized  by  Al- 
phonso  V.  of  Aragon  in  1435;  conquered 
by  Charles  VIII.  of  France  in  1494;  and 
by  Louis  XII.  of  France  and  Ferdinand  of 
Spain,  who  divided  it  in  1501.  The  French 
were  expelled  from  Naples  in  1504;  insur- 
rection of  Masaniello,  occasioned  by  the 
extortions  of  the  Spanish  viceroys,  July, 
1647  ;  Masaniello  slain  by  his  own  followers 
a  few  daj's  later ;  another  insurrection  sup- 
pressed by  Don  John  of  Austria,  October, 
1647.  Naples  was  conquered  by  Prince 
Eugene  of  Savoy  for  the  emperor  in  1706  ; 
the  king  flies  on  the  approach  of  the  French 
republicans,  who  establish  the  Parthenopean 
republic,  January  14,  1799;  Nelson  appears  ; 
Naples  retaken  June,  1799;  the  Neapolitans 
occupy  Eome,  September  30,  1799.  Ferdi- 
nand is  compelled  to  fly  to  Sicily,  January 
23,  1806;  the  French  enter  Naples,  and 
Joseph  Bonaparte  made  king,  February, 
1806 ;  Joachim  Murat  made  king,  July  15, 
1808  ;  Joachim  declares  war  against  Austria, 
March  15,  1815;  defeated  atTolentino,  May 
8,  1815 ;  successful  insurrection  of  the  Car- 
bonari under  Gen.  Pepe,  July  13,  1820 ;  the 
Austrians  invade  the  kingdom  ;  Gen.  Pepe 
defeated,  March  7,  1821 ;  insurrection  of  the 
Carbonari  suppressed,  August,  1828  ;  great 
lighting  in  Naples;  the  liberals  and  the 
national  guard  almost  annihilated  by  the 
royal  troops,  aided  by  the  lazzaroni,  May  15, 
1848;  a  martial  anarchy  prevails,  1849; 
Italian  refugees,  under  Count  Pisacane,  land 
in  Calabria,  are  defeated,  and  their  leader 
killed,  June  27-July  2,  1857  ;  insubordina- 
tion among  the  Swiss  troops  at  Naples, 
many  shot,  July  7,  1859 ;  Garibaldi  lands 
in  Sicily,  May  11,  1860,  and  defeats  the 
Neapolitan  army  at  Calatafimi,  May  15, 
1860;  state  of  siege  proclaimed  at  Naples, 
June  28,  1800;  Garibaldi  defeats  Neapol- 
itans at  Melazzo,  July  20;  enters  Messina, 
July  21,  and  the  Neapolitans  agree  to  evac- 
uate Sicily,  July  30,  1860;  the  army  pro- 
claim Count  de  Trani  king,  July  10,  1860; 
Garibaldi  lands  at  Melito,  August  18,  1860; 
takes  Reggio,  August  21,  1860;  he  enters 
Naples  without  troops,  September  7,  1860; 
Garibaldi  gives  up  the  Neapolitan  fleet  to 
the  Sardinian  admiral  Persano,  September 
11,  1860;  repulses  the  Neapolitans  at  Ca- 
jazzo.  September  19,  1860,  and  defeats  them 
at  the  Volturno,  October  1,  1860;  the  king 
of  Sardinia  enters  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
and  takes  command  of  his  army,  which 
combines  with  Garibaldi's,  October  11,  1860; 
Cialdini  defeats  the  Neapolitans  at  Isernia, 


October  17,  and  at  Venafro,  October  18, 
1860;  Garibaldi  meets  Victor  Emmanuel, 
and  salutes  him  as  king  of  Italy,  October 
26,  1860. 

Naples  (Lat.  Nenpolis,  It.  Napoli).  A 
city  of  Italy,  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Naples,  situated  on  the  Bay  of  Naples,  near 
the  foot  of  Mount  Vesuvius.  In  1799  it 
was  taken  by  the  French,  who  evacuated  it 
shortly  after,  but  again  occupied  it  in  1806. 
In  1848  it  was  plundered  by  the  lazzaroni, 
of  whom  1500  lost  their  lives.  The  history 
of  this  city  is  nearly  identical  with  that  of 
the  province  of  the  same  name  (which 
see). 

Napoleon  Gun.  In  1856  it  was  proposed 
to  increase  the  power  of  the  light,  and  di- 
minish the  weight  of  the  heavy  field  artillery, 
by  the  introduction  of  a  single  piece  of  me- 
dium weight  and  caliber ;  such  is  the  new 
field  or  Napoleon  gun.  It  has  no  chamber, 
and  should  therefore  be  classed  as  a  gun.  Its 
exterior  is  characterized  by  the  entire  ab- 
sence of  molding  and  ornament,  and  in  this 
respect  may  be  at  once  distinguished  from 
the.old  field-cannon.  The  first  reinforce  is 
cylindrical,  and  it  has  no  second  reinforce,  as 
the  exterior  tapers  uniformly  with  the  chase 
from  the  extremity  of  the  first  reinforce. 
The  size  of  the  trunnions  and  the  distance 
between  the  rimbases  are  the  same  as  in  the 
24-pounder  howitzer,  in  order  that  pieces 
maj'  be  transported  on  the  same  kind  of 
carriage.  The  diameter  of  the  bore  is  that 
of  a  12-pounder,  the  length  of  bore  is  16 
calibers.  The  weight  is  100  times  the  pro- 
jectile, or  1200  pounds.  The  charge  of  pow- 
der is  the  same  as  for  the  heavy  12-pounders 
(pattern  of  1840),  or  2^  pounds  for  solid 
and  case-shot,  and  2  pounds  for  canister-shot. 
It  has,  therefore,  nearly  as  great  range  and 
accuracj'^  as  the  heaviest  gun  of  the  old  sys- 
tem, and,  at  the  same  time,  the  recoil  and 
strain  on  the  carriage  are  not  too  severe. 
The  new  gun  and  carriage  weigh  about  500 
pounds  more  than  the  6-pounder  and  car- 
riage, still  it  has  been  found  to  possess  suffi- 
cient mobility  for  the  general  purposes  of 
light  artillery.  It  is  proposed  to  retain  the 
12-pounder  howitzer  in  service,  to  be  em- 
ployed in  cases  where  great  celerity  of  move- 
ment is  indispensable.  The  eftect  of  this 
change  is  to  simplify  the  materiel  of  field  ar- 
tillery, and  to  increase  its  ability  to  cope  with 
the  rifle-musket,  principally  by  the  use  of 
larger  and  more  powerful  spherical  case-shot. 
The  principal  objection  to  an  increased  cali- 
ber for  light  field-guns  is  the  increased  weight 
of  the  ammunition,  and  consequent  reduction 
of  the  number  of  rounds  that  can  be  carried 
in  the  ammunition-chests. 

Narbonne.  A  city  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Aude,  32  miles  east  of  Car- 
cassonne. The  modern  town  of  Narbonne 
occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Narho  Mar- 
iiua^  a  Roman  colony  founded  in  118  B.C. 
After  the  first  colonization  of  Narbo,  many 
of  the  soldiers  of  Ctesar's  Tenth  Legion  were 
settled  here,  from  whom  the  town  derived 


NARISCI 


347 


NATCHEZ 


the  name  of  Decumatiorum  Colonia.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Visigoths  in  4G2,  by  the  Bur- 
gundians  in  508,  by  the  Frani\S  in  531,  b}' 
thi'  Saracens  in  719,  and  by  tlie  Moors  in 
779.  Charlas  Martel  defeated  the  Moors 
under  its  walls,  but  the  town  held  out  until 
it  was  taken  by  Pepin  in  759.  In  859  it  fell 
to  the  arms  of  the  Northmen. 

Narisci.  A  small  but  brave  people  in  tlie 
Bouth  of  Germany,  of  the  Suevic  race,  dwelt 
we.->t  of  tiie  Marcomanni  and  east  of  the 
Ilernmiiduri.  Their  country  extended  from 
the  Sudeti  Montes  on  the  north  to  the  Dan- 
ube on  the  south. 

Narni  (anc.  Narnin).  A  town  of  Cen- 
tral Italy,  on  the  Nera,  or  Nar,  about  45 
miles  northeast  of  Rome.  During  the  second 
Punic  war  an  army  was  posted  here  to  op- 
pose the  threatened  advance  of  ilasdrubal 
upon  Rome.  The  town  bore  an  important 
part  in  the  civil  war  between  Vitellius  and 
Ve.-ipasian.  It  was  occupied  by  the  generals 
of  the  former  to  check  the  advance  of  Ves- 
pasian's army,  but  the  increasing  disaffection 
towards  Vitellius  caused  the  troops  at  Nar- 
nia  to  lay  down  their  arms  without  resist- 
ance. Its  natural  strength  and  commanding 
position  rendered  it  also  of  great  importance 
during  the  Gothic  wars  of  Belisarius  and 
Narses.  The  town  was  sacked  by  the  Vene- 
tians and  its  garrison  put  to  the  sword  in 
the  16th  century,  since  which  time  it  has 
been  a  place  of  little  importance. 

Narragansetts.  A  tribe  of  Algonki a  In- 
dians who  formerly  inhabited  a  tract  of 
country  nearly  corresponding  to  the  present 
State  of  Rhode  Island.  They  were  gener- 
ally friendly  to  the  early  white  settlers,  and 
were  sworn  enemies  of  tlie  Mohegans  (which 
see).  In  1()37,  when  the  Pequots  were  at- 
tempting to  induce  them  to  join  in  a  general 
war  upon  the  whites,  they  were  dissuaded 
from  doing  so  by  Roger  Williams,  who  had 
great  influence  with  their  chief,  Canonicus. 
In  King  Philip's  war  (1075)  they  were  sus- 
pected of  playing  false  to  the  settlers,  and  of 
sheltering  the  enemy  that  wasted  their  set- 
tlements. It  was  accordingly  resolved  to 
treat  them  as  enemies,  and  1000  colonists 
marched  against  their  chief  fort,  which  was 
situatcnl  on  a  swamp  island  near  what  is  now 
the  village  of  Kingston,  R.  I.  The  fort  was 
taken  by  storm  and  burned,  all  the  winter 
supplies  of  the  Indians  and  many  of  the 
aged  and  lielpless,  it  is  said,  perishing  in  the 
flames.  Hunger  and  distress  followed  ;  but 
the  Narragansetts  still  maintained  the  con- 
test under  their  chief,  Canonchet,  until  he 
was  taken  prisoner  and  j)Ut  to  death.  They 
subsequently  merged  into  the  dominant  race, 
and  only  a  few  of  the  tribe  now  exist. 

Narva.  A  town  of  Russia  in  Europe,  in 
the  government  of  St.  I'etersburg,  on  the 
Narova,  8  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  90  miles 
southwest  from  St.  Petersburg.  Near  this 
town  on  November  30,  1700,  Charles  XII. 
at  the  head  of  8000  Swedes,  defeated  Peter 
the  Great  with  about  80,(K)0  Russians.  It 
was  taken  by  Peter  in  1804. 


Nasamones.  A  powerful  but  savage 
Libyan  people,  who  dwelt  originally  on  the 
shores  of  the  Great  Syrtis,  but  were  driven 
inland  by  the  Greek  settlers  of  Cyrenaica, 
and  afterward  by  the  Romans. 

Naseby.  A  parish  and  village  of  Eng- 
land, in  the  county  of  Northampton,  12 
miles  north  of  the  town  of  that  name.  The 
battle  of  Naseby,  between  Charles  I.  and 
the  Parliamentary  army  under  Fairfax  and 
Cromwell,  took  place  here,  June  14,  l(i4o. 
It  resulted  in  the  total  defeat  of  the  royalists, 
the  king  being  compelled  to  flee,  after"  losing 
his  cannon  and  baggage,  and  nearly  5000  of 
his  army  as  prisoners. 

Nashville.  A  city  and  capital  of  the 
State  of  Tennessee,  situated  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Cumberland  River,  about  200  miles 
from  its  mouth.  During  the  civil  war,  after 
the  fall  of  Fort  Donelson,  it  was  occupied 
by  the  Union  forces,  February  24,  1802. 
Within  a  few  miles  of  the  city  was  fought 
the  memorable  battle  which  bears  its  name, 
between  the  Confederate  forces  under  Gen. 
Hood  and  the  Union  troops  under  Gen. 
George  H.  Thomas,  December  15-10,  1864. 
The  battle  commenced  by  a  feint  on  Hood's 
right  and  a  real  attack  on  his  left,  which  re- 
sulted in  driving  it  a  distance  of  8  miles, 
and  the  capture  of  over  1000  prisoners,  20 
wagons,  and  16  pieces  of  artillery.  During 
the  ensuing  night.  Gen.  Hood  contracted  his 
lines,  and  ne.vt  day  tlie  battle  was  renewed 
with  vigor,  towards  the  afternoon  becoming 
close  and  obstinate.  Near  dusk  the  Confed- 
erates gave  way,  and  a  total  rout  soon  fol- 
lowed. Some  4000  pri.soners  were  captured, 
over  50  pieces  of  artillery,  and  an  immense 
number  of  small-arms.  On  the  17th  the 
pursuit  of  the  enemy  was  continued  and 
many  more  prisoners  captured.  Hood  es- 
caped with  a  mere  wreck  of  his  army,  and 
was  soon  after  relieved  of  ctmimand. 

Nasir-Jung  (Ind.).  Victorious,  or  tri- 
umphant in  war. 

Nassau,  House  of,  A  noble  family  of 
German  origin,  which  produced  man}-  great 
men,  and  derived  its  title  from  Nassau,  on 
the  Rhino.  In  the  lOtli  century  the  family 
acquired  the  principality  of  Orange,  in  the 
southeast  of  France  ;  after  which  the  counts 
of  Nassau  took  the  title  of  Prince  of  Orange. 

Natchez,  or  Natches.  A  tribe  of  Indians 
who  formerly  occupied  four  or  live  villages 
situated  east  of  the  Alississippi  in  a  tract  of 
country  which  embraced  the  site  of  the  city 
of  that  name.  They  were  generally  friendly 
to  the  early  French  settlers  ;  but  in  1729,  be- 
ing enraged  by  the  brutal  avarice  of  Cho- 
purt,  the  commander  of  the  garrison,  who 
demanded  as  a  plantation  the  very  site  of 
their  principal  village,  they  concerted  a 
general  massacre  of  the  French,  wliich  they 
eflected  November  28,  killing  about  200 and 
holding  the  women  and  children  captives. 
Tlie  French  took  a  bloody  and  terrible  re- 
venge. Under  the  leadership  of  Le  Sueur, 
ft  Frenchman,  700  Choctnws  broke  upon 
the  slumbers  of  the  Natchez  on  the  night  of 


NATCHITOCHES 


348 


NAVAL 


January  28, 1730,  liberated  the  captives,  and 
■with  a  loss  ofbut  two  of  th(!ir  number,  brought 
off  60  scalps  and  18  prisoners.  On  February 
8  following  the  French  under  Loubois  com- 
pleted the  ruin  of  the  tribe.  Some  fled  to 
the  neighboring  tribes  and  some  crossed  the 
Mississippi  to  the  vicinity  of  the  Natchi- 
toches. They  were  pursued  and  their  places 
of  refuge  talcen.  Of  the  scattered  remnants 
some  remained  with  the  Chickasaws,  others 
settled  with  the  Muskogees,  and  about  400 
were  shipped  to  San  Domingo  and  sold  as 
slaves.  Thus  perished  the  Natchez  as  an  in- 
dependent tribe. 

Natchitoches.  A  tribe  of  Indians  allied 
to  the  Caddos,  who  formerly  lived  on  Red 
Kiver,  La.  They  were  dispossessed  of  their 
territory  by  the  fugitive  Natchez  in  1731, 
and  settled  permanently  with  the  Caddos, 
with  which  tribe  a  few  still  exist. 

National  Armory.  See  Armory,  Na- 
tional. 

National  Cemeteries.  In  the  United 
States,  are  the  burial-places  for  soldiers.  They 
are  called  national  because  they  belong  to 
and  are  cared  for  by  the  general  govern- 
ment. 

National  Flag.     See  Flag. 

National  Guards.  The  militia  organiza- 
tions of  several  States  of  the  United  States 
and  of  some  foreign  countries  are  so  called. 
In  the  United  States  they  are  authorized  by 
State  laws,  and  may  be  called  into  the 
service  of  the  general  government.  After 
the  destruction  of  the  Bastile,  a  similar  or- 
ganization, called  the  (yarde  natio7iale,  was 
formed  in  Paris  from  the  bourgeois  class  in 
1789,  under  Lafayette  as  colonel-general. 
Napoleon  subsequently  defeated  and  dis- 
persed it,  but  it  was  again  organized  by  him 
in  1814.  The  national  guard  was  adopted 
as  an  institution  under  the  Restoration,  and 
the  Comte  d'Artois  appointed  colonel-gen- 
eral. By  decree  of  1852  the  government  re- 
served the  right  of  organizing  or  suppressing 
the  national  guard  in  communes,  and  also  of 
nominating  all  the  oflicers,  who  up  to  this 
time  had  been  elected.  The  French  national 
guard  fought  in  the  war  of  1870-71,  and  also 
participated  in  the  Communist  struggles. 

National  Military  Homes.  See  Soldiers' 

HOME.S. 

National  Salute.  In  the  United  States,  a 
salute  of  one  gun  for  each  State  in  the 
Union. 

National  Troops.  Are  those  raised  under 
the  authority  of  Congress,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  militia,  which  may  be  called  State 
troops,  being  organized  by  the  several  States. 

Native  Cavalry.  A  body  of  natives  in 
the  East  Indian  army,  formed  into  light 
dragoons. 

Native  Infantry.  A  body  of  native  troops 
in  the  East  Indian  army. 

Natural  Angle  of  Sight.  The  angle  which 
the  natural  line  of  sight  makes  with  the  axis 
of  the  piece. 

Natural  Fortification.  See  Fortifica- 
tion. 


Natural  Line  of  Sight.  See  Line  of 
Metal. 

Natural  Steel.  See  Ordnance,  Metals 
FOR  Steel. 

Naumburg.  A  town  of  Prussia,  province 
of  Saxony,  18  miles  south-southwest  from 
Merseburg.  It  was  besieged  in  1482  by  the 
Hussites  under  Procopius  ;  but  they  were 
induced  to  raise  the  siege  by  the  entreaties 
of  the  children  of  the  town.  Naumburg 
was  a  place  of  importance  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  as  well  as  in  the  campaigns  of 
1806  and  1813. 

Nauplia.  A  small  fortified  town  and  sea- 
port in  the  Morea,  Greece.  At  an  early 
period  it  was  the  port  and  arsenal  of  Argos ; 
occupied  by  the  Venetians  in  the  13th 
century;  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1540,  and 
again  in  1715.  The  Turks  lost  it  on  the 
outbreak  of  the  Greek  insurrection. 

Navajo  Indians.  A  numerous  and  war- 
like tribe  of  the  Shoshone  family,  who  are 
located  to  the  number  of  about  12,000  on  a 
large  reservation  in  New  Mexico.  They 
were  for  a  long  time  at  war  with  the  whites, 
but  have  at  length  been  thoroughly  subdued, 
and  are  gradually  adopting  semi-civilized 
habits.  They  are  famous  for  the  manufacture 
of  a  peculiar  blanket  of  excellent  quality 
which  bears  their  name. 

Naval  Camp.  In  military  antiquities,  a 
fortification,  consisting  of  a  ditch  and  para- 
pet on  the  land  side,  or  a  wall  built  in  the 
form  of  a  semicircle,  and  extended  from  one 
point  of  the  sea  to  the  other.  This  was 
beautified  with  gates,  and  sometimes  de- 
fended with  towers,  through  which  they 
issued  forth  to  attack  their  enemies.  Towards 
the  sea,  or  within  it,  they  fixed  great  piles 
of  wood,  like  those  in  their  artificial  harbors ; 
before  these  the  vessels  of  burden  were 
placed  in  such  order,  that  they  might  serve 
instead  of  a  wall,  and  give  protection  to 
those  without ;  in  this  manner  Nicias  is  re- 
ported by  Thucydides  to  have  encamped 
himself.  "  When  their  fortifications  were 
thought  strong  enough  to  defend  them  from 
the  assaults  of  enemies,  the  ancients  fre- 
quently dragged  theirships  on  shore.  Around 
these  ships  the  soldiers  disposed  their  tents, 
as  appears  everywhere  in  Homer.  But  this 
seems  only  to  have  been  practiced  in  winter, 
Avhen  their  enemy's  fleet  was  laid  up,  and 
could  not  assault  them ;  or  in  long  sieges, 
and  when  they  lay.  in  no  danger  from  their 
enemies  by  sea,  as  in  the  Trojan  war,  where 
the  defenders  of  Troy  never  once  attempted 
to  encounter  the  Grecians  in  a  sea-fight. 

Naval  Crown.  In  heraldry,  a  rim  of 
gold,  round  which  are  placed  alternately 
prows  of  galleys  and  square-sails.  A  naval 
crown  supporting  the  crest  in  place  of  the 
wreath,  occurs  in  various  grants  of  arms  in 
the  early  part  of  the  present  century  to 
naval  heroes.  The  crest  of  the  Earl  of  St. 
Vincent,  bestowed  on  him  after  his  victory 
over  the  Spanish  fleet  in  1797,  is  issuing  out 
of  a  naval  crown  or,  enwrapped  by  a  wreath 
of  laurel  vert,  a  demi-pegasus  argent  muned 


NAVARRE 


349 


NEEMUCH 


«nd  hoofed  of  the  first,  and  winired  azure, 
chiiPtjed  in  the  wini?  with  a  fleur-do-lis  or. 

Navarre.  A  province,  and  formerly  a 
kinfrdorn,  of  Spain,  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  France,  on  the  south  and  east  by  Ara- 
gon,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Biscays.  It 
was  occupied  in  ancient  times  by  the  Vas- 
cones,  who  were  subdued  by  the  Goths  in 
the  5th  century.  After  havini^  become 
gradually  amalgamated  with  their  conquer- 
ors, the  people  continued  to  enjoy  a  species 
of  turbulent  independence  under  military 
leaders  until  the  8th  century,  when  they 
were  almost  annihilated  by  the  hordes  of 
Arabs  who  were  rapidly  spreading  their  do- 
minion to  all  parts  of  the  peninsula.  Na- 
varre was  conquered  from  the  Saracens  by 
Charlemagne,  778.  In  1070,  Sancho  Ka- 
moTCz  of  Aragon  seized  Navarre.  During 
the  war  of  independence  and  the  civil  war, 
the  province  produced  bands  of  formidable 
guerrilleros. 

Nave.  In  gun-carriages,  that  part  of  a 
wheel  in  which  the  arms  of  the  axle-tree 
move,  and  in  which  the  spokes  are  driven 
and  supported. 

Nave-boxes.  Are  boxes  which  are  placed 
in  the  naves ;  they  were  formerly  made  of 
brass,  but  experience  has  shown  that  those 
of  cast  iron  cause  less  friction,  and  are  much 
cheaper.  There  are  two,  one  at  each  end,  to 
diminish  the  friction  of  the  axle-tree  against 
the  nave. 

Nave-hoops.  Are  flat  iron  rings  to  bind 
the  nave  ;  there  are  generally  three  on  each 
nave. 

Navel.  A  lug  with  a  hole  through  it  on 
the  under  side  of  a  carronade,  used  to  con- 
nect it  with  its  carriage. 

Naxos,  or  Naxia.  An  island  in  the 
.^gean  Sea,  and  the  largest  of  the  Cyclades  ; 
is  situated  nearly  half-way  between  the  coasts 
of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  It  was  con- 
ouered  by  Pisistratus,  who  established  Ly- 
damis  as  tyrant  of  the  island  about  540  b.c. 
The  Persians  in  501  attempted,  at  the  sug- 
gestion of  Aristagoras,  to  subdue  Naxos,  but 
failed;  Aristagoras,  fearing  punishment,  in- 
duced the  Ionian  cities  to  revolt  from  Persia. 
In  4!tO  the  Persians,  under  Datis  and  Ar- 
tapherncs,  conquered  Naxos,  and  reduced 
the  inhabitants  to  slavery.  The  Naxians 
recovered  their  independence  after  the  bat- 
tle of  Salamis  (480).  They  were  the  first  of 
the  allied  states  whom  the  Athenians  re- 
duced to  subjection,  471.  After  the  capture 
of  Constantinople  by  the  Latins  in  1204,  the 
.^gean  Sea  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  Venetians ; 
and  Marco  Sanudo  in  11207  took  possession 
of  Nuxos,  and  founded  there  a  powerful 
Btate  under  the  title  of  duchy  of  the  vEgean 
Sea.  His  dynasty  ruled  over  the  greater 
part  of  the  Cyclades  for  300  years,  and  was 
at  length  overthrown  by  the  Turks  in  loOC. 
Naxos  now  belongs  to  the  kingdom  of  Greece. 

Naxos.  A  Greek  city  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  Sicily,  south  of  Mount  Taurus;  was 
founded' 735  B.C.  by  the  Chakidians  of  Eu- 
beea,  and  was  the  first  Greek  colony  estab- 


lished in  the  island.  It  carried  on  a  success- 
ful war  against  Messina,  and  was  subse- 
quently an  ally  of  the  Athenians  against 
Syracuse.  In  403  the  town  was  taken  by 
Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  and  destroyed. 

Nebraska.  One  of  the  Central  States  of 
the  United  States,  lying  west  of  the  Mis- 
souri River.  Nebraska  formed  a  part  of  the 
great  grant  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  to  Cro- 
zart  in  1712,  and  was  part  of  the  territory 
included  in  Law's  celebrated  Mississippi 
scheme.  It  came  into  possession  of  the 
United  States  in- 1803,  as  a  portion  of  the 
Louisiana  purchase.  In  1804,  Lewis  and 
Clarke  explored  the  interior  and  western 
parts  of  the  State.  In  1854  it  was  erected 
into  a  Territory,  and  in  1807  admitted  as  u 
State. 

Necessaries.  The  articles  issued  to  the 
British  soldier,  such  as  boots,  shirts,  stock- 
ings, razor,  etc.,  which  are  requisite  for  his 
comfort  and  cleanliness,  are  technically 
termed  regimental  necessaries.  Non-com- 
missioned oflScers  are  not  allowed  to  sell 
regimental  necessaries  to  the  soldiers.  Every 
article  is  directed  by  the  regulations  to  be 
marked  with  the  owner's  name,  the  letter  of 
his  company,  and  the  number  of  his  regi- 
ment; and  the  sale  or  injury  of  them  ren- 
ders him  liable  to  be  tried  by  court-martial 
and  punished. 

Neck.  The  elbow  or  part  connecting  the 
blade  and  socket  of  a  bayonet. 

Neck  Line.  An  old  term  in  fortification 
signifying  the  gorge. 

Neck  of  a  Cascabel.  The  part  joining 
the  knob  to  the  base  of  the  breech. 

Neck  of  a  Gun.  The  small  part  of  the 
piece  in  front  of  the  chase. 

Needle.  A  slender  bar  of  steel,  usually 
pointed,  and  resting  on  a  vertical  pivot,  in  a 
mariner's,  or  other  compass,  so  as  to  turn 
freely  towards  the  magnetic  poles  of  the 
earth  by  virtue  of  the  magnetic  polarity 
witli  which  it  has  been  artificially  endued  ; 
called  also  the  mnpnetic  needle. 

Needle-Gun  (Ger.  Zuurinadelfjevehj-].  Is 
a  breech-loading  gun,  so  constructed  that  by 
pulling  the  trigger  a  stout  needle  or  wire  is 
thrust  through  the  base  of  the  cartridge,  par- 
allel with  its  axis,  into  the  detonating  charge 
behind  the  ball,  causing  explosion  and  the 
ignition  of  the  cartridge.  This  gun  was  the 
regulation  arm  of  the  German  infantry  un- 
til it  was  replaced  by  the  Mauser,  a  gun 
somewhat  similar.  The  gun  was  invented 
by  Nicolaus  Dreyse,  of  Sommerda,  Prussia, 
where  it  is  manufactured.  It  was  first  ustnl 
by  the  Prussians  in  1848,  and  again  in  the 
Italian  war  of  1806,  when  it  proved  a  fear- 
ful instrument  of  destruction,  and  to  it  may 
'  bo  ascribed  in  a  great  measure  the  success  of 
j  its  em|)lovers. 

I  Neemiich.  In  Hindostan,  a  town  with  a 
I  British  cantonment,  in  the  territory  of  Gwa- 
i  lior,  or  possessions  of  Scindia.  The  native 
I  troops  stationed  at  this  place  participated  in 
j  the  general  mutiny  of  the  Bengal  army. 
I  The  rising  took  place  on  the  night  of  June 


NEEKWINDEN 


350 


NETHERLANDS 


3,  1857,  when  a  general  massacre  of  the  Eu- 
ropeans took  place.  The  work  of  shvughter 
was  commenced  by  the  artillery,  and  all  the 
native  troops  joined  heartily  in  it.  A  native 
officer  opened  the  gate  of  the  fort  and  gave 
entrance  to  the  rebels.  Having  committed 
the  most  frightful  enormities,  and  outraged 
every  law  of  humanity,  a  large  body  of  the 
miscreants  marched  in  the  direction  of  Agra. 

Neerwinden.  A  village  of  Belgium,  in 
the  province  of  Liege.  "William  III.  of 
England  was  defeated  by  the  Duke  of  Lux- 
emburg between  this  place  and  Landen  in 
1693  ;  the  French  were  also  defeated  here  in 
1793  by  the  Austrians. 

Neeshungpat  (Ind.).  A  violent  assault 
without  bloodshed. 

Negapatam.  A  considerable  seaport  in 
the  south  of  India,  and  province  of  Tanjore. 
In  1660  it  was  taken  from  the  Portuguese 
by  the  Dutch.  It  was  a  very  flourishing 
city  in  1781,  when  it  was  besieged  and  taken 
by  the  British  with  about  4000  troops,  and 
linalh^  ceded  to  them  at  the  peace  of  1783. 

Negative.  This  term  is  sometimes  used 
to  express  the  result  of  measures  or  enter- 
prises which,  though  not  entirely  successful, 
are  not  productive  of  serious  or  mischievous 
consequences.  Hence  the  British  expeditions 
to  Spain  and  Walcheren  may  be  considered 
as  having  had  negative  success. 

Negative  Penalty.  Deprived  of  com- 
mand ;  a  bar  to  indulgence ;  a  reprimand  ; 
etc. 

Neglect  of  Duty.  Is  total  omission  or 
disregard  of  any  prescribed  service,  or  un- 
soldier-like  execution,  which  is  punishable 
at  the  discretion  of  a  court-martial.  See 
Appendix,  Articles  of  War,  62. 

Negrais.  An  island,  harbor,  and  cape  of 
the  Eastern  Peninsula,  situated  on  the  south- 
west extremity  of  the  kingdom  of  Pegu.  In 
1687  a  settlement  was  founded  here  by  the 
British  ;  it  was  soon  after  abandoned  ;  again 
occupied  by  the  British  in  1751  ;  it  was  at- 
tacked by  the  Burmese  in  1759,  and  nearly 
all  the  inhabitants  were  put  to  death. 

Negropont.     See  Chalcis. 

Nelli-Cotah.  A  fort  situated  about  40 
miles  to  the  south  of  Tinnevelly,  East  Indies. 
This  fort  has  been  rendered  memorable  by 
the  manner  in  which  it  was  carried  by  the 
English  in  1755,  and  the  barbarity  Avith 
which  the  garrison  was  treated  which  had 
not  killed  a  man  and  had  called  for  quarter, 
and  yet  men,  women,  and  children,  to  the 
number  of  about  400,  were  massacred. 

Nepaul,  or  Nipal.  An  extensive  country 
of  Hindostan.  It  is  said  to  have  been  com- 
pletely subdued  in  1323  by  Hurr  Singh,  one 
of  the  princes  of  Oude,  who  was  driven  out 
of  his  own  possessions  by  the  Patans.  Run- 
jeet  Mull  was  the  last  of  the  Surya  Bansi 
race  that  reigned  in  Nepaul.  He  formed  an 
alliance  with  Purthi  Nirain,  which  ended  in 
the  loss  of  his  dominions,  of  which  he  was 
stripped  by  his  ally  in  1768.  It  was  in  his 
reign  that  Capt.  Kinloch  with  a  British 
force  endeavored  to  penetrate  into  Nepaul, 


but  from  the  sickness  of  the  troops,  and  the 
ditficulty  of  the  country,  the  enterprise  wa3 
abandoned.  In  1790  the  Nepaul  govern- 
ment became  involved  in  a  war  with  the 
emperor  of  China,  who  sent  against  them  an 
army  of  70,000  men,  and  defeated  the  N( 
paulese  in  repeated  battles.  A  peace  was  at 
last  concluded,  though  on  terms  ignomini- 
ous to  the  Nepaulese,  who  were  compelled 
to  become  tributaries  to  the  Chinese.  In 
the  year  1814  the  British  commenced  a  war 
against  the  Nepaulese,  and,  after  a  long  and 
arduous  struggle,  during  which  the  British 
suffered  a  number  of  reverses,  the  Nepaulese 
were  compelled  to  sue  for  peace. 

Nervii.  A  nation  of  Gallia  Belgica,  whose 
territory  was  situated  north  of  the  Ambiani. 
On  receiving  intelligence  that  Ccesar  was  ad- 
vancing into  their  country,  the  inhabitants 
sent  away  their  old  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren to  a  place  of  refuge  among  the  marshes 
by  the  sea-shore,  and  posted  themselves  in 
ambush  on  the  banks  of  the  Sabis  (Sambre). 
The  invaders  had  approached  to  the  place  of 
concealment,  and,  unsuspicious  of  any  dan- 
ger, were  engaged  in  forming  a  camp,  when 
they  suddenly  found  themselves  attacked  by 
60,000  fierce  barbarians.  The  Romans  would 
have  been  immediately  routed,  had  not  the 
invincible  genius  of  Ctesar  been  there  to  i 
sway  and  turn  the  tide  of  battle.  After  a  i 
hard-fought  contest,  the  Nervian  forces  were  . 
almost  annihilated  ;  but  the  Nervii  were  not 
yet  subdued.  In  54  B.C.  they  assisted  the 
Eburones  in  the  unsuccessful  attack  upon  the 
camp  of  Quintus  Cicero  ;  and  it  was  not- 
until  the  following  year  that  they  final 
submitted  to  the  Romans. 

Neshaumburdar  (Ind.).     An  ensign. 

Netherlands,  Kingdom  of  the.  A  coun 
try  in  the  northwest  of  Europe.  The  nam* 
of  the  Netherlands  was,  for  several  centuries 
applied  to  the  countries  which  now  form  th( 
kingdoms  of  Belgium  and  the  Netherlands 
and  part  of  the  north  of  France.  The  greate 
portion  of  this  territory  was  held  by  th( 
Spaniards  until  Marlborough,  the  general  il 
command  of  the  allied  forces,  gained  th< 
memorable  victory  of  Ramilies  in  1706 
After  this,  Brussels,  the  capital,  and  grea 
part  of  these  provinces  acknowledged  Charle 
VI.,  afterwards  emperor  of  Germany,  foi! 
their  sovereign.  They  were  held  by  tb 
German  house  until  the  war  of  1741,  w" 
the  French  made  an  entire  conquest  of  them 
except  part  of  the  province  of  Luxemburg 
They  were  restored,  however,  by  the  peac« 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  the  year  1748.  Ii 
1794  Holland  was  overrun  by  the  troops  of 
the  French  republic,  and  annexed  to  the 
French  empire  in  1810,  after  having  been 
formed  into  the  Batavian  republic,  and  sub- 
sequently into  a  kingdom  under  Louis  Bona- 
parte, in  1814  the  royal  family  of  Holland 
was  restored,  and  two  years  after  Holland 
and  Belgium  were  once  more  reunited  under 
the  common  title  of  the  Netherlands  ;  but  in 
1830  Belgium  became  a  distinct  kingdom. 
See  Belgium,  Holland,  and  Flanders. 


NETLEY 


351 


NEWCASTLE 


Netley,  Royal  Victoria  Hospital  at.  Is 
n  superb  building  on  the  shore  of  Southiimp- 
ton  Water,  Hants,  England,  for  the  reception 
of  invalids  from  the  army  on  foreign  service, 
and  from  among  the  troops  serving  in  the 
adjoining  military  districts.  In  times  of 
peace,  it  is  only  necessary  to  use  a  portion  of 
the  vast  structure;  hut  in  the  event  of  a 
European  war,  in  which  the  British  army 
should  take  part,  tl)e  exigencies  of  the  ser- 
vice would  probably  tax  its  accommodation 
to  the  utmost.  There  is  provision  for  1000 
patients,  with  j)ower  to  increase  the  number. 
The  establislimcnt  lias  a  complete  medical 
8taft".  Netley  is  also  the  headquarters  of  the 
female  nurses  of  the  army,  who  arc  under 
the  control  of  a  lady  stationed  here  as  super- 
intendent-general. Complete  arrangements 
have  been  made  for  the  landing  of  wounded 
men  in  front  of  the  hospital,  and  for  convey- 
ing them  thither  with  the  least  disturbance. 
See  Mkdicai,  .School. 

Nettoyer  les  Magazins  (/'>.).  In  artil- 
lery, signilies  to  remove  the  ditlcrcnt  i)ieces 
of  ordnance,  for  tlie  purpose  of  having  them 
carefully  examined,  etc.,  and  to  have  the 
stores  and  ammunition  so  arranged  as  not 
to  receive  damage. 

Nettoyer  les  Tranchees  (Fr.).  To  scour 
or  dear  the  trenches.  This  is  effected  by 
means  of  a  vigorous  sally  which  the  garri- 
son of  a  besieged  place  make  upon  the  be- 
siegers ;  when  they  beat  in  the  guard,  drive 
off  the  workmen,  level  the  parapet,  break 
up  and  choke  the  line  of  circumvallation, 
and  spike  or  nail  the  cannon. 

Neusatz.  A  town  of  Hungary,  on  the 
Danube,  opposite  Peterwardein.  On  June 
11,  1849,  it  was  taken  from  the  Hungarian 
insurgents  by  tlie  imperial  troops,  and  was 
almost  wholly  destroyed. 

Neutral.  Not  engaged  on  either  side; 
not  taking  part  with  either  of  contending 
parties ;   neuter. 

Neutral.  A  person  or  nation  that  takes 
no  part  in  a  contest  between  others. 

Neutral  Powers.  By  the  treaty  of  Paris, 
signed  by  the  representatives  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, France,  Austria,  Russia,  Prussia,  Tur- 
key, and  Sardinia,  on  April  16,  18.30,  it  was 
determined  that  privateering  should  be 
abolished ;  that  neutrals  might  carry  an 
enemy's  goods  not  contraband  of  war  ;  that 
neutral  goods  not  contraband  were  free  even 
under  an  enemy's  flag  ;  and  that  blockades 
to  be  binding  must  be  effective.  The  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  acceded  to  these 
provisions  in  1861. 

Neutrality.  In  international  law,  the 
state  of  a  nation  which  takes  no  part  be- 
tween two  or  more  other  nations  at  war 
■with  each  other.  Neutrality  consists  in  tlio 
observance  of  a  strict  and  honest  impartial- 
ity, so  ivs  not  to  afford  advantage  in  tiie  war 
to  cither  party  ;  and  particularly  in  so  far 
restraining  itstradetothe  accustomed  course, 
which  is  held  in  time  of  peace,  as  not  to 
render  assistance  to  one  of  the  belligerents 
in  escaping  the  effects  of  the  other's  hostili- 


ties. Even  a  loan  of  raonej'  to  one  of  the 
belligerent  parties  is  considered  a  violation 
of  neutrality.  A  fraudulent  neutrality  is 
considered  as  no  neutrality. 

Neutrality,  Armed.     See  Armed. 

Nevada.  One  of  the  Pacific  States  of  the 
United  States.  Nevada  is  a  part  of  the  ter- 
ritory ceded  to  the  United  States  by  Mexico 
in  1848.  It  was  at  first  a  j)art  of  California 
Territory  ;  it  was  subsequently  attached  to 
Utah  ;  in  March,  1801,  was  organi/.ed  as  a 
Territory;  and  on  October  31,  1804,  was 
admitted  as  a  State. 

Nevers.  A  town  of  France,  the  capital 
of  the  department  of  Nievre,  situated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Loire,  153  miles  south- 
southeast  from  Paris.  The  town  is  ancient, 
and  is  mentioned  by  Cicsar  under  the  name 
of  Noviodunum.  Here  that  general,  in  52 
U.C.,  fixed  his  headquarters,  and  here  he  left 
his  hostages,  supplies,  baggage,  and  militarj"- 
chest.  After  his  defeat  at  Gergovia,  the 
people  of  Noviodunum  rose  against  the 
Romans,  massacred  all  of  them  who  were  in 
the  town,  and  plundered  the  stores. 

Neville's  Cross  (or  Durham),  Battle  of. 
Fought  between  the  Scots  under  King  David 
Bruce,  and  tlie  English  under  Pliilippa, 
consort  of  Edward  III.,  and  Lord  Percy, 
October  12  or  17,  1340.  More  than  15,000 
of  the  Scots  were  slain,  and  their  king  taken 
prisoner. 

Nevis,  or  Nievis.  One  of  the  West  In- 
dia Islands,  belonging  to  Great  Britain,  and 
separated  from  the  soutli  extremity  of  St. 
Christopher  by  a  channel  about  2  miles  in 
width.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  Febru- 
ary 14,  1782;  restored  to  the  English  in 
1783. 

Newark.  A  town  of  England,  in  Not- 
tingliamshire,  on  the  Newark  River,  16 
miles  northeast  from  Nottingham.  Here, 
in  the  midst  of  troubles,  died  King  John, 
October  9,  1210  ;  here  the  royal  army  under 
Prince  Rupert  repulsed  the  army  of  the 
Parliament,  besieging  the  town,  March  21, 
1044;  and  here.  May  5,  1040,  Charles  I., 
after  his  defeat  at  Naseby,  put  himself  into 
the  hands  of  the  Scotch  army,  who  after- 
wards gave  him  up  to  his  enemies. 

Newbury.  A  town  of  England,  in  Berk- 
shire, on  the  Kennet,  15  miles  southwest  from 
Reading.  Near  here  were  fought  two  des- 
perate battles  :  (1)  On  September  20,  1043, 
between  the  army  of  Charles  I.  and  that  of 
the  Parliament  under  Essex  ;  it  terminated 
somewhat  favorably  for  the  king.  (2)  A 
second  battle  of  dubious  result  was  fought 
between  the  royalists  and  the  Parliamenta- 
rians, October  27,  1044. 

New  Caledonia.  An  island  of  the  South 
Pacific  Ocean,  discovered  by  Cook  on  Sep- 
tember 4.  1774;  seized  by  the  French  Sep- 
tember 20,  1853.  The  French  g(»vernment 
in  December,  1804,  redressed  the  outrages 
committed  on  British  missionaries  at  a  station 
established  hero  in  1854. 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne.  A  river-port 
and  the  chief  town  of  the  county  of  North- 


NEW  ENGLAND 


352 


NEW  MATTER 


umberland,  England,  14  miles  north  from 
Durham.  The  Romans  had  a  stationary 
camp  here,  called  Pons  ^lii,  one  of  the 
chain  of  forts  by  which  the  AVall  of  Hadrian 
was  fortified.  Newcastle  surrendered  to  the 
Scotch  in  1646,  who  here  gave  up  Charles  1. 
to  the  Parliament  in  1646.  The  town  occu- 
pied by  Gen.  Wade  in  1745. 

New  England.  The  name  given  by  Capt. 
John  Smith,  in  1614,  to  the  territory  granted 
by  James  I.  to  the  Plymouth  Company  for 
colonization,  which  now  comprises  the  States 
of  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massa- 
chusetts, Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut. 
For  history  of  New  England,  see  these  States 
under  appropriate  headings. 

Newfoundland.  A  large  island  of  British 
North  America,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence.  Newfoundland  is  supposed 
to  have  been  discovered  by  the  Norwegians, 
or  Northmen,  about  the  year  1000;  it  was 
rediscovered  by  John  Cabot  on  June  24, 
1497  ;  a  settlement  was  subsequently  formed 
here  by  some  Portuguese  adventurers,  who 
were  in  their  turn  expelled  by  Sir  Francis 
Drake  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  After  this 
period  numerous  English  colonies  were  es- 
tablished from  time  to  time  along  the  east 
coast,  and  several  French  along  the  south 
coast,  in  the  Bay  of  Placentia.  The  French 
often  tried  to  conquer  the  island,  and  during 
the  French  and  English  wars  it  was  the 
scene  of  many  bloody  events.  In  1713,  New- 
foundland and  its  dependencies  were  declared, 
by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  to  belong  wholly 
to  Great  Britain  ;  the  French  reserving  a 
right  to  fish  on  certain  parts  of  the  coast. 
In  1728  the  island  was  made  a  province  of 
Great  Britain. 

New  Grenada  (now  United  States  of  Co- 
lombia). A  republic  in  the  northwest  of 
South  America,  discovered  by  Ojeda  in  1499, 
and  settled  by  the  Spaniards  in  1536.  It 
formed  a  part  of  the  new  republic  of  Bogota, 
established  in  1811,  and  combined  with  Ca- 
racas, formed  the  republic  of  Colombia,  De- 
cember 17,  1819.  (See  Colombia,  United 
States  of.)  A  struggle  took  place  between 
the  conservative  partisans  of  the  old  govern- 
ment and  the  liberals,  January,  1861,  and 
Gen.  Mosquera  (liberal)  deposed  Ospina  and 
seized  the  government,  July  18,  1861.  Mos- 
quera invited  Venezuela  and  Ecuador  to  join 
the  confederation,  August,  1863;  Ecuador 
declined,  which  resulted  in  a  war,  which  com- 
menced November  20,  1863.  The  troops  of 
Ecuador  were  defeated,  December  6 ;  peace 
ensued,  and  Ecuador  remained  independent, 
December  30,  1863;  Mosquera  declared  him- 
self dictator,  by  a  coup  d'etat,  March  11, 
1866 ;  he  was  deposed  by  Santos  Acosta, 
May  23,  1867 ;  Gen.  Ponce  was  made  pro- 
visional president,  July,  1868,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Correoso,  August  29,  who  defeated 
his  opponents,  November  12,  1868. 

New  Hampshire.  One  of  the  Eastern 
States,  and  one  of  the  original  thirteen  of 
the  American  Confederacy.  New  Hamp- 
shire  was   first   visited   in    1614,   and    was 


settled  near  Portsmouth  in  1623.  It  was 
several  times  connected  with  Massachusetts 
up  to  1679,  when  it  became  a  royal  province, 
but  renewed  its  connections  with  Massachu- 
setts in  1689,  and  was  for  a  short  time 
attached  to  New  York;  finally,  in  1741,  it 
became  an  entirely  separate  province,  and  so 
remained  till  the  Revolution.  New  Hamp- 
shire was  much  harassed  by  the  Indians,  and 
in  1689  a  party  of  them  sacked  Dover,  killed 
many  of  the  whites,  and  burnt  the  town. 
No  important  action  took  place  on  the  soil 
of  this  State,  either  in  the  war  of  the  Revo- 
lution or  that  of  1812.  The  State  contributed 
greatly  to  the  cause  of  the  Union  in  the  late 
civil  war. 

New  Jersey.  One  of  the  Middle  Atlantic 
States,  and  one  of  the  original  thirteen  of  the 
American  Confederacy.  Settlements  were 
made  at  Bergen,  in  New  Jersey,  soon  after 
their  arrival  in  New  York,  by  the  Dutch, 
between  the  years  1614  and  1624.  The  whole 
of  the  region  lying  between  the  Delaware 
and  the  Hudson  was  claimed  by  them,  al- 
though the  Swedes  had  made  some  settle- 
ments in  the  western  part  of  the  same  coun- 
try. These  claims,  however,  were  disregarded 
by  the  British  ;  and  in  1664,  Charles  II. 
granted  to  the  Duke  of  York  the  whole  of 
this  country,  and  in  the  same  year  the  duke 
sold  it  to  Lord  Berkeley  and  Sir  George 
Carteret,  in  honor  of  the  latter  of  whom,  a 
native  of  Jersey,  it  received  the  name  which 
it  still  bears.  The  Dutch  again  got  posses- 
sion of  it  in  1673,  but  resigned  it  on  the  con- 
clusion of  peace  in  the  following  year.  New 
Jersey  escaped  the  inroads  oi  the  savage 
tribes  which  desolated  and  afflicted  most  of 
the  older  colonies ;  but  in  the  war  of  the 
Revolution  it  suffered  greatly,  and  was  the 
scene  of  many  important  battles,  such  as 
Trenton,  Princeton,  Millstone,  Red  Bank, 
and  Monmouth.  In  the  late  civil  war,  New 
Jersey  contributed  greatly  to  the  cause  of 
the  Union,  and  her  regiments  were  dis- 
tinguished on  many  important  battle-fields. 

New  Matter  (in  military  courts).  Should 
either  party,  in  the  course  of  their  examina- 
tion of  witnesses,  or  by  bringing  forward  new 
ones  for  that  purpose,  introduce  new  matter, 
the  opposite  one  has  the  right  of  calling  other 
witnesses  to  rebut  such  new  matter.  A  prose- 
cutor, however,  cannot  be  allowed  to  bring 
forward  evidence  to  rebut  what  has  been 
elicited  by  his  own  cross-examination,  but 
must  be  confined  to  new  matter  introduced 
by  the  accused,  and  supported  by  the  exami- 
nation-in-chief of  the  accused.  The  court 
should  be  very  circumspect  to  see  and  pre- 
vent new  matter  from  being  introduced, 
either  in  the  prosecution  or  defense.  But 
the  accused  may  urge  in  his  defense  mitigat- 
ing circumstances,  or  examine  witnesses  as 
to  character  or  service,  and  produce  testimo- 
nials of  such  facts,  without  its  being  con- 
sidered new  matter  ;  and  if  any  point  of  law 
be  raised,  or  any  matter  requiring  explana- 
tion, the  judge-advocate  may  explain;  no 
other  reply  is  admitted. 


NEW    MEXICO 


353 


NEW   YORK 


New  Mexico.  A  Territory  of  the  United 
Stiiti's,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Colorado, 
eiist  by  Texiis,  south  by  Texas  and  Mexico, 
and  west  by  Arizona.  The  eoiintry  was  ex- 
plored by  the  Spaniards  in  ir)87,  and  was 
tai<en  possession  of  by  the  viceroy  of  Mexico 
in  the  name  of  the  king  of  Sjjain  towards 
the  latter  part  of  that  century.  About  1080, 
the  natives,  who  were  an  industrious  people 
of  At/.ec  race,  provoked  by  the  oppression  of 
their  rulers,  rose  against  them  and  succeeded 
in  driving  them  from  the  country.  The 
Spaniards,  however,  soon  regained  tlieir  foot- 
hold, which  they  succeeded  in  maintaining 
until  18*J2,  wiien  Mexico  and  its  dependen- 
cies threw  ott"  the  yoke  of  Spain.  In  184(), 
Gen.  Kearney  captured  Santa  Fe,  the  capital 
of  New  Mexic*),  and  soon  after  became  master 
of  the  wliolc  Territory,  which  was  ceded  to 
the  United  States  in 'l848,  and  in  1850  or- 
ganized as  a  Territory.  In  1854  another 
portion  of  Mexican  territory  gained  by  pur- 
chase was  added  to  it,  and  subsequently  the 
Territory  of  Arizona  was  set  of^'  from  it,  and 
another  portion  added  to  Colorado.  During 
the  civil  war  New  Mexico  was  the  theatre  of 
some  desperate  and  hard-fought  battles.  On 
February  21,  18(12,  a  Confederate  force  of 
Texans  about  2500  strong,  under  Gen.  Sibley, 
delViited  the  Union  forces  under  Col.  Canby 
at  Valverde,  about  10  miles  from  Fort  Craig, 
and  captured  their  guns.  The  loss  of  his 
battery  compelled  Col.  Canby  to  fall  back  to 
Fort  Craig,  but  the  enemy  was  so  crippled 
that  he  did  not  attempt  to  follow,  but  pro- 
ceeded to  Albuquerque  and  Santa  Fe,  both  of 
which  towns  were  evacuated  by  the  Union 
troops.  Soon  afterwards  a  force  of  400  Texans 
going  north  to  reinforce  Gen.  Sibley  were 
captured  by  Col.  Canby.  On  March  26, 
18(52,  an  engagement  took  place  at  Apache 
Pass,  in  which  100  Texans  were  captured, 
between  300  and  400  killed,  and  50  wagons 
burned.  Another  engagement  took  place  on 
the  28th,  at  Pigeon's  Ranche,  25  miles  north 
of  Santa  Fe,  in  which  the  Confederates  lost 
more  prisoners.  About  the  middle  of  April, 
Col.  Canby  concentrating  his  forces  attacked 
the  Texans  at  Parillo,  on  the  Rio  Grande,  and 
after  a  short  action  defeated  them  with  great 
slaughter,  and  compelled  them  to  Hy  to  the 
mountains.  From  this  point  until  they 
reached  Fort  Bliss,  Texas,  their  retreat  was 
a  succession  of  disasters.  They  left  in  New 
Mexico  more  than  one-half  of  their  original 
number  as  killed,  wounded,  or  prisoners,  and 
every  place  which  they  abandoned  in  tlieir 
retreat  was  immediately  occupied  by  Union 
troops. 

New  Model.  In  the  United  States,  all 
cannon  mailc  since  18G1  are  on  the  new 
model.  This  is  characterized  by  the  absence 
of  nil  ornament  on  the  exterior, — tlie  outline 
is  made  up  of  gentle  curves  as  far  as  possi- 
ble,— on  the  inside  the  bottom  of  the  bore  is 
a  semi-ellipsdid. 

New  Orleans.  Capital  of  the  State  of 
Louisiana,  and  commercial  metropolis  of  the 
Gulf  States.     It  was   founded  in    1718  by 


Bienville,  the  governor  of  the  province  of 
Louisiana  under  the  French,  who  caused  it 
to  be  laid  out,  and  levees  built,  under  the 
direction  of  the  engineer  I)e  la  Tour.  On 
January  8,  1815,  was  fought  the  battle  of 
New  Orleans,  a  few  miles  below  the  city, 
between  Gen.  Andrew  Jackson  at  the  head 
of  the  American  forces,  and  the  British  under 
Gen.  Pakenham,  ending  in  the  defeat  of  the 
latter  with  a  lo.ss  in  killed  and  wounded  of 
nearly  3000  men.  The  American  loss  was 
but  13.  In  the  late  civil  war,  New  Orleans 
held  out  until  18G2,  when  it  surrendered  to 
the  Union  forces.  Gen.  Butler  was  placed 
in  command,  but  on  December  16,  1862,  was 
relieved  by  Gen.  Banks. 

New  Ross.  A  town  in  AVexford  Co., 
Southeast  Ireland,  where  Gen.  Johnston 
totally  defeated  the  insurgent  Irish  under 
Beauchamp  D.  Bagenal  Harvey,  June  4, 
ITitH. 

Newry.  A  town  in  Down  Co.,  Ireland, 
which  was  reduced  to  a  ruinous  condi- 
tion in  the  rebellion  of  1041  ;  it  was  sur- 
prised by  Sir  Con.  Magenis,  but  was  retaken 
by  Lord  Conway.  After  the  restoration 
the  town  was  rebuilt.  It  was  burnt  by  the 
Duke  of  Berwick  when  flying  from  Schom- 
berg  and  the  English  army,  and  only  the 
castle  and  a  few  houses  escaped,  1G89. 

Newtown-Butler.  A  town  in  Ferman- 
agh Co.,  Ireland,  where,  on  July  30,  1681), 
the  Knniskilleners  under  Gustavus  Hamil- 
ton thoroughly  defeated  the  adherents  of 
James  II.  commanded  by  Gen.  Maccarty, 
whom  they  captured  with  his  artillery, 
arms,  and  baggage. 

New  Trial.  The  privilege  of  a  new  trial 
does  not  seem  to  be  denied.  The  provisions 
therefore  are  borrowed  from  common  law, 
and  are  not  held,  in  either  civil  or  military 
tribunals,  to  preclude  the  accused  from 
having  a  second  trial  on  his  own  motion. 
Officers  who  sat  on  the  tirst  trial  should  not 
be  detailed  for  the  new  trial  ;  they  have 
formed  and  expressed  opinions.  New,  or 
second  trial,  can  only  be  authorized  where 
the  sentence  adjudged  upon  the  first  trial 
has  been  disapproved.  After  a  sentence  has 
been  duly  approved  and  has  taken  elTect, 
the  granting  of  a  new  trial  is  beyond  the 
power  of  a  military  commander,  or  the 
President. 

New  York.  One  of  the  Middle  States  of 
the  United  States,  and  one  of  the  thirteen  of 
the  original  confederation.  The  earliest 
explorations  of  New  York  by  Europeans 
were  in  1009,  by  Ilendrik  Hudson,  who 
took  possession  of  the  country  on  the  river 
which  bears  his  name  for  the  Dutch,  and  by 
Champlain,  a  Frenchman,  who  explored 
Lake  Champlain  from  Canada.  The  Eng- 
lish, however,  claimed  the  right  of  prior 
discovery,  which  led  to  frequent  conflicts. 
The  first  white  settlements  were  made  in 
the  State  in  1713,  and  the  early  settlers 
suft'ered  greatly  from  Indian  depredations. 
In  1690,  Schenectady  was  taken  and  burned 
by  the  savages,  and  inany  of  the  inhabitants 


NEW  YORK 


354 


NICARAGUA 


massacred.  The  massacre  of  the  garrison 
at  Fort  William  Henry  by  the  Indians  in 
1757  will  long  be  remembered  in  the  annals 
of  New  York.  The  State  took  an  active 
part  in  the  war  of  independence,  and  was 
the  theatre  of  many  important  military 
events.  The  defeat  of  Washington  at 
Long  Island  and  at  White  Plains  in  the 
autumn  of  1776,  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne 
in  October,  1777,  and  the  taking  of  Stony 
Point  by  Wayne  in  July,  1779,  are  the  most 
important  actions  that  took  place  here  dur- 
ing the  Revolutionary  contest.  The  san- 
guinary naval  battle  of  Lake  Champlain 
in  the  war  of  1812,  in  which  McDonough 
defeated  the  British  after  a  hard-fought 
action,  and  several  other  minor  engage- 
ments, took  place  within  the  limits  of  New 
York  in  the  last  struggle  with  Great  Britain. 
During  the  civil  war  New  York  took  an 
active  and  prominent  part  in  aiding  the 
government  in  the  suppression  of  the  re- 
bellion ;  her  quotas  of  troops  were  promptly 
filled,  140,000,000  being  paid  in  bounties  to 
her  volunteers. 

New  York.  The  chief  commercial  city  of 
the  United  States,  and  the  most  populous,  is 
situated  at  the  southern  extremity  of  Man- 
hattan Island,  at  the  junction  of  the  Hud- 
son River  and  the  extension  of  Long  Island 
Sound,  known  as  the  East  River,  about  18 
miles  from  the  Atlantic.  It  was  founded  in 
1613  by  Dutch  traders,  who  built  two  trad- 
ing forts  and  four  houses  on  Manhattan 
Island,  and  called  the  settlement  New  Am- 
sterdam. It  was  taken  by  the  English  in 
1664,  and  its  name  changed  to  New  York 
in  honor  of  the  Duke  of  York,  brother  of 
Charles  II.  Nine  years  later  it  was  recap- 
tured by  the  Dutch,  and  its  name  changed 
to  New  Orange  in  honor  of  the  prince  of 
that  title;  but  in  February,  1674,  the  Eng- 
lish obtained  possession  of  it  by  treatj^  and 
restored  the  name  which  they  had  formerly 
given  it.  During  the  Revolutionary  war 
New  York  was  occupied  by  the  English 
troops  after  the  battle  of  Long  Island, 
and  was  evacuated  by  them  November  25, 
1783.  In  the  civil  war  the  city  was  among 
the  first  in  manifesting  its  loyal  disposition, 
and  furnished  over  116,000  men  in  support 
of  the  Union  cause. 

Nevir  Zealand.  A  group  of  islands  lying 
in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  discovered  by 
Tasman  in  1642.  The  right  of  Great  Brit- 
ain to  New  Zealand  was  recognized  in  1814. 
An  insurrection  of  the  natives  (Maoris)  took 
place  in  March,  1860;  several  indecisive  ac- 
tions took  place  between  the  natives  and  the 
militia,  March  14-28,  1860;  war  broke  out 
at  Taranaki,  and  the  British  were  repulsed 
with  loss  on  June  30 ;  Gen.  Pratt  defeated 
the  Maoris  at  Mahoetahi,  and  destroyed 
their  fortified  places  November  6.  The  Ma- 
oris were  defeated  December  29,  1860,  Jan- 
uary 23,  February  24,  March  16-18,  1861 ; 
the  natives  surrendered  March  19,  1861, 
The  Maoris  again  resorted  to  war  in  May, 
1863 ;  Gen.  Cameron  defeated  them  at  Ran- 


gariri  November  20  ;  and  forced  the  Maori 
king  to  capitulate  December  9,  1863.  The 
British  were  repulsed  at  Galepa  (the  gate 
pah)  with  loss  of  officers  and  men,  April  29, 
1864.  The  Maoris  were  again  severely  de- 
feated January  25  and  February  25,  1864. 
The  Maoris  continued  in  a  state  of  insur- 
rection, but  were  finally  overcome  in  1865. 

Nez  Perces  Indians  ("pierced  noses"). 
A  tribe  of  aborigines  of  the  Sahaptin  family, 
who  were  located  on  a  reservation  in  North- 
ern Idaho.  In  1877  they  broke  into  open 
hostilities  against  the  whites,  and  after  a 
sanguinary  struggle  under  their  chief  Jo- 
seph they  were  at  length  captured  by  Gen. 
Miles  and  transported  to  Indian  Territory. 
Some  few  escaped  to  the  British  possessions, 
where  they  still  remain. 

Niagara.  Chief  town  of  Lincoln  County, 
in  the  Canadian  province  of  Ontario,  on 
Lake  Ontario.  It  was  burnt  down  in  De- 
cember, 1813,  by  the  American  general  Mc- 
Clure  on  his  retreat ;  it  was  afterwards  re- 
built. 

Niagara,  Battle  of.    See  Lundys  Lane. 

Nicaea  (anc.  NiccEensis,  Niccnsis).  For- 
merly one  of  the  most  celebrated  cities  of 
Asia,  stood  on  the  eastern  side  of  Lake  As- 
cania  (now  Iznik),  in  Bithynia.  At  the 
battle  of  Nice,  194,  the  emperor  Severus  de- 
feated his  rival,  Niger,  who  was  again  de- 
feated at  Issus,  and  soon  after  taken  prisoner 
and  put  to  death.  Under  the  later  emperors 
of  the  East,  Niciea  long  served  as  a  bulwark 
of  Constantinople  against  the  Arabs  and 
Turks  ;  it  was  taken  by  the  Seljuks  in  1078, 
and  became  the  capital  of  the  sultan  Soli- 
man  ;  it  was  retaken  by  the  first  Crusaders 
in  1097.  After  the  taking  of  Constantino- 
ple by  the  Venetians  and  the  Franks,  and 
the  foundation  of  the  Latin  empire  there  in 
1204,  the  Greek  emperor,  Theodorus  Las- 
caris,  made  Nicaja  the  capital  of  a  separate 
kingdom,  in  which  his  followers  maintained 
themselves  with  various  success  against  the 
Latins  of  Constantinople  on  the  one  side, 
and  the  Seljuks  of  Iconium  on  the  other, 
and  in  1261  regained  Constantinople.  At 
length,  in  1330,  Nicsea  was  finally  taken  by 
Orchan,  the  son  of  the  founder  of  the  Otto- 
man empire,  Othman. 

Nicaea.  A  fortress  of  the  Epicnemidian 
Locrians  on  the  sea,  near  the  pass  of  Ther- 
mopylae, which  it  commanded.  From  its 
important  position  it  is  often  mentioned  in 
the  wars  of  Greece  with  Macedonia  and  with 
the  Romans.  In  the  former  its  betrayal  to 
Philip  by  the  Thracian  dynast  Phalsecus  led 
to  the  termination  of  the  Sacred  war,  346 
B.C.  ;  and  after  various  changes  it  is  found 
at  the  time  of  the  wars  with  Rome  in  the 
hands  of  the  ^Etolians. 

Nicaragua,  Republic  of.  Formerly  a 
State  in  the  Central  American  Confedera- 
tion, from  which  it  withdrew  in  1852.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  country  are  Indians  and 
mestizoes,  with  a  scattering  of  a  few  whites 
and  negroes.  It  has  been  the  scene  of  many 
revolutions  for  the  last  thirty-five  years. 


NICE 


3r)5 


NIMEGUEN 


Nice  (It.  Nizza,  anc.  Niccca).  Chief  town 
since  18fjO  of  the  depurtmeiit  of  the  Maritime 
Alps,  France,  on  both  sides  of  the  river 
Patjlione,  lOU  miles  .south-southwest  from 
Turin.  It  was  the  seat  of  a  colony  from 
Ma.ssilia,  now  Marseilles,  and  formed  part 
of  the  Roman  empire.  It  llrst  became  im- 
portant as  a  stronghold  of  the  Christian 
religion,  which  was  preaclied  there  by  Na- 
zarius  at  an  early  period.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  it  was  subject  to  Genoa,  and  suffered 
from  tlie  frequent  wars,  being  taken  and  re- 
taken by  the  Imperialists  and  French.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Austrians  under  Melas, 
1800;  seized  and  annexed  to  France,  1792; 
restored  to  Sardinia  in  1814  ;  again  annexed 
to  France  in  virtue  of  the  treaty  of  March 
24,  18<iO.  Tiie  French  troops  entered  April 
1,  and  definite  possession  was  taken  June  14 
following.  Garibaldi  protested  vehemently 
against  this  annexation.  The  town  of  Nice 
is  remarkable  as  the  birthplace  of  Massena, 
one  of  the  most  famous  of  Napoleon's  gen- 
erals. 

Nicomedia  (now  ruins  at  Izmid,  or  Iznik- 
mid).  A  celebrated  city  in  Asia  Minor, 
capital  of  Bithynia,  built  \>y  King  Nico- 
Diedes  I.,  264  B.C.,  at  the  northeast  corner 
of  the  Sinus  Astaccnus  (now  Gulf  oj  Izmid). 
Like  its  neighbor  and  rival  Niciea,  it  oc- 
cupied an  important  place  in  the  wars 
against  the  Turks;  it  is  memorable  in 
history  as  the  scene  of  Hannibal's  death. 
It  surrendered  to  the  Seljukian  Turks,  1078, 
and  to  Orchan  and  the  Ottoman  Turks  in 
1338. 

Nicopolis,  or  Nikopoli.  A  town  of  Tur- 
key in  Eur(>i)e,  in  Bulgaria,  situated  on 
the  Danube.  Tlio  Hungarians  under  Sigis- 
raund  were  defeated  here  in  139G  by  tlio 
Turks. 

Nicosia,  or  Lefkosia.  The  capital  of 
Cyprus,  stands  near  the  centre  of  the  island, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Pedia.  In  1570  it 
was  stormed  by  the  Turks,  who  on  that  oc- 
casion put  to  the  sword  about  20,000  of  the 
inhabitants. 

Niemen,  or  Memel.  A  large  river  of 
Litiiuania,  which  rises  a  few  miles  south  of 
Minsk.  Napoleon  I.  and  Alexander  of 
Kussiii  held  an  interview  on  the  waters  of 
this  river  in  1807. 

Nieuport.  A  forti6ed  town  of  Belgium, 
in  the  province  of  West  Flanders,  11  miles 
southwest  from  Ostend.  This  place  has  often 
been  besieged  and  taken  and  retaken  by  the 
French  and  English. 

Nigher  {Ind.).  Any  fortified  city  meas- 
uring at  lea^t  8  coss,  or  8  English  miles,  in 
lenirtli  and  breadth. 

Night-firing.  When  a  fixed  object  is  to 
be  tired  at  by  night,  the  piece  should  be  di- 
rected during  the  day,  and  two  narrow  and 
well-dressed  strips  of  woi>d  (to  prevent  injury 
to  the  strips  from  the  recoil,  they  should  be 
nailed  at  such  a  distance  from  the  carriage 
that  the  space  can  be  filled  up  with  a  strip 
that  can  be  removed  before  firing)  laid  on 
the  inside  of  the  wheels,  and  two  others  out- 


side of  the  trail  of  a  siege  carriage,  and 
nailed  or  screwed  to  the  platform.  In  case 
of  a  barbette  carriage,  the  traverse  wheels 
should  be  chocked  in  the  proper  position. 
To  preserve  the  elevation,  measure  the  height 
of  the  elevating-screw  above  its  box,  or  take 
the  measure  between  a  point  on  the  gun  and 
another  on  the  stock  ;  cut  a  stick  to  this 
length  and  adjust  the  gun  on  it  at  each  fire. 
Direction  of  tire  may  be  secured  at  night 
with  mortars  by  nailing  or  screwing  two 
boards  to  the  platform  outside  of  the  cheeks, 
and  the  elevation  by  drawing  a  line  across 
one  of  the  trunnions,  or  by  inserting  a 
wedge-shaped  block  of  the  projjer  inclination 
below  the  mortar  and  the  front  transom  or 
step.  Night-firing  with  guns  should  be 
limited  to  a  small  number  of  rounds,  as  it 
consumes  ammunition  to  little  advantage. 

Night-signaling.  An  imp<jrtant  branch 
of  signaling.  It  may  be  eflected  in  various 
ways.  In  ordinary  service  two  torches  are 
used, — one  on  the  ground  and  the  other  at- 
tached to  a  staff,  which  is  used  precisely  as 
the  flag  for  day  signals.  Lanterns  held  in 
the  hands  can  also  be  used.  For  long  dis- 
tances and  when  stations  cannot  be  seen  on 
account  of  intervening  obstacles,  such  as 
woods,  signal-rockets,  candle-bombs,  and 
other  pyrotechnic  devices  are  used. 

Nihilists.  The  name  given  to  a  political 
party  in  Russia.  Beyond  the  extinction  of 
imperialism  it  is  difficult  to  give  their  creed. 

Nijni-Novgorod,  or  Nijnei-Novgorod 
(Lower  Novgorod).  A  fortified  town  and 
the  capital  of  the  government  of  the  same 
name  in  Russia.  It  is  an  ancient  town,  and 
was  founded  in  1221  by  Prince  Yury  Yse- 
volodovitch  as  a  stronghold  against  the  in- 
vasions of  the  Bulgarians  and  the  Mordva. 
It  was  devastated  on  several  occasions  by 
the  Tartars  ;  and  in  l')12,  during  the  civil 
dissensions  in  Russia,  when  it  was  on  the 
point  of  falling  a  prey  to  Poland,  Minin, 
the  famous  butcher  of  Nijni-Novgorod,  col- 
lected an  armed  force  here,  which,  under 
Prince  Pojarsky,  drove  the  invaders  from 
the  capital. 

Nikolsburg,  or  Mikulov.  A  town  of  Aus- 
tria, in  the  south  of  Moravia,  27  miles  south 
of  Brunn.  Here  were  signed,  July  26,  1860, 
the  preliminaries  of  a  peace  between  Austria 
and  Prussia. 

Nile,  The,  A  river  of  Northeastern 
Africa,  and  one  of  the  most  powerful,  most 
interesting,  and  most  celebrated  rivers  on 
our  globe.  Near  Rosetta,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Nile,  a  naval  battle  took  place,  August 
1,  1798,  between  the  Toulon  and  British 
fleets,  the  latter  commanded  by  Lord  (then 
Sir  Horatio)  Nelson.  Nino  of  the  French 
line-of-battle  ships  were  taken,  two  were 
burnt,  and  two  escaped.  The  French  ship 
L'Urient  with  Admiral  Brueys  and  1000 
men  on  board,  blew  up,  and  only  70  or  80 
escaped.  This  engagement  is  also  called  the 
battle  of  Aboukir. 

Nimeguen,  or  Nymwegen.  The  Norio- 
magmn  of  the    Romans,  called    by   Tacitus 


NIMES 


356 


NITRO-GLYCEEINE 


Batavorum  oppiduin^  and  in  the  Middle 
Ages  Numaga,  is  the  principal  city  of  the 
district  of  the  same  name,  or  the  Betiiwe,  in 
Holland,  province  of  Guelderland.  Nime- 
guen  is  celebrated  for  the  great  peace  congress 
of  the  European  powers  which  was  held  here, 
and,  August  10,  1678,  concluded  a  treaty 
between  Spain  and  France  on  September  17, 
between  France  and  the  United  Nether- 
lands, and  between  the  German  empire  and 
France,  and  the  same  empire  and  Sweden, 
February  5,  1679.  The  French  were  suc- 
cessful against  the  British  under  the  Duke 
of  York  before  Nimeguen,  October  28, 1794  ; 
but  were  defeated  by  them  November  8. 

Nimes,  or  Nismes  (anc.  Nemausus).  A 
city  of  France,  and  the  chief  town  of  the 
department  of  the  Gard,  30  miles  northeast 
from  Montpellier.  Previously  to  the  Roman 
invasion,  it  (supposed  to  have  been  founded 
by  a  colony  from  Massilia)  was  the  chief  city 
of  the  Volcae  Arecomici.  It  surrendered  to 
the  rule  of  the  Visigoths  between  465  and 
535,  and  afterwards  to  that  of  the  Franks  ; 
subsequently,  it  became  a  possession  of  Ara- 
gon  ;  but  was  finally  restored  to  France  in 
1259  by  the  treaty  of  Corbeil.  In  1791  and 
1815,  bloody  religious  and  political  reactions 
took  place  here.  The  treaty  termed  the  Pa- 
cification of  Nimes  (July  14,  1629)  gave  re- 
ligious toleration  for  a  time  to  the  Hugue- 
nots. 

Nimrtid,  or  Nimroud.  The  Arab  name 
of  the  great  mound  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Tigris,  near  Mosul,  supposed  to  represent 
the  Assyrian  city  of  Calah,  which  was  de- 
stroyed at  the  final  conquest  of  Assyria  by 
the  Medes  and  Babylonians. 

Nineveh.  The  greatest  city  in  Assyria 
and  for  some  time  the  capital  of  the  country, 
was  situated  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the 
Tigris  at  its  junction  with  the  stream  of  the 
Khosr.  The  walls  of  Nineveh  are  described 
as  about  55  miles  in  circumference,  100  feet 
high,  and  thick  enough  to  allow  three 
chariots  to  pass  each  other  on  them  ;  with 
1500  towers,  200  feet  in  height.  The  city  is 
said  to  have  been  entirely  destroyed  by  fire, 
when  it  was  taken  by  the  Medes  and  Baby- 
lonians, about  606  B.C. 

Ninians,  St.  A  town  and  parish  of  Scot- 
land, in  Stirlingshire,  about  a  mile  south 
from  Stirling.  Several  battles  have  been 
fought  in  this  parish.  The  first  was  between 
the  Scottish  followers  of  Wallace  and  the 
English,  who  were  defeated,  the  second  was 
the  famous  battle  of  Bannockburn,  and  the 
third  was  that  in  which  James  III.  of  Scot- 
land was  defeated  and  slain  by  his  rebellious 
nobles. 

Nipple.  Any  small  projection  in  which 
there  is  an  orifice  for  discharging  a  fluid,  or 
for  other  purposes,  as  the  nipple  of  a  percus- 
sion-lock, or  that  part  on  which  the  cap  is 
put  to  be  fired. 

Niquibs  (Lid.).  Men  whose  military 
functions  among  the  Sepoys  correspond  with 
those  of  corporals  in  other  services. 

Nisbet,    or     Nesbit     (Northumberland, 


Eng.).  Here  a  battle  was  fought  between 
the  English  and  Scotch  armies,  the  latter 
greatly  disproportioned  in  strength  to  the 
former.  Several  thousands  of  the  Scots  were 
slain  upon  the  field  and  in  the  pursuit,  Mav 
7,  1402. 

Nishapoor,  or  Nishapur.  A  town  of 
Persia,  province  of  Khorassan.  The  town 
is  said  to  be  very  ancient,  and  to  have  existed 
in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  by  whom 
it  was  destroyed.  In  1269  it  was  sacked  by 
the  Tartars,  again  by  Ihengiz-khan,  and  in 
1749  by  Nadir  Shah,  from  which  last  calam- 
ity it  has  never  recovered. 

Nisibis.  The  capital  of  ancient  Mygdonia, 
the  northeastern  part  of  Mesopotamia.  It 
was  a  place  of  great  importance  as  a  military 
post,  was  twice  taken  by  the  Romans  (under 
Lucullus  and  Trajan),  and  again  given  up 
by  them  to  the  Armenians ;  but  being  a 
third  time  taken  by  Lucius  Verus  in  165,  it 
remained  the  chief  bulwark  of  the  Roman 
empire  against  the  Persians,  till  it  was  sur- 
rendered to  them  by  Jovian  after  the  death 
of  Julian  in  363. 

Nissa,  or  Nish.  A  well-fortified  town  of 
Turkey  in  Europe,  in  the  province  of  Servia, 
about  120  miles  southeast  from  Belgrade. 
It  commands  the  communication  between 
the  provinces  of  Servia,  Bulgaria,  and  Rou- 
melia.  It  was  taken  by  Amurath  II.  in 
1389,  and  again  by  the  Austrians  in  1737. 

Nithing.     A  coward  or  poltroon. 

Nitre.  Potassium  nitrate  or  saltpetre,  the 
most  important  ingredient  of  gunpowder. 
It  is  obtained  principally  from  the  East  In- 
dies. It  has  been  the  policj'  of  the  Ameri- 
can government  to  keep  large  quantities  in 
store.     See  Saltpetre. 

Nitro-cellulose.     See  Gun-cotton. 

Nitro-glycerine.  Is  a  light,  yellow,  oily 
liquid,  inodorous,  with  a  sweet,  pungent, 
aromatic  taste.  It  received  its  name  irom 
Sobrero,  a  chemist,  Avho  in  1847  discovered 
that  glycerine  when  treated  with  nitric  acid 
was  converted  into  a  highly-explosive  sub- 
stance. This  liquid  appears  to  have  been 
almost  forgotten  by  chemists  until  in  1864 
Nobel,  a  Swedish  engineer,  succeeded  in  ap- 
plying it  to  a  very  important  branch  of  his 
art,  namely,  blasting.  It  is  now  prepared 
by  introducing  glycerine  into  a  mixture  of 
nitric  and  sulphuric  acids,  the  whole  being 
kept  at  a  temperature  below  freezing-point. 
When  uncongealed  this  preparation  ex- 
plodes by  concussion,  and  is  therefore  unfit 
for  transportation,  and  very  dangerous  to 
handle  while  in  that  state.  The  chief  ad- 
vantage for  mining  purposes  which  nitro- 
glycerine possesses  is,  that  it  requires  a 
much  smaller  hole  or  chamber  tlian  gun- 
powder does,  the  strength  of  the  latter  being 
scarcely  one-tenth  of  the  former.  Hence 
the  miner's  work,  which,  according  to  the 
hardness  of  the  rock,  represents  from  five 
to  twenty  times  the  price  of  the  gunpowder 
used,  is  so  short  that  the  cost  of  blasting  is 
often  reduced  50  per  cent.  The  process  is 
very  easy  :  if  the  chamber  of  a  mine  presents 


NITROLEUM 


357 


NOBLESSE 


fissures  it  must  first  be  lined  with  clay,  to 
iimko  it  water-ti^lit ;  this  done,  the  nitro- 
glycerine is  poured  in,  and  water  after  it, 
which,  being  the  lighter  liquid,  remains  at 
the  top.  A  slow-match,  with  a  well-charged 
percussion-cap  at  one  end,  is  then  introduced 
into  the  nitro-glycerine.  The  mine  may 
then  be  sprung  by  lighting  the  match,  there 
being  no  need  of  tamping.  Submarine 
mines  may  be  sprung  by  electricity.  In 
this  manner  the  obstructions  of  Hell  Gate, 
N.  Y.,  were  removed  by  Gen.  Newton,  one 
of  the  greatest  engineering  feats  of  the  time. 
On  account  of  its  liability  to  spontaneous 
explosion,  the  great  danger  in  handling  it, 
and  its  liability  to  decomposition,  nitro- 
glycerine is  now  almost  entirelj'  sujicrseded 
for  ordinary  mining  purposes  by  dynamite. 

Nitroleum.  Nitro-glycerine;  a  name 
given  it  by  ShaHner,  an  American  pat- 
entee of  high  explosives. 

Nitro-mannite.     See  Mannite,  Nitro-. 

Nive.  A  river  in  the  southwest  of  France, 
the  scene  of  an  important  battle,  December, 
1813.  After  Wellington  had  forced  ^larshal 
Sault  to  fall  back  on  IJayonne  from  the  Pyr- 
ennes,  the  former  determined  to  cross  the 
Nive  in  order  to  place  the  right  of  his  own 
army  upon  the  Adour,  with  the  double  ])ur- 
pose  of  establishing  a  communication  with 
the  interior  of  France,  and  cutting  oft'  the 
enemy's  means  of  obtaining  supplies.  The 
brunt  of  this  enterprise  fell  upi>n  the  right 
division  of  Wellington's  «rmy  under  Lord 
Hill,  a  good  deal  of  work,  however,  being 
done  by  the  left  division  under  Sir  John 
Hope.  Hill's  success  was  complete,  and  af- 
ter five  days'  fighting  (December  9-13),  the 
passage  of  the  Nive  had  been  eflfected,  with 
the  loss  on  the  part  of  the  British  of  650 
killed  and  34o!)  wounded. 

Nivelle.  A  small  river  which  rises  in 
Spain,  and,  after  a  short  course,  falls  into 
the  Bay  of  Biscay  at  St.  Jean-de-Luz,  in 
the  French  department  of  the  Lower  Pyre- 
nees, near  which  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
crossed  the  river  in  1812,  after  carrying  the 
French  posts. 

Nizam's  Dominions,  or  Hyderabad.  An 
extensive  territory  in  the  interior  of  South- 
ern India,  lying  to  the  northwest  of  the 
Presidencv  of  Madras.  In  1G87  the  terri- 
tory now  known  as  the  Nizam's  Dominions, 
became  a  province  of  the  Mogul  empire  ;  but 
in  1719  the  governor  or  viceroy  of  the  Dec- 
can,  Azoph  Jah,  made  himself  independent, 
and  took  the  title  of  yizrtm-ool-Moolk  (  Reg- 
ulator of  the  State).  After  his  death,  in 
1748,  two  claimants  appeared  for  the  throne, 
— his  son  Na/.ir  Jung,  and  his  grandson 
Mirzapha  Jung.  The  cause  of  the  former 
was  espoused  by  the  East  India  Company, 
and  that  of  the  latter  by  a  party  of  French 
adventurers  under  Gen.  Dupleix!  Then  fol- 
lowed a  period  of  strife  and  anarchy.  In 
1761,  Nizam  Ali  obtained  thesnpreme  power, 
and  after  some  vacillation  signed  a  treatv  of 
alliance  with  the  English  in  i7t)8.  He  aided 
them  in  the  war  with  Tippoo  Sahib,  sultan  of 


Mysore,  and  at  the  termination  of  that  war, 
in  1799,  a  new  treaty  was  formed,  by  which, 
in  return  for  certain  territorial  concessions, 
the  East  India  comj>any  bound  itself  to  main- 
tain a  subsidiary  force'  of  8000  men  for  the 
defense  of  the  Nizam's  dominions.  The  Ni- 
zam or  ruler,  Afzul-ul-Duwlah,  remained 
faithful  to  the  British  during  the  mutiny  of 
1857-08 

Nizza-Montferrato.  A  town  of  northern 
Italy,  y)rovince  of  Alessandria,  on  the  Belbo. 
It  was  a  strongly-fortified  place  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  was  besieged  unsuccessfully 
for  forty  days  by  Charles  of  Anjou,  and  af- 
terwards sutfered  severely  from  the  Spanish 
and  French  armies. 

Noblesse  Militaire  (Fr.).  Military  no- 
bility. Although  most  of  the  orders  may  be 
considered  as  appendages  which  confer  a 
species  of  military  nobility,  especially  that 
of  the  British  "  Garter,"  wliich  was  insti- 
tuted by  King  Edward  III.  on  January  19, 
1344,  yet  the  British  cannot  be  strictly  said 
to  have  among  them  that  species  of  military 
nobility  or  distinction  that  was  peculiarly 
known  in  France  under  the  immediate  title 
of  noblesse  militaire.  In  order  to  reward 
military  merit,  an  edict  was  issued  by  the 
French  court  at  Fontainebleau,  in  Novem- 
ber, 1750,  and  enregistered  on  the  25th  of 
the  same  month  by  the  Parliament  of  Paris, 
whereby  a  noblesse  militnirc,  or  military  no- 
bility, was  created  ;  the  acquisition  of  which 
depended  wholly  upon  martial  character, 
but  did  not  require  any  letters  patent  for 
the  purpose  of  ennobling  the  individual.  By 
the  first  article  of  this  perpetual  and  irre- 
vocable edict,  as  it  was  then  stated,  it  was 
decreed  that  no  person  serving  in  the  ca- 
pacity and  quality  of  officer  in  any  of  the 
king's  troops,  should  be  liable  to  the  land-  or 
poll-tax,  so  long  as  he  continued  in  that  sit- 
uation. (2)  'iliat  by  virtue  of  this  edict, 
and  from  the  date  thereof,  all  general  offi- 
cers, not  being  otherwise  ennobled,  but  being 
actually  and  bona  tide  in  the  service,  should 
be  considered  as  noble,  and  remain  so,  to- 
gether with  their  children,  born  or  to  be 
born  in  lawful  wedlock.  (3)  That  in  future 
the  rank  of  geneml  officer  should  of  itself  be 
sufficient  to  confer  the  full  right  of  nobility 
upon  all  those  who  should  arrive  at  that  de- 
gree of  military  promotion  ;  and  that  their 
heirs  and  successors,  as  well  as  their  chil- 
dren, actually  born  and  lawfully  begotten, 
should  be  entitled  to  the  same  distinction  ; 
and  that  all  general  officers  should  enjoy  all 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  nobility  from  tho 
date  of  their  commissions.  In  Articles  IV., 
v.,  VI.,  and  VII.,  it  was  specifically  pro- 
vided upon  what  conditions  those  officers, 
who  were  not  noble,  and  were  inferior  in 
rank  to  that  of  marechal-de-camp,  but  who 
had  been  chevaliers  or  knights  of  the  royal 
and  military  order  of  St.  Louis,  and  who 
should  retire  from  the  service  after  having 
been  in  the  army  during  thirty  years  without 
intremission,  were  to  be  exempted  from  the 
payment  of  the  land-  and  poll-tax,  and  how 


NOBLESSE 


358 


NON-COMBATANT 


the  same  privileges  were  to'  be  transferred 
to  their  sons,  provided  they  were  in  the  ser- 
vice. By  Article  VIII.  it  was  enacted,  that 
those  officers  who  had  risen  to  the  rank  of 
captain,  and  were  chevaliers  or  knights  of 
the  order  of  St.  Louis,  but  who  were  disabled 
by  wounds,  or  diseases  contracted  in  the  ser- 
vice, should  not  be  obliged  to  fill  up  the  period 
of  thirty  years  as  prescribed  by  the  recited  ar- 
ticles. By  Article  IX.  it  was  provided  that 
when  any  officer,  not  under  the  rank  of  cap- 
tain, died  in  the  actual  exercise  of  the  func- 
tions or  bearing  the  commission  of  captain, 
the  services  he  had  already  rendered  should 
be  of  use  to  his  sons,  lawfully  begotten,  who 
were  either  in  the  service  or  were  intended 
for  it.  It  was  specified  in  Articles  X.  and 
XI.  that  every  oflflcer  born  in  wedlock,  whose 
father  and  grandfather  had  been  exempted 
from  the  land-  or  poll-tax,  should  be  noble 
in  his  own  right,  provided  he  got  created  a 
chevalier  or  knight  of  St.  Louis,  had  served 
the  prescribed  period,  or  was  entitled  to  the 
exemption  mentioned  in  Article  VIII. ;  that 
if  he  should  die  in  the  service,  he  would  be 
considered  as  having  acquired  the  rank  of 
nobility,  and  that  the  title  so  obtained  should 
descend,  as  a  matter  of  right,  to  the  children, 
lawfully  begotten,  of  such  officers  as  had 
acquired  it.  It  further  specified,  that  even 
those  who  should  have  been  born  previous 
to  their  fathers  being  ennobled,  were  en- 
titled to  the  same  privilege.  Article  XII. 
pointed  out  the  method  by  which  proofs  of 
military  nobility  were  to  be  exhibited  in 
conformity  to  the  then  existing  edict.  Ar- 
ticles XIII.  and  XIV.  provided  for  those 
oflScers,  who  were  actually  in  the  service  at 
the  promulgation  of  the  edict,  in  proportion 
as  the  prescribed  periods  were  filled  up. 
This  provision  related  wholly  to  the  personal 
services  of  officers ;  as  no  proof  was  ac- 
knowledged relative  to  services  done  by  their 
fathers  or  grandfathers,  who  might  have  re- 
tired from  the  army,  or  have  died  prior  to 
the  publication  of  the  edict.  The  XVth  or 
last  Article  was  a  sort  of  register,  in  which 
were  preserved  the  diflferent  titles  that  en- 
abled individuals  to  lay  claim  to  military 
nobility.  The  whole  of  this  edict  may  be 
seen,  page  206,  in  the  3d  volume  "  Des  Ele- 
mens  Militaires."  The  French  emperor 
Bonaparte  instituted  an  order  of  nobility 
called  the  "  Legion  of  Honor,"  the'  political 
influence  of  which  appears  to  be  greater 
than  any  order  ever  established,  even  than 
that  of  the  Jesuits.  He  also  adopted  the 
ancient  military  title  of  duke,  which  was 
conferred  only  on  men  who  had  merited  re- 
nown by  their  military  greatness.  The  title 
of  count  was  also  established,  and  all  the 
members  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  held  a  rank 
corresponding  with  the  knights  of  feudal 
institution.  Private  soldiers  and  tradesmen, 
for  acts  of  public  virtue,  have  been  created 
members  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 

Noblesse  Oblige.  A  French  phrase, — 
rank  has  its  obligations. 

Nocera  dei  Pagani  (anc.  Nuccrla  Alfa- 


terna).  A  town  of  Southern  Italy,  province 
and  8  miles  northwest  of  Salerno.  During 
the  second  Samnite  war  (315  B.C.)  the  Nu- 
cerians,  who  were  on  friendly  terms  with  the 
Itomans,  were  induced  to  abandon  their  al- 
liance and  make  common  cause  with  the 
Samnites,  for  which  they  were  punished  in 
308  by  the  Koman  consul  Fabius,  who  in- 
vaded their  territory,  laid  siege  to  their  city, 
and  compelled  them  to  unqualified  submis- 
sion. In  the  second  Punic  war  the  city  was 
besieged  by  Hannibal,  and  after  a  vigorous 
resistance  was  compelled  by  famine  to  sur- 
render;  it  was  given  up  to  plunder  and 
totally  destroyed,  while  the  surviving  inhab- 
itants took  refuge  in  the  other  cities  of  Cam- 
pania. It  again  became  a  flourishing  town, 
and  its  territory  was  ravaged  in  the  Social 
war,  90  B.C.  The  decisive  battle  between 
Narses  and  Teias,  which  put  an  end  to  the 
Gothic  monarchy  in  Italy  (533  a.d.  1,  was 
fought  in  its  neighborhood.  Its  modern  ap- 
pellation is  derived  from  the  circumstance 
that  in  the  13th  century  a  body  of  Saracens 
were  established  there  by  the  emperor  Fred- 
erick II. 

Nogent-le-Rotrou.  A  parish  and  town 
of  France,  in  the  department  of  the  Eure 
and  Loire,  33  miles  southwest  from  Chartres. 
Taken  by  the  English  in  1428. 

Nola.  A  city  of  Italy,  province  of  Terra 
di  Lavoro,  14  miles  east-northeast  of  Naples. 
The  ancient  Nola  was  founded  by  the  Au- 
sonians,  but  afterwards  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Tyrrheni  (Etruscans).  In  327  B.C.  it 
was  sufficiently  powerful  to  send  2000  soldiers 
to  the  assistance  of  Neapolis.  In  313  the 
town  was  taken  by  the  Romans.  It  remained 
faithful  to  the  Romans  even  after  the  battle 
of  Canna;,  when  the  other  Campanian  towns 
revolted  to  Hannibal ;  and  in  consequence 
retained  its  own  constitution  as  aii  ally  of 
the  Romans.  In  the  Social  war  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  confederates,  and  when  taken 
by  Sulla  it  was  burnt  to  the  ground  by  the 
Samnite  garrison. 

Nolan's    Range-finder.        See    Raxgb- 

riNDER. 

Nolle  Prosequi  {Practice).  An  entry 
made  on  the  record  of  courts-martial,  by 
which  the  prosecutor  or  plaintiff'  declares 
that  he  will  proceed  no  further.  The  effect 
of  a  nolle  prosequi,  when  obtained,  is  to  put 
the  defendant  without  day,  but  it  does  not 
operate  as  an  acquittal ;  for  he  may  be  after- 
wards re-indicted,  and  even  upon  the  same 
indictment  fresh  process  may  be  awarded. 

Nomenclature.     Technical    designation,      j 
For  nomenclature  of  ordnance,  see  appro- 
priate headings  in  this  work. 

Nominal.  By  name,  hence  nominal  call, 
which  corresponds  with  the  French  appe.l 
nominatif ;  and,  in  a  military  sense,  with 
our  roll-call. 

Non-combatant.  Any  person  connected 
with  an  army,  or  within  the  lines  of  an  army, 
who  does  not  make  it  his  business  to  fight, 
as  any  one  of  the  medical  officers  and  their 
assistants,  chaplains,  and  others,  also  any  of 


NON-COMMISSIONED 


359 


NORMANS 


the  citizens  of  a  place  occupied  by  an  army  ; 
also,  any  one  holding  a  similar  position  with 
respect  to  the  navv. 

Non-commissioned  Officers  (Fr.  aous- 
opiccrs,  Ger.  unter-otfizkren).  Are  the  sub- 
ordinate officers  of  the  general  staff,  regi- 
ments, and  companies  who  are  appointed, 
not  by  commission,  but  by  the  secretary  of 
war  or  commanding  officers  of  regiments; 
and  they  are  usually  selected  on  account  of 
good  conduct  or  superior  abilities. 

Non-effective.  Signifies  men  not  fit  or 
avaihiljlc  for  duty,  in  contradistinction  to 
efleetive  (which  see). 

Noose.  A  running  knot,  which  binds 
the  closer  the  more  it  is  drawn. 

Nootkas,  or  Ahts.  The  generic  name  of 
the  Indians  residing  on  Vancouver  Island 
and  the  shore  of  the  mainland  along  the 
sound  of  the  same  name.  They  are  sub- 
divided into  many  tribes  and  number  about 
14,000,  some  of  whom  are  partially  civilized. 

Nora.  A  mountain  fortress  of  Cappadocia, 
on  the  borders  of  Lycaonia,  on  the  northern 
side  of  the  Taurus,  noted  for  the  siege  sus- 
tained in  it  by  Eumenes  against  Antigonus 
for  a  whole  winter. 

Norba,  or  Norbanus  (now  Normn).  A 
strongly  fortified  town  in  Latium,  on  the 
slope  oV  the  Volscian  Mountains,  and  near 
the  sources  of  the  Nympha?us,  originally  be- 
longed to  the  Latin  and  subsequently  to  the 
Volscian  league.  The  Romans  founded  a 
colony  at  Korba  in  492  B.C.  It  espoused  the 
cause  of  Marius  in  the  civil  war,  and  was 
destroyed  by  fire  by  its  own  inhabitants 
when  it  was  taken  by  one  of  Sulla's  generals. 

Nordlingen.  A  walled  town  of  Bavaria, 
in  the  circle  of  Swabia,  48  miles  southwest 
from  Nuremberg.  Here  the  Swedes  under 
Count  Horn  were  defeated  by  the  Austrians, 
August  27,  1034;  and  the  Austrians  and 
allies  by  Turenne  in  1645. 

Noreia(nowAV«»iflf;-A7,  in  Styria,  Austria). 
The  ancient  capital  of  the  Taurisci,  or  Norici, 
in  Noricum.  It  was  situated  in  the  centre 
of  Noricum,  a  little  south  of  the  river  Mu- 
rius,  and  on  the  road  from  Virunum  to  Ovi- 
laba.  It  is  celebrated  as  the  place  where 
Carbo  was  defeated  by  the  Cimbri,  113  B.C. 
It  was  besieged  by  the  Boii  in  the  time  of 
Julius  Ciesar. 

Norfolk.  A  city  and  capital  of  Norfolk 
Co.,  Va.,  on  the  Elizabeth  River,  an  arm  of 
Chesapeake  Bay.  about  18  miles  from  Fortress 
Monroe,  has  a  tine  harbor,  safe,  commodious, 
and  of  sufficient  depth  to  admit  the  largest 
vessels.  It  is  the  largest  naval  station  in 
the  United  States.  Its  navy-yard  was  de- 
stroyed on  April  21,  1801,  by  "the  Federals, 
to  prevent  the  ships  of  war  and  naval  stores 
that  were  there  from  being  appropriated  and 
used  by  the  seceding  States. 

Noricum.  A  Roman  province  south  of 
.the  Danube,  was  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Danube,  on  the  west  by  lUuetia  and 
Vindelicia,  on  the  east  by  Pannonia,  and  on 
the  south  by  Pannonia  and  Italy.  Its  in- 
habitants, the  most  important  of  which  were 


the  Taurisci,  also  called  Norici,  were  con- 
quered by  the  Romans  toward  the  end  of  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  after  the  subjugation  of 
Rha^tia  by  Tiberius  and  Drusus,  and  their 
country  was  furmed  into  a  Roman  colony. 

Normandy  (Fr.  Normandie).  Formerly 
a  province  in  tlic  north  of  France,  bordering 
on  the  English  Channel;  now  divided  into 
the  departments  of  Seine-Inferieure,  Eure, 
Orne,  Calvados,  and  Manche.  In  the  time 
of  the  Romans,  the  country  bore  the  name 
of  Gallia  Lngduiietisia  II.  Under  the  Frank- 
ish  monarchs  it  formed  a  part  of  Neustria. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  9th  century  it 
was  continually  devastated  by  the  Scandi- 
navians, termed  Northmen,  or  Normans, 
from  whose  irruptions  Charles  the  Simple  of 
France  purchased  immunity  by  ceding  the 
duchy  to  their  leader,  Rollo,*90o.  Rollo, 
the  first  duke,  and  several  of  his  successors 
held  it  as  a  fief  of  the  crown  of  France,  until 
AV'illiam,  the  seventh  duke,  acquired  Eng- 
land in  1006;  it  was  reunited  to  France  in 
1204;  was  reconquered  by  Henry  V.  1418, 
and  held  by  England  partially  till  1450. 

Normans  (the  Northmen).  Toward  the 
end  of  the  8th  century  Western  Europe  be- 
gan to  be  scourged  by  the  inroads  of  Scandi- 
navian pirates,  known  to  the  inhabitants  of 
the  British  Isles  as  "East-men"  and  "Danes," 
— to  thoseof  the  continent  as  "  North-men." 
These  Northmen  were  of  Germanic  stock,  a 
vigorous,  seafaring  race,  not  yet  Christian- 
ized, peopling  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic  and  of 
the  two  peninsulas  which  form  the  Norway 
and  Sweden  and  the  Denmark  of  to-day. 
Need  and  the  national  thirst  for  adventure 
and  for  strife  drove  forth  from  the  thicken- 
ing population,  down  upon  the  sunnier, 
richer,  weaker  South,  swarms  of  vikings, — 
i.e.  warriors, — who  scourged  the  coasts  of 
England,  Germany,  and  France,  pressed 
with  their  small,  sharp,  open  vessels  up  the 
narrowest  streams,  burned,  slew,  and  plun- 
dered, and  sailed  away  laden  with  booty  and 
with  slaves.  About  the  middle  of  the  9th 
century  these  raids  began  to  assume  an  alto- 
gether new  character  and  importance.  The 
consolidation  of  the  three  great  Scandinavian 
kingdoms  broke  the  power  of  the  petty  king- 
lets and  independent  nobles,  and  drove  many 
a  jarl  forth  with  his  followers  to  seek  a  freer 
life  in  sinne  new  home.  Northmen  threw 
themselves  in  larger  bands  u|)on  England, 
which  the  AVessex  kings  had  not  yet  tairly 
centralized;  upon  the  Frankish  kingiloms, 
fast  falling  asunder  under  the  later  Karl- 
ings;  harried  the  country,  hosicgi^d  and 
sacked  the  cities,  wintered  at  the  mouths  of 
the  rivers,  and  by  the  end  of  the  century 
had  wrested  from  Alfred  half  his  kingdom, 
and  begun  to  plant  colonies  on  the  coasts  of 
France.  Northmen  ravaged  Spain  and  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  fell  upon  West- 
ern Italy,  penetrated  Greece  and  Asia  Minor, 
and  there  met  others  of  their  countrymen, 
who  had  pressed  down  through  Russia.  For 
in  the  Russia  of  that  day,  under  the  name  of 
Verangians,  Northmen  had  become  the  rul- 


NOETHALLERTON 


360 


NORWICH 


ing  class,  a  military  aristocracy  ;  while  those 
who  made  their  way  still  farther  south  had 
formed  the  famous  Verangian  body-guard  of 
the  Byzantine  emperors,  which  maintained 
its  existence  and  its  distinctive  character  for 
live  centuries.  During  the  latter  half  of  the 
9th  century,  also,  Scandinavians,  sailing 
westward,  found  and  settled  Iceland.  With 
the  establishment,  early  in  the  10th  century, 
of  settlements  upon  the  continent,  with  the 
occupation  Scandivanian  energy  now  found 
at  home  in  wars  between  the  three  new 
kingdoms,  and  with  the  gradual  triumph  of 
Christianity  in  the  North,  Europe  gained, 
at  last,  comparative  rest.  England's  period 
of  misery  and  humiliation  under  Ethelred 
the  Unready  (979-1016),  ended  by  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  Danish  dynasty  (1017-42), 
marks  the  last  great  outburst  of  the  pent-up 
heathenism. 

Northallerton.  A  town  of  Yorkshire, 
England,  31  miles  northwest  from  York. 
Near  here  was  fought  the  "battle  of  the 
Standard,"  where  the  English  under  the 
Earls  of  Albemarle  and  Ferrers  totally  de- 
feated the  Scotch  armies,  August  22,  1138. 
The  archbishop  of  York  brought  forth  a  con- 
secrated standard  on  a  carriage  at  the  mo- 
ment when  they  were  hotly  pressed  by  the 
invaders,  headed  by  King  David. 

Northampton.  The  chief  town  of  North- 
amptonshire, situated  on  the  Nen,  or  Nene, 
60  miles  northwest  from  London.  It  was 
held  by  the  Danes  at  the  beginning  of  the 
10th  century,  and  was  burnt  by  them  in 
1010.  Its  castle  was  besieged  by  the  barons 
in  1215,  during  the  civil  wars  of  King  John. 
On  July  10,  1460,  a  conflict  took  place  be- 
tween the  Duke  of  York  and  Henry  VI.  of 
England,  in  which  the  king  was  defeated, 
and  made  prisoner  (the  second  time)  after  a 
sanguinary  fight  which  took  place  in  the 
meadows  below  the  town.  It  was  seized  and 
fortified  by  the  Parliamentary  forces  in  1642. 
On  March  30,  1645,  Cromwell  marched  from 
it  with  1500  horse  and  two  regiments  of  foot 
to  Rugby.  After  the  restoration,  October 
17,  1661,  the  walls  of  Northampton  were 
demolished,  it  having  taken  the  side  of  the 
Parliament. 

North  Carolina.  One  of  the  Southern 
Atlantic  States,  and  one  of  the  original 
thirteen  of  the  American  Confederacy.  At- 
tempts were  made  under  the  auspices  of  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh  to  settle  North  Carolina  as 
early  as  between  1585  and  1589,  but  in  one 
year  after  no  trace  of  the  colony  could  be 
found.  The  first  permanent  settlement  was 
made  on  the  banks  of  the  Roanoke  and 
Chowan,  by  some  emigrants  from  Virginia, 
in  1653.  John  Culpepper  rebelled  against 
the  arbitrary  government  of  Miller  in  1678, 
and  held  the  government  for  two  years.  In 
1693,  North  and  South  Carolina  were  sepa- 
rated. In  1711  the  Tuscaroras,  Corees,  and 
other  savages  attacked  and  massacred  112 
settlers,  principally  of  the  Roanoke  and 
Chowan  settlements;  but  the  following  year 
the  united  forces  of  the  two  Carolinas  com- 


pletely routed  them,  killing  300  savages.  In 
1729  the  proprietors  sold  their  rights  to  the 
crown.  A  party  of  malcontents,  in  1771,  rose 
against  the  royal  governor,  but  after  two 
hours'  contest,  fled  with  considerable  loss. 
A  severe  conflict  with  the  Northwest  Indians 
occurred  in  1774,  on  the  Kanawha  River, 
which  resulted  in  the  abandonment  of  the 
ground  by  the  savages.  North  Carolina 
took  an  early  and  active  part  in  the  events 
of  the  Revolution,  and  within  her  borders 
took  place  sanguinary  conflicts  at  Guilford 
Court-house,  Brier  Creek  Springs,  Fishing 
Creek,  and  other  places.  The  Mecklenburg 
Declaration  of  Independence  was  made  May 
20,  1775:  so  North  Carolina  has  the  honor 
to  have  first  proposed  a  separation  from 
Great  Britain.  In  the  second  war  with 
Great  Britain  she  also  played  a  prominent 
part,  although  she  had  no  serious  losses  on 
her  territory.  During  the  late  civil  war 
North  Carolina  suffered  greatly,  and  was 
the  scene  of  many  important  engagements, 
among  which  were  the  capture  of  Forts 
Hatteras  and  Clark  in  1861,  Roanoke  Island 
and  Newbern  in  February,  1862,  and  Fort 
Fisher  in  January,  1865.  "  In  March,  1865, 
the  battles  of  Averysboro'  and  Bentonville 
were  fought  by  the  armies  of  Geji.  Sherman 
and  J.  E.  Johnston,  which  ended  in  the  final 
surrender  of  the  latter,  at  Durham  Station, 
April  26,  1865. 

Norwich.  A  city  of  England,  and  the 
capital  of  the  county  of  Norfolk,  on  the 
river  Wensum,  108  miles  from  London.  In 
1549  the  city  was  the  scene  of  an  insurrection 
resembling  that  of  the  Jacquerie  in  France 
and  the  Peasant's  war  in  Germany.  The 
poor  objected  to  the  inclosure  of  certain 
commons  and  waste  lands  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Attleborough  and  Wymondham  ; 
fences  were  thrown  down ;  Robert,  alias 
Knight,  a  tanner,  a  bold  and  resolute  man, 
headed  the  rebels,  aided  by  his  brother  Wil- 
liam, a  butcher.  Their  numbers  increased, 
and,  marching  towards  Norwich,  they  en- 
camped on  Mousehold  Heath,  took  possession 
of  the  mansion  of  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  and 
thence  proceeded  to  lay  siege  to  the  city. 
Having  augmented  their  number  to  16,000, 
and  strongly  fortified  their  camp,  they  sum- 
moned the  city  to  surrender.  For  months 
they  maintained  hostilities,  and  the  country 
round  was  pillaged  and  laid  waste,  until  at 
length  they  gained  an  entrance  to  the  city. 
A  strong  force  was  sent  down  for  the  defense 
of  the  city,  under  the  Marquis  of  Northamp- 
ton, who  was  defeated  on  St.  Martin's  Palace 
plain  ;  the  rebels  plundered  and  set  fire  to 
the  city  in  many  parts.  The  Earl  of  War- 
wick, assisted  by  his  son  Robert  Dudley,  earl 
of  Leicester,  was  then  sent  to  the  relief  of 
the  citizens.  The  city  was  stormed  by  the 
king's  troops,  and  the  rebels  forced  to  retreat 
after  a  two  days'  sharp  conflict,  during 
which  upwards  of  3000  were  killed,  and  the 
insurgents  subdued.  About  300  of  the 
ringleaders,  including  the  two  Ketts,  were 
executed. 


NOSE-BAG 


361 


NUREMBERG 


Nose-bag.  A  bat^  <>f  stout  canvas  with 
a  leather  bottom,  and  straps  by  which  it  can 
be  huns^  <iver  a  horse's  head.  It  is  used  for 
feediiiir  irrairi  to  horses  out  of  stables. 

Note.  A  brief  writing  intended  to  as.sist 
the  memory.  Members  of  court«-martial 
sometimes  take  notes.  They  are  frequently 
neeessary  to  enable  a  member  to  bring  the 
whole  body  of  evidence  into  a  connected 
view,  where  the  case  is  complex. 

Noted.  Well  known  by  reputation  or 
rejMirt;  celebrated;  as,  a  noted  commander. 

Nottingham.  A  large  town  of  England, 
the  capital  of  the  county  of  the  same  name, 
13  miles  northeast  from  Derby.  The  castle 
here  was  defended  by  the  Danes  against 
King  Alfreil,  and  his  brother  Ethelred,  who 
retook  it,  808.  William  the  Conqueror 
erected  a  castle,  and  constructed  fortifica- 
tions so  strong  as  to  ^nder  the  place  im- 
pregnable against  any  of  the  methods  of 
attack  which  were  then  known.  The  castle 
of  Nottingham,  defended  by  the  royalists, 
was  l)esi«'ged  by  the  Parliamentary  forces 
under  the  command  of  Col.  Hutchinson,  to 
whom,  after  a  brave  defense,  it  at  length 
surrendered. 

Nottoways.  A  tribe  of  Indians  who 
formerly  re-sided  in  Virginia  on  the  river 
of  the  same  name.  As  a  distinct  race  they 
have  ceased  to  exist. 

Novara.  A  city  of  Northern  Italy,  de- 
fended by  a  castle,  53  miles  west  from  Turin. 
In  1849  the  Sardinians  were  disastrously 
defeated  here  by  the  Austrians ;  and  in  1859 
a  French  corps  occupied  the  town. 

Nova  Scotia.  A  province  of  British  North 
America,  connected  with  New  Brunswick 
by  a  narrow  isthmus  lying  between  Chig- 
necto  and  Varte  Bays.  This  country  was 
discovered  by  Cabot  in  1497  ;  it  was  subse- 
quently settled  by  the  French  ;  and  came 
into  the  possession  of  the  English  in  1758. 

Novi.  A  town  of  Northern  Italy,  situ- 
ated at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  13  miles 
southeast  from  Alessandria.  It  is  noted  for 
a  sanguinary  battle  fought  here  in  August, 
1799,  between  the  French  under  Joubert 
and  the  allied  Austro-Kussian  forces  under 
Suwarrow.  The  former  were  defeated,  and 
among  10,000  of  the  French  slain  were 
Joubert  and  several  other  distinguished 
officers. 

Noyan  (Fr.).  In  English  mandril;  it 
also  means  the  whole  of  the  vacant  space 
or  bore  of  a  cannon,  under  which  are  com- 
prehended the  diameter  of  the  mouth,  the 
vacant  cylinder,  the  breech,  and  the  vent. 
With  respect  to  bombs,  grenades,  and  hol- 
low balls,  that  which  is  called  noyan  consists 
of  a  globular  niece  of  earth,  up<m  which  the 
cover  of  homos,  grenades,  and  hollow  balls 
is  cast.  The  metJil  is  poured  in  between  this 
cover  and  the  noyan,  after  which  the  noyan, 
or  core,  is  broken,  and  the  earth  taken  out. 

Nubia.     A  large  country  of  Africa,  the 

ancient   .-Ethiopia  supra  .-fAjupium,  said  to 

have  been  the  site  of  the  kingdom  of  Meroe, 

received  its  name  from  a  tribe  named  Nubes 

24 


or  Nubates.  It  is  now  subject  to  the  viceroy 
of  Egypt,  having  been  conquered  by  Ibra- 
him Pasha  in  1822. 

Nuddea.  A  town  of  British  India,  in 
the  district  of  Burdwan,  80  miles  north  of 
Calcutta.  It  was  taken  and  entirely  de- 
stroyed in  1204. 

Nuggar.  A  term  in  the  East  Indies  for 
a  fort. 

Nuits.   A  small  fortified  town  near  Dijon, 

in   Burgundy,    Northeast   France.     It   was 

frequently  captured  and  ravaged,  especially 

in  15«9,  i57(J,  and   163«.     It  was  taken  by 

the  Badenese  under  Von  Werder,  December 

18,  1870,  after  five  hours'  conflict,  in  which 

above  1000   French   are  said   to  liave  been 

I  killed    and    wounded,    and    700    prisoners 

i  taken.     The  German  loss   was   also   heavy. 

I  A   depot    of    arms    and    ammunition    was 

gained  by  the  victors. 
j  Numantia.  The  chief  town  of  the  Celti- 
j  berian  people,  called  Arevaci,  in  ancient 
I  Spain,  was  situated  on  the  Douro,  in  Old 
Castile,  and  is  celebrated  for  the  long  war 
I  of  twenty  years  which  it  maintained  against 
I  the  Romans.     See  Numantine  War. 

Numantine  War.  The  war  between  the 
j  Romans  and  the  Celtiberians  (Celts  who 
1  posse-ssed  the  country  near  the  Iber,  now 
I  Ebro)  began  143  B.C.,  on  account  of  the  lat- 
ter having  given  refuge  to  their  allies,  the 
Sigidians,  who  had  been  defeated  by  the 
Romans.  Numanlia,  an  unprotected  city, 
withstood  a  long  siege,  in  which  the  army 
of  Scinio  Africanus,  GO, 000  men,  was  op- 
posed by  no  more  than  4000  men  able  to 
bear  arms.  The  Nurnantines  fed  upon  horse- 
flesh, and  on  their  own  dead,  and  at  last 
drew  lots  to  kill  one  another.  At  length, 
those  whom  plague  and  famine  had  spared 
destroyed  themselves,  so  that  no  one  re- 
mained to  adorn  the  triumph  of  the  con- 
queror, 133  B.C. 

Numeros  (Fr.).  Round  pieces  of  brass 
or  other  metal,  which  were  numbered  and 
used  in  the  old  French  service  in  the  detail 
of  guards. 

Numidia.  An  ancient  country  of  North 
Africa,  the  seat  of  the  war  of  the  Romans 
with  Jugurtha,  which  began  111  B.C.,  and 
ended  with  his  subjugation  and  captivity, 
106.  The  last  king,  Juba,  joined  Cato,  and 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Thapsus.  4H  B.C., 
when  Numidia  became  a  Roman  province. 
Nuncio.  An  ambassador  from  the  pope. 
Nuremberg  (Ger.  Sdrnhenj).  A  town  of 
Bavaria,  in  the  circle  of  Middle  Franconia, 
stands  on  the  Fegnitz,  an  affluent  of  the 
Regnitz.  In  1219  it  became  a  free  city,  in- 
dependent of  any  European  pow<'r,  and  as 
such  it  continued  till  it  was  given  over  by 
Napoleon  in  1800  to  the  king  of  Bavaria. 
At  the  Reformation  the  inhabitants  em- 
braced the  Protestant  cause;  and  in  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  they  wore  on  the  side  of 
the  Swedes,  and  sutl'ered  much  in  1«>32,  dur- 
ing the  blockade  which  Gustavus  Adolphus 
endured  from  the  imperial  forces  under  Wal- 
lenstein.      The   city    was   occupied   by   the 


NURSE 


362 


OBEDIENCE 


Prussians  in  1866,  and  its  fortifications  de- 
molished. 

Nurse.  A  person  whose  whole  business 
is  to  attend  the  sick  in  hospital.  In  the 
U.  S.  service,  nurses  are  detailed  in  post 
hospitals  from  the  companies  who  are  serv- 
ing at  the  post,  and  are  exempt  from  other 
duty,  but  have  to  attend  the  parades  for 
weekly  inspections  and  the  musters  of  their 
companies,  unless  especially  excused  by  the 
commanding  otScer.  Ordinarily  one  nurse  is 
allowed  to  every  ten  persons  sick  in  hospital. 
In  the  British  service  there  are  sergeants, 
orderly  men,  and  nurses  (generally  women) 
in  hospitals  of  regiments  of  the  line. 


Nuthall's  Rifle.     See  Small-arms. 

Nykoping.  A  seaport  of  Sweden,  pleas- 
antly situated  on  the  Baltic,  about  60  miles 
southwest  of  Stockholm.  In  1317  the  castle 
of  Nykoping  was  seized  and  sacked  by  the 
people,  who  demolished  its  keep  and  don- 
jons. In  1719  the  town  was  taken  and  dis- 
mantled by  the  Russians. 

Nystadt.  A  town  of  Finland,  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  50  miles 
south  of  Biorneborg.  Here,  in  1721,  a 
treaty  was  agreed  to  between  Russia  and 
Sweden,  by  virtue  of  which  all  the  conquests 
of  Peter  the  Great  along  the  coasts  of  the 
Gulf  of  Finland  were  annexed  to  Russia. 


■e-o- 


o. 


Oakum.  A  tangled  mass  of  tarred  hem- 
pen fibres,  is  made  from  old  rope  by  untwist- 
ing the  strands  and  rubbing  the  fibres  free 
from  each  other.  Its  principal  use  is  in 
calking  the  seams  between  planks,  the  space 
round  rivets,  bolts,  etc.,  for  the  purpose  of 
preventing  water  from  penetrating. 

Oaths,  "Military.  The  taking  of  the  oath 
of  fidelity  to  government  and  obedience  to 
superior  officers,  was,  among  ancient  armies, 
a  very  solemn  affair.  A  whole  corps  took 
the  oath  together,  and  sometimes  an  entire 
army.  The  tribunes  of  every  legion  chose 
out  one  whom  they  thought  the  fittest  person, 
and  gave  him  a  solemn  oath  at  large,  the 
substance  of  which  was,  that  he  should  oblige 
himself  to  obey  the  commanders  in  all  things 
to  the  utmost  of  his  power,  be  ready  to  attend 
whenever  they  ordered  his  appearance,  and 
never  to  leave  the  army  but  by  their  consent. 
After  he  had  ended,  the  whole  legion,  pass- 
ing one  by  one,  every  man,  in  short,  swore 
to  the  same  efiect,  crying,  as  he  went  by, 
Idem  in  me,  "  the  same  by  me. "  In  modern 
times  when  so  many  other  checks  are  used 
in  maintaining  discipline,  the  oath  has  be- 
come little  more  than  a  form.  A  recruit 
enlisting  in  the  army  or  navy,  or  a  volun- 
teer enrolling  himself,  swears  to  be  faithful 
to  the  government,  and  obedient  to  all  or  any 
of  his  superior  officers.  The  members  of  a 
court-martial  take  an  oath  to  try  the  cases 
brought  before  them  justly,  according  to  the 
evidence,  to  keep  secret  the  finding  and  sen- 
tence of  the  court,  until  they  shall  be  pub- 
lished by  the  proper  authority,  and  to  keep 
secret  the  votes  or  opinions  given  by  the 
members  individually.  The  judge-advocate 
swears  that  he  will  not  reveal  the  individual 
opinions  or  votes  of  the  members  nor  the 
sentence  of  the  court  to  any  but  the  proper 
authority.     There   is   also   an   oath  for  the 


members  and  an  oath  for  the  recorder  of  a 
court  of  inquiry.  The  only  other  military 
oath  is  the  common  oath  of  a  witness  before 
a  court-martial,  to  tell  the  truth,  the  whole 
truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth.  See  Ap- 
pendix, Articles  op  War. 

Obedience  (Fr.  obeissance).  Submission 
to  the  orders  of  a  superior.  The  first  prin- 
ciple which  ought  to  be  inculcated  and  im- 
pressed upon  the  mind  of  every  officer  and 
soldier  is  obedience  to  all  lawful  commands. 
It  is  the  mainspring,  the  soul  and  essence  of 
military  duty.  It  is  evident  that  if  all  ofli- 
cers  and  soldiers  are  to  judge  when  an  order 
is  lawful  and  when  not,  the  captious  and 
mutinous  would  never  be  at  loss  for  a  plea 
to  justify  their  insubordination.  It  is,  there- 
fore, an  established  principle,  that  unless  an 
order  is  so  manifestly  against  law  that  the 
question  does  not  admit  of  dispute,  the  order 
must  first  be  obeyed  by  the  inferior,  and  he 
must  subsequently  seek  such  redress  against 
his  superior  as  the  laws  allow.  If  the  infe- 
rior disputes  the  legality  before  obedience, 
error  of  judgment  is  never  admitted  in  miti- 
gation of  the  oft'ense.  The  redress  now  af- 
forded by  the  laws  to  inferiors  is  not,  how- 
ever, sufficient ;  for  doubtful  questions  of  the 
construction  of  statutes,  instead  of  being  re- 
ferred to  the  Federal  courts  of  law  for  their 
true  exposition,  have  received  variable  expo- 
sitions from  the  executive,  and  left  the  army 
in  an  unfortunate  state  of  uncertainty  as  to 
the  true  meaning  of  certain  laws  ;  and  this 
uncertainty  has  been  most  unfavorable  to 
discipline.  Again,  while  the  punishment  of 
death  is  meted  to  officers  and  soldiers  for 
disobedience  of  lawful  commands,  the  law 
does  not  protect  officers  and  soldiers  for  obey- 
ing urilawful  commands.  Instances  have 
occurred  iii  the  United  States,  where  oflicers 
and  soldiers  have  been  subjected  to  vexatious 


OBEDIENCE 


363 


OBSERVE 


prosecutions,  simply  for  obeyintj  orders  ac- 
cording to  their  oath  of  office.  Would  it  not 
be  just  if  the  law,  instead  of  requiring  offi- 
cers and  soldiers  thus  nicely  to  steer  between 
Scylla  and  Charybdis,  should  hold  the  supe- 
rior who  gives  an  illegal  order  alone  respon- 
sible for  its  execution  ? 

Obedience  to  Orders.  An  unequivocal 
performance  of  the  several  duties  which  are 
directed  to  be  discharged  by  military  men. 
All  officers  and  soldiers  are  to  pay  obe- 
dience to  the  lawful  orders  of  their  superior 
officers. 

Obey,  To.  In  a  military  sense,  is  without 
question  or  hesitation  to  conform  zealously 
to  all  orders  and  instructions  which  are 
legally  issued.  It  .sometimes  happens  that 
individuals  are  called  upon  (by  mistake,  or 
from  the  exigency  of  the  service)  out  of 
what  is  called  the  regular  roster.  In  either 
case  they  must  cheerfully  obey,  and  after 
tRey  have  performed  their  duty  they  may 
remonstrate. 

Obidos.  A  town  of  Portugal,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Estremadura,  situated  on  the  Aniaya, 
45  miles  northwest  from  Lisbon.  An  en- 
gagement took  place  here  between  the  French 
and  English  in  1808. 

Object.  A  word  in  military  movements 
and  evolutions,  synonymous  with  point. 
Thus,  in  marching  forward  in  line,  etc.,  the 
guide  of  a  squacl,  company,  or  battalion, 
must  take  two  objects  at  least  to  fix  his  line 
of  march  by  which  the  whole  body  is  regu- 
lated. As  he  advances  he  selects  succession 
objects  or  points  to  prolong  the  line. 

Object.  The  mark  aimed  at  in  the  fire  of 
small-arms  or  artillery. 

Objective-points.  The  point  to  be  reached 
or  gained  by  an  army  in  executing  a  move- 
ment, has  been  termed  the  "objective- 
point."  There  are  two  classes  of  objectives, 
viz.,  natural  and  acr'ulcntal.  The  term 
geographical  is  frequently  used  to  designate 
the  first  of  these. 

A  natural  objective  may  be  an  important 
position,  strong  naturally,  or  made  so  by 
fortifications,  the  possession  of  which  gives 
control  over  a  tract  of  country,  and  furnishes 
good  points  of  support  or  good  lines  of  de- 
fense for  other  military  operations.  Or,  it 
may  bo  a  great  business  centre,  or  a  capital 
of  a  country,  the  possession  of  which  has  the 
effect  of  discouraging  the  enemy  and  making 
him  willing  to  sue  for  peace. 

Aceulental  ohjcctires  are  dependent  upon 
the  military  operations  which  have  for  their 
object  the  destruction  or  disintegration  of 
the  enemy's  forces.  These  objectives  are 
■ometimcs  called  "  objective-points  of  7nan(vu- 
vre."  The  position  of  the  enemy  determines 
their  location.  Thus,  if  the  enemy's  forces 
are  greatly  scattered,  or  his  front  much 
extended,  the  central  point  of  his  position 
would  be  a  good  objective-point,  since  the 
possession  of  it  would  divide  the  enemy's 
forces,  and  allow  his  detachments  to  be 
attacked  separately.  Or,  if  the  enemy  has 
his  forces  well  supported,  a  good  objective 


would  be  on  that  flank,  the  possessicm  of 
which  would  allow  his  communications 
with  his  base  to  be  threatened.  It  is  well  to 
remark  that  the  term  "  point"  used  in  this 
connection  is  not  to  be  considered  merely  in 
its  geometrical  sense,  but  is  used  to  apply 
to  the  object  which  the  army  desires  to 
atttain,  whether  it  be  a  position,  a  place,  a 
line,  or  even  a  section  of  countrv. — Fro/.  J. 
B.   Wheeler. 

OblatfFr.).  Disabled  soldier  formerly 
maintuiiied  by  abbeys. 

Oblique.  In  tactics,  indicates  a  direction 
which  is  neither  parallel  nor  perpendicular 
to  the  front,  but  more  or  less  diagonal.  It 
is  a  command  of  warning  in  the  tactics  for 
the  movement.  It  is  used  in  referring  to 
diagonal  alignments,  attacks,  orders  of  bat- 
tles, squares  against  cavalry,  changes  of 
front,  tires,  etc. 

Oblique  Deployments.  When  the  com- 
ponent parts  of  a  column  that  is  extending 
into  line,  deviate  to  the  right  or  left,  for  the 
purpose  of  taking  up  an  oblique  position,  its 
movomonts  are  called  oblique  deployments. 

Oblique  Fire.     See  Fire,  Obliqce. 

Oblique  Flank.    See  Flank,  Oblique. 

Oblique  Order  of  Battle.  See  Order  of 
Battlk,  Uhliuue. 

Oblique  Percussion.  Is  that  wherein 
the  striking  body  is  not  perpendicular  to 
the  body  struck,  or  is  not  in  line  with  its 
centre  of  gravity. 

Oblique  Position.  Is  a  jiosition  taken  in 
an  oblique  direction  from  the  original  line 
of  formation. 

Oblique  Projection.  Is  that  wherein  the 
direction  of  the  s^triking  body  is  not  perpen- 
dicular to  the  biKly  struck,  which  makes  an 
oblique  angle  with  the  horizontal  line. 

Oblique  Radius.  Is  a  line  extending 
from  the  centre  to  the  exterior  side  of  a 
polygon. 

Oblique  Step.  Is  a  step  or  movement  in 
marching,  in  which  the  soldier,  while  ad- 
vancing, gradually  takes  ground  to  the 
right  or  left  at  an  angle  of  about  25°.  It  is 
not  now  practiced. 

Oblique,  To.  In  a  military  sense,  is  to 
move  forward  to  the  right  or  left,  by  obliqu- 
ing in  either  of  those  directions,  according 
to  the  words  of  command. 

Oblong  Projectiles.     See  Projectiles. 

Obsequies.     See  Fuxkral  Honor.-*. 

Observation,  Army  of.  An  armv  as- 
signed to  the  duty  of  observing  and  check- 
ing the  movements  of  an  enemy. 

Observer  Sergeants.  In  the  United 
States,  are  sergeants  in  the  signal  service, 
stationed  in  large  towns  and  imjiortant  com- 
mercial centres,  to  give  timely  warning  of 
the  approach  tif  storms,  rise  of  rivers,  and 
all  other  important  weather  news  for  the 
guidance  of  merchants  and  others. 

Observe,  To.  To  watch  closely,  etc. 
Hence,  to  observe  the  motions  of  an  enemy, 
is  to  keep  a  good  lookout  by  means  of  small 
corps  of  armed  men,  or  of  intelligent  and 
steady  spies  and  scouts,  and  to  be  constantly 


OBSESSION" 


364 


ODOMETEE 


in  possession  of  information  regarding  his 
different  movements. 

Obsession.     The  act  of  besieging. 

Obsidional.     Belonging  to  a  siege. 

Obsidional  Crown  (Fr.  couro7i7ie  obsidi- 
onale).  A  crown  so  called  among  the  an- 
cient Romans,  which  was  bestowed  upon  a 
governor  or  general,  who  by  his  skill  and 
exertions,  either  held  out  or  caused  the 
siege  to  be  raised  of  any  town  belonging  to 
the  republic.  It  was  made  from  the  grass 
which  grew  on  the  spot,  and  was  therefore 
caUed  fframineus  (Lat.  gramen,  "grass"). 

Obsidionale  Monnaie  {Fr.).  Any  sub- 
stitute for  coin  which  has  a  value  put  upon 
it  that  is  greater  than  its  intrinsic  worth  ; 
and  a  currency  given  to  answer  the  conve- 
nience of  the  inhabitants  of  a  besieged  place. 

Obstacles.  Are  narrow  passes,  woods, 
bridges,  or  any  other  impediments  which 
present  themselves  when  a  battalion  is 
marching  to  front  or  rear ;  or  abatis,  crows- 
feet,  palisades,  etc.,  which,  being  placed  in 
the  glacis  of  a  fortress,  obstruct  the  opera- 
tions of  an  assaulting  party. 

Obstinate.  In  a  military  sense,  means 
determined  ;  fixed  in  resolution  ;  as,  an  ob- 
stinate resistance. 

Obstruct.  To  block  up ;  to  stop  up  or 
close,  as  a  way  or  passage  ;  to  fill  with  ob- 
stacles or  impediments  that  prevent  passing  ; 
as,  to  obstruct  a  road,  highway,  channel, 
etc. 

Obstruction.  The  act  of  obstructing,  or 
the  state  of  being  obstructed.  Also,  that 
which  obstructs  or  impedes;  obstacle;  im- 
pediment ;  hindrance. 

Obtain.  To  get  hold  of  by  effort ;  to 
gain  possession  of. 

Obus,  or  Obusier  {Fr.).  A  species  of 
small  mortar,  resembling  a  mortar  in  every- 
thing but  the  carriage,  which  was  made  in 
the  form  of  that  belonging  to  a  gun,  only 
shorter.  It  has  been  frequently  used  at 
sieges  ;  and  was  well  calculated  to  sweep  the 
covert  way,  and  to  fire  ricochet  shots.  They 
were  usually  loaded  with  cartouches. 

Obusier  {Fr.).  Howitzer,  called  hanhitz 
by  the  Dutch.  In  1434  it  was  known  under 
the  name  of  husenicze. 

Oc.     A  Turkish  arrow. 

Ocana.  A  town  of  Spain,  in  New  Cas- 
tile, 33  miles  southeast  from  Madrid.  Near 
here  the  Spaniards  were  defeated  by  the 
French,  commanded  by  Mortier  and  Soult, 
November  19,  1809. 

Occasion  {Fr.).  Has  the  same  significa- 
tion in  military  matters  that  affair  bears 
among  the  French.  Une  occasion  bien  chaiide, 
a  warm  contest,  battle,  or  engagement ;  it 
further  means,  as  with  us,  the  source  from 
whence  consequences  ensue.  Les  malheurs 
die  peuple  sont  arrives  a,  I'occasion  de  la 
guerre,  "  the  misfortunes  of  the  people 
have  been  occasioned  by  the  war,"  or 
"  the  war  has  been  the  occasion  of  the  peo- 
ple's misfortunes."  The  French  make  a 
nice  distinction  wliich  may  hold  good  in  our 
language,  between  cause  and  occasion,  viz.  ; 


II  n^en  est  pas  la  cause, — il  n'e?i  est  que  I'oc- 
casion, I'occasion  innocente, — "He  is  not  the 
cause,  he  is  only  the  occasion,  the  innocent 
occasion  of  it." 

Occupation.  The  state  of  occupying  or 
taking  possession.  Also,  the  state  of  being 
occupied  or  possessed  ;  possession. 

Occupation,  Army  of.  An  army  which 
invades  an  enemy's  country  and  establishes 
itself  in  it  either  temporarily  or  perma- 
nently, is  termed  an  army  of  occupation. 

Occupy.  Is  a  military  phrase  for  taking 
possession  of  a  work  or  fort,  or  to  remain 
stationary  in  any  place. 

Octagon.  A  figure  or  polygon  that  has 
eight  equal  sides,  which  likewise  form  eight 
equal  angles.  The  octagon  in  fortification 
is  well  calculated  in  its  ground  for  the  con- 
struction of  large  towns,  or  for  such  as  have 
the  advantage  of  neighboring  rivers,  espe- 
cially if  the  engineer  can  so  place  the  bas- 
tions, that  the  entrances  and  outlets  of  the 
rivers  may  be  in  some  of  the  curtains.  By 
means  of  this  disposition  no  person  could 
come  in  or  go  out  of  the  garrison  without 
the  commandant's  permission,  as  the  senti- 
nels must  have  a  full  view  from  the  flanks 
of  the  neighboring  bastions. 

Oczakov,  or  Otshakov.  A  town  of  Rus- 
sia in  Europe,  in  the  government  of  Cher- 
son,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Dnieper.  This 
place  was  once  the  object  of  obstinate  con- 
tests between  the  Turks  and  Russians. 

Oda.  The  different  corps  or  companies 
into  which  the  Janissaries  were  divided 
bore  this  appellation.  The  word  itself  means 
a  room,  and  the  companies  were  so  called 
from  messing  separately. 

Oda-Bachi.  Captain  superintending  the 
gunners  at  Constantinople. 

Odas.     Company  of  soldiers. 

Odessa.  A  fortified  seaport  of  European 
Russia,  in  the  government  of  Cherson,  on  a 
small  bay  of  the  Black  Sea  between  the  Dnies- 
ter and  Dnieper,  85  miles  west  from  Kherson. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century  the 
Turks  constructed  a  fortress  here,  which 
was  taken  by  the  Russians  in  1789.  On 
the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean  war,  April, 
1854,  the  British  steamer  "Furious"  went 
to  Odessa  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  away 
the  British  consul.  While  under  a  flag  of 
truce,  she  was  fired  upon  by  the  batteries  of 
the  city.  On  the  failure  of  the  written 
message  from  the  admiral  in  command  of  the 
fleet  to  obtain  explanations,  12  war-steamers 
invested  Odessa,  April  22,  and  in  a  few 
hours  destroyed  the  fortifications,  blew  up 
the  powder-magazines,  and  took  a  number 
of  Russian  vessels.  On  May  12,  the  Eng- 
lish frigate  "  Tiger"  stranded  here,  and  was 
destroyed  by  Russian  artillery.  The  cap- 
tain, Giffard,  and  many  of  his  men  were 
killed,  and  the  rest  made  prisoners. 

Odius.  A  herald  in  the  camp  of  the 
Greeks  before  Troy. 

Odometer.  An  instrument  attached  to 
the  wheel  of  a  carriage  to  measure  dis- 
tances  in    traveling,    indicating   on   a   dial 


ODRTS^ 


305 


OFFICER 


the  number  of  revolutions  made  by  the 
wheel. 

Odrysse.  The  most  powerful  people  in 
Thrace,  dwelt,  accordini^  to  Herodotus,  f)n 
both  sides  of  the  river  Artiscus,  a  tributary 
of  the  Hebrus,  but  also  spread  farther  west 
over  the  whole  plain  of  the  Hebrus.  Their 
king  Teres  retained  his  independence  of  the 
Persians  508  n.c.  Sitalces,  his  son,  enlart^ed 
Ills  dominions,  and  in  42!)  aided  the  Athe- 
jiians  a<;ainst  Perdiccas  II.  of  Macedon 
with  an  army  of  150,000  men.  Sitalces 
was  killed  in  battle  with  the  Triballi,  424. 
Cotys,  another  kins;  (382-353),  disputed  the 
po.ssession  of  the  Thracian  Chersonesus  with 
Athens ;  after  nine  or  ten  years'  warfare, 
Philip  II.  of  Macedon  reduced  the  Odrysse 
to  tributaries. 

CEniadse  (now  Tritjanion,  or  Trik hay-do). 
An  ancient  town  of  Acarnania,  situated  on 
the  Achelous,  near  its  mouth.     GSniadie  es- 

Iyoused  the  cause  of  the  Spartans  in  the  Pe- 
oponnesian  war.  At  the  time  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  the  town  was  taken  by  the  ^iito- 
lians,  who  expelled  the  inhabitants  ;  but  the 
^■Etolians  were  expelled  in  their  turn  by 
Philip  v.,  kins;  of  Macedonia,  who  sur- 
rounded the  place  with  fortifications.  The 
Romans  captured  and  restored'  the  town  to 
the  Acarnanians  211  B.C. 

CEnophyta  (now  Inia).  A  town  in 
BuH)ti!i,  (III  the  left  bank  of  the  Asopus, 
and  on  the  road  from  Tanajjra  to  Oropus, 
memorable  for  the  victory  piined  here  by 
the  Athenians  over  the  Bffiotians,  456  B.C. 

Oesel.  An  island  belontjing  to  Russia, 
stretches  across  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of 
Riga.  It  at  one  time  belonged  to  the  Teu- 
tonic knights,  but  was  seized  by  the  Danes 
at  an  early  period,  and  ceded  by  them  to 
Sweden  in  l()45.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  century  it  was  taken  possession  of  by 
Russia,  to  which  power  it  was  finally  ceded 
in  1721. 

Ofanto  (anc.  Aufidus).  A  river  of  Naples, 
which  rises  in  the  province  of  Principati> 
Ultra,  and  after  a  course  of  75  miles  flows 
into  the  Adriatic,  4  miles  from  Barletta. 
Near  its  mouth  was  fought  the  famous  battle 
of  Canine,  in  which  the  Romans  were  de- 
feated by  Hannibal. 

Off,  To  Go.     To  be  discharged,  as  a  gun. 

Off,  To  March.     To  quit  the  ground  on 
which  you  are  regularly  drawn  up,  for  the 
purpose  of  going  upon  detachment,  relieving  I 
a  guard,  or  doing  any  other  military  duty,      j 

Off,  To  Tell.     T<)  count   the    men  com- 
posing  a    battalion    or   company,   so   as    to  \ 
pave   them   readily    and    distinctly    thrown  j 
into  such  proportions  as  suit  military  move-  I 
ments  or  evolutions.  j 

Offa's  Dyke.  An  intrenchment  from  the  j 
Wye  to  the  Dee,  Kngland,  made  by  Offti,  | 
king  of  Mcroia,  to  defend  his  country  from  j 
the  incursions  of  the  "Welsh,  77S>. 

Offense,  Weapons  of.  Those  which  are  ' 
used  in  attack,  in  distinction  from  those  of  i 
deffn.te,  which  are  used  to  repel.  | 

Offenses.     All  acts  that  are  contrary  to  i 


good  order  and  discipline,  omissions  of  duty, 
etc.,  may  be  called  military  offenses.  The 
princi|)al  ones  arc  specified  In  the  Articles  of 
AV'ar  (which  see).  No  officer  or  soldier  can 
be  tried  twice  for  the  same  offense,  unless  in 
the  case  of  an  appeal ;  nor  can  any  officer  or 
soldier  be  tried  for  any  offense  committed 
more  than  two  years  before  the  date  of  the 
order  for  trial,  unless  in  cases  where  through 
some  manifest  impediment  the  offenders 
were  not  amenable  to  justice  in  that  period, 
when  they  may  be  brought  to  trial  any  time 
within  two  years  after  the  impediment  has 
ceased. 

Offensive,  Used  in  attack  ;  assailant ; 
opposed  to  defensive ;  as,  an  offensive  weapon 
or  engine.  Making  the  first  attack  ;  a.ssail- 
ant;  invading:  opposed  to  rfe/fc-««jt;«;  as,  an 
offensive  war. 

Offensive  and  Defensive  Fireworks.  See 
Pykotkchny. 

Offensive  and  Defensive  Leag^ue.  A 
league  that  requires  both  or  all  parties  to 
make  war  together  against  a  nation,  and 
each  party  to  defend  the  other  in  case  of 
being  attacked. 

Offensive  and  Defensive  Operations. 
Are  operations  the  object  of  which  is  not 
only  to  prevent  the  enemy's  advance,  but  to 
attack  him  whenever  there  is  a  favorable 
opportunity  which  promises  success. 

Offensive  Fortification.  See  Fortifica- 
tion. 

Offensive  War.  Military  acts  of  aggres- 
sion constitute  what  is  called  an  offensive 
vjnr.  Those  who  assail  an  opposite  or  ad- 
verse army,  or  invade  the  dominions  of 
another  power,  are  said  to  wage  an  offensive 
war. 

Office.  Any  place  or  department  ap- 
pointed for  the  olBoers  and  clerks  to  attend 
in,  for  the  discharge  of  their  respective  em- 
ployments ;  as,  the  adjutant-general's  office, 
etc. 

Office  of  Ordnance.  See  Board  of  Ord- 
XANiK  and  Ordnance  Office. 

Officer,  Brevet.     See  Bkevkt. 

Officer,  Field-.     See  Field-officer. 

Officer,  General.   See  General  Officer. 

Officer  in  Waiting.  In  the  British  ser- 
vice, the  officer  next  for  duty  is  so  called. 
He  is  also  mentioned  in  orders,  and  ought  to 
be  ready  for  the  service  specitied  at  a  min- 
ute's warning.  Ho  must  not  on  this  account 
quit  the  camp,  garrison,  or  cantonment. 

Officer,  Non-commissioned.  See  Non- 
com  miss  ion  kh  Okfkek. 

Officer  of  the  Day.  Is  an  officer  whose 
immediate  duty  is  to  attend  to  the  interior 
economy  of  the  corps  or  garrison  to  which 
ho  belongs,  or  of  those  with  which  he  may 
be  doing  duty.  The  officer  of  the  day  has 
charge  of  the  guard,  prisoners,  and  police  of 
the  garrison,  inspects  the  soldiers'  barracks, 
messes,  hospital,  etc. 

Officer  of  the  Guard.  An  officer  detailed 
daily  for  service  with  the  guard.  It  is  his 
duty,  under  the  officer  of  the  day,  to  see 
that  the  non-commissioned  officers  and  men 


OFFICER 


366 


OHIO 


of  his  guard  are  well  instructed  in  all  their 
duties,  he  inspects  the  reliefs,  visits  the  sen- 
tinels, is  responsible  for  the  prisoners  and 
the  property'  used  by  them  and  the  guard ; 
lie  is  also  responsible  for  good  order,  alert- 
ness, and  discipline,  and  should  never  quit 
his  guard  duty  unless  properly  relieved. 

Officer,  To.  To  furnish  with  officers  ;  to 
appoint  officers  over. 

Officers.  Commissioned  officers  are  all 
those  officers  of  a  government  who  receive 
their  commissions  from  the  executive,  and 
are  of  various  grades  from  the  ensign  to  the 
marshal,  all  of  which  see  under  their  re- 
spective headings.  See  Appointing  Power 
and  Commissions. 

Officers,  Marine.  All  those  who  com- 
mand in  that  body  of  troops  employed  in 
the  sea  service. 

Officers,  Staff-.  Are  all  those  officers  who 
are  not  attached  to  regiments,  whose  duties 
extend  over  the  whole,  or  a  large  section, 
such  as  a  brigade  or  a  division  ;  such  as  the 
adjutant-general,  the  quartermaster-general, 
etc.,  and  their  subordinates,  together  with 
brigade-majors  and  aides-de-camp.  The 
regimental  staif-officers  are  those  who  are 
not  attached  to  companies  ;  they  are  the  ad- 
jutant and  quartermaster,  in  the  U.  S.  ser- 
vice, and  in  European  armies  the  surgeon, 
paymaster,  adjutant,  assistant-surgeon,  and 
quartermaster.     See  Staff. 

Officers,  Subaltern.  Are  all  those  offi- 
cers below  the  grade  of  captain. 

Officers,  Warrant-.  Are  those  who  have 
no  commissions,  but  only  warrants  from 
such  boards  or  persons  as  are  authorized  by 
law  to  grant  them.  The  only  warrant-offi- 
cers in  the  British  service  are  master-gun- 
ners and  schoolmasters.  Technically  the 
non-commissioned  officers  of  the  U.  S.  army 
are  not  warrant-officers,  though  they  are  ap- 
pointed by  warrants. 

Official.  All  orders,  reports,  applications, 
memorials,  etc.,  which  pass  through  the 
regular  channels  of  communication,  are 
called  official. 

Official  Courtesies.  The  interchange  of 
official  compliments  and  visits  between  for- 
eign military  or  naval  officers  and  the  au- 
thorities of  a  military  post  are  international 
in  character.  In  all  cases  it  is  the  duty  of 
the  commandant  of  a  military  post,  without 
regard  to  his  rank,  to  send  a  suitable  officer 
to  ofler  civilities  and  assistance  to  a  vessel 
of  war  (foreign  or  otherwise)  recently  ar- 
rived. After  such  offer  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
commanding  officer  of  the  vessel  to  send  a 
suitable  officer  to  acknowledge  such  civili- 
ties, and  request  that  a  time  be  specified  for 
his  reception  by  the  commanding  officer  of 
the  post.  The  commanding  officer  of  the 
post,  after  the  usual  offer  of  civilities,  is 
always  to  receive  the  first  visit  without  re- 
gard to  rank.  The  return  visit  by  the  com- 
manding officer  of  the  military  post  is  made 
the  following  day,  or  as  soon  thereafter  as 
practicable. 

When   a   military   commander    officially 


visits  a  vessel  of  war  he  gives  notice  of  his 
visit  to  the  vessel  previously  thereto,  or  sends 
a  suitable  officer  (or  an  orderly)  to  the  gang-  i 

way  to  announce  his  presence,  if  such  notice  | 

has  not  been  given.  He  is  then  received  at 
the  gangway  by  the  commander  of  the  ves- 
sel, and  is  accompanied  there  on  leaving  by 
the  same  officer.  The  officer  who  is  sent  with 
the  customary  offer  of  civilities  is  met  at  the 
gangway  of  a  vessel  of  war  by  the  officer  of 
the  deck  ;  through  the  latter  he  is  presented 
to  the  commander  of  the  vessel,  with  whom  i 

it  is  his  duty  to  communicate. 

When  a  civil  functionary  entitled  to  a 
salute  arrives  at  a  military  post,  the  com- 
manding officer  meets  or  calls  upon  him  as 
soon  as  practicable.  The  commanding  officer 
tenders  a  review,  provided  the  garrison  of 
the  place  is  not  less  than  four  companies  of 
troops.  When  an  officer  entitled  to  a  salute 
visits  a  post  within  his  own  command,  the 
troops  are  paraded  and  he  receives  the  honor 
of  a  review,  unless  he  directs  otherwise. 
When  a  salute  is  to  be  given  an  officer  junior 
to  another  present  at  a  post,  the  senior  will 
be  notified  to  that  effect  by  the  commanding 
officer.  Military  or  naval  officers  of  what- 
ever rank,  arriving  at  a  military  post  or 
station,  are  expected  to  call  upon  the  com- 
manding officer.  Under  no  circumstances 
is  the  flag  of  a  militar}'  post  dijjped  by  way 
of  salute  or  compliment. 

Officially.  By  the  proper  officer ;  by  vir- 
tue of  the  proper  authority ;  in  pursuance 
of  the  special  powers  vested  ;  as,  accounts  or 
reports  officially  verified  or  rendered  ;  letters 
officially  communicated ;  persons  officially 
notified. 

Off-reckonings.  A  specific  account  was 
so  called  which  existed  between  the  govern- 
ment and  colonels  of  British  regiments  for 
the  clothing  of  the  men. 

Ogee,  or  Ogive.  In  pieces  of  ordnance, 
an  ornamental  molding  on  guns,  mortars, 
and  howitzers. 

Ogival.  The  form  given  the  head  of  ob- 
long projectiles.  It  was  found  by  Borda 
that  this  shape  experienced  less  resistance 
from  the  air  than  any  other. 

Ohio.  One  of  the  Western  States  of  the 
American  Confederacy,  lying  between  Lakes 
Michigan,  Erie,  and  the  Ohio  River.  In 
1680,  La  Salle  explored  the  State,  and  built 
a  military  post  on  the  Ohio,  which  the 
French  claimed ;  but  in  1763  they  relin- 
quished it.  The  first  settlement  was  made 
subsequent  to  the  Revolution,  a  company  of 
New  Englanders  having  settled  at  Marietta 
in  April,"  1788.  The  early  inhabitants  were 
much  annoyed  by  incursions  of  the  Indians, 
who  had  successively  defeated  Gens.  Harmar 
and  St.  Clair  (the  latter  with  great  slaughter 
of  his  troops,  leaving  scarcely  one-fourth)  in 
1791  and  1792,  but  were  themselves  in  turn 
utterly  routed  by  Gen.  Wayne  in  August, 
1794.  Ohio  was  admitted  as  a  State  in  1802. 
In  the  second  war  with  Great  Britain,  Ohio 
suffered  greatly  from  raids  by  the  British 
and  Indians.    "Fort  Sandusky  was  attacked 


OILLETS 


367 


ONAGRE 


by  Gen.  Proctor,  with  500  regulars  and  as 
niany  Indians,  and  was  successfully  defended 
by  Maj.  Crophan,  a  youth  of  twenty-one 
years,  with  IfjQ  men.  But  the  most  impor- 
tant action  which  occurred  was  the  naval 
engagement  on  Lake  Erie,  fought  at  Put-in- 
Bay,  September  10,  1813,  in  which  Commo- 
dore O.  II.  Perry  defeated  a  superior  Brit- 
ish fleet  under  command  of  Barclay.  Ohio 
contributed  greatly  to  the  cause  of  the  Union 
in  the  late  civil  war  ;  she  sent  her  full  quotas 
of  troops  to  the  field,  and  the  women  at- 
tended to  the  sick  and  wounded  with  un- 
tiring zeal.  The  State  was  twice  invaded 
by  Confederate  guerrillas,  but  suffered  no 
material  damage. 

Oillets,  or  C£illets.  Apertures  for  firing 
through  in  the  walls  of  a  fort. 

Ojibways.     See  Chippkwas. 

Okanagans,  or  Cutsanim.  A  semi-civ- 
ili/.ccl  tritx'  of  Indians  who,  to  the  number 
of  about  oOO,  reside  to  the  oast  of  the  Cas- 
cade Mountains,  in  Washington  Territory. 

Olcades.  An  ancient  people  in  Hispania 
Tarraconensis,  north  of  Carthago  Nova, 
nearer  the  sources  of  the  Anas,  in  a  part  of 
the  ctiuntry  afterwards  inhabited  by  the 
Oretani.  They  are  mentioned  only  in  the 
wars  of  the  Carthaginians  with  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Spain. 

Oldensworth  (Denmark).  A  conference 
was  held  hfre  in  1713,  between  Peter  the 
Great  and  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark. 

Olifant,  or  Oliphant  ( Fr. ).  A  horn  which 
a  paladin  or  knight  .sounded  in  token  of  de- 
fiance, f>r  as  a  challenge. 

Olinde.     A  sort  of  sword-blade. 

Olivenza.  A  fortified  town  of  Spain,  in 
Estremadura,  situated  on  the  Guadiana,  1(5 
miles  southwest  from  Badajos.  This  town 
was  ceded  by  Portugal  to  Spain  in  1801 ; 
and  for  having  arranged  this  cession,  Crodoy 
received  his  title  of  "Prince  of  Peace."  In 
1811  it  was  taken  bv  the  French. 

Olmiitz.  The  cliief  fortress  of  Moravia, 
in  the  district  of  the  same  name,  in  Austria, 
40  miles  north-northeast  from  Briinn.  Ol- 
mutz  was  taken  by  the  Swedes  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  ;  but  was  besieged  in  vain 
for  .seven  weeks  by  Frederick  the  Great  in 
1758.  Lafayette  was  confined  here  in  1794. 
A  conference  was  held  here  November  29, 
1850,  under  the  czar  Nicholas,  when  the 
difficulties  between  Austria  and  Prussia  re- 
specting the  affairs  of  Ues.se-Cassel  were  ar- 
ranged. 

Olot.  A  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province 
of  Gerona,  85  miles  from  Barcelona.  It 
figured  and  suffered  much  in  the  war  of  in- 
depeiulence,  being  a  strong  point,  and  passed 
alternately  into  the  hands  of  French  and 
Spaniards,  until  the  latter  dismantled  the 
fortifications.  In  the  civil  war  of  18.V)  and 
1867  it  was  much  coveted  and  frequently 
attacked  by  the  Carlist.*.  but  unsuccessfully. 

Olteniua.  A  fortified  village  of  Turkey 
in  Europe,  in  Wallachia,  situated  on  the 
DanulK>,  2  miles  north  from  Turtukai.  A 
Turkish  force  having  crossed  the   Danube 


under  Omar  Pasha,  established  themselves 
at  Oltenitza  in  spite  of  the  vigorous  attacks 
of  the  Kussians,  who  were  repulsed  with  loss 
November  2-3,  1853.  On  November  4,  a 
desperate  attempt  to  dislodge  the  Turks  by 
Gen.  Danneberg  with  9000  men,  was  de- 
feated with  great  loss. 

Olympic  Games.  Were  instituted  by 
Hercults  a.m.  2Ho6,  in  honor  of  Jupiter 
Olympus,  at  Olympia,  a  citv  of  Elis,  in 
Peloponnesus.  They  were  ceiebnited  about 
every  four  years,  about  the  summer  solstice. 
The  design  of  them  was  to  accustom  the 
young  military  men  to  running,  leaping, 
and  every  other  military  exercise. 

Olynthus.  A  town  of  Chalcidice,  sttod 
at  the  head  of  the  Toronaio  Gulf,  between 
the  headlandsof  Sithonia  and  Pallene.  about 
CO  stadia  from  Potidiea.  During  the  second 
Persian  invasion  of  Greece,  Artabazus,  the 
general  of  Xerxes,  captured  the  town, 
slaughtered  its  Bottia?an  inhabitants,  and 
gave  it  to  the  Chalcidians.  It  was  subdued 
in  war  by  Sparta  in  .382-379  b.c.  It  resisted 
Philip  of  Macedon  350  B.C.,  by  whom  it  was 
destroyed  in  347. 

Omagh  (Irish,  Oiffh  magh,  "  seat  of  the 
chiefs").  An  ancient  town,  capital  of  the 
countv  of  Tyrone,  in  Ireland,  34  miles  south 
from  Londonderry.  Omagh  grew  up  around 
an  abbej'  founded  in  the  year  792,  but  is  first 
heard  of  as  a  fortress  of  Art  O'Nial  in  the 
end  of  the  15th  century,  about  which  time 
it  was  forced  to  surrender  to  the  English, 
although  its  possession  long  continued  to  al- 
ternate between  Irish  and  English  hands. 
It  formed  part  of  James  I.'s  "  Plantation 
grants,"  and  was  strongly  garrisoned  by 
Mountjoy.  On  its  being  evacuated  by  the 
troops  of  James  II.  in  1689,  it  was  partialh' 
burned. 

Omaha  Indians.  A  tribe  of  aborigines, 
of  Dakota  stock,  who,  to  the  number  of  10(X), 
inhabit  a  reservation  in  Nebraska.  They 
are  generally  peaceful  and  industrious. 

Omer,  St.  A  fortified  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Pas-de-Calais,  24  miles 
southeast  from  Calais.  This  place  was  taken 
by  Louis  XIV.  in  1677.  It  suffered  severely 
during  the  revolution  of  1830. 

Omra,  or  Omhra  (plural  of  ameer,  a 
"lord")  Ind.  They  were  persons  of  con- 
siderable consequence  in  the  dominions  of 
the  (ireat  Mogul.  Some  of  them  had  com- 
mand of  100(1  horse,  others  of  2000,  and  so 
onto20,0(W;  their  pay  being  regulated  ac- 
cording to  their  commands.  The  governors 
and  great  officers  of  state  were  generally 
chosen  out  of  this  body. 

On.  A  preposition  frequently  used  in 
military  exercise.  It  precedes  the  word  of 
command  which  directs  the  change  or  forma- 
tion of  bodies  of  men  upon  points  that  are 
fixed  ;  as,  form  on  the  centre  company. 

On  the  Alert.  In  a  state  of  vigilance  or 
activity. 

Onagre  (Fr.).  A  warlike  machine,  which 
was  used  by  the  ancients  to  throw  stones  of 
different  sizes.    It  is  mentioned  by  Vegetius. 


ONEIDAS 


368 


OPPENHEIM 


Oneidas.  A  tribe  of  Indians  forming  one 
of  the  Five  Nations  of  the  Iroquois  Con- 
federacy, who  resided  in  the  county  and 
near  the  lake  which  bears  their  name.  They 
were  continually  at  war  with  the  early 
French  settlers  in  Canada,  and  took  sides 
with  the  colonists  against  the  British  in  the 
war  of  the  Revolution.  For  this  the}'  suf- 
fered severely.  Their  castle,  church,  and 
villages  were  destroyed  by  the  Tories  in 
1780,  and  they  were  compelled  to  flee  to  the 
white  settlements  for  protection.  In  1788 
they  ceded  most  of  their  lands  to  the  State 
and  moved  to  Canada ;  subsequently  some 
of  the  tribe  settled  in  Wisconsin,  where  they 
are  still  comfortably  located  on  a  reservation ; 
and  a  remnant  still  resides  near  Rome, 
Oneida  Co.,  N.  Y.  They  are  well  advanced 
in  the  arts  of  civilization,  and,  contrary  to 
the  usual  fate  of  Indian  tribes,  have  increased 
in  numbers. 

Onein.  An  offensive  weapon  of  mediaeval 
times,  consisting  of  a  staff  with  a  hooked 
iron  head. 

Onondagas.  One  of  the  confederate  tribes 
of  Indians  known  as  the  Five  Nations.  They 
resided  in  the  State  of  New  York,  in  the 
county  which  bears  their  name.  They  were 
long  the  enemies  of  the  Canadian  French, 
with  whom,  and  with  the  Hurons,  they  were 
continually  at  war.  They  were  allies  of  the 
English  in  the  French  war,  1756-63,  fought 
against  the  colonists  in  the  Revolutionary 
war,  and  suffered  severely  in  the  contest. 
In  1788  they  ceded  their  lands  to  the  State 
and  moved  to  Ontario,  Canada,  where  about 
400  of  them  now  reside. 

Onset.  A  rushing  or  setting  upon  ;  a 
violent  attack;  assault;  a  storming;  espe- 
cially the  assault  of  an  army  or  body  of 
troops  upon  an  enemy  or  a  fort. 

Onsetting.  A  rushing  upon  or  assault- 
ing. 

Onslaught.  Attack  ;  onset ;  aggression  ; 
assault.  "  By  storm  and  onslaught  to  pro- 
ceed." 

Onward.  Toward  the  point  before  or  in 
front ;  forward  ;  as,  to  move  onward. 

Oodeypoor,  or  Mewar.  A  Rajpoot  state 
in  India.  It  became  tributary  to  the  Brit- 
ish government  by  the  treaty  of  1818.  A 
corps  of  Bheels  was  raised  in  1841  at  the 
joint  expense  of  the  British  and  Oodeypoor 
governments,  in  order  to  reduce  to  subjection 
the  Bheel  districts  of  the  country. 

Oojein,  or  Oojain.  A  city  of  India,  in 
the  territory  of  Gwalior,  152  miles  south- 
west from  Goonah.  It  fell  into  the  power 
of  the  Mohammedans  in  1310.  At  this  time 
it  was  the  capital  of  Malwa  ;  and  along  with 
this  country  it  afterwards  came  under  the 
power  of  the  Patans,  but  was  recovered  by 
Akbar  in  1561.  In  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century  it  was  conquered  by  the  Mahrattas. 

Opatas,  or  Yakis.  An  Indian  people  who 
reside  in  the  state  of  Sonora,  Mexico.  They 
number  about  25,000,  and  are  generally  peace- 
able and  industrious. 

Open.     In  military  movements  and  dis- 


positions, this  term  is  frequently  u.sed  in 
contradistinction  to  close  ;  as,  open  column, 
open  distance,  open  order,  etc.  It  also 
c(mstitutes  part  of  a  word  of  command ;  as, 
rear  rank  take  open  order.  By  open  distance 
in  columyi  is  meant  that  the  intervals  are 
always  equal  in  depth  to  the  extent  in  front  of 
the  different  component  parts  of  the  column. 

Open  Flank.  In  fortification,  is  that  part 
of  the  flank  which  is  covered  by  the  orillon. 

Opening  of  Trenches.  Is  the  first  break- 
ing of  ground  by  the  besiegers,  in  order  to 
carry  on  their  approaches  towards  the  place. 

Operations,  Lines  of.  See  Lines  of 
Operations. 

Operations,  Military.  Consist  in  the  reso- 
lute application  of  preconcerted  measures  in 
secrecy,  dispatch,  regular  movements,  occa- 
sional encampments,  and  desultory  combats 
or  pitched  battles. 

Opinion.  In  military  proceedings  that 
regard  the  interior  government  of  an  army, 
this  word  signifies  decision,  determination, 
judgment  formed  upon  matters  that  have 
been  laid  before  a  court-martial  or  court  of 
inquiry. 

Opinion.  OflBcers  on  courts-martial  give 
their  opinion  by  seniority,  beginning  with 
the  youngest  in  rank. 

Oporto.  A  city  of  Portugal,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Entre-Douro-e-Minho,  about  2  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Douro,  and  175  miles 
north  from  Lisbon.  It  was  attacked  by  the 
Moors  under  Abderrahman  in  820.  In  1092 
certain  knights  of  Gascony,  commanded  by 
Don  Alfonso  Fredrico,  captured  it  from  the 
Moors.  It  was  famous  for  the  strength  of 
its  fortifications  during  the  Middle  Ages,  its 
walls  being  3000  paces  in  circumference,  30 
feet  in  height,  and  flanked  with  towers. 
From  the  17th  to  the  present  century,  Oporto 
has  been  the  scene  of  an  unusual  number  of 
popular  insurrections.  In  1808  it  was  taken 
by  the  French.  The  French,  under  Marshal 
Soult,  were  surprised  here  by  Lord  Wel- 
lington, and  defeated  in  an  action  fought 
May  11,  1809.  It  was  besieged  in  1832  and 
1833  by  Dom  Miguel,  and  successfully  de- 
fended by  Dom  Pedro  with  7500  men.  In 
this  siege,  the  city  suffered  severely,  and 
more  than  16,000  of  the  inhabitants  were 
killed.  It  has  since  been  the  scene  of  civil 
war.  The  insurgents  entered  Oporto  Janu- 
ary 7,  1847  ;  a  Spanish  force  entered  Oporto, 
and  the  Junto  capitulated,  June  26,  1847. 

Oppenheim.  A  town  of  the  grand  duchy 
of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  10  miles  southeast  of  Mayence.  It 
occupies  the  site  of  the  Roman  castle  of 
Baucoiia,  and  was  made  a  royal  palatinate 
under  the  Carlovingians.  It  afterwards  be- 
came one  of  the  most  important  free  towns 
of  the  empire.  It  was  taken  in  1218  by 
Adalbert,  archbishop  of  Mayence,  in  1620 
by  the  Spaniards,  in  1631  by  the  Swedes 
under  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and  in  1634  by 
the  Imperialists,  suffering  much  upon  all 
these  occasions.  In  1689  the  French  under 
Melac  almost  entirely  destroyed  it. 


OPPONENT 


369 


ORDER 


Opponent.  One  who  oppones,  or  opposes  ; 
an  adversary  ;  an  antagonist;  a  foe. 

Oppose.  To  act  as  an  adversary  a^jainst 
ari(jtlier  ;  to  resist,  etc.  It  likewise  signilies 
to  place  as  an  obstacle. 

Oppugn.  To  fight  against,  whether  in 
attack,  resistance,  or  simple  opposition;  to 
attack  ;  to  oppose  ;  to  resist. 

Oppugnant.  Tending  to  awaken  hos- 
tility ;  hostile;  opposing. 

Or.  In  heraldry  the  metal  gold,  repre- 
sented in  heraldic  engravings  by  an  un- 
limited number  of  dots. 

Oran.  A  seaport  town  of  Algeria,  about 
220  miles  west-south we.st  of  Algiers  ;  it  is 
defended  by  strongly  armed  forts.  The 
town  of  Oran  was  built  by  the  Moors.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  in  1509,  by  the 
Turks  in  1708,  and  again  by  the  Spaniards 
in  1732.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  in 
1831,  and  has  since  remained  in  their  hands. 

Orb.  In  tactics,  is  the  disposing  of  a 
number  of  soldiers  in  circular  form  of  de- 
fense. The  orb  has  been  thought  of  con- 
sequence enough  to  employ  the  attention  of 
the  famous  Marshal  de  Puysegur,  in  his 
"  Art  of  War,"  who  prefers  this  position  to 
throw  a  body  of  infantry  in  an  open  coun- 
try to  resist  cavalry,  or  even  a  superior 
force  of  infantry  ;  because  it  is  regular,  and 
equally  strong,  and  gives  an  enemy  no 
reason  to  expect  better  success  by  attacking 
one  place  than  another.  Ctesar  drew  up 
his  whole  army  in  this  form  when  he 
fought  against  Labienus.  The  whole  army 
of  the  Gauls  was  formed  into  an  orb,  under 
the  command  of  Sabinus  and  Cotta,  when 
fighting  against  the  Ronuins.  The  orb  was 
generally  formed  six  deep. 

Orchonnenus.  A  city  of  Boeotia,  and  the 
capital  of  the  powerful  tribe  of  the  Minyaj, 
•was  situated  near  the  western  shore  of  Lake 
Copaic,  on  a  hill  which  overlooked  the 
windings  of  the  Cejihissus.  Its  original 
inhabitants  are  said  to  have  been  Thessa- 
lian  emigrants,  and  its  name  was  derived 
from  Urchomenus,  one  of  the  kings  of  the 
Minyans.  Homer  compares  its  treasures 
to  those  of  Egyptian  Thebes,  and  tells  us 
that  it  sent  30  ships  to  the  Trojan  war. 
Some  time  after  this  event  it  became  a 
member  of  the  Boeotian  confederacy.  Dur- 
ing the  Persian  war,  like  the  other  towns 
of  Bceotia,  it  abandoned  the  national  cause. 
Its  government  was  thoroughly  aristocratic, 
and  after  the  Peloponnesian  war,  when 
Thebes  became  a  democracy,  Urchomenus 
took  part  with  Sparta,  and  shared  in  its 
first  triumph  over  Thebes  ;  but  the  victory 
of  Epaminondas  at  Leuctra  (371  u.c.)  placed 
it  at  the  mercy  of  the  Thebans,  who  soon 
after  destroyed  it  by  fire,  and  sold  its  in- 
habitants as  slaves.  It  was  again  rebuilt 
during  the  Phocian  war,  but  was  a  second 
time  destroyed  in  the  reign  of  Philip  of 
Macedon,  wlio,  however,  once  more  rebuilt 
it;  but  it  never  again  became  prominent  in 
history.  The  site  is  now  occupied  by  the 
modern  village  of  Skripii. 


Orchomenus.  An  ancient  city  of  Arca- 
dia, stood  in  a  plain  surrounded  by  hills, 
which  separated  its  territory  from  that  of 
Mantinea  on  the  south  and  those  of  Pheneus 
and  Stymphalus  on  the  north.  Its  founder 
is  said  to  liave  been  Urchomenus,  the  son  of 
Lycaon,  and  several  of  its  kings  are  said  to 
have  spread  their  rule  over  all  Arcadia. 
During  the  Peloponnesian  war,  when  its 
acropolis  had  fallen  into  ruins,  and  its  last 
king,  Pisistratus,  had  been  murdered  by  an 
oligarchical  faction,  Urchomenus  began  to 
decline.  About  3G7  B.C.  three  of  its  tribu- 
tary towns  were  depopulated  to  furnish 
inhabitants  to  the  newly-founded  city  of 
Megalopolis  ;  in  313  B.C.  it  was  taken  by  the 
Macedonian  general  Cassander ;  and  ever 
afterwards  it  continued  to  be  bandied  about 
between  ditferent  belligerent  powers.  At 
the  time  of  Pausanias  it  was  still  inhabited, 
and  at  the  present  day  its  ruins  are  seen 
near  the  village  of  Kalpaki. 

Order.  This  term,  considered  in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  army,  embraces  divers  subjects. 
It  gives  an  idea  of  harmony  in  the  accom- 
plishment of  duties;  a  classification  of  corps 
or  men  ;  injunctions  emanating  from  author- 
ity ;  measures  which  regulate  service,  and 
many  tactical  details.  In  tactics,  the  natural 
order  is  when  troops  coming  upon  ordinary 
ground  are  ranged  in  line  of  battle  by  the 
prescribed  tactical  means,  and  when  they 
are  formed  in  column,  right  in  front.  The 
(ibiKjue  order  is  contradistinguished  from  the 
parallel,  and  in  general  means  every  tactical 
combination,  the  aim  of  which  is  to  produce 
an  eti'ect  upon  two  points  of  an  enemy's  line 
by  bringing  a  superior  force  to  bear  down  on 
these  two  points.  Such  combinations  consti- 
tute the  oblique  order,  whatever  manoeuvres 
may  be  used  to  accomplish  the  object.  The 
parallel  order  operates,  on  the  contrary, 
against  tlie  whole  front  of  an  enemy.  Tu- 
renne  and  Conde  fought  habitually  in  parallel 
order,  although  they  sometimes  made  a  skill- 
ful use  of  oblique  attacks.  Guibert  well  says 
that  a  contiguous  and  regular  parallel  order 
can  be  of  no  use  in  war. 

Order  Arms.  A  word  of  command  direct- 
ing that  the  musket  be  brought  down  to  the 
right  side  of  the  soldier,  the  butt  resting  on 
the  ground.  • 

Order,  Beating.  In  the  British  service, 
is  an  authority  given  to  an  individual  em- 
powering him  to  raise  men  by  beat  of  drum 
for  any  particular  regiment,  or  for  general 
service.  It  consists  of  a  warrant  which  is 
signed  by  the  secretary  at  war,  or  issued  in 
his  name  by  the  adjutant-general. 

Order  Book.  Every  company  in  the  ser- 
vice has  such  a  book,  in  which  orders  are 
written  for  the  information  of  officers  and 
men.  Order  books  are  also  kept  at  all  mili- 
tary headquarters. 

Order,  Close.  In  tactics,  comprehends 
space  of  about  one-half  pace  between  ranks. 

Order,  Entire.  When  applied  to  rank, 
means  a  straiglit  lino  composed  of  half-files. 

Order,  Extended.    Is  preparatory  to  rank 


ORDER 


370 


ORDER 


entire,  and  is  frequently  practiced  in  light 
infantry  manoeuvres.  It  comprehends  the 
opening  of  files  of  a  battalion  or  company 
standing  two  deep,  so  as  to  have  just  space 
enough  for  one  man  between  each  two.  The 
battalion  or  company,  after  it  has  obtained 
all  its  relative  distances  and  been  halted,  is 
fronted,  and  each  rear  rank  man  springs 
into  the  vacancy  when  the  word  of  command 
is  given. 

Order  of  Alcantara.  A  Spanish  military 
order.  It  was  established  by  Ferdinand  II., 
king  of  Leon  and  Castile,  in  1170.  The 
knights  wore  a  green  cross  upon  their  gar- 
ments.    See  Alcantara. 

Order  of  Amaranth.  An  order  of  mili- 
tary knighthood,  instituted  in  Sweden  by 
Queen  Christina  in  1645,  at  the  close  of  an 
annual  feast  celebrated  in  that  country,  and 
called  wirtschaft.  Their  device  was  the  cipher 
of  amarante,  composed  of  two  A"s,  the  one 
erect,  the  other  inverted,  and  interwoven 
together  ;  the  whole  inclosed  by  a  laurel 
crown,  with  the  motto,  Dolce  nella  memoria. 

Order  of  Argonauts  of  St.  Nicholas. 
"Was  the  name  of  a  military  order  instituted 
by  Charles  III.,  king  of  Naples,  in  1382, 
for  the  advancement  of  navigation,  or,  as 
some  authors  say,  merely  for  preserving 
amity  among  the  nobles.  They  wore  a 
collar  of  shells  inclosed  in  a  silver  crescent, 
from  which  hung  a  ship  with  the  device, 
Non  credo  tempori. 

Order  of  Battle.  The  arrangement  or 
disposition  of  the  different  component  parts 
of  an  army  in  one  or  more  lines,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  ground,  for  the  purpose 
of  engaging  an  enemy  by  giving  or  receiving 
an  attack,  or  in  order  to  be  reviewed,  etc. 

Order  of  Battle,  Concave.  If  the  attack 
is  made  simultaneously  on  both  wings,  and 
the  centre  is  refused,  it  is  plain  that  "the  at- 
tacking army  will  assume  a  line  of  battle 
which  will  be  concave  towards  the  enemy's 
line. 

Order  of  Battle,  Convex.  If  the  attack 
is  made  in  the  centre  of  the  enemy's  line, 
refusing  both  wings,  the  general  direction  of 
the  line  of  battle  of  the  attacking  army  will 
be  convex  towards  the  enemy's  line,  and  the 
term  '■'■convex  order  of  battle'^  is  applied  to 
it.  Other  orders  of  battle  are  named  by 
military  writers.  Their  names  will  gener- 
ally describe  the  direction  of  the  hostile 
lines  of  battle  and  the  particular  formation 
adopted  by  the  attacking  army. 

Order  of  Battle,  Oblique.  An  arrange- 
ment of  an  army  for  battle  with  one  wing 
advanced  beyond  the  other,  or  a  movement 
which  brings  the  line  in  contact  with  an 
enemy's  flank  ;  in  general,  any  combination 
which  brings  a  preponderating  force  upon 
any  point  of  the  enemy's  line.     See  Order. 

Order  of  Calatrava.  See  Calatrava, 
Order  of. 

Order  of  Knights  of  St.  Stephen.  In- 
stituted in  1561,  by  Cosmo,  duke  of  Flor- 
ence. They  wear  a  red  cross  with  a  border 
of  gold. 


Order  of  Knights  of  the  Band.  Insti- 
tuted by  Alphonso,  king  of  Spain,  in  1268. 
Their  name  proceeded  from  the  knights 
wearing  a  red  scarf,  or  lace  of  silk,  the 
breadth  of  3  inches,  which  hung  on  their 
left  shoulder. 

Order  of  Knights  of  the  Bath.  A  mili- 
tary order  in  Great  Britain,  deriving  its 
name  from  the  ceremony  of  bathing,  which 
was  performed  at  the  initiation  of  the 
knights.  The  earliest  authentic  instance  of 
this  ceremony  was  at  the  coronation  of 
Henry  IV.  (1399).  The  last  occasion  on 
which  this  ceremony  was  used  was  the  coro- 
nation of  Charles  II.,  in  1660,  after  which 
the  order  fell  into  oblivion  until  it  was  re- 
vived by  George  I.,  in  1725.  It  is  now  the 
second  in  rank  among  the  orders  of  Eng- 
land, the  order  of  the  Garter  being  the 
highest.  The  order  of  the  Bath  comprises 
three  classes :  first  class.  Knights  Grand 
Cross  (K.G.C.),  the  number  of  whom  is 
limited  to  50  military  men  and  25  civilians, 
besides  the  royal  family ;  second  class. 
Knights  Commanders  (K.C.B.),  =  102  mili- 
tary and  50  civil  ;  these  and  the  first  have 
the  title  of  Sir ;  third  class,  Companions 
(C.B.),  =  525  military  and  200  civil. 

Order  of  Knights  of  the  Redemption. 
Instituted  in  the  kingdom  of  Aragon  by 
King  James,  who  conquered  the  island  of 
Majorca,  in  1212.  Their  garments  are  white, 
with  a  black  cross  thereon. 

Order  of  Knights  Templar.  See  Templar, 
Knights. 

Order  of  Maria  Theresa.  This  order  was 
instituted  in  June,  1757,  by  the  empress 
queen  of  Hungary.  In  1765  an  interme- 
diate class,  styled  knights  commanders,  was 
added  to  the  two  classes  that  originally  com- 
posed the  order. 

Order  of  Merit.  Instituted  by  Frederick 
III.,  king  of  Prussia,  as  a  reward  to  those 
officers  whose  behavior  deserved  some  marks 
of  distinction.  The  ensign  of  this  order  is  a 
golden  star  of  eight  rays,  enameled  with  blue, 
which  is  worn  appendant  to  a  black  ribbon 
edged  with  silver.  The  motto  is  Pour  le 
tnerite. 

Order  of  Mount  Carmel.  Instituted  by 
Henry  IV.  in  1608. 

Order  of  St.  Alexander  Newski.  Or  the 
Red  Ribbon,  which  was  institutefl  by  Peter 
I.,  emperor  of  Russia  ;  but  the  czarina  Cath- 
erine I.  conferred  it  in  1725. 

Order  of  St.  Hubert.  See  Hubert,  St., 
Order  of. 

Order  of  St.  James.  See  James  of  the 
Sword,  St. 

Order  of  St.  Lazarus.     See  Lazarus. 

Order  of  St.   Louis.     See  Louis. 

Order  of  St.  Mark.  See  Mark,  St., 
Knights  of. 

Order  of  St.  Michael.  Instituted  in  1469 
by  Louis  XII.  in  honor  of  the  important 
services  done  to  France  by  that  archangel  at 
the  siege  of  Orleans,  where  he  is  supposed  to 
have  appeared  at  the  head  of  the  French 
troops,  disputing  the  passage  of  a  bridge, 


ORDER 


371 


ORDINARY 


and  to  have  repulsed  the  attack  of  tlie  Eng- 
lish, whose  affairs  ever  after  declined  in  that 
kingdom.  The  order  is  a  rich  collar,  witlj 
the  imafje  of  that  saint  pendent  thereto  ;  with 
the  inscription,  hnmenxi  fremnr  oreani. 

Order  of  St.  Michael  and  St.  George. 
This  order  of  kni<^hthu<>d,  founded  fur  the 
Ionian  Isles  and  Malta,  April  27,  1818,  was 
reorjjanized  in  March,  18G9,  in  order  to  ad- 
mit servants  of  the  crown  of  England  con- 
nected with  the  colonics. 

Order  of  St.  Patrick.  See  Patrick,  St., 
Ordkr  ok. 

Order  of  Teutonic  Knights.  Established 
towards  the  dose  of  the  I'Jth  century,  and 
thus  called,  as  chiefly  consisting  of  Germans, 
anciently  called  Teutons. 

Order  of  the  Annunciation.    See  Anndjt- 

CIADA. 

Order  of  the  Bear.    See  Bear,  Order  of. 

Order  of  the  Black  Eagle.  See  Eagle, 
Black. 

Order  of  the  Crescent.     See  Crescent. 

Order  of  the  Golden  Fleece.  See  Golden 
Flekck,  Urdkr  ok  the. 

Order  of  the  Golden  Stole.  A  Venetian 
military  order,  so  called  from  a  golden  stole, 
which  those  knights  wore  over  their  shoul- 
der, reaching  to  the  knee  both  before  and 
behind,  a  palm  and  a  half  broad.  None  are 
raised  to  tliis  order  but  patricians,  or  noble 
Venetians.  It  is  uncertain  when  this  order 
was  instituted. 

Order  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  See  Holy 
Ghost.  Ordku  ok  tiik. 

Order  of  the  Knights  of  the  Garter.  See 
Gartkk,  Order  ok  the. 

Order  of  the  Knights  of  Malta.  See  St. 
John  of  Jerisalkm. 

Order  of  the  Knights  of  St.  Jago.  In- 
stituted by  the  king  Rainico  of  Spain,  in 
commemoration  of  a  victory  obtained  against 
the  M(K)rs,  1030.  Their  ensign  is  a  red  cross 
in  the  form  of  a  sword. 

Order  of  the  Seraphim.  Sec  Seraphim, 
Obdeu  of  thk. 

Order  of  the  Sword.  See  Sword,  Order 
OF  the. 

Order  of  the  White  Eagle.  See  White 
Eaole,  Order  ok  the. 

Order,  Open.  In  tactics,  comprehends 
an  interval  of  about  3  j-ards  between  each 
rank. 

Order,  Parade.  When  a  regiment  of  horse 
or  foot,  a  troop,  or  company,  is  drawn  up 
with  the  ranks  open  and  the  oflicers  in  front, 
it  is  said  to  be  in  parade  order. 

Orderlies.  Non-commissioned  officers  and 
soldiers  appointed  to  wait  upon  generals  and 
other  officers,  to  communicate  orders  and 
carry  messages. 

Orderlies,  Standing.  Are  soldiers  who 
perinanrntly  iicrform  orderly  duty. 

Orderly  Book.  A  book  for  the  sergeants 
to  insert  the  orders  which  arc  issued  from 
time  to  time. 

Orderly  Drum.  The  drummer  that  beats 
the  orders,  and  gives  notice  of  the  hour  for 
messing,  etc.,  is  so  called. 


Orderly  Officer.  The  officer  of  the  day  ; 
especially  tlieotiicer  of  the  day  about  an  army 
heatl(|UHrttrs  in  the  field. 

Orderly  Room.  A  r(X)m  in  the  barracks, 
used  as  the  office  of  a  company. 

Orderly  Sergeant.  The  first  sergeant  of 
u  company  is  so  calletl  in  the  U.  8.  army. 

Orders.  Are  the  instructions,  injunctions, 
or  commands  issued  by  superiorofficers.  The 
orders  of  commanders  of  armies,  divisions, 
brigades,  regiments,  are  denominated  orders 
of  such  army,  division,  etc.,  and  are  either 
general  or  special.  They  are  numbered, 
general  and  special  in  separate  series,  each 
beginning  with  the  year.  In  Great  Britain 
and  other  European  countries,  and  in  the 
United  States,  orders  generally  take  the  des- 
ignation of  the  headquarters  from  which  they 
are  issued. 

Orders,  General.  Are  orders  that  are  is- 
sued to  announce  the  hours  for  roll-calls 
and  duties;  the  number  and  kind  of  order- 
lies, and  the  time  when  they  shall  be  re- 
lieved ;  police  regulations,  and  the  prohibi- 
tions required  bj- circumstances  and  localities  ; 
returns  to  be  made  and  their  forms  ;  laws  and 
regulations  for  the  army  ;  promotions  and 
appointments  ;  eulogies  or  censures  to  corps 
or  individuals,  and  generally,  whatever  may 
be  important  to  make  known  to  the  whole 
command. 

Orders,  Military.  Companies  of  knights, 
instituted  Ity  kings  and  princes  either  for 
defense  of  the  faith,  or  to  confer  marks  of 
honor  on  their  military  subjects.  See 
KNiGHT.s,and  names  of  orders  under  appro- 
priate headings. 

Orders,  Regimental.  Are  such  orders 
and  instructions  as  grow  out  of  general  or 
special  orders  from  superior  authority,  or 
proceed  immediately  from  the  commanding 
officer  of  a  regiment. 

Orders,  Special.  Are  such  as  do  not  con- 
cern the  troops  generally,  and  need  not  be 
published  to  the  whole  command  ;  such  as 
those  that  relate  to  the  march  of  some  par- 
ticular corps,  the  detaching  of  individuals, 
the  granting  requests,  etc. 

Orders,  Standing.  Are  certain  general 
r\ilcs  and  instructions,  which  are  to  be  inva- 
riably followed,  and  are  not  subject  to  the 
temporary  intervention  of  rank.  Of  this 
description  are  those  orders  which  the  per- 
manent commander  may  judge  fit  to  have 
inserted  in  the  order  books,  and  which  are 
not  to  be  altered  by  the  temporary  com- 
mander. 

Ordinaire  (Fr.).  The  soldiers'  mess  is  so 
called  among  the  French. 

Ordinary  of  Arms.  In  heraldry,  an  in- 
dex or  dictionary  of  armorial  coats,  arranged, 
not  according  to  names,  like  an  armory,  but 
according  to  the  leading  charges  in  the  re- 
spective shields,  so  as  to  enable  any  one  con- 
versant with  heraldic  language,  on  seeing  a 
shield  of  arms,  to  tell  to  whom  it  belonged. 

Ordinary  Time.  In  the  V.  S.  army  is 
quick  time,  which  is  110  steps,  or  86  yards  in 
one  minute,  or  2  miles  1013  vards  in  an  hour. 


OKDNANCE 


372 


ORDNANCE 


Ordnance.  A  general  name  for  all  kinds 
of  weapons  employed  in  war,  and  the  appli- 
ances necessary  for  their  use.  Under  the 
general  term  ordnance  and  ordnance  stores 
are  included  all  guns,  howitzers,  mortars, 
rockets,  and  projectiles  of  every  description, 
the  explosives  used  in  warfare,  all  gun-car- 
riages, limbers,  caissons,  mortar-beds,  bat- 
tery-wagons, and  traveling- forges  with  their 
equipments,  and  all  other  apparatus  and 
machines  required  for  the  service  and  ma- 
noeuvres of  artillery  at  sieges  or  in  the  field  ; 
together  with  the  materials  for  their  con- 
struction, preservation,  and  repair.  Also  all 
small-arms,  side-arms,  and  accoutrements 
for  artillery,  cavalry,  and  infantr}'^,  all  am- 
munition for  cannon  and  small-arms ;  and 
all  stores  of  expenditures  for  the  service  of 
the  various  arms,  materials  for  the  construc- 
tion and  repair  of  ordnance  buildings,  uten- 
sils and  stores  for  laboratories,  including 
standing  weights,  gauges,  and  measures,  and 
all  other  tools  and  utensils  required  for  the 
performance  of  ordnance  duty.  Harness 
and  horse  equipments  are  also  furnished  by 
the  ordnance  department.  This  general  ap- 
plication of  the  word  is  not  the  purport  of 
the  present  article  ;  it  is  its  special  significa- 
tion as  used  by  the  artillery  with  which  we 
have  to  do.  Technically  speaking,  ordnance 
is  a  term  applied  to  all  heavy  fire-arms  which 
are  discharged  from  carriages. 

History  — Although  the  battering-rams 
and  the  engines  for  projecting  missiles  em- 
ployed by  the  ancients  and  during  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  are  regarded  as  artillery,  yet  the 
military  weapons  in  use  before  the  invention 
of  fire-arms  cannot  fairly  come  under  this 
designation.  At  what  exact  date  cannon 
were  first  used  is  not  known,  but  guns  called 
"  Crakys  of  War"  were  employed  by  Ed- 
ward ill.  against  the  Scots  in  1327,  by  the 
French  at  the  siege  of  Puy  Guillaume  in 
1338,  and  by  Edward  III.  at  Crecy,  and  at 
Calais  in  1346.  The  first  cannon,  or  bombards, 
were  clumsy,  wider  at  the  mouth  than  at  the 
chamber,  and  made  of  iron  bars  hooped  to- 
gether with  iron  rings.  Ancient  cannon  were 
also  made  of  wood  wound  with  rope  or  wire, 
and  in  some  instances  were  even  occasionally 
constructed  of  leather.  The  balls  fired  from 
these  bombards  were  first  made  of  stone, 
which  was  afterwards  superseded  by  iron. 
In  the  15th  century  various  kinds  were 
known  by  the  names  of  cannon,  bombards, 
culverins,  serpentines,  etc.  Bombards  of 
great  length  and  power  were  employed  by 
Louis  XI.  during  his  Flemish  campaign  in 
1477,  some  with  stone  balls  and  some  with 
iron.  About  this  time  cannon  began  to  be 
made  of  cast  iron  instead  of  hooped  bars ; 
and  bronze  or  brass  as  material  began  to  be 
used  as  well  as  iron,  and  projectiles  were  also 
made  of  cast  iron  instead  of  stone.  The  in- 
troduction of  cast-iron  projectiles  led  to  the 
invention  of  culverins,  which  corresponded 
very  nearly  in  construction  and  appearance 
to  the  guns  of  the  present  day  ;  these  were 
in  some  instances  made  of  enormous  lengths 


from  the  erroneous  idea  that  the  range  in- 
creased with  the  length  of  the  piece.  A  re- 
markable gun  of  this  description  still  exists  at 
Dover,  England,  familiarly  known  as  "Queen 
Anne's  pocket-piece  ;"  while  it  carries  a  ball 
weighing  only  18  pounds,  it  is  more  than  28 
feet  in  length.  From  the  earliest  days  of  ar- 
tillery there  existed  short-chambered  pieces, 
which  projected  stone  balls  under  great 
angles  of  elevation ;  and  in  1478  hollow 
projectiles  filled  with  powder  began  to  be 
employed ;  but  it  is  probable  that  the  acci- 
dents which  accompanied  their  use  caused 
them  to  be  abandoned  for  the  time.  In 
1G34,  however,  this  difiiculty  was  overcome, 
and  these  pieces  were  introduced  into  the 
French  service,  forming  the  class  of  cannon 
now  known  as  mortars.  Early  attempts 
were  also  made  to  throw  hollow  projectiles 
from  culverins  and  other  long  guns,  but 
great  diflSculties  were  experienced  in  loading 
them,  and  the  accidents  to  which  they  were 
liable  caused  them  to  be  abandoned.  Sub- 
sequently, however,  the  Dutch  artillerists 
reduced  their  length  so  that  the  projectile 
could  be  inserted  in  its  place  by  hand,  and 
thus  improved  these  cannon  rapidly  came 
into  use  under  the  name  of  howitzers,  from 
the  German  Haubitz.  A  short  cannon  of 
large  caliber  for  naval  service  was  invented 
by  Mr.  Gascoigne  in  1799,  and  called  a  car- 
ronade,  after  the  Carron  Iron- Works,  Scot- 
land, where  it  was  first  made.  It  was  not 
for  many  years  after  hollow  projectiles  had 
been  used  that  it  was  accidentally  discovered 
that  the  firing  of  the  gun-charge  could  be  re- 
lied upon  to  light  the  fuze.  Prior  to  this 
a  long  fuze  lighted  from  the  outside  had 
been  used.  The  difl5culties  and  danger  in- 
curred in  loading  long  guns  with  hollow 
projectiles  delayed  their  application  to  shell- 
firing,  and  it  was  not  until  1812  that  they 
were  used  for  firing  both  solid  shot  and  shell 
at  low  angles.  In  this  year  a  gun  of  this 
class,  which  was  invented  by  Col.  Bomford, 
Chief  of  Ordnance,  U.S.A.,  was  adopted 
by  the  United  States,  and  a  number  of  these 
guns  were  used  in  the  war  with  England, 
1812-15.  About  1814  this  invention  of  Col. 
Bomford's  was  improved  upon  by  himself, 
and  the  gun  thus  improved  was  called  a 
columbiad.  The  columbiad  gave  way  about 
18-59  to  the  gun  invented  by  Gen.  Kodman. 
(See  Rodman  Gun.)  The  dimensions  of 
the  columbiads  were  first  taken  to  Europe 
by  a  young  French  oflScer,  and  thus  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Gen.  Paixhans,  who  introduced 
them,  with  certain  modifications,  into  the 
French  service  about  1822.  They  were  by 
this  means  first  made  known  to  the  rest  of 
Europe  by  the  name  of  Paixhan  gun,  and 
small  calibers  were  afterwards  used  in  the 
U.  S.  service  under  that  name.  Cannon  up 
to  this  time  were  constructed  on  the  smooth- 
bore principle  ;  the  rifle  principle,  although 
employed  by  the  Russians  in  1615,  by  the 
Prussians  in  1661,  and  by  the  Germans  in 
1696,  had  not  been  brought  into  general  use 
on  account  of  its  imperfectness.     From  1696 


ORDNANCE 


373 


ORDNANCE 


to  1833  rrniny  attempts  were  made  to  rifle 
cannon  with  more  or  less  success ;  but  al- 
though the  firing  of  smooth-bore  guns  was 
as  aberrant  as  that  of  smooth-bore  muskets, 
and  from  greater  range  even  more  so,  yet, 
since  the  gunners  were  safe  from  musketry 
lire  at  200  yards,  and  the  cannon  could  be 
directed  against  masses  of  men  with  tolerable 
certainty  up  to  three  times  that  distance, 
there  was  no  special  inducement  to  improve 
their  powers.  But  the  introductif)n  of  rifled 
small-arms  changed  the  relative  advantages  ; 
for  a  rifled  sniull-arm  might  jiick  off  the 
gunners  of  a  smooth-bore  cannon  before 
their  weapon  could  come  into  eft'ective  play. 
The  Crimean  war  set  inventors  vigorously 
to  work,  and  many  admirable  guns  have  re- 
sulted from  their  attempts,  the  gr«at  diffi- 
culty of  the  day  being  to  decide  which  is 
most  effective.  Rifled  guns  have  nearly 
superseded  smooth-bored  cannon,  except  in 
the  United  States,  which  still  gives  the  pref- 
erence to  the  latter. 

Ordnance,  Modern,  History  of.  Heavy 
modern  ordnance  dates  properly  from  the 
casting  of  the  great  Rodman  smooth-bores 
in  the  United  States.  To  the  impetus  thus 
given  may  be  ascribed  the  origin  of  the 
powerful  guns  of  the  present  day.  In  Rod- 
man's study  of  gunpowder  and  the  improve- 
ments introduced  by  him  lay  the  germ  of  all 
subsequent  progress  in  ordnance.  His  most 
important  iuvention, perfoi-ated cake potvde>\ 
was  transplanted  bodily  to  the  continent  of 
Europe,  where,  under  the  name  of  prismatic 
powder,  it  has  been  used  ever  since.  So  per- 
fect is  the  theory  of  this  powder  that  inven- 
tion and  science  toiling  over  the  subject  for 
twenty  years  has  produced  nothing  better. 
Since 'the  first  half  of  the  decade— 1860-70— 
the  United  States  has  fallen  behind  the 
nations  of  Europe  in  the  power  of  her  arma- 
ment. Having  been  committed  by  her  two 
great  inventors,  Rodman  and  Dahlgren,  to 
cast-iron  smooth-bores,  which  were  fabricated 
in  great  numbers,  her  attitude  has  been  that 
of  Micawber, — waiting  for  something  to  turn 
up.  England  occupies  tlie  other  extreme, — 
of  all  the  powers  she  has  ventured  the  greatest 
Bums  upon  the  theories  of  her  gun-makers. 
Her  private  manufacturers  have  received 
«uch  cncotiragement  at  home  or  abroad  that 
they  are  now  able  to  supply  the  whole  world. 
Their  only  great  rival  on  the  continent  is 
Krupp,  who  finds  his  market  principally  in 
Germany,  Russia,  and  Turkey. 

The  early  adoption  of  the  rifle  principle  by 
all  European  powers  placed  them  at  once  on  a 
plane  of  advancement.  The  vexed  questions 
of  breech- and  muzzle-loading  and  of  gun 
construction  have  been  decided  by  each 
nation  in  the  manner  most  satisfactory  to 
itself.  Opinions  differ  widely,  and  it  is 
probable  that  many  changes  may  be  made 
in  these  matters.  '  Still,  they  all  possess 
powerful  guns  which  hnvo  certain  features 
m  con>mon,  essential  to  hiavy  ordnance  in 
the  present  stage  of  its  development.  Large- 
grained  powder,  the  first  of  these  requisites, 


is  universally  used  (for  varieties,  see  Gw- 
powdkr).  Gr.-at  length  of  bore,  to  utilize 
the  whole  force  of  the  powder,  is  another 
characteristic.  Great  power  is  secured  by 
immense  charges  of  powder  and  weight  of 
shot.  A  caliber  of  at  least  VI  inches,  giving 
an  oblong  shot  of  about  700  p<jund8,  seems 
to  be  regarded  as  a  sine  qua  non  for  all 
armaments.  (See  Cannon,  Ordnance, 
Great  Britain,  Russia,  France,  etc.) 
England  has  taken  the  lead  in  all  these  im- 
provements, and  though  it  would  appear 
from  recent  events  that  her  choice  of  gun 
systems  is  unfortunate,  there  is  no  question 
that  all  great  advances  since  Rodman's  day 
have  been  based  upon  her  expensive  experi- 
ments. The  work  of  the  celebrated  "  Conj- 
mittce  on  Explosives,"  1875,  of  which  Col. 
Younghusband  and  Capt.  Noble  (now  a 
member  of  SirWm.  Armstrongs  firm)  were 
members,  did  more  to  this  end  than  any 
other  investigation  since  Rodman's  experi- 
ments in  gunpowder.  Acting  upon  the  ob- 
vious idea  that  the  peril  to  the  life  of  the 
gun  is  relieved  by  air-space,  the  committee 
recommended  the  enlargement  of  the  bore  at 
the  seat  of  the  charge,  or  the  use  of  a  cham- 
ber larger  than  the  bore.  This  simple  expe- 
dient led  at  once  to  an  immense  increase  in 
the  power  of  guns  while  the  pressure  endan- 
gering them  was  kept  at  a  point  lower  than 
before.  Every  good  thing  can  be  pushed  too 
far.  The  immense  charges  made  possible 
by  the  English  chamber  have  l>een  con- 
tinually added  to  by  the  Italians  in  their 
100-ton  Armstrong  monsters  and  the  vital 
air-space  reduced  till  a  charge  of  552  pounds 
of  powder  has  recently  (1880)  burst  one  of 
these  magnificent  guns. 

Nomenclature  of  Ordnance. — For  compo- 
nent parts  of  cannon  and  their  description, 
see  Cascabel,  Base  of  thk  Breech,  Base- 
line, Base-ring,  Breech,  Chase,  Astra- 
gal AND  Fillets,  Neck,  Swell  of  the 
Muzzle,  Face,  Trunnions,  Rimhases, 
Bore,  and  Reinforce.  For  recent  modifi- 
cations in  the  external  form  of  cannon,  seo 
Ordnance,  Strains  upon. 

United  States.  —  Smooth-bored.  —  Tho 
official  system  for  the  land  service  compri.«es 
the  following  smooth-bored  cannon :  Tho 
Napoleon  gun  for  field  service  (see  Napo- 
leon Gun)  and  the  mountain  howitzer  for 
mountain  and  prairie  service.  (See  How- 
itzer.) For  siege  purposes,  the  8-iiich  how- 
itzer, 8-  and  l6-inch  and  24-pounder  Coe- 
horn  mortars, — and  for  sea-coast  defense, 
18-,  15-,  and  20-inch  (Rodman)  and  10-,  13- 
and  15-inch  mortars.  No  15-inch  mortars 
have  been  yet  cast.  The  24-pounder  flank 
defense  howitzer,  as  well  as  the  S-  and  10- 
inch  smooth-bored  Rodman  and  ihe  10-inch 
sea-coast  mortar,  no  longer  belong  to  the 
system,  and  are  no  more  to  be  ca.st.  The 
13-inch  smooth-bore  is  an  experimental 
gun,  not  more  than  two  or  three  of  which 
have    been    cast.     The    smooth-bored    gun 

Erincipally  used  in  the  naval  service  is  the 
>ahlgren."      (See    Ordnance,    Constbvc- 


ORDNANCE 


374 


ORDNANCE 


TiON  OF.)  The  carronade  is  now  little  em- 
ployed. 

Rifled  Cannon. — The  rifled  cannon  adopted 
for  the  land  service  of  the  United  States  at  the 
present  time  (1880)  are,  for  the  field  service 
a  3-  and  3^-inch  rifle,  having  the  exterior 
shape  of  Rodman  guns,  but  made  of  wrought 
iron, — the  former  adopted  in  1861;  the  3.}- 
inch  gun  has  never  been  made — the  model 
was  adopted  in  1870, — and  tliree  niitrailleurs, 
viz.,  1-inch  and- |-inch  (Gatling),  adopted 
in  1868,  and  a  .45-inch  Gatling,  adopted  in 
1874,  intended  to  replace  the  ^-inch,  and  to 
use  the  service  cartridge  of  the  rifle  musket. 
In  the  siege  service  there  is  but  one  rifle  gun 
properly  belonging  to  the  system  of  the 
United  States,  viz.,  4|-inch,  of  casting,  hav- 
ing the  Rodman  shape,  but  cast  solid.  The 
30-pounder  (4.2-inch)  Parrott  so  extensively 
used  is  not  a  regulation  gun.  (See  Ordnance, 
Construction  of.)  the  weight  of  the  4i- 
inch  is  3570  pounds.  It  has  an  extreme 
length  of  133  inches.  The  twist  is  uniform, 
and  the  weight  of  the  solid  projectile  32i 
pounds,  and  of  the  charge  3}  pounds.  The 
piece  is  loaded  at  the  muzzle.  The  rifled 
sea-coast  guns  belonging  to  the  system  are  a 
10-  and  12-inch,  made  of  cast  iron,  and 
weighing  40,681  and  52,000  pounds  respect- 
ively. The  extreme  length  of  the  10-inch  is 
180,  and  of  the  12-inch  192  inches;  the 
weight  of  the  solid  shot,  292  and  620  pounds 
respectively ;  the  twist  in  each  is  uniform,  and 
both  are  muzzle-loaders.  Such  is  the  official 
system  of  the  United  States.  All  the  large 
guns  are  cast  iron  and  are  now  useless  as  an 
armament  to  cope  with  modern  armed  iron- 
clads. We  have,  however,  a  number  of  ex- 
perimental guns,  the  models  of  which  must 
be  our  immediate  reliance  in  case  of  foreign 
war.  In  making  these  experimental  rifles 
it  has  been  hold  in  view  to  utilize  as  far  as 
possible  the  cast-iron  ordnance  now  on  hand. 
They  are  all  made  of  cast-iron  cases  fitted 
with  internal  tubes  of  wrought  iron  (steel 
has  also  been  used)  after  the  plans  of  Parsons 
and  Palliser.  (See  Ordnance,  Construc- 
tion OF.)  The  12^-inch  rifle,  muzzle-loader, 
is  an  original  construction,  the  case  required 
being  larger  than  the  15-inch  smooth-bored. 
The  weight  of  gun  is  40  tons;  charge,  110 
\)0\xnAs,  hexagonal  powder ;  shot,  700  pounds. 
The  others  are  converted  guns, — the  10-inch 
rifle,  muzzle-loader,  converted  from  13-inch 
smooth-bore  by  inserting  wrought-iron  tube ; 
two  patterns  of  8-inch  rifle,  breech-  and 
muzzle-loaders,  converted  from  10-inch 
smooth-bores  by  muzzle  and  breech  inser- 
tion of  tubes.  Quite  a  number  of  the  muz- 
zle-loaders have  been  made  and  mounted. 
A  similar  gun  has  been  made  for  the  naval 
service  by  converting  the  11-inch  Dahlgren. 
Parrott  100-pounders  have  also  been  con- 
verted into  6.4-inch  breech-loaders  for  the 
navy. 

Although  the  Parrott  gun  does  not  be- 
long to  the  system  adopted  by  the  United 
States,  it  has  been  much  employed  for  both 
siege  and  sea-coast  purposes,  almost  to  the  ex- 


clusion of  other  rifled  cannon.  They  are  also 
very  generally  used  in  the  naval  service. 
There  are  eight  of  these  guns  employed  in 
the  service  of  the  United  States,  viz. :  a  300- 
pounder  (10-inch),  200-pounder  (8-inch),  and 
100-pounder  (6.4-inch),  in  use  by  both  land 
and  naval  forces;  a  60-pounder  (5.3-inch) 
and  30-pounder  (4.2-inch),  used  exclusively 
by  the  navy,  and  a  80-pounder  (4.2-inch), 
20-pounder  (3.67-inch),  and  10-pounder 
(3-inch),  employed  exclusively  by  the  land 
forces.  The  Parrott  cannon  are  all  muzzle- 
loading  and  made  of  cast  iron,  reinforced 
with  a  wrought-iron  jacket.  See  Ordnance, 
Construction  of. 

Great  Britain. — The  cannon  employed 
in  the  British  service  are  all  rifled,  and 
nearly  all  muzzle-loaders. 

Royal  Arsenal,  Woolwich. — The  guns  be- 
longing to  the  British  system,  and  made 
at  the  Royal  Arsenal,  Woolwich,  are :  for 
land  service,  an  11-inch  gun,  wrought  iron, 
muzzle-loading,  weighing  25  tons  ;  two  7- 
inch,  weighing  7  tons,  and  differing  slightly 
in  length  and  details  of  construction ;  a  16- 
pounder  (3.6-inch),  weighing  12  cwt. ;  and 
a  9-pounder  (3-inch),  weighing  8  cwt.  These 
guns  are  all  made  of  wrought  iron.  There 
are  also  an  8-inch  howitzer  weighing  46 
cwt.,  also  of  wrought  iron,  and  two  con- 
verted guns,  viz.,  a  64-pounder  (6.29-inch) 
converted  from  32-pounder,  and  an  80- 
pounder  converted  from  68-pounder  smooth- 
bore. Both  of  these  guns  are  of  cast  iron, 
with  wrought-iron  tubes,  and  were  con- 
verted according  to  the  Palliser  method. 
For  the  Woolwich  38-ton  gun,  see  Arm- 
strong Cannon.  For  sea  service  exclu- 
sively, there  are  made  at  the  Woolwich  Ar- 
senal a  12-inch,  weighing  35  tons ;  two 
8-inch,  weighing  9  tons  respectively,  of  the 
same  length,  one  having  no  preponderance, 
and  ditfering  in  other  details  of  their  con- 
struction; two  7-inch,  weighing  6.5  tons 
respectively,  differing  slightly  in  length  and 
details;  a  7-inch,  weighing  4.5  tons;  and 
9-pounder  (3-inch),  weighing  6  cwt.  These 
guns  are  all  made  of  wrought  iron,  and  are 
muzzle-loading.  For  both  land  and  sea 
service,  there  are  made  at  the  Royal  Arsenal 
a  12-inch,  weighing  25  tons;  a  10-inch, 
weighing  18  tons  ;  two  9-inch,  one  of  which 
has  no  preponderance,  the  other  a  prepon- 
derance of  5  cwt.  ;  three  64-pounders  (6.3- 
inch),  each  weighing  64  cwt.,  but  differing 
in  length  and  construction.  These  guns 
are  all  made  of  wrought  iron  ;  for  both  ser- 
vices is  used  a  64-pounder  (6.29  inch),  con- 
verted from  8-inch  smooth-bored  according 
to  the  Palliser  method.  There  are  besides 
two  bronze  guns,  one  called  the  "  boat  gun," 
a  7-pounder  (3-inch)  weighing  200  pounds; 
the  other  a  9-pounder  (3-inch),  used  in  the 
Indian  service,  and  weighing  8  cwt.  ;  also 
a  7-pounder  (.3-inch  mountain  gun  of  steel, 
and  weighing  150  pounds;  these  are  all 
muzzle-loaders.  The  9-,  10-,  11-,  and  12-inch 
calibers  have  all  steel  tubes;  one  7-ton  and 
one  6.5-ton  gun  have  tubes  of  wrought  iron. 


ORDNANCE 


375 


ORDNANCE 


Armstrong  Catmon.  —  The  guns  used  in 
the  British  service  made  by  Sir  William 
Armstrong  are  —  for  the  land  service  —  a 
12-inch  weighing  38  tons  (some  of  these 
guns  are  bored  to  12.}  inches),  an  11-inch 
weighing  25  tons,  a  7-inch  weighing  7  tons, 
a  4U-]K)under  (4.75-inch)  weighing  35cwt., 
a  25-pounder  (4-inch),  and  a  IG-pounder 
(3.0  inch)  weighing  18  and  12  cwt.  respec- 
tively, a  9-pounder  (3-inch)  weighing  6  cwt., 
a  10-inch  weighing  6  ton.'*,  having  no  pre- 
ponderance. These  guns  are  all  of  wrought 
iron  and  muzzle-loading.  There  are  also 
used  in  the  land  service,  and  of  the  same 
make,  a  7-poundcr  (3-inch)  muzzle-loading 
steel  gun  weighing  150  pounds,  an  8-inch 
muzzle-loading  howitzer  made  of  wrought 
iron  and  weighing  46  cwt.,  a  tJ4-pounder 
(G.20-inch)  converted  from  32-pounder,  and 
an  80-pounder  (0.20-inch)  converted  by  Pal- 
liser  method  from  68pounder  muzzle-load- 
ing, made  of  cast  iron  with  wrought-iron 
tubes.  The  other  guns  manufactured  by 
Sir  William  Armstrong,  and  used  in  the 
land  service,  are  all  breech-loading,  viz.  :  a 
7-inch  (screw)  weighing  72  cwt.,  a  20- 
pounder  (3.7<3-inch  screw)  weighing  16  cwt., 
a  64-pounder  (6. 4-inch  wedge)  weighing  64 
cwt.,  and  a  Catling  gun  (0.45)  weighing  3 
cwt.  84  pound.«i.  The  guns  used  in  the  sea 
service  of  this  make  are  a  12-inch  weighing 
85  tons,  an  8-inch  weighing  9  tons,  two 
7-inch  weighing  6  tons  10  cwt.  and  90  cwt. 
respectively,  and  a  9-pounder  (3-inch)  weigh- 
ing 6  cwt.  These  are  all  muzzle-loading, 
and  made  of  wrought  iron.  There  is  an- 
other muzzle  loading  gun  used  for  sea  ser- 
vice, viz.,  a  64-pounder  (6.29-inch)  con- 
verted from  8-inch,  and  weighing  71  cwt.; 
this  gun  is  of  cast  iron  with  a  wrought  iron 
tube.  The  breech-loaders  used  for  sea  ser- 
vice are  two  20-i)ounders  (3.75-inch  screw) 
weighing  15  and  13  cwt.  respectively,  40- 
pounder  (4.75-inch)  wedge  weighing  32  cwt., 
and  a  Gatling  gun  (0.ii5-inch)  weighing  7 
cwt.  35  pounds ;  these  guns  are  all  of  wrought 
iron.  For  land  and  sea  service  are  con- 
structed a  12-inch  weighing  25  tons,  a  10- 
and  0-incli  weighing  18  and  12  tons  respec- 
tively, a  64-pounder  (6  3-inch)  weighing  64 
cwt.,  a  9-nounder  (3-inch)  weighing  8  cwt., 
a  7-jK)unaer  (3-inch)  weighing  200  pounds, 
and  made  of  steel  ;  the  others  are  of  wrought 
iron,  and  all  are  muzzle-loading.  The 
breech-loading  guns  of  this  manufacture 
used  in  both  land  and  sea  service  are  a 
7-inch  (screw)  weighing  82  cwt.,  two  40- 
pounders  (4.75-inch)  screw  weigliing  35  and 
82  cwt.,  respectively,  a  12-pounder  (3-inch), 
9-pounder  (3-inch),'and  6- pounder  (2.5  inch) 
screw  weighing  8,  6,  and  3  cwt.  respectively. 
They  are  all  made  of  wrought  iron.  See 
Armstrong  Gin. 

Grrmany. — In  Germany  the  Krupp  gun 
is  almost  entirely  employed;  tliey  are  all 
breech-loading  and  constructed  of  steel.  (For 

girticular     construction,    see     Okdnance, 
ONSTRUcTioN  OF.)    Thosc  used  in  the  Ger- 
man land  service  are  a  28-centimetre  how- 


itzer weighing  9.82  tons,  caliber  in  inches 
11.023,  a  long  21-centimetre  weighing  9.84 
tons,  caliber  8.241  inches,  a  short  21-centi- 
metre weighing  8.84,  caliber  8  241  inches, 
a  short  15-centimetre  weighing  2.9  tons, 
caliber  5  869  inches,  u  12-,  9-,  8-,  and  6-cen- 
timetre, whose  calibers  are  4.735,  3.602, 
3.090,  and  2.362  inches,  and  who.se  weights 
are  1.37  tons,  and  935,649,235  pounds  respec- 
tively. In  the  sea  service  are  used  a  30i- 
centimetre  weighing  35.3  tons,  caliber  12.007 
inches,  a  short  26-centimetre  weighing  17.67 
tons,  caliber  10,236  inches,  a  long  24-centi- 
metre weighing  14.38  tons,  caliber  9.267 
inches,  and  a  short  24-centimetre.  For  both 
land  and  sea  service  are  employed  a  long 
17-centimetre  weighing  5.5  tons,  caliber 
6.771  inches,  a  short  17-centimetre,  a  long 
16-centimetre  weighing  3.03  tons,  caliber 
5.869  inches,  and  a  long  15-centimetre  weigh- 
ing 3.09  tons. 

France. — The  guns  adopted  in  the  French 
service  are  both  breech-  and  muzzle-h>ading, 
and  are,  for  the  land  service,  a  siege-gun, 
24-])ounder  rilled  breech-loading,  weigliing 
40.55  tons,  caliber  6.01  inches,  for  fortress 
guns  a  24-  and  12-pounder  rifled  muzzle- 
toading,  weighing  5953  and  3307  pounds, 
and  having  calibers  of  6.01  and  4.77  inches 
respectively.  For  siege-guns  a  24-  and  12- 
pounder  rifled  weighing  4409  and  1940 
jKninds,  whose  respective  calibers  are  6.01 
and  4.77  inches  and  muzzle-loading.  For 
fleld  artillery  a  12-,  8-,  and  4-pounder  rifled, 
weighing  respectively  1367,  1234.6,  and 
727.55  pounds,  and  whose  calibers  are  4.77, 
4.17,  and  3.40  inches  respectively,  all  muz- 
zle-loading. There  is  also  a  4-pounder  rifled 
muzzle-loading  mountain  piece  weighing 
220.5  pounds,  whose  caliber  is  3.40  inches. 
In  the  sea-coast  service  there  are  a  30-pounder 
(muzzle-loader)  not  hooped,  weighing  61 
cwt.,  caliber  6.48  inches,  a  30-pounder  (muz- 
zle-loader or  breech-loader)  hooped,  weigh- 
ing 70.86  cwt.,  caliber  5.46  inches,  a  howitzer 
22-centimetre  rifled  and  hooped,  caliber  8.66 
inches.  In  the  French  sea-service  are  a  32- 
centimetre  weighing  34.5  tons,  caliber  12.599 
inches,  and  a  27-centimetre  weighing  21.7 
tons,  caliber  10.803  inches.  Both  of  these 
guns  are  breech-loading.  Vot  both  land  and 
sea  service  are  used  a  24-centimetre  weigh- 
ing 13.8  tons,  caliber  9.499  inches,  a  19-cen- 
timetre  weighing  7.9  tons,  caliber  7.638 
inches,  a  16-ccntimetre  weighing  98.42  cwt., 
caliber  6.484  inches,  a  14-centimetro  weigh- 
ing 52.26  cwt.,  caliber  5.456  inches.  The 
guns  used  for  sea  service  only,  or  for  both 
land  and  sea  service,  are  all  nuide  of  cast 
iron,  tubed  with  steel  nearly  to  the  trunnions, 
and  strengthened  near  the  breech  by  steel 
rings  heated  and  shrunk  on.  The  fortress 
guns,  most  of  the  siege,  and  all  the  lield- 
guns  are  made  of  bronze.  The  large  breech- 
loaders use  the  solid  broeih-screw  /Vrj/K-^i/re. 
The  term  "  pounder"  iu<  applied  to  certain 
guns  has  no  reference  to  the  weight  of  the 
oblong  projix-tile  used,  but  to  the  weight  of 
the  corresponding  spherical  solid  shot. 


ORDNANCE 


376 


ORDNANCE 


Russia. — In  the  Russian  service  the 
Krupp  gun  is  rapidly  taking  the  place  of  all 
others;  there  are,  however,  still  used  fur  sea 
service,  a  12-inch  and  6-inch  breech-loader 
weighing  40  tons  and  3.92  tons  respectively  ; 
also  a  12.2-pounder  boat-gun  weighing  792 
pounds,  and  for  both  land  and  sea  service 
an  8-inch  breech-loader  weighing  8.754  tons, 
and  an  8-inch  breech-loading  mortar,  weigh- 
ing 3.21  tons.  These  guns  are  all  made  of 
steel. 

Ordnance,  Ammunition  for.  For  con- 
venience in  loading  and  safety  in  transpor- 
tation, cannon  ammunition  is  prepared  in 
a  peculiar  manner  and  with  great  care. 
The  ammunition  so  prepared  is  classified  into 
Held  and  mountain,  siege  and  sea-coast  am- 
munition. 

Ammunition  for  Field  Serviceis  composed 
of  solid  shot,  shells,  spherical  case-shot,  and 
canister-shot  (see  headings).  In  mountain 
service  solid  shot  are  omitted.  A  stand  of 
ammunition  is  composed  of  the  projectile, 
sabot,  straps,  cartridge-bag,  cylinder,  and 
cap.  The  projectile  is  secured  by  two  tin 
straps,  fastened  at  the  ends  with  tacks  driven 
into  the  sabot.  The  straps  cross  each  other 
at  right  angles  ;  for  solid  shot,  one  strap 
passing  through  a  slit  in  the  other  ;  for  hol- 
low projectiles,  both  straps  are  fastened  to  a 
tin  ring  which  surrounds  the  fuze-hole. 
A  round  of  canister  for  the  field  service 
consists  of  a  tin  cylinder  filled  with  cast-iron 
shot,  which  slips  over  the  end  of  the  sabot, 
to  which  it  is  secured  with  small  nails. 
The  materials  of  which  cartridge-bags  are 
made  are  flannel,  wildbore,  or  serge ;  the 
fabric  should  be  soft  and  closely  woven,  to 
prevent  the  powder  sifting  out.  Fabrics  of 
cotton  and  flax  are  not  used,  because  the 
powder  sifts  through  them,  and  they  are 
more  apt  to  leave  fire  in  the  gun  than 
woolen  stutFs.  A  cartridge-bag  for  the  field 
service  is  made  of  two  pieces, — a  rectangular 
piece  for  the  sides,  and  a  circular  piece  for 
the  bottom.  The  charge  is  determined  by 
measurement.  The  cylinder  and  cap  are 
made  of  stout  paper.  The  cylinder  is  used 
to  give  stift'ness  to  the  cartridge  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  sabot  and  bag ;  the  cap  covers 
the  exposed  portion  of  the  bag,  is  drawn  oft' 
before  loading,  and  placed  over  the  projec- 
tile, or  thrown  away.  The  cartridge-bag  is 
attached  to  the  projectile  by  tying  it  around 
the  grooves  of  the  sabot  with  twine. 

Fixed  Ammunition. — Ammunition  thus 
prepared  is  called  fixed  ammunition.  It  is 
used  in  the  field  and  mountain  service  for 
smooth-bore  guns  and  howitzers.  For 
rifled  guns  the  bag  and  projectile  are  car- 
ried separately.  The  term  strapped  ammu- 
nition is  applied  when  the  projectile  is  at- 
tached to  a  sabot  without  grooves ;  and  to 
give  a  proper  form  to  the  cartridge-bag,  the 
mouth  is  closed  with  a  cartridge-block, 
which  resembles  a  sabot ;  hence  the  name 
strapped  ammunition.  This  kind  of  car- 
tridge is  pearly  obsolete. 

Packing.,  etc. — As  soon  as  ammunition  is 


finished  it  should  be  gauged,  to  see  that  it 
is  of  the  proper  caliber  ;  it  is  afterwards 
packed  in  boxes  containing  10  rounds  each. 

Siege  and  Sea-coast  Ammunition. — On  ac- 
count of  the  great  weight  of  siege  and  sea- 
coast  ammunition,  the  cartridge-bag  and 
projectile  are  carried  separately.  The  car- 
tridge-bags for  large  charges  of  powder  are 
made  of  two  pieces  of  woolen  stuff",  or  of  a 
paper  tube  with  a  woolen  cloth  bottom. 
The  former  are  preferred  for  rapid  firing. 
For  sea-coast  howitzers  the  bag  should  till 
the  chamber  ;  if  the  piece  be  fired  with  a  re- 
duced charge,  a  cartridge-block  should  be 
inserted  into  the  bag  to  give  it  proper  size. 
For  mortars  the  bag  is  only  used  to  carry 
the  powder,  and  when  the  piece  is  loaded, 
the  powder  is  poured  into  the  chamber; 
bags  of  any  suitable  size  will  answer  for  this 
service.  For  hot-shot  cartridges  bags  are 
made  double,  by  putting  one  bag  within 
another.  Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that 
the  bags  are  free  from  holes.  For  ricochet 
firing,  or  other  occasions  when  very  small 
charges  are  required,  a  cartridge-bag  of 
inferior  caliber  may  be  used.  In  the  siege 
and  sea-coast  services,  solid  shot  are  trans- 
ported and  loaded  loosely,  but  hollow  pro- 
jectiles are  strapped  to  sabots,  to  prevent  the 
fuze  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  pow- 
der of  the  charge.  The  sabots  are  made 
from  thick  plank,  and  the  straps  are  fastened 
as  in  the  field  service. 

Ordnance,  Carriages  for.  The  carriages 
for  cannon  may  be  classified  from  their  use 
into  field,  mountain,  prairie,  and  sea-coast 
carriages,  and  mortar-beds.  (See  particular 
headings.)  They  may  be  further  divided 
into  those  required  for  the  immediate  service 
and  transportation  of  cannon,  as  gun-car- 
riages and  mortar-beds,  and  those  employed 
for  the  transportation  of  ammunition,  im- 
plements and  materials  for  repairs,  as  cais- 
sons, mortar-wagons,  forges,  and  battery- 
wagons.  The  field-,  mountain-,  prairie-,  and 
siege-carriages  being  required  for  the  trans- 
portation of  their  pieces  are  similar  in  their 
construction  ;  those  for  sea-coast  purposes 
diff"er  materially  from  the  others. 

Nomenclature  of  Artillery  Carriage. — The 
principal  parts  of  the  field-carriage  and  of 
all  artillery  carriages,  other  than  the  sea- 
coast,  are:  stock,  of  squared  wood  in  two 
pieces,  which  serves  to  connect  the  gun-car- 
riage with  the  limber,  and  to  direct  the 
piece;  it  includes  the  head,  to  which  the 
sponge-bucket  ring  is  attached ;  groove,  trail, 
or  curved  part  of  the  stock,  which  rest  on 
the  ground  when  the  piece  is  unlimbered; 
rounding  of  the  trail,  trail-plate,  a  piece  of 
iron  fastened  to  the  end  of  the  trail  and  ter- 
minated b}'  a  very  strong  ring,  called  the 
lunette,  which  receives  the  pintle-hook  by 
which  the  limber  is  attached ;  pointing-rings, 
large  and  small,  which  receive  the  hand- 
spike ;  trail-handles,  on  each  side  of  the  stock 
for  the  purpose  of  raising  it;  prolonge- 
hooks,  on  wh'ch  the  prolonge  is  coiled ; 
wheel-guard  plates,  lock-chain,  used  to  keep 


ORDNANCE 


377 


ORDNANCE 


tlie  wheel  from  turning;  it  is  on  the  side  of 
the  carriage,  and  has  an  eye-plate  and  bolt; 
sponge  and  rammer  stop,  sponge-chain  and 
hasp,  ear-plate  for  sponge-chain  and  hasp; 
ear-plate  to  support  worm  ;  key-chain  and 
key ;  elevating-screw ;  the  latter  has  a  handle 
with  four  prongs;  elevating-screw  box,  ele- 
vating-screw bed,  rondelles,  which  connect 
cheeks  and  stock  ;  cheeks,  two  pieces  of  wood 
between  wliich  the  gun  rests  ;  washer-hooks 
for  handsjiike,  washer-hook  for  lock-chain, 
undi-r-strap,  riglit  sponge-hook,  sponge  and 
worm-hook,  handspike-rings,  trunnion- 
jihitcs,  into  the  beds  or  depressions  of  which 
the  trunnions  tit;  cap-scjuares,  cap-square 
chain,  key-chain  and  key.  Axle,  including 
axle-body,  of  wood;  axle-tree,  of  iron,  axle- 
arm,  the  rounded  extremities  of  the  axle- 
tree  on  which  the  wheels  revolve  ;  linch-pin, 
linch-pin  washer  and  hook.  Wiieels  ;  each 
includes  nave,  nave-bands,  nave-box,  spokes, 
felloes,  tire.  In  the  new  model  for  field 
service,  cannoneers'  seats  arc  on  the  axle  be- 
tween the  cheeks  and  wheels  ;  each  consists 
of  an  iron  chair  supported  on  a  rectangular 
bar  inserted  in  a  vertical  iron  socket,  and 
resting  on  a  strong  steel  spring;  the  socket 
is  supported  by  two  brass  braces  fastened  to 
the  axle  by  axle-straps  ;  to  an  iron  cross- 
piece  at  the  top  of  the  socket  are  attached 
two  iron  braces,  which  help  to  support  the 
iron  foot-rest  attached  to  the  brass  braces. 
The  chair  has  arms  and  faces  to  the  trail. 
This  refers  to  the  carriage  proper,  considered 
only  in  relation  to  the  tire  of  the  piece,  or  as 
a  two-wheeled  carriage.  To  suit  it  to  the 
easy  and  rapid  transportation  of  its  load  it 
must  be  converted  into  a  four-wheeled  car- 
riage, which  is  done  by  attaching  it  to  an- 
other two- wheeled  carriage  called  a  limber. 

The  limber  consists  of  a  similar  axle-body, 
axle,  and  two  wheels,  and  on  these  rests  a 
frame-work,  to  receive  the  tongue.  On  top 
of  the  whole  is  an  ammunition-box,  the  top 
of  which  forms  a  seat  for  three  cannoneers. 
In  rear  of  the  axle-tree  is  a  pintle-hook  to 
receive  the  lunette  of  the  trail.  Connected 
I  with  the  frame- work  in  front  is  a  fixed  splin- 
j  ter-bar  with  four  hooks,  to  which  arc  at- 
tached the  traces  of  the  wheel  horses.  At 
j  the  extremity  of  the  tongue  are  placed  two 
I  pole-chains,  by  which  the  tongue  or  pole  is 
I  held  up,  and  a  pole-yoke  with  two  movable 
I      branches,  to  prevent,  as  much  as  po.ssible,  the 

?5le  from  oscillating  and  striking  the  horses. 
he  principal  parts  of  a   field-limber  are: 
pole,   including    pole-pad;    pole-straps,    by 
which  the  pole  is  guided  when  the  team  is 
i      hitched ;  pole-strap  iron,  pole-yoke,  mutl"  and 
1      collar,  pole-yoke  branches,  to  which  arc  at- 
tache<l  sliding-rings  ;  splinter-bar,  to  which 
the  horses  are  hitched  by  four  trace-hooks  ; 
end-bands,  middle-bands,  pole-prop,  includ- 
ing socket,  ferrule,  and  chain  ;  hounds,  pieces 
of  wood  upon   which  the  chests  rest,  con- 
necting the  axle-body  with  the  splinter-bar; 
forks,  pieces  of  wood  between  the  hounds, 
forming   an   opening   in   which   the  polo  is 
placed;    fork-stmp,"  foot-boards,   foot-board 
25 


brackets,  chest,  chest-handles,  cover,  of  wood ; 
cover-plate,  of  copper;  turnbuckle,  hasp, 
back-stay,  front-stay,  stay-pins,  stay-pin 
keys,  under  strap,  pintle-hook,  on  rear  part 
of  axle-tree,  which  attaches  the  limber  to  the 
carriage ;  pintle-hook  key,  axle,  wheels. 
The  field-carriages  employed  in  the  U.  8, 
service  are  three,  one  for  the  3-inch  rifie  car- 
riage (which,  with  slight  modifications,  is 
adapted  to  the  1-inch  mitraillcur),  one  for 
the  r2-pouiider,  and  one  for  the  j-inch  and 
.4.!>-inch  mitraillcur.  Thecorresponding  parts 
of  these  carriages  difler  only  in  their  dimen- 
sions.    All  limbers  are  similar. 

Mountain-Carriage. — The  mountain-car- 
riage differs  in  construction  from  the  field- 
carriage  inasmuch  as  the  stocks  and  cheeks 
are  formed  of  the  same  piece  by  holhtwing 
out  the  head  of  the  stock,  the  wheels  are 
smaller  and  the  axle-tree  is  made  of  wood, 
the  arms  being  protected  from  wear  by  skeans. 
It  is  arranged  for  draught  by  attaching  a 
pair  of  shafts  to  the  trail.  The  pack-saddle 
and  its  harness  are  constructed  to  carry  sev- 
erally the  howitzer  and  shafts,  the  carriage, 
or  two  ammunition-chests;  or  it  enables  an 
animal  to  draw  the  carriage  with  the  howit- 
zer mounted  upon  it. 

Prairie-Carriage. — The  prairie-carriage  is 
designed  to  carry  the  mountain  howitzer, 
and  is  similar  to  the  mountain-carriage  in 
form  ;  but  being  exclusively  for  draught,  the 
axle-tree  is  of  iron,  and  the  wheels  are  made 
higher  and  the  distance  between  them  greater 
than  in  the  mountain-carriage.  It  has  a  lim- 
ber and  is  drawn  by  two  horses  abreast,  as  in 
field-carriages.  The  ammunition  is  packed 
in  mountain  ammunition-chests,  two  of 
which  are  carried  on  the  limber. 

Siege-Carriages. — There  are  three  different 
kinds  of  siege-carriages  used  in  the  U.  S. 
service,  one  for  the  4i-inch  rifle,  another  on 
which  the  30-pounder  Parrott  is  mounted, 
and  a  third  for  the  8-inch  howitzer,  being  the 
old  12-pounder,  18-pounder,  and  24-pounder 
siege-carriages  modified  ;  these  are  all  con- 
structed in  the  same  manner,  and  ditfer  only 
in  their  dimensions.  Siege-carriages  are  simi- 
lar to  the  field-carriage  in  construction  (see 
Field-<akriage),  the  principal  dift'erence 
being  in  the  manner  in  which  they  are  joined 
to  the  limbers.  Projecting  upwards  from 
the  limber  and  in  rear  of  the  axle-tree  is 
placed  u  pintle,  which  enters  a  hole  made  in 
the  trail  from  the  under  side,  and  a  la-shing 
chain  and  hook  keep  the  two  part5  together 
when  once  in  position  ;  the  weight  of  the 
stock  bearing  on  the  rear  of  the  limber  re- 
lieves the  horses  of  the  weight  of  the  |X)le, 
which  is  long  and  heavy.  On  the  upper 
surface  of  the  checks  near  the  rcjir  ends  are 
placed  two  projecting  bolts,  which  with  the 
curve  of  the  cheeks  form  resting-places  for 
the  trunnions,  when  the  piece  is  in  position 
for  transportation.  They  are  called  travel- 
ing trunnion-bwJs.  "When  the  piece  is  in 
this  position  the  breech  rests  upon  the 
bolster,  which  is  a  curved  block  of  wood 
bolted  to  the  upper  side  of  the  stock. 


ORDNANCE 


378 


OEDNANCE 


Sea-Coast  Carriages  are  divided  into  bar- 
bette front-pintle  and  barbette  centre-pintle 
carriages,  casemate,  and  flank-defense  car- 
riages ;  depending  upon  the  part  of  the  work 
in  which  they  are  mounted.  The  casemate- 
carriage  difters  from  the  barbette  in  being 
much  lower.  Sea-coast  carriages  are  now 
chiefly  made  of  wrought  iron.  All  are  com- 
posed of  two  principal  parts,  viz. :  the  gun- 
carriage  and  chassis.  The  gun-carriage  is 
composed  of  two  cheeks,  held  together  by 
two  plates  of  boiler-iron,  called  the  front 
and  rear  transoms  respectively.  Each  cheek 
is  formed  of  two  pieces  of  boiler-iron  cut  to 
a  triangular  shape,  separated  at  the  edges  by 
interposing  the  vertical  portion  or  web  of  a 
T-shaped  bar.  The  horizontal  branches  pro- 
ject over  each  side  to  form  a  double  rim, 
which  gives  stiffness  to  the  cheeks.  Flat 
bars  of  iron  are  also  placed  between  the 
plates  at  suitable  intervals  to  stiff'en  the 
cheeks  in  the  direction  in  which  the  weight 
and  recoil  of  the  piece  bear  upon  them.  All 
these  parts  are  held  together  by  screw-bolts. 
The  motion  to  and  from  battery  is  regulated 
in  the  8-  and  10-inch  carriages  by  a  pair  of 
eccentric  truck-wheels,  called  manoeuvring- 
wheels,  which  work  on  an  axle-tree  placed 
underneath  and  a  little  in  front  of  the  centre 
of  the  trunnions.  When  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  check  the  recoil  of  the  gun-carriage, 
the  wheels  are  thrown  out  of  gear  by  means 
of  a  handspike  inserted  in  the  socket  at- 
tached to  the  end  of  the  axle-tree,  and  the 
carriage  moved  on  sliding  friction.  When 
the  gun  is  to  be  moved  into  battery,  the 
wheels  are  thrown  into  gear  in  a  similar 
manner,  and  the  front  of  tlie  carriage  moves 
on  rolling  friction.  The  manojuvring-wheels 
mentioned  above  are  fixed  on  the  projecting 
ends  of  the  axle-tree,  the  axis  of  the  wheel 
being  eccentric  with  the  axis  of  the  axle- 
tree.  These  eccentrics  are  so  arranged  that 
when  the  centres  of  the  wheels  are  at  their 
lowest  points,  the  surface  of  the  wheels  bear 
on  the  rails  of  the  chassis,  and  raise  the  gun- 
carriage  from  it ;  and  when  the  centres  are 
at  their  highest  points,  the  surfaces  of  the 
wheels  do  not  touch  the  rails,  and  the  gun- 
carriage  is  in  contact  with  them.  In  case 
there  is  no  socket  connected  with  the  end  of 
the  axle-tree,  the  wheel  is  thrown  into  or 
out  of  gear,  that  is,  made  to  bear  on  the  rail 
of  the  chassis,  or  relieved  from  it,  by  turn- 
ing the  axle-tree  with  a  wrench  placed  on 
the  hexagonal  end.  In  the  15-inch  carriage 
there  are  two  pairs  of  manoeuvring-whecls, 
one  pair  being  placed  in  front  as  above  de- 
scribed, and  the  other  pair  near  the  rear  end 
of  the  carriage.  In  all  sea-coast  carriages 
except  the  flank  casemate  the  elevation  and 
depression  are  given  by  a  lever,  the  point  of 
which  works  in  a  ratchet  cut  in  the  breech 
of  the  piece.  The  fulcrum  (ratchet-post) 
is  made  of  cast  iron  and  rests  on  the  rear 
transom  of  the  gun-carriage.  It  has  several 
notches  for  adjusting  the  position  of  the  ele- 
vating bar.  The  chassis  is  a  movable  rail- 
way on  which   the  gun-c9,rr,iage  moves  to 


and  from  battery.  It  is  composed  of  two 
wrought-iron  rails  inclined  3°  to  the  hori- 
zon, and  united  by  transoms  as  in  the  gun- 
carriage.  In  addition  to  the  transoms,  there 
are  several  diagonal  braces  to  give  stiffness 
to  the  chassis.  For  the  10-inch  and  smaller 
carriages,  the  cha.s.sis-rails  are  single  beams 
of  rolled  iron,  15  inches  deep  ;  for  all  cali- 
bers above,  the  rails  are  made  of  long  rec- 
tangular pieces  of  boiler-plate  and  T-iron, 
in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  the  cheeks  of 
the  gun-carriage.  In  order  to  move  the 
carriage  horizontally  in  the  operation  of 
aiming  the  piece,  the  chassis  is  supported  on 
traverse  wheels,  which  roll  on  circular  plates 
of  iron,  fastened  to  a  bed  of  solid  masonry, 
called  the  traverse  circles.  The  motion  of 
the  gun-carriage  is  checked  front  and  rear, 
by  pieces  of  iron  bolted  to  the  top  of  the 
rails,  called  hurters  and  counter-hurters ; 
and  it  is  prevented  from  slipping  off  side- 
ways by  friction  rollers  and  guides,  which 
are  bolted  to  the  cheeks  and  transoms.  In  a 
late  modification  of  the  15-inch  carriage, 
the  front  eccentric  axle  is  replaced  by  an  or- 
dinary one,  dispensing  with  axle-pawls  and 
friction-bands,  the  handspike  pawls  are  made 
double  instead  of  single,  with  a  spring  to 
keep  them  out  of  the  ratchets,  the  front  set 
of  transoms  and  diagonal  braces  are  removed 
from  the  chassis,  and  pneumatic  or  hydraulic 
buflers  to  check  the  recoil  are  put  in  with 
thick  braces.  When  the  rear  manceuvring- 
wheels  are  out  of  gear,  the  top  carriage 
touches  the  rails  of  the  chassis  and  moves  on 
sliding  friction,  and  when  they  are  in  gear 
the  front  wheels  are  also  made  to  touch  the 
rails  and  the  top  carriage  moves  on  rolling 
friction.  To  prevent  the  rear  manoeuvring- 
wheels  from  working  out  of  gear  while  the 
gun  is  being  run  from  battery,  or  jumping 
in  gear  when  the  gun  is  fired,  pawls  are  pro- 
vided for  locking  the  rear  axle.  When  no 
pawls  are  provided  for  locking  the  eccentric 
axle,  it  is  often  necessary  for  one  cannoneer 
to  remain  embarred  in  the  axle-socket  to 
prevent  the  axle  from  flying  out  of  gear. 
The  15-inch  carriage  allows  an  elevation  of 
about  32°  and  a  depression  of  about  C°, 
unless  when  fitted  with  pneumatic  buffers, 
when  no  more  than  25°  elevation  can  be 
given.  With  the  hydraulic  buffer  which 
passes  along  the  centre  of  the  chassis  and  is 
little  used  in  the  U.  S.  service  the  elevation 
is  still  further  diminished.  The  10-inch 
rifle  and  13-inch  smooth-bore  are  used  with 
the  13-inch  carriage,  and  the  12-inch  rifle 
and  15-inch  smooth-bore  on  the  15-inch 
carriage;  the  20-inch  gun  has  a  separate 
carriage.  The  flank-casemate  carriage  is 
adapted  to  the  mounting  of  the  24-pounder 
iron  howitzer  in  the  flanks  of  casemate  bat- 
teries. Several  modifications  have  been  in- 
troduced into  the  carriages  for  the  experi- 
mental rifled  guns.  For  the  largest  calibers 
the  chassis-rails  are  deeper  in  rear  than  in 
front.  The  pintle,  set  in  a  heavy  flanged 
block  of  cast  iron,  is  in  front  of  the  chassis, 
to  which  it  is  attached  by  a  strap  or  heavy 


ORDNANCE 


379 


ORDNANCE 


plate  of  iron.  The  top  currin^c  is  ma- 
jKijuvred  by  chain-gearing  worked  by  u  cap- 
stan near  the  rear  of  the  chassis.  The  ele- 
vation is  given  by  a  wheel  with  projecting 
spokes  on  the  side  of  the  top  carriage,  which 
is  geared  to  work  a  toothed  arc  attached  to 
the  breech  of  the  gun,  the  reading  being 
given  by  a  nointer  on  a  diul-plate  above  the 
wheel.  'Rubber  butlers  are  placed  at  the 
rear  transom  of  the  chassis  to  assist  the 
cylinders  to  take  up  the  recoil.  Friction- 
plates  attached  by  india-rubber  ends  to  the 
rear  transom  take  the  place  of  cylinders  in 
certain  smaller  carriages.  In  some  cases  the 
traverse-wheels  are  made  to  relieve  the  pin- 
tle of  part  of  the  strain  by  grooving  them 
to  run  on  heavy  traverse-rails  and  inclining 
them  towards  the  pintle. 

Mortar- Beds. — Mortars  are  fired  from  a 
bed;  in  the  U.  S.  service  there  are  three 
kinds  of  mortar-beds  in  use  in  the  siege  ser- 
vice ;  the  8-inch,  10-inch,  and  the  Coehorn  ; 
the  first  two  diticr  only  in  dimensions.  They 
are  made  of  wrought  iron  and  put  together 
after  the  manner  of  the  sea-coast  gun-car- 
riage. The  different  parts  are  the  cheeks, 
which,  like  those  of  the  gun-carriage,  are 
triangular  in  shape,  and  two  transoms  con- 
necting the  cheeks  together.  At  the  end  of 
each  cheek  are  projections,  called  front  and 
rear  notches,  underneath  which  the  cannon- 
eers embar  with  their  handspikes  to  move 
the  bed  on  the  platform  ;  there  are  also  two 
front  and  two  rear  mananivring-bolts  for  the 
same  purpose.  The  elevation  and  depression 
are  given  as  in  the  gun-carriage  by  embar- 
ring  with  the  iron  elevating  bar  through  the 
ftilcrum  into  the  ratchets  on  the  breech  of 
the  mortar.  The  Coehorn-bed  is  made  of  a 
block  of  oak  wood,  in  one  piece,  or  two 
pieces  joined  together  with  bolts.  A  recess 
for  the  trunnions  and  part  of  the  breech  is 
made  in  the  top  of  the  bed,  and  the  trun- 
nions are  kept  in  their  places  by  plates  of 
iron  bolted  down  over  them.  Two  iron  han- 
dles are  bolted  to  the  bed  on  each  side,  by 
which  four  men  can  carry  the  bed  with  the 
mortar  in  its  place,  the  entire  weight  being 
only  296  pounds.  Sea-coast  mortar-beds  are 
similar  to  those  for  siege  purposes,  but  they 
have  eccentric  truck-wlieels  for  muna'uvring 
the  mortar-bed  on  the  platform  and  the  ma- 
noeuvring-bolts  are  omitted.  The  13-inch 
sea-coast  mortar  is  now  mounted  upon  a 
centre  pintle-carriage.  The  usual  bed  now 
become  the  top  carriage,  is  placed  upon  a 
chassis  resting  on  a  platform.  The  top  car- 
riage has  a  crane  attached  to  the  left  cheek, 
and  to  the  inside  of  the  right  cheek  is  at- 
tached a  pawl  worked  frt)m  the  front,  for 
locking  the  eccentric  axle  in  and  out  of  gear, 
and  the  carriage  is  strengthened  by  an  ad- 
ditional rear  transom  about  5  inches  wide, 
the  pipe  being  omitted.  The  chassis  has  the 
usual  appliance  for  throwing  this  class  of 
carriages  into  gear,  and  in  addition  an 
eccentric  a.xle  placed  at  right  angles  to  and 
supported  by  a  double  front  transom,  and 
carrying  u  traverse  wheel,  by  means  of  which 


motion  is  communicated  to  the  chassis.  The 
chassis  is  otherwise  transomed  and  braced  in 
accordance  with  the  system.  Ileretofore 
nearly  all  sea-coast  carriages  were  made  of 
wood,  but  in  consequence  of  the  great  diffi- 
culty of  preserving  this  material  from  decay, 
especially  when  exposed  to  the  dampness  of 
casemates,  they  have  nearly  all  been  re- 
placed by  wrought  iron.  The  carriages 
principally  employed  for  the  transportation 
of  ammunition,  implements,  and  materials 
for  repairs,  are  caissons,  mortar-wagons, 
forges,  and  battcry-wagtms. 

The  Caix.fon. — Caissons  are  used  for  con- 
veying ammunition  for  a  field-battery  ;  all 
are  similar  in  form.  It  is  a  fuur-wheelcd 
carriage,  consisting  of  two  parts,  one  of 
which  is  a  limber  similar  to  that  i>f  the  gun- 
carriage,  and  connected  in  a  similar  way  by 
a  wooden  stock  and  lunette.  On  the  axle- 
body  of  the  rear  part  and  parallel  to  the 
stock  are  placed  three  rails,  upon  which  are 
fastened  two  ammunition-chests,  one  behind 
the  other,  and  similar  to  the  one  on  the  lim- 
ber ;  so  that  the  caisson  has  three  ammuni- 
tion-chests, which  will  seat  9  cannoneers. 
The  interior  compartments  of  the  ammuni- 
tion-chests vary  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  ammunition  with  which  they  are  loaded. 
In  rear  of  the  last  chest  is  placed  a  spare- 
wheel  axle  of  iron,  with  a  chain  and  toggle 
at  the  end  of  it.  On  the  rear  end  of  the 
middle  rail  is  placed  a  carriage  hook  similar 
to  a  pintle-hook,  to  which  the  lunette  of  a 
gun-carriage  whose  limber  has  become  dis- 
abled may  be  attached,  and  the  gun  carried 
oft"  the  field.  The  caisson  has  the  same 
turning  capacity  and  mobility  as  the  gun- 
carriage,  so  that  it  can  follow  the  piece  in  all 
its  manoeuvres,  if  necessary.  It  also  carries 
a  spare-wheel,  spare-pole,  etc.  The  princi- 
pal parts  of  the  caisson  are:  stock,  or  mid- 
dle-rail; it  has  an  iron  lunette  on  its  front 
end ;  side-rails,  front  foot-board,  rear  foot- 
board, middle-chest,  rear-chest,  spare-wheel 
axle;  it  has  a  body,  two  ribs,  and  a  chain 
and  toggle  to  secure  the  wheel ;  there  are 
also  two  stays  for  the  axle  ;  lock-chains,  fas- 
tened to  lock-chain  bridles  under  the  front 
ends  of  the  side-rails,  and  held  up  by  lock- 
chain  hooks  fastened  to  the  outside  of  the 
side-rails ;  spare-pole,  spare-pole  key,  key- 
plate,  chain,  and  pin  :  the  key-plate  is  fas- 
tened to  the  under  slide  of  the  lunette;  the 
key  is  attached  to  the  left  side  of  the  stock 
by  a  chain  and  eye-pin  ;  carriage-hook,  for 
attaching  a  carriage  that  has  lost  its  limber; 
wheel-guard  plates,  spare-pole  ring,  held  by 
the  axle-strap;  ring-bolt  for  spare  hand- 
spike, key-rilate  and  key,  on  the  right  side 
of  the  middle-rail;  key-plate,  chain,  and 
key  for  the  shovel-handle,  on  the  inside  of 
the  right  side-rail ;  middle  assembling-bar, 
of  iron  ;  it  has  two  ears  in  the  middle  to 
serve  as  stay-plates  for  the  middle-chests, 
and  a  slot  for  the  axe  on  the  right  of  the 
middle-rail;  rear  assembling-bar;  it  sup- 
ports the  spare-wheel  axle,  and  has  a  slot  for 
the  pickaxe  on  the  left  of  the  middle-rail. 


ORDNANCE 


380 


ORDNANCE 


Axle,  the  axle-body,  being  notched  to  re- 
ceive the  middle-rail  and  tenoned  to  fit  into 
the  notches  in  the  side-rails;  staples  for  tool- 
handles  ;  they  are  driven  into  the  top  of  the 
axle-body  in  front  of  the  iron  axle-tree,  one 
for  the  shovel-handle  near  the  right  side- 
rail,  the  other  for  the  handle  of  the  pickaxe 
on  the  left  of  the  middle-rail.  Wheels  of  all 
artillery  carriages  are  similarly  constructed ; 
they  differ,  however,  in  the  size  and  strength 
of  certain  parts,  depending  on  the  size  of 
the  carriage  to  which  they  are  attached. 
The  principal  parts  are :  the  nave,  the  nave- 
bands,  the  nave-box,  the  spokes,  the  felloes, 
and  the  tire.  The  nave  constitutes  the  cen- 
tral portion  of  the  wheel,  and  distributes 
the  pressure  of  the  axle-arm  to  the  spokes. 
It  is  generally  made  of  a  single  piece  of 
wood,  and  strengthened  by  four  iron  bands 
called  the  nave-bands.  It  is  also  pierced 
with  a  conical  hole  for  the  axle-arm  ;  and  to 
diminish  wear  and  friction,  it  is  lined  with  a 
box  of  brass  or  cast  iron,  called  the  nave- 
box.  The  spokes  serve  to  transmit  the  press- 
ure of  the  load  to  the  rim  of  the  wheel.  In 
all  artillery  carriages  there  are  seven  felloes 
and  fourteen  spokes.  The  felloes  are  the 
wooden  segments  which  form  the  rim,  and 
are  joined  together  at  their  ends  by  wooden 
pins,  or  dowels.  The  tire  is  a  strong  band 
of  iron,  shrunk  tightly  around  the  felloes, 
to  hold  them  together,  and  protect  the  rim 
from  wearing  away  by  contact  with  the 
ground. 

Mortar-wagons  are  designed  for  the  trans- 
portation of  siege-mortars  and  their  beds,  or 
of  guns  or  large  shot,  and  shells.  A  limber 
similar  to  the  one  for  siege-gun  carriages  is 
used  with  it.  The  body  consists  of  a  plat- 
form of  rails  and  transoms  resting  on  an 
axle-tree.  The  stock  is  formed  by  prolong- 
ing the  two  middle-rails.  The  side-rails 
projecting  to  the  rear  form  supports  for  the 
pivots  of  a  windlass-roller.  This  roller  is 
used  to  load  guns  and  mortars  on  the  wagon 
by  drawing  them  up  the  stock.  A  muzzle- 
bolster  on  the  stock  near  the  limber,  and  a 
breech-hurter  near  the  hind  part  of  the 
wagon,  are  provided  and  used  when  long 
pieces  are  transported  on  it.  Mortars  are 
usually  carried  mounted  on  their  beds. 

The  traveling-forge  is  a  complete  black- 
smith's establishment,  which  accompanies  a 
battery  for  the  purpose  of  making  repairs 
and  shoeing  horses.  It  consists  of  a  body, 
upon  which  is  constructed  the  bellows-house, 
etc.,  and  the  limber,  which  supports  the 
stock  in  transportation.  The  body  is  com- 
posed of  two  rails,  a  stock,  and  an  axle- 
tree.  The  bellows-house  is  divided  into  the 
bellows-room  and  iron-room.  Attached  to 
the  back  of  the  house  is  the  coal-box,  and 
in  front  of  it  is  the  fireplace.  From  the 
upper  and  front  part  of  the  bellows  an  air- 
pipe  proceeds  in  a  downward  direction  to  the 
air-box,  which  is  placed  behind  the  fireplace. 
The  vise  is  permanently  attached  to  the 
stock,  and  the  anvil,  when  in  use,  is  sup- 
ported on  a  stone  or  log  of  wood,  and  when 


transported  is  carried  on  the  hearth  of  the 
fireplace.  The  remaining  tools  are  carried 
in  the  limber-chest.  When  in  working 
order  the  point  of  the  stock  is  supported  by  a 
prop.  Nomenclature  of  the  traveling- forge 
body:  Lunette,  prop,  vise,  stock,  wheel- 
guard  plates,  stock-stirrup,  fireplace,  back  of 
fireplace,  air-bacli^  wind-pipe,  bellows,  ribs, 
hinges,  hook,  fulcrum,  hook  and  staple,  roof 
of  bellows-house,  bows,  studs,  girders,  end- 
boards,  bottom-boards,  side-rail,  lock-chain 
hook,  coal-box,  lid  or  roof,  handles,  hinges, 
turnbuckle,  and  hasp.  A  new  pattern  of 
field-forge  has  been  propo.sed  by  Col.  Laid- 
ley,  U.  S.  Ordnance  Corps. 

The  battery-wagon  is  employed  to  trans- 
port the  tools  and  materials  for  repairs. 
Among  the  tools  are  those  for  carriage- 
makers,  saddlers,  armorers,  and  laborato- 
rians'  use,  scythes  and  sickles  for  cutting 
forage,  and  spare  implements  for  the  service 
of  the  piece.  The  body  of  the  battery- 
wagon  is  a  large,  rectangular  box,  covered 
with  a  roof  of  painted  canvas ;  and  to  the 
back  part  is  attached  a  rack  for  carrying 
forage.  The  bottom  of  the  body  is  formed 
of  one  middle-  and  two  side-rails,  resting  on 
a  stock  and  axle-tree,  as  in  the  traveling- 
forge.  The  tools  and  materials  of  the  battery- 
wagon  are  carefully  packed  in  the  manner 
prescribed  by  the  Ordnance  Manual,  in  order 
that  no  difficulty  may  be  experienced  in 
finding  a  particular  article  when  wanted. 
The  smaller  articles  are  carried  in  boxes 
properly  lettered  and  numbered.  The  trav- 
eling-forge and' batterj'-wagon  are  not  con- 
fined to  the  service  of  field-batteries,  but  are 
used  with  siege  and  sea-coast  carriages  as 
occasion  may  require.  Nomenclature  of  the 
battery-wagon  body  :  Lunette,  stock,  wheel- 
guard  plate,  lock-chain,  lock-chain  bridle, 
lock-chain  hook,  studs,  side-rails,  upper 
rails,  hinges,  bows,  cover-boards,  cover- 
strap  and  turnbuckle,  hasp,  side-boards, 
stays,  bottom-rails,  bottom-boards,  cross- 
bars, forage-rack,  including  chains,  sides, 
and  bars. 

Ordnance,  Construction  of.  The  present 
condition  of  gun  construction  is  mainly  ex- 
perimental. Iron  in  one  form  or  another  is 
the  only  material  used  for  heavy  artillery, 
but  the  particular  form  in  which  it  is  to  be 
used,  whether  as  cast,  wrought,  or  steel,  or 
whether  in  bars,  coils,  or  ingots,  or  in  com- 
bination,— as,  for  instance,  steel  or  wrought 
iron  interior  and  cast  iron  or  wire-wrapped 
or  hooped  exterior, — is  still  undecided,  and 
it  is  left  for  experiments  which  are  still  in 
progress,  or  to  be  made  hereafter,  to  decide 
which  is  best.  In  the  United  States,  cast 
iron  is  used  for  smooth-bore  guns,  and  also 
for  rifle  guns,  but  as  its  use  for  the  latter 
has  not  proved  satisfactory,  experiments  are 
now  being  made  with  wrought  iron  lined 
and  with  wire-wrapped  and  other  built-up 
guns,  with  fair  prospect  of  success.  In  Eng- 
land, modern  gun  construction  at  one  period 
inclined  to  the  use  of  a  steel  or  wrought 
iron  interior  tube,  strengthened  by  an  exte- 


ORDNANCE 


381 


ORDNANCE 


rior  castincj  of  iron,  which  is  the  system  of 
rallii-or  and  Parsons.  Rut  the  preference 
for  the  inventions  of  Sir  ^Viiliam  Arm- 
strong, improved  by  those  of  Eraser,  have 
resulted  in  the  exclusive  use,  in  that  coun- 
try at  present,  of  the  system  of  these  two  in- 
ventors. This  method  of  gun  construction 
is,  in  brief,  a  steel  core  (o*  body  of  the  gun) 
strengthened  by  three  or  more  exterior  tubes 
of  coiled  wrought  iron.  This  system  is  at  pres- 
ent popularly  known  as  the  "Woolwich," 
but  sometimes  called  the  "  Elswick,"  from  the 
place  where  Sir  William  Armstrong's  works 
are  now  located.  In  Germany  and  Russia, 
and  sonie  other  European  luitions,  the  Krupp 
system  of  heavy  forgings  of  steel  ingots  is 
preferred.  This  last  is  by  far  the  most  ex- 
pensive, and  does  not  always  produce  the 
most  durable  guns.  The  question  of  breeeh- 
or  muzzle-loading  is  still  an  undecided  one. 
(See  Breech-loadino  and  Breech-mech- 
anism.) The  Germans  prefer  the  first  named, 
as  do  the  French,  Austrians,  and  Russians,  for 
large  calibers  and  for  most  small  guns,  while 
the  English,  after  several  years'  trial  of  the 
first,  have  of  late  abandoned  its  use  and  re- 
turned to  the  muzzle-loader,  though  the 
?uestion  has  again  been  recently  agitated, 
n  the  United  States,  experiments  still  going 
on  have  not  yet  demonstrated  which  princi- 
ple is  the  best  suited  to  the  gun  construction 
used  in  America.  The  advantages  of  load- 
ing at  the  breech  with  heavy  guns  are 
numerous  and  great;  but  the  serious  me- 
chanical ditlicuities  (see  Breech-mechan- 
ism) of  ])erfecting  the  movable  breech 
attachment  have  militated  against  its  adop- 
tion, especially  in  a  country  committed  like 
the  United  States  to  the  use  of  cast  iron. 
During  the  half-decade  (1855-GO),  and  the 
succeeding  decade  (18(30-70),  enormous 
strides  were  made  in  gun  construction  and 
in  that  of  carriages  and  projectiles,  and  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder. 

Cast  Mrfnl  Guns. — The  principles  which 
govern  the  construction  of  homogeneous 
cast  metal  guns  as  established  by  long  prac- 
tice will  be  considered  under  the  following 
heads : 

Exterior  Form. — The  exterior  of  cannon 
is  generally  divided  into  five  principal  parts, 
•viz. :  the  breech,  the  tirst  reinforce,  the  sec- 
ond reinforce,  the  chase,  and  the  swell  of 
the  muzzle. 

The  breech  (see  Breech)  is  the  thickness 
of  metal  in  the  prolongation  of  the  axis  of 
the  bore,  and  should  be  at  least  equal  to  one 
and  a  quarter  times  the  diameter  of  the 
bore;  a  less  thickness  has  been  found  in- 
sufficient for  heavy  iron  guns. 

The  fir.st  reinforce  (.see  Reinforce)  ex- 
tends from  the  base-ring  to  the  seat  of  the 
ball,  and  is  the  thickest  part  of  the  piece, 
for  the  reason  that  the  pressure  of  the  pow- 
der is  found  to  be  greatest  before  the  projec- 
tile is  moved  fur  from  its  place.  In  shape 
this  reinforce  was  formerly  made  slightly 
conical,  under  the  impression  that  the  press- 
ure was  greater  at  the  vent  than  at  the  seat 


of  the  projectile;  but  it  is  now  made  cylin- 
drical throughout.  The  thickness  of  bronze 
cannon  at  the  seat  of  the  charge  is  less  than 
for  iron  guns. 

The  second  reinforce  (see  Reinforce) 
connects  the  first  reinforce  with  the  chase. 
It  is  made  considerably  thicker  than  is 
necessary  to  resist  the  action  of  the  powder, 
in  order  to  serve  as  a  jiroper  point  of  sup- 
port for  the  trunnions,  and  to  compensate 
for  certain  defects  of  metal  liable  to  occur 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  trunni<jri8  of  all  cast 
cannon,  arising  from  the  crystalline  arrange- 
ment and  unequal  cooling  of  the  diflerent 
parts. 

The  Chase  (see  Chase).— From  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  second  reinforce  cannon 
taper  more  or  less  rapidly  to  the  vicinity 
of  the  muzzle;  this  part  called  the  chase 
constitutes  the  largest  portion  of  the  piece 
in  front  of  the  trunnions.  The  thickness  of 
metal  in  the  chase  should  be  suflScient  to 
resist  the  striking  of  the  ball  against  the 
side  of  the  bore.  This  injury  being  greater 
in  bronze  and  soft  iron  guns,  their  taper  is 
less  than  in  cast-iron  cannon.  In  the  con- 
struction of  bronze  guns,  the  thickness  of 
metal  at  the  neck  or  thinnest  part  is  about 
five-elevenths  of  that  at  the  first  reinforce. 
All  projections  on  the  surface  of  cannon  not 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  service  of  the 
piece  are  omitted  in  cannon  of  late  inodeLs. 
This  omission  simplifies  their  construction, 
renders  them  easier  to  clean,  and  obviates 
certain  injurious  strains  that  would  other- 
wise arise  from  unequal  cooling  in  fabrica- 
tion. 

Swell  of  the  Muzzle. — The  enlargement 
called  swell  of  the  muzzle  was  generally 
regarded  as  necessary,  inasmuch  as  the 
metal  situated  immediately  at  the  muzzle 
is  supported  only  in  rear,  and  it  was  thought 
necessary  to  increase  its  thickness  in  order 
to  enable  it  to  resist  the  action  of  the  pro- 
jectile at  this  point.  At  present,  however, 
the  tendency  is  to  reduce  the  size  of  the 
swell  of  the  muzzle  and  to  omit  it  entirely 
on  all  sea-coast  cannon. 

Interior  Form  of  Cannon. — The  interior 
of  a  cannon  may  be  divided  into  three  dis- 
tinct parts,  viz.  :  the  vent,  or  channel  which 
communicates  with  the  charge;  the  scat  of 
the  charge  or  chamber,  if  its  diameter  be 
different  from  the  rest  of  the  bore,  and  the 
cylinder,  or  that  portion  of  the  bore  passed 
over  by  the  projectile  (see  appropriate  head- 
ings). 

The  rent  (sec  Vent)  is  perpendicular  to 
the  axis  of  the  piece,  and  the  interior  orifice 
is  at  a  distance  from  the  bottom  of  the  cham- 
ber equal  to  a  quarter  of  its  diameter,  or  at 
the  junction   of  the  sides  of  the  chamber 
with  the  curve  of  the  bottom.     Experiment 
I  has  shown  this  position  to  be  the  most  favor- 
1  able  to  the  full  development  of  th»>  force  of 
I  the  charge,  and  to  be  least  injurious  to  the 
j  piece.     The  size  of  the  vent  should   be  as 
1  small  as  possible,  in  order  to  diminish  the 
!  escape  of  the  gas   and  the   erosion  of  the 


ORDNANCE 


382 


OEDNANCE 


metal  which  results  from  it.  In  the  U.  S. 
service  all  vents  are  0.2  inch  in  diameter. 
Experiment  has,  ho.wever,  shown  that  the 
actual  loss  of  force  hy  the  escape  of  the  gas 
through  the  vent,  as  compared  to  that  of  the 
entire  charge,  is  inconsiderable,  and  in  prac- 
tice may  be  neglected.  In  the  U.  S.  service 
some  pieces  are  made  with  two  unbushed 
vents  which  are  situated  in  two  vertical 
planes  on  opposite  sides  of  and  parallel  to 
the  axis  of  the  bore,  and  at  a  distance  from 
it  of  one-half  the  radius  of  the  bore.  The 
left  vent  is  bored  entirely  through,  the  other 
stops  one  inch  short  of  the  surface  of  the 
bore.  When  the  open  vent  is  too  much  en- 
larged by  wear  for  further  use,  it  is  closed 
with  melted  zinc,  and  the  other  is  bored 
out.  Each  vent  is  calculated  to  endure  at 
least  five  hundred  service  rounds.  In  Eng- 
lish guns  of  old  model,  the  vent  is  placed 
four-tenths  of  the  length  of  the  cartridge 
from  the  bottom  of  the  bore.  In  most  breech- 
loaders, as  well  as  many  large  modern  muz- 
zle-loaders, the  vent  is  in  the  axis  of  the 
piece  through  the  breech. 

Seat  of  the  Cha7-c/e. — The  form  of  the  seat 
of  the  charge,  or  that  part  of  the  bore  of  a 
fire-arm  which  contains  the  powder,  will 
have  an  effect  on  the  force  of  the  charge  and 
the  strength  of  the  piece  to  resist  it.  The 
considerations  most  likelj'  to  affect  the  force 
of  the  powder  are  the  form  of  the  surface 
and  its  extent  compared  with  the  inclosed 
volume.  To  obtain  the  full  force  of  the 
charge  it  is  necessary  that  the  inflammation 
be  nearly  completed  before  the  gas  begins 
to  escape  through  the  windage,  and  the  pro- 
jectile is  sensibly  moved  from  its  place,  and 
as  the  tension  depends  much  upon  the  heat 
evolved  by  the  combustion,  the  absorbing 
surface  should  be  a  minimum  compared  with 
the  volume.  In  cannon  where  the  charge 
of  powder  is  large,  the  form  of  the  seat  of 
the  charge  is  simply  that  of  the  bore  pro- 
longed ;  this  arrangement,  when  compared 
with  the  chamber,  makes  the  absorbing  sur- 
face of  the  metal  a  minimum  and  reduces 
the  length  of  the  charge,  so  that  its  inflam- 
mation will  be  as  complete  as  possible  before 
the  gas  escapes  and  the  projectile  is  moved. 
To  give  additional  strength  to  the  breech, 
and  to  prevent  the  angle  formed  by  the 
plane  of  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  bore 
from  becoming  a  receptacle  for  dirt  and 
burning  fragments  of  the  cartridge-bag,  it 
is  rounded  with  the  arc  of  a  circle,  whose 
radius  is  one-fourth  the  diameter  of  the  bore 
at  this  point.  Instead  of  being  a  plane  bot- 
tom it  is  sometimes  made  hemispherical, 
tangent  to  the  surface  of  the  bore.  In  all 
United  States  cannon  of  the  most  recent 
model,  the  bottom  of  the  bore  is  a  semi-ellip- 
soid ;  this  is  thought  to  fulfill  the  condition 
of  strength  more  fully  than  the  hemisphere. 
With  light  pieces,  in  which  it  is  necessary 
to  use  small  charges  of  powder,  if  the  charge 
were  made  into  a  cartridge  of  a  form  to  fit 
the  bore  its  length  would  be  less  than  its 
diameter,  and  being  ignited  at  the  top,  a 


considerable  portion  of  the  gas  generated  in 
the  first  instance  of  inflammation  would  pass 
through  the  windage,  and  a  part  of  the  force 
of  the  charge  would  be  lost.  To  obviate 
this  defect,  to  give  the  cartridge  a  more 
manageable  form  in  loading,  and  to  make 
the  surface  a  minimum  as  regards  the 
volume,  the  diameter  of  this  part  of  the 
bore  is  reduced  so  as  to  form  a  chamber. 
The  shape  of  the  chambers  of  fire-arms  is 
either  cylindrical,  conical,  or  spherical ;  the 
effect  of  these  different  forms  of  chambers 
on  the  velocity  of  the  projectile  will  be 
modified  by  the  size  of  the  charge  and  the 
length  of  the  bore.  Up  to  a  charge  of  pow- 
der equal  to  one-seventh  of  the  weight  of 
the  projectile,  and  a  length  of  bore  equal  to 
9  or  10  calibers,  experience  shows  that  the 
presence  of  a  chamber  is  advantageous,  but 
beyond  these  it  possesses  no  advantages  to 
compensate  for  its  inconvenience.  For  very 
small  charges  of  powder  and  short  lengths 
of  bore,  the  cylindrical  chamber  gives  better 
results  than  the  conical  chamber.  For  the 
same  capacity,  the  conical  chamber  gives  a 
shorter  cartridge,  and  is  therefore  better 
suited  to  the  rapid  inflammation  of  a  large 
charge  of  powder  than  the  cylindrical  cham- 
ber. 

The  Gomer  chamber  belongs  to  this  class. 
(See  Gomer  Chamber.)  The  spherical 
chamber  was  formerly  used  particularly  in 
mortars,  but  owing  to  the  inconveniences 
which  attend  its  construction  and  use,  and 
its  liability  to  deterioration,  it  is  now  entirely 
abandoned.  In  all  the  regulation  guns  of 
the  U.  S.  land  service,  the  bottom  of  the 
bore  is  a  semi-ellipsoid.  The  adoption  of 
this  form  simplifies  the  whole  subject  of 
chambers,  and  it  is  found  to  give  increased 
ranges  for  small  charges.  No  very  careful 
experiments  have  been  made  to  determine  in 
a  general  way  the  effect  of  chambers  on  the 
strength  of  cannon  ;  but  late  experience  in- 
dicates that  cylindrical  chambers  in  heavy 
iron  guns  have  an  injurious  effect  on  their 
endurance,  and  they  have  consequently  been 
abandoned  in  these  pieces. 

The  Bore  (see  Bore).— The  length  of  the 
bore  has  an  impo^-tant  effect  on  the  velocity 
of  the  projectile,  and  it  was  formerly  sup- 
posed that  the  longest  pieces  gave  the  great- 
est ranges  ;  this  belief  was  in  a  great  measure 
due  to  the  slow  rate  of  burning  of  mealed 
powder,  which  was  originally  used  in  can- 
non, but  was  entertained  even  after  gun- 
powder received  its  granular  form.  When 
a  gun  is  discharged,  the  accelerating  force  is 
due  to  the  expansive  effort  of  the  inflamed 
powder,  which  reaches  its  maximum  when 
the  grains  of  the  charge  are  completely  con- 
verted into  vapor  and  gas.  This  event  de- 
pends on  the  size  of  the  charge,  and  the  size 
and  velocity  of  combustion  of  the  grains. 
With  the  same  accelerating  force,  the  point 
at  which  a  projectile  reaches  its  maximum 
velocitj'  depends  on  its  density,  or  the  time 
necessary  to  overcome  its  inertia.  The  re- 
tarding forces  are : 


ORDNANCE 


383 


ORDNANCE 


(1)  The  friction  of  the  projectile  against 
the  sides  of  the  l)f)re  ;  tliis  is  the  same  for  all 
velocities,  but  different  for  different  metals. 

(2)  The  shocks  of  the  projectile  striking 
against  the  sides  of  the  bore  ;  these  will  vary 
with  the  angle  of  incidence,  which  depends 
on  the  windage  and  the  extent  of  the  injury 
due  to  the  lodgment  and  balloting  of  the 
projectile. 

(3)  The  resistance  offered  by  the  column 
of  air  in  front  of  the  projectile ;  this  force 
will  increase  in  a  certain  ratio  to  the  velocity 
of  the  projectile  and  length  of  the  bore.  As 
the  accelerating  force  of  the  charge  increases 
up  to  a  certain  point,  after  which  it  rapidly 
diminishes  as  the  space  in  rear  of  the  pro- 
jectile increases  ;  and  as  the  retarding  forces 
are  constantly  opposed  to  its  motion,  it  fol- 
lows that  there  is  a  point  where  these  forces 
are  equal,  and  the  projectile  moves  with  its 
greatest  velocity ;  it  also  follows  that  after 
the  projectile  passes  this  point  its  velocity 
decreases,  until  it  is  finally  brought  to  a  state 
of  rest,  which  would  be  the  case  in  a  gun  of 
great  length.  Elaborate  experiments  have 
been  made  in  this  country  and  abroad  to  de- 
termine accurately  the  influence  which  the 
length  of  the  piece  exercises  on  the  velocity 
of  its  projectile.  The  experiments  made  by 
Maj.  Mordecai  of  the  U.  S.  Ordnance  De- 
partment with  a  1'2-pounder  gun,  show  that 
the  velocity  increases  with  the  length  of  the 
bore  up  to  25  calibers  ;  but  that  the  entire 
gain  beyond  10  calibers,  or  an  addition  of 
more  than  one-half  to  the  length  of  the  gun, 
gives  an  increase  of  only  one-eighteenth  to 
the  effect  of  a  charge  of  four  pounds.  It  fol- 
lows from  the  foregoing  that  the  length  of 
bore  which  corresponds  to  a  maximum  ve- 
locity depends  upon  the  projectile,  charge  of 
powder,  and  material  of  which  the  piece  is 
made,  and  taking  the  caliber  as  a  unit  of 
measure,  it  is  found  that  this  length  is  greater 
for  small-arms  which  fire  leaden  projectiles 
than  for  guns  which  fire  solid  iron  shot,  and 
greater  for  guns  than  for  howitzers  and 
mortars,  which  fire  hollow  projectiles.  For 
the  same  charge  of  powder  it  may  be  said 
that  the  initial  velocity  of  a  projectile  varies 
nearly  with  the  fourth  root  of  the  length  of 
the  bore,  provided  the  variation  in  length 
be  small. 

Matvifachire  of  Cannon. — Cannon  for  the 
U.  S.  service  are  made  by  private  founders. 
The  material  and  product  of  the  casting  are 
under  the  supervision  of  an  ordnance  officer, 
who  receives  the  pieces  only  after  thev  have 
satisfied  all  the  conditions  imposed  by  the 
regulations  of  the  service.  There  are  several 
foundries  for  making  cast-iron  cannon. 
"Wrought-iron  field  cannon  are  principally 
made  at  the  PhoMiixville  Iron-AVorks,  Pa. 
There  are  also  several  private  establishments 
where  special  cannon  arc  made.  The  several 
operations  of  manufacturing  cannon  are, 
molding,  casting,  cooling,  and  finishing. 

Moldiuf/,  in  general  terms,  is  the  process 
by  which  the  cavity  of  the  form  of  the  gun 
is  obtained  by  imbedding  a  wooden   model 


in  sand,  and  then  withdrawing  it.  The 
wooden  model  is  technically  called  the  pat- 
tern, and  the  sand  is  confined  in  u  box, 
which  is  divided  into  two  or  more  parts  for 
convenience  in  withdrawing  the  pattern. 
The  pattern  of  the  piece  to  be  cast,  some- 
what enlarged  in  its  different  dimensions,  is 
composed  of  several  pieces  of  hard  wood, 
well  seasoned,  or,  for  greater  durability,  of 
cast  iron.  The  first  piece  of  the  model  com- 
prises the  body  of  the  piece  from  the  base- 
ring  to  the  chase-ring;  the  swell  of  the 
muzzle,  and  the  sprue,  or  dead-head,  are 
formed  of  the  second  piece  ;  the  breech,  of 
the  third;  and  the  trunnions,  of  the  fourth 
and  fifth  pieces.  The  sj)rue,  usually  called 
the  "  head,"  is  an  additional  lengtli  given 
to  the  piece,  for  the  purpose  of  receiving 
the  scoria  of  the  melted  metal  as  it  rises  to 
the  surface,  and  furnishing  the  extra  metal 
needed  to  feed  the  shrinkage.  Its  weight 
also  increases  the  density  of  the  lower  por- 
tion of  the  piece.  The  breech  is  slightly 
lengthened  in  the  direction  of  the  knob  of 
the  cascabel,  to  form  a  square  projection  by 
which  the  piece  can  be  held  when  being 
turned  and  bored.  The  best  material  for 
the  mold  is  dry,  hard,  angular,  and  refrac- 
tory sand,  which  must  be  moistened  with 
water  in  which  strong  clay  has  been  stirred, 
to  make  it  sufficiently  adhesive ;  when  not 
suflSciently  refractory,  the  sand  is  vitrified 
by  the  high  temperature  of  the  melted  metal, 
and  protuberances — not  easily  removed — 
are  formed  on  the  casting.  When  not  suflB- 
ciently  coarse  and  angular,  the  materials 
cannot  be  so  united  as  to  preserve  the  form 
of  the  molds.  The  mold  is  formed  in  a  case 
of  cast  iron,  and  termed  the  "  box,"  or  the 
"flask,"  consisting  of  several  pieces,  each 
of  which  has  flanires  perforated  with  holes 
for  screw-bolts  and  nuts,  to  unite  the  parts 
firmly.  To  form  the  mold,  the  pattern  for 
the  sprue  and  muzzle,  previously  coated 
with  pulverized  charcoal  or  coke,  moistened 
with  clay-water  to  prevent  adhesion,  is 
placed  vertically  on  the  ground,  muzzle 
part  up,  and  carefully  surrounded  by  the 
corresponding  parts  of  the  jacket.  AVhen 
properly  adjusted,  the  sand,  prepared  as 
above,  is  rammed  around  it.  The  model 
for  the  body  of  the  piece  is  then  placed  on 
the  topof  this,  and  the  corresponding  parts  of 
the  jacket  correctly  secured,  and  filled  in 
successitm  with  the  molding  composition. 
The  patterns  for  the  trunnions  and  rimbases 
are  bolted  to  the  model  of  the  piece,  and 
when  the  sand  is  rammed  firmly  around 
these,  the  bolts  are  withdrawn,  this  part  of 
the  mold  completed,  and  the  end-plates 
screwed  on.  After  completing  the  mold  for 
the  body  of  the  piece,  the  model  for  the  cas- 
cabel is  properly  adjusted  and  the  mold 
completed.  Care  is  taken  to  cover  each  por- 
tion of  the  model  with  the  coke-wa.-h  men- 
tioned above,  and  to  sprinkle  dry  sand  up<in 
the  top  of  the  mold  in  each  niece  of  the 
jacket,  to  prevent  adhesion,  so  tnat  the  por- 
tions of  the  mold  may  be  separated.    In  the 


ORDNANCE 


384 


ORDNANCE 


body  of  the  sand,  a  channel  for  the  intro- 
duction of  the  metal  is  formed  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  mold  cavity.  It  enters  at 
the  bottom  of  the  mold,  to  prevent  the  bot- 
tom from  being  injured  by  the  falling  metal, 
and  in  an  oblique  direction,  to  give  a  circu- 
lar motion  to  the  metal  as  it  rises  in  the 
mold,  and  thereby  prevent  the  scoria  from 
adhering  to  the  sides.  When  the  mold  is 
completed,  the  parts  of  the  flaslv  are  care- 
fully taken  apart,  and  the  pieces  of  the 
model  withdrawn  from  the  mold  contained 
in  them.  If  any  portions  of  the  mol^  be 
injured  in  withdrawing  the  model,  they  are 
repaired,  and  the  interior  of  the  mold  is  cov- 
ered with  coke-wash  ;  after  which  the  several 
parts  are  placed  in  an  oven  to  be  gradually  and 
perfectly  dried.  When  this  is  accomplished, 
the  parts  are  carried  to  a  pit,  where  they 
are  united  and  secured  in  a  vertical  position, 
with  the  breech  below.  Any  portion  of  the 
sand  broken  off  during  the  movements  and 
adjustments  should  be  replaced,  and  the 
whole  of  the  interior  covered  with  coke- 
wash.  The  object  of  coke-wash  is  to  pre- 
A'ent  the  sand  from  adhering  to  the  melted 
metal,  which,  when  prepared,  is  made  to 
flow  in  at  the  entrance  of  the  side-channel. 
As  the  metal  rises  in  the  mold,  a  workman 
agitates  it  with  a  long  pine  stick,  to  cause 
the  scoria  and  other  impurities  to  rise  to  the 
surface,  and  brings  them  toward  the  centre 
of  the  mold,  to  prevent  their  entering  the 
cavities  for  the  trunnions. 

Coolmg. — After  the  mold  is  placed  properly 
in  the  pit,  it  is  usual  to  surround  the  box  with 
sand,  at  least  as  high  as  the  trunnions  of  the 
gun.  This  is  done  to  prevent  rapid  cooling. 
With  guns  as  heavy  as  24-pounders,  this  sand 
is  not  removed  for  three  days,  and  as  the  gun 
is  heavier  the  time  is  prolonged,  and  is  from 
seven  to  eight  days  for  the  10-inch  columbiad. 
At  the  proper  time  the  sand  is  removed,  and 
the  gun,  still  imbedded  in  the  box  and  sand 
of  tile  mold  proper,  is  hoisted  out,  the  box 
taken  off,  and  when  nearly  cold,  the  gun 
cleaned  of  the  sand. 

Boring  and  Turning. — A  cannon  is  bored 
by  giving  it  a  rotary  motion  around  its  axis, 
and  causing  a  rod  armed  with  a  cutter  to 
press  against  the  metal  in  tlie  proper  direc- 
tion. The  piece,  supported  in  a  rack,  is 
carefully  adjusted,  with  its  axis  horizontal, 
and  made  to  revolve  on  this  axis  by  ma- 
chinery attached  to  the  square  knob  on  the 
cascabel.  After  adjustment,  the  sprue-head 
is  first  to  be  cut  off.  Tliis  is  effected  by 
placing  a  cutter  opposite  the  point  at  which 
the  section  is  to  be  made,  and  pressing  it 
against  the  metal  whilst  the  piece  is  turning. 
The  head  being  cut  off,  and  the  cutter  re- 
moved, the  boring  is  commenced  by  placing 
the  boring-rod,  armed  with  the  first  cutter, 
called  the  piercer,  in  the  prolongation  of  the 
axis  of  the  piece,  and  pressing  it  against  the 
metal.  The  piercer  is  used  till  it  penetrates 
to  the  bottom  of  the  chamber,  after  which  a 
second  cutter,  or  reamer,  is  attached  to  the 
borino;-rod,  and  with  this  the  boring  is  made 


complete  to  the  round  part  of  the  chamber. 
The  reamer  is  then  removed  and  its  place 
supplied  by  the  chamber-cutter,  which  gives 
the  necessary  form  and  finish  to  that  part  of 
the  bore.  In  hollow-cast  cannon  the  piercer 
is  dispensed  with.  Whilst  the  boring  is 
taking  place  the  workman  contrives  to  finish 
the  turning  of  all  the  exterior  of  the  piece 
except  the  portion  between  the  trunnions, 
which  is  afterwards  planed  off  in  another 
machine.  These  operations  having  been 
completed,  the  piece  is  placed  in  the  trun- 
nion-machine, and  the  trunnions  are  turned 
down  to  the  proper  size.  Care  is  taken  to 
make  the  trunnions  of  the  same  diameter, 
and  perfectly  cylindrical.  Their  axes  should 
be  in  the  same  right  line,  perpendicular  to 
the  axis  of  the  piece  and  intersecting  it. 

Boring  the  Vent. — Whilst  in  the  trunnion- 
lathe,  the  axis  of  the  piece  is  inclined  to  the 
horizon  at  the  angle  the  vent  is  to  make  with 
it.  A  drill  is  placed  vertically  over  tlie  point 
where  the  vent  is  to  be  bored,  and  pressed 
against  the  metal  whilst  a  rotary  motion  is 
given  to  it  by  hand  or  machinery.  The  time 
required  to  finish  a  cannon,  ready  for  inspec- 
tion, depends  upon  its  size,  or  from  three  to 
four  weeks  for  a  24-pounder  gun,  and  six 
weeks  for  an  11-inch  gun. 

Cast  Metal  Guns,  Modern  Improveme^its  in. 
— The  first  great  step  in  this  direction  was 
taken  by  Gen.  Rodman  of  the  U.  S.  Ord- 
nance Corps.  It  was  his  investigation  into 
the  crystallization  of  cast  iron  which  led  to 
the  abolition  of  sharp  angles  or  projections 
in  the  form  of  cannon.  His  reputation, 
however,  rests  mainly  upon  the  principle  of 
hollow  casting.  The  general  form  of  the  old 
casting  is  that  of  a  solid  frustrum  of  a  cone; 
it  is  therefore  cooled  from  the  exterior,  which 
causes  the  thin  outer  layer  to  contract  first, 
and  forces  the  hotter  and  more  yielding 
metal  within  towards  the  opening  of  the 
mold.  Following  this  the  adjacent  layer 
cools  and  tends  to  contract,  but  the  exterior 
layer  to  which  it  coheres  has  become  partially 
rigid  and  does  not  fully  yield  to  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  inner  layer.  The  result  is,  the 
cohesion  of  the  particles  of  the  inner  layer 
is  diminished  by  a  force  of  extension,  and 
that  of  the  outer  layer  increased  bj'  a  force 
of  compression.  As  the  cooling  continues 
this  operation  is  repeated,  until  the  whole 
mass  is  brought  to  a  uniform  temperature, 
and  the  straining  force  is  increased  to  an  ex- 
tent which  depends  on  the  size  and  form  of 
the  mass,  the  rapidity  with  which  it  is  cooled, 
and  the  contractibility  of  the  particular  metal 
used.  The  foregoing  considerations  led  Rod- 
man to  cast  the  gun  hollow  and  to  cool  it 
from  the  interior,  to  reverse  the  strains  by 
external  cooling,  and  make  them  contribute 
to  the  endurance  rather  than  to  the  injury  of 
the  piece.  The  method  employed  is  to  carry 
off  the  internal  heat  by  passing  a  stream  of 
water  through  a  hollow  core,  inserted  in  the 
centre  of  the  mold  cavity  before  casting,  and 
to  surround  the  flask  with  a  mass  of  burning 
coals,  to  prevent  too  rapid  radiation  from  the 


ORDNANCE 


385 


ORDNANCE 


exterior.  Results  show  that  cast-iron  can- 
non made  by  this  plan  are  not  only  stronger, 
but  are  less  liable  to  eniarironient  of  the  bore 
from  continued  tiring.  All  large  American 
guns  of  cast  iron,  including  the  cases  for  the 
experimental  rifles,  are  now  cast  on  the  Rod- 
man plan.  The  plan  has  also  been  adopted 
by  most  of  the  nations  of  Europe  tliat  use 
cast-iron  guns, — France,  Sweden,  Italy,  etc. 
For  improvements  in  bronze,  see  the 
nicthixls  of  Dean  and  Uchatius,  Ordnance, 

ilKTAL-S   FOR. 

The  following  are  among  the  best  known 
of  cast  nu'tal  homogeneous  guns  : 

Columbind. — The  columbiads  are  a  species 
of  sea-coast  cannon  containing  certain  qual- 
ities of  the  gun,  howitzer,  and  mortar  ;  they 
are  long,  chambered  pieces  capable  of  project- 
ing solid  shot  and  shells  with  heavy  charges 
of  powder,  at  high  angles  of  elevation.  The 
columbiad  was  invented  by  Col.  Bomford, 
late  of  the  U.  S.  service  ;  the  model  was  after- 
wards changed  by  lengthening  the  bore  and 
increasing  the  weight  of  metal.  -  (See  Ord- 
nance, History  of.)  It  was  afterwards 
discovered  that  these  pieces  did  not  possess 
the  requisite  stn-ngth,  and  they  were  de- 
graded to  the  rank  of  shell  guns,  and  their 
places  supplied  by  {)ieces  of  improved  model. 
The  change  consisted  in  giving  greater  thick- 
ness of  metal  in  the  prolongation  of  the  axis 
of  the  bore,  which  was  done  by  diminishing 
the  length  of  the  bore  itself;  in  substituting 
a  hemispherical  bottom  to  the  bore,  and  re- 
moving the  cylindrical  chamber;  in  remov- 
ing the  swell  of  the  muzzle  and  base-ring, 
»nd  in  rounding  ofl'  the  corner  of  the  breech. 
In  1800  the  model  prepared  by  Capt.  Rodman 
was  adopted  for  all  sea-coast  cannon,  and  is 
essentially  the  same  as  the  one  described  be- 
low. 

Paixhan  Gun. — See  Ordnance,  History 

OF. 

Dnhlgren  Onn. — The  guns  constructed  af- 
ter the  plan  of  Admiral  Dahlgren  of  the  U.S. 
navy,  are  used  principally  in  the  U.  S.  sea 
service.  Those  of  large  caliber  are  made  of 
cast  iron,  solid,  and  cooled  from  the  exterior. 
To  produce  uniformity  in  the  cooling,  the 
piece  is  cast  nearly  cylindrical,  and  then 
turned  down  to  the  required  sliape.  The 
thickness  of  the  metal  around  the  seat  of  the 
charge  is  a  little  more  than  the  diameter  of 
the  bore,  as  is  true  of  nearly  all  the  cast-iron 
guns.  The  chase,  however,  tapers  more 
readily  than  in  other  cast-iron  guns;  they 
are  smooth-bored,  and  the  chamber  is  of  the 
Gomer  form.  The  principal  guns  of  this 
•ystem  are  of  9-  and  11-inch  caliber.  A 
piece  of  10-inch  caliber  has,  however,  been 
introduced  into  the  navy  for  firing  solid  shot. 
The  15-  and  llO-inch  naval  guns  arc  shaped 
exteriorly  after  the  Dahlgren  pattern,  but  are 
cast  hoUmv,  and  have  the  elliptical  chamber 
of  the  Kodnuin  system. 

Napoleon  Gun. — A  bronze  field-piece  in 
the  L.  S.  service.     See  Napoleon  Gun. 

Rodman  Gun. — The  principal  difficulty 
formerly  experienced  in  manufacturing  very 


large  cast-iron  cannon  was  the  injurious 
strain  produced  by  ci>oling  the  casting  from 
the  exterior.  Gen.  Rodman  of  the  U.  S. 
Ordnance  Department  developed  a  theory  of 
the  strains  produced  by  cooling  a  casting  like 
that  of  a  cannon  (see  Ordnance,  Strains 
UPOK),  and  as  a  remedy  for  them  proposed 
that  cannon  should  be  cast  with  a  hollow 
core  and  cooled  by  a  stream  of  water  or  air 
passing  through  it.  This  new  mode  of  cast- 
ing was  afterwards  adopted  by  the  War  De- 
partment. By  this  system  of  casting,  guns 
of  greatly-increased  size  and  endurance  are 
fabricated.  The  largest  guns  employed  in 
the  U.  S.  service  (20-inch)  are  made  on  the 
Rodman  plan,  as  well  as  the  LS-inch,  13-, 
10-,  8-inch,  etc.  The  external  form  of  Rod- 
man guns  is  striking,  as  they  are  much 
larger  at  the  seat  of  the  charge  than  else- 
where. Their  outline  is  made  up  of  curved 
lines.  This  form  has  been  almost  univer- 
sally adopted  for  U.  S.  guns.  The  Dahlgren, 
which  preceded  it,  has  nearly  the  same  shape. 

The  great  power  demanded  at  the  present 
day  in  heavy  ordnance,  however,  cannot  be 
attained  by  the  use  of  cast  iron  alone.  The 
difficulties  of  constructing  homogeneous 
guns  of  the  stronger  metals — wrought  iron 
and  steel — have  given  birth  in  modern 
times  to 

Built-up  Guns. — The  term  "built-up"'  is 
•  applied  to  those  cannon  in  which  the  princi- 
pal parts  are  formed  separately,  and  then 
united  together  in  a  peculiar  manner.  One 
object  of  this  mode  of  manufacture  is  to  cor- 
rect tlie  defects  of  one  material  by  introduc- 
ing another  of  opposite  qualities,  as  for  in- 
stance, trials  have  been  made  to  increase  the 
hardness,  and  therefore  endurance,  of  bronze 
cannon  by  casting  them  around  a  core  of 
steel  which  formed  the  surface  of  the  bore. 
Built-up  cannon  are  not  necessarily  com- 
posed of  more  than  one  kind  of  metal.  Some 
of  the  most  noted  are  made  of  steel  or 
wrought  iron  alone.  In  this  case  the  defects 
which  we  have  seen  accompany  the  working 
of  large  masses  of  wrought  iron  (crystalline 
structure,  cracks,  false  welds)  are  obviated 
by  first  forming  them  in  small  masses,  as 
rings,  tubes,  etc.,  of  good  quality,  and  then 
uniting  them  separately.  The  mode  of  unit- 
ing a  built  gun  may  be  by  welding  the  parts, 
by  shrinking,  or  forcing  one  over  the  other, 
or  by  screwing  them  together. 

In  the  constfucfion  of  built-up  fjun.'<,  makers 
have  aimed  at  the  ideal  gun  which  has  its 
strength  proportioned  to  the  strain  it  is  called 
upon  to  bear  in  all  its  parts.  All  parts  of 
the  sides  of  a  cannon  are  not  strained  equally, 
and  are  therefore  not  brought  to  the  break- 
ing-point at  the  same  time.  Any  arrange- 
ment of  the  parU  by  which  the  explosive 
strain  is  distributed  equally  over  the  entire 
thickness  of  the  piece,  necessarily  brings  a 
greater  amount  of  resistance  into  play  to  pre- 
vent rupture.  There  are  two  general  plans 
for  accomplishing  this,  viz.  :  First,  by  pro- 
ducing a  strain  of  compression  on  the  metal 
nearest  the  surface  of  the  bore.     This  ia 


ORDNANCE 


386 


ORDNANCE 


termed  an  "  initial  strain,"  and  is  broujjjht 
about  by  shrinking  heated  bands  or  tubes 
around  the  part  to  be  compressed,  or  by 
slipping  a  tube  into  the  bore,  which  has  been 
slightly  enlarged  by  heat.  In  either  case  it 
is  apparent  that  the  extent  of  the  strain  de- 
pends on  the  relative  size  of  the  fitting  sur- 
faces, and  the  amount  of  heat  used  to  produce 
expansion.  Sometimes  the  parts  are  forced 
together  bj?^  hydraulic  pressure  after  they 
have  been  carefully  bored  and  turned  to  the 
proper  size.  The  second  plan  is  based  on 
"  varying  elasticity,"  and  is  accomplished 
by  placing  that  metal  which  stretches  most 
within  its  elastic  limit  around  the  surface  of 
the  bore,  so  that  by  its  enlargement  the 
explosive  strain  is  transmitted  to  the  outer 
parts.  By  the  selection  of  suitable  materials 
and  their  proper  management,  both  of  these 
plans  may  be  combined  in  the  same  gun,  and 
thereby  give  it  increased  strength.  See  Ord- 
KANCE,  Construction  of. 

The  best-known  cannon  of  the  built-up 
class  are : 

Ames  Gun. — The  rifled  guns  made  by  Mr. 
Horatio  Ames,  of  Falls  Village,  Conn.,  are 
made  of  wrought  iron  on  the  built-up  prin- 
ciple. The  wrought  iron  is  in  the  form  of 
rings,  made  by  bending  a  bar  around  a  man- 
drel and  welding  the  ends.  After  turning 
them  in  a  lathe,  two  or  more  of  these  rings 
are  fitted  one  within  another  to  form  a  disk.- 
These  disks  are  welded  in  succession  to  a 
concave  breech-piece.  Some  of  these  guns 
have  shown  remarkable  endurance.  They 
are  weakest  against  longitudinal  strains. 

Armstrong  Gun. — Is  so  much  like  the 
Woolwich,  which  it  pi-eceded,  that  a  separate 
description  is  unnecessary.  See  Woolwich 
Gun. 

Blakely  Gun. — The  most  approved  pattern 
of  the  gun  invented  by  Capt.  Blakely  com- 
bines in  its  construction  the  principles  of 
"initial  tension"  and  "varying  elasticity," 
the  object  of  which  is  to  bring  the  strength 
of  all  the  metal  of  the  piece  into  simultane- 
ous play  to  resist  explosion.  It  is  made  of 
several  tubes  or  barrels,  the  inner  one  of 
which  is  of  low  steel,  having  considerable 
but  not  quite  enough  elasticity.  The  next 
tube  is  made  of  high  steel  with  less  elasticity, 
and  is  shrunk  on  the  barrel  with  just  suf- 
ficient tension  to  compensate  for  the  insuf- 
ficient difference  of  elasticity  between  the 
two  tubes.  The  outer  cast  jacket,  to  which 
the  trunnions  are  attached,  is  the  least  elastic 
of  all,  and  is  put  on  with  only  the  shrinkage 
by  warming  it  over  a  fii-e.  The  steel  tubes 
are  cast  hollow  and  hammered  over  steel 
mandrels  under  steam-hammers ;  by  this  pro- 
cess they  are  elongated,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  tenacity  of  the  metal  is  increased,  all  the 
steel  parts  are  annealed.  Other  combina- 
tions of  iron  and  steel  are  used,  except 
wrought  iron,  which  is  regarded  as  objection- 
able on  account  of  its  tendency  to  stretch 
permanently.  Blakely  guns  were  rifled  with 
one-sided  grooves,  and  are  fired  with  expand- 
ing projectiles.     This  gun  is  no  longer  made 


under  that  name.     As  now  made  it  is  called 
the 

Vavasseur  Gun,  and  is  manufactured  by 
Messrs.  J.  Vavasseur  &  Co.  of  the  London 
Ordnance-AVorks.  It  is  made  entirely  of  the 
best  Sheflield  cast  steel,  except  the  trunnions, 
which  are  wrought  iron,  and  consists  of  an 
interior  tube  and  outer  tube  and  a  number 
of  hoops.  The  inner  tube  is  forged  from  a 
solid  ingot.  It  is  rough  bored  and  turned  and 
then  oil  tempered.  The  outer  tube  and  rings 
are  cast  hollow  and  hammered  over  steel 
mandrels.  They  are  heated  and  shrunk  on. 
Theoretically,  it  is  difiicult  to  pick  a  flaw  in 
the  construction  of  this  gun.  The  rifling 
used  is  anomalous.  It  consists  of  three  ribs 
instead  of  grooves  projecting  into  the  bore. 
The  projectile  has  corresponding  grooves. 
These  guns  have  found  quite  a  market  in  the 
South  American  republics. 

Brooke  Gun. — This  gun  was  made  after 
the  plan  of  Capt.  Brooke  for  the  Confederate 
service;  it  resembles  Parrott's  in  shape  find 
construction,  except  that  the  reinforcing 
band  is  made  up  of  iron  rings  not  welded 
together.  The  rifling  is  similar  to  that  used 
in  the  Blakely  guns. 

Eraser  Gun. — See  Woolwich  Gun. 

Gatling  Gun. — See  Gatling  Gun. 

Krupj)  Gun. — See  Krupp  Gun. 

Lancaster  Gun. — This  gun  is  now  little 
used ;  it  was  made  of  wrought  iron.  The 
bore  was  cut  in  a  spiral  form  with  an  ellip- 
tical cross-section,  and  the  projectile  shaped 
to  fit  it,  by  which  means  a  rotary  motion 
was  imparted. 

Palliser  Gun. — Maj.  Palliser  of  the  British 
service  is  the  inventor  of  a  system  which 
has  been  successfully  applied  in  England  to 
utilize  smooth-bore  cast-iron  guns  by  con- 
verting them  into  wfles.  By  his  plan  the 
gun  is  first  bored  to  a  cylinder  or  finely  ta- 
pering cone,  then  lined  with  a  tube  of  coiled 
wrought  iron,  the  breech  end  of  which  is 
shrunk  on  ;  the  exterior  of  the  barrel  has  a 
uniform  diameter  throughout.  The  tube  is 
double  at  this  part  to  obtain  the  benefit  of 
the  tension  and  to  enable  any  fracture  of  the 
inner  layer  to  be  made  known  without  burst- 
ing the  gun.  The  bottom  of  the  barrel^  is 
closed  by  a  wrought-iron  cup  screwed  in. 
The  tube  is  inserred  into  the  gun  from  the 
muzzle  without  the  application  of  heat.  A 
small  amount  of  play  is  allowed  between  the 
barrel  and  the  cast-iron  body;  this  disap- 
pears, or  is  much  reduced  by  a  "setting  up 
charge,"  which  expands  the  barrel  against 
the  cast  iron.  The  end  of  the  barrel  is  made 
to  bear  accurately  against  the  cast-iron 
breech.  A  collar  screwed  into  the  muzzle 
secures  the  tube  in  position,  and  prevents  it 
from  being  thrust  forward  by  the  compres- 
sion of  the  metal  by  repeated  firing.  In 
front  of  the  trunnions  a  pin  is  screwed  in 
through  the  cast  iron,  to  resist  the  tendency 
of  the  tube  to  be  turned  by  the  bearing  of 
the  projectile  in  the  grooves.  On  the  exte- 
rior of  that  portion  of  the  inner  tube  that  is 
covered  by  the  second  tube  is  cut  a  spiral  gas 


ORDNANCE 


387 


ORDNANCE 


ohiinnel ;  this  communicates  with  a  tell-tale 
hole  drilled  through  the  cast-iron  breech,  by 
which  gas  can  escape  and  announce  the  frac- 
ture of  the  inner  tube.  The  venting  and 
rilling  are  similar  to  those  employed  in  the 
Woolwich  guns.  In  the  larger  guns  Maj. 
Palliser  proposes  to  use  two  or  more  concen- 
tric tubes,  in  some  the  exterior  one  to  be  of 
steel.  This  system  is  being  applied  in  the 
United  States  with  the  most  promising  re- 
sults in  the  conversion  of  10-inch  Rodman 
guns  into  8-inch  rifles.  The  rifles  thus  ob- 
tained, though  giving  to  a  projectile  a  less 
tnuz/.le  velocity  than  does  the  10-inch 
smooth-bore,  has,  on  account  of  the  increased 
weight  of  shot,  greater  penetrating  power 
at  all  ranges,  being  doubled-  at  some  and 
trebled  at  others.  Its  accuracy  is  three  times 
greater,  and  the  capacity  of  its  shell  twice 
that  of  the  original  gun. 

Parsons  Gun. — The  system  upon  which 
Mr.  Parsons  makes  his  guns  is  similar  to 
that  of  Maj.  Palliser.  (See  PalmsekGun.) 
It  depends  upon  the  principle  of  varying 
elasticities,  and  is  based  upon  the  fact  that 
wrought  iron  may  bo  stretched  three  times 
OS  much  as  cast  iron,  and  will  off'er  three 
and  a  half  to  six  times  the  resistance  within 
the  limit  of  its  elasticity.  These  well-known 
gun  constructions,  known  as  converting  sys- 
tems, both  consist  in  lining  a  cast-iron  case 
with  a  wrought-iron  or  steel  tube.  In  the 
Palliser  or  English  method  the  tube  is  in- 
serted from  the  muzzle.  In  the  Parsons  or 
American  method,  through  the  breech.  In 
both  nearly  the  whole  of  the  longitudinal 
strain  is  transferred  to  the  cast-iron  case. 
Both  systems  were  first  perfected  in  England. 
Col.  Crispin  (U.  S.  Ordnance  Corps)  de- 
serves the  credit  of  introducing  them  into  the 
U.  S.  service  in  constrflcting  the  new  cvprri- 
mental  riffes.  The  Parsons  system  is  better 
adapted  to  constructing  breech-loaders. 

Parrott  Gun. — The  Parrott  rifled  gun  is  a 
cast-iron  piece  of  about  the  usual  dimen- 
sions, strengthened  by  shrinking  a  coiled 
band  or  barrel  of  wrought  iron  over  that 
portion  of  the  reinforce  which  surrounds 
the  charge.  The  body  of  the  larger  Parrott 
guns  are  cast  hollow,  and  cooled  from  the 
interior  on  the  Rodman  plan.  The  barrel  is 
formed  by  bonding  a  rectangular  bar  of 
wrought  iron  spirally  around  a  mandrel,  and 
then  welding  the  mass  together  by  hammer- 
ing it  in  a  strong  cast-iron  cylinder,  or  tube. 
In  bending  the  bar,  the  outer  side  being 
more  elongated  than  the  inner  one,  is  dimin- 
ished in  thickness,  giving  the  cross-section 
of  the  bar  a  wedge  shape,  which  possesses 
the  advantage  of  allowing  the  cinders  to  es- 
cape through  the  opening,  thereby  securing 
a  more  perfect  weld.  The  barrel  is  shrunk 
on  by  the  aid  of  boat,  and  for  this  purpose 
the  reinforce  of  the  gun  is  carefully  turned 
to  a  cylindrical  shape,  and  about  one-six- 
teenth of  an  inch  to  the  foot  larger  than  the 
interior  diameter  of  the  barrel  in  a  cold 
state.  To  prevent  the  cast  iron  from  ex- 
panding when  the  barrel  is  slipped  on  to  its 


place,  a  stream  of  cold  water  is  allowed  to 
run  through  the  bore.  At  the  same  time, 
and  while  the  band  hangs  loosely  upon  it, 
the  body  of  the  gun  is  rotated  around  its 
axis  to  render  the  cooling  uniform  over  the 
whole  surface  of  the  barrel.  The  proof  of 
the  Parrott  guns  consists  in  firing  each  piece 
10  rounds  with  service  charges. 

Rodman  Gun. — The  j)rincipal  difl5culty 
formerly  experienced  in  manufacturing  very 
large  cast-iron  cannon  was  the  injurious 
strain  produced  by  cooling  the  casting  from 
the  exterior.  Gen.  Rodman  of  the  U.  S. 
Ordnance  Department  develojied  a  theory  of 
the  strains  produced  by  cooling  a  casting  like 
that  of  a  cannon  (soc'Okdnance,  Strains 
upon),  and  as  a  remedy  for  them  proposed 
that  cannon  should  be  cast  on  a  hollow  core 
and  cooled  by  a  stream  of  water  or  air  pass- 
ing through  it.  This  new  mode  of  casting 
was  afterwards  adopted  by  the  "War  Depart- 
ment. By  this  system  of  casting,  guns  of 
greatly  increased  size  and  endurance  are 
fabricated.  The  largest  guns  employed  in 
the  U.  S.  service  (20-inch)  are  made  on  the 
Rodman  plan,  as  well  as  many  of  the  guns 
emjiloyod  in  the  field  service. 

Wliltworth  Gun. — These  guns  are  made 
of  a  species  of  low  steel ;  the  smaller  are 
forged  solid,  the  larger  are  built  up  with 
coils  or  hoops;  the  hoops  are  forced  on  by 
hydraulic  pressure,  and  f'>r  this  purpose  are 
made  with  a  slight  taper  and  with  the  design 
to  secure  initial  tension.  The  ends  of  the 
hoops  are  joined  by  screw-threads.  The  hoops 
are  first  cast  hollow,  and  then  hammered  out 
over  a  steel  mandrel.  Before  receiving  their 
final  finish  they  are  subject  to  an  annealing 
for  some  three  or  four  weeks,  which  makes 
the  metal  very  ductile,  but  at  the  same  time 
slightly  impairs  its  tenacity.  The  system 
differs  from  Krupp's  in  the  smaller  masses 
used  and  the  greater  number  of  hoops.  The 
process  for  making  the  hoops  is  better  calcu- 
lated to  develop  their  tensile  strength.  The 
breech-pin  is  made  with  offsets  in  such  a 
way  as  to  screw  into  the  end  of  the  barrel 
and  the  next  two  surrounding  hoops.  The 
cross-section  of  the  bore  of  the  Whitworth 
gun  is  a  hexagon  with  rounded  corners. 
The  twist  is  very  rapid  and  the  projectiles 
are  made  very  long. 

M'oodhridqc  Gun  (invented  bv  Dr.  Wood- 
bridge,  of  Little  Falls,  New  York).— The 
system  of  construction  consist.*  essentially  of 
a  thin  steel  barrel  over  which  wire  is  wound, 
barrel  and  wire  being  subsequently  consoli- 
dated into  one  mass  by  a  brazing  solder 
melted  and  poured  into  the  interstices.  The 
following  brief  description  is  extracted  from 
one  of  tile  inventor's  letters  to  the  chief  of 
ordnance:  "Square  wire  is  wound  upon  a 
steel  core  somewhat  longer  than  the  intended 
bore  of  the  gun,  a  sufticient  number  of  wires 
being  wound  at  once  side  by  side  to  produce 
the  required  obliquity  of  "the  turns.  The 
successive  layers  have  opposite  twists. 
When  the  mass  has  reached  the  required 
dimensions,  it  is  inclosed  in  an  air-tight  case 


ORDNANCE 


388 


ORDNANCE 


to  protect  it  from  oxidation,  and  is  heated 
therein  to  a  temperature  somewhat  above 
that  required  for  the  fusion  of  the  soldering 
metal.  The  soldering  metal  having  been 
melted  is  run  in,  filling  all  the  interstices  of 
the  mass.  When  cooled  the  gun  is  bored 
and  finished  as  usual."  The  invention  dates 
back  to  about  1850.  A  small  gun  made  in 
this  way  was  tested  by  Maj.  Laidley  (U.  S. 
Ordnance  Corps)  in  1865.  It  endured  1327 
rounds  with  excessive  charges,  when  the  at- 
tempt to  burst  it  was  abandoned  on  account  of 
the  breaking  off  of  the  trunnions.  The  only 
large  gun  ever  made — a  10-inch  gun — was 
fabricated  at  Frankford  Arsenal.  It  was 
not  entirely  finished  till  April,  1876,  soon 
after  which  it  was  displayed  at  the  Centen- 
nial Exhibition  in  Philadelphia.  Certain 
defects  in  its  manufacture  prevent  it  from 
fairly  representing  the  Woodbridge  system. 
Woolwich  Gim. — The  Woolwich  or  Fraser 
gun  is  in  its  construction  a  modification  of 
the  Armstrong  plan,  Avhich  latter  had  been 
previously  used  in  Great  Britain  ;  the  prin- 
cipal difference  is  in  substituting  for  a  num- 
ber of  single  coils  and  a  forged  breech-piece 
a  few  long  double  and  triple  coils,  and  in 
using  a  cheaper  quality  of  wrought  iron. 
The  number  of  pieces  employed  in  the  con- 
struction depends  upon  the  size  of  the  gun  ; 
an  8-inch  rifled  gun  is  composed  of  the  inner 
tube  (barrel)  of  steel,  the  muzzle-coil  (trou- 
sers), the  breech-coil  (jacket),  and  the  cas- 
cabel-screw.  The  barrel  is  made  from  a 
solid  forged  cylinder  of  cast  steel,  drawn  by 
heating  and  hammering  ;  it  is  turned,  bored, 
and  chambered;  then  heated  to  a  uniform 
temperature  in  a  vertical  furnace  and 
plunged  into  a  covered  tank  of  rape-oil, 
where  it  cools  and  soaks.  The  muzzle-coil 
is  constructed  of  two  single  coils  welded  to- 
gether endways.  Each  coil  is  formed  by 
heating  a  long  bar  and  wrapping  it  about  a 
mandrel ;  this  is  next  heated  in  a  reverbera- 
tory  furnace  and  welded  under  a  steam- 
hammer.  Before  being  united  the  two  cylin- 
ders are  turned  and  bored.  The  breech-coil 
is  composed  of  a  triple  coil,  a  trunnion-ring, 
and  a  double  coil  welded  together.  The 
double  coil  is  formed  by  placing  a  single 
coil,  when  cold,  on  a  mandrel  and  winding 
over  it,  but  in  the  reverse  directions  to  break 
joints,  a  second  bar  ;  if  over  this  a  third  bar 
is  immediately  wound  in  the  same  direction 
as  the  first,  a  triple  coil  will  result.  These 
coils  are  welded  by  being  heated  and  ham- 
mered on  the  end  and  on  the  sides.  The 
trunnion-ring  is  made  by  welding  slabs  of 
iron  together  on  the  flat  end  of  a  bar,  and 
graduafiy  forming  a  ring  by  driving  through 
the  centre  wedges  and  mandrels  increasing 
in  size;  the  trunnions,  one  of  which  comes 
from  the  bar,  are  at  the  same  time  hammered 
into  shape.  The  coils  and  the  ring  having 
been  turned  and  bored,  the  latter  is  placed 
on  a  shoulder  of  the  triple  coil,  the  double 
coil  is  dropped  through  the  trunnion-ring 
on  the  triple  coil,  and  the  joints  welded  in 
this  position.    The  cascabel  is  forged  of  good 


scrap-iron  ;  the  different  parts  having  been 
formed  are  accurately  turned  and  bored  with 
a  slight  taper.  The  muzzle-coil  tube  being 
heated  is  dropped  over  the  barrel,  which  is 
stood  in  a  pit,  a  stream  of  cold  water  circu- 
lating through  the  bore.  The  half-formed 
gun  is  then  placed  on  its  muzzle,  water  forced 
through  the  bore,  and  the  breech-coil  heated 
and  slipped  into  position.  The  cascabel  is  , 
screwed  into  the  breech-coil  abutting  against 
the  barrel,  great  care  being  taken  that  the 
contact  is  perfect.  A  tell-tale  hole  is  cut 
along  the  thread  on  the  cascabel  to  give 
warning  by  the  escape  of  gas  should  the 
barrel  break  in  firing.  The  vent  is  bored 
through  hardened  copper  ;  it  enters  near  the 
centre  of  the  service  cartridge.  This  gives 
greater  velocity,  but  also  greater  pressure. 
The  large  guns  have  from  seven  to  ten 
grooves.  The  twist  is  uniformly  increasing  ; 
the  shape  of  the  grooves  is  circular,  with 
curved  edges.  ', 

Sutdijfe  Gim.— This  invention,  by  E.  A. 
Sutclifte  of  New  York  City,  relates  to  a 
breech-mechanism  for  cannon.  See  Breech 
Mechanism. 

Griffin  Gun. — Name  sometimes  given  to 
the  3-inch  rifled  field-piece  in  the  U.  S.  service. 
It  is  made  of  wrought  iron.  The  method 
of  fabrication  is  to  wrap  boiler-plate  around 
a  mandrel  and  to  weld  it. 

Ordnance,  Metals  for.  The  only  metals 
ordinarily  used  for  cannon  are  cast  and 
wrought  iron,  steel,  and  an  alloy  of  copper 
and  tin,  or  a  combination  of  these  metals. 
Cannon  metals  should  be  able  to  resist  the 
corroding  action  of  the  atmosphere,  the. heat 
and  the  products  of  combustion  of  the  pow- 
der ;  should  be  susceptible  of  being  easily 
bored  and  turned,  and  should  not  be  too 
costly.  The  qualities  necessary  in  cannon 
metals  are  strength  to  resist  the  explosion  of 
the  charge,  weight  to  overcome  severe  recoil, 
and  hardness  to  endure  the  bounding  of  the 
projectile  along  the  bore.  The  shape  of  the 
bore  would  otherwise  be  rapidly  altered  by 
the  action  of  the  projectile.  This  quality  is 
particularly  necessary  in  rifled  cannon.  The 
term  strength  as  applied  to  cannon  metal  is 
not  confined  to  tensile  strength  alone,  but 
embraces  also  elasticity,  ductility,  and  crys- 
talline structure,  which  affect  its  power  to 
resist  the  enormous  and  oft-repeated  force 
of  gunpowder.  (See  Ordnance,  Strains 
UPON.)  Each  discharge  of  a  cannon,  how- 
ever small,  impairs  its  strength,  and  repeated 
a  suflicient  number  of  times,  will  burst  it; 
this  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  feeblest 
strains  produce  a  permanent  elongation  or 
compression  of  iron ;  this  is  technically 
known  as  the  permanent  set,  and  the  same 
is  probably  true  of  all  other  metals.  The 
property  of  ductility  is  of  importance  in  en- 
abling a  metal  to  resist  rupture  after  it  has 
passed  its  elastic  limit.  The  size  and  ar- 
rangement of  the  crystals  of  a  metal  have 
an  important  influence  in  its  strength  to  re- 
sist a  particular  force.  A  metal  will  be 
strongest  when  its  crystals  are  small,  and 


ORDNANCE 


389 


ORDNANCE 


the  principal  faces  parallel  to  the  straining 
force,  if  it  be  one  of  extension,  and  perpen- 
dicular to  it,  if  it  be  one  of  compression. 
The  size  of  the  crystals  of  a  particular  metal 
depends  on  the  rate  of  cooling  ;  the  most 
rapid  cooling  giving  the  smallest  crystals. 

Cast  iron  is  very  generally  employed,  no- 
tably in  the  United  States,  in  the  fabrication 
of  heavy  cannon  for  siege  and  sea-coast  pur- 
poses. It  possesses  the  very  important  quali- 
ties of  tenacity,  hardness,  and  cheapness, 
and  with  proper  care  is  not  seriously  affected 
by  rust.  Its  })rincipal  defect  is  an  almost 
entire  want  of  elasticity,  in  consequence  of 
which  its  tenacity  is  destroyed  after  a  cer- 
tain number  of  applications  of  the  straining 
force.  But  little  is  known  of  the  causes 
which  affect  the  quality  of  the  cast  iron  used 
for  cannon  metal.  The  amount  of  carbon, 
the  state  of  its  combination,  together  with 
the  ore,  fuel,  and  fluxes,  and  the  process  of 
manufacture,  all  materially  affect  the  quality 
of  the  iron.  All  that  is  known  is,  that  cer- 
tain ores  treated  in  a  certain  way  make  cast 
iron  suitable  for  cannon,  and  the  fitness  of  a 
particular  kind  of  cast  iron  for  artillery 
purposes  can  only  be  determined  by  submit- 
ting it  to  the  tests  of  the  service.  After  this 
is  known,  a  knowledge  of  certain' physical 
properties,  such  as  tenacity,  hardness,  den- 
sity, and  color,  form  and  size  of  crystals 
presented  in  a  freshly  fractured  surface,  will 
be  useful  in  keeping  the  metal  up  to  the  re- 
quired standard.  The  pig-iron  from  which 
cannon  are  made  should  be  soft,  yielding 
easily  to  the  file  and  chisel ;  the  appearance 
of  the  fracture  should  be  uniform,  with  a 
brilliant  aspect,  dark  gray  color,  and  medium- 
sized  crystals.  AV'hen  remelted  and  cast  into 
cannon,  it  should  have  about  sufficient  hard- 
ness to  resist  the  file  and  chisel,  but  not  to 
be  so  hard  as  to  be  bored  and  turned  with 
much  difficulty  ;  its  color  should  be  a  bright 
gray,  crystals  small,  structure  uniform,  close, 
and  compact.  The  density  of  gun  metal 
should  be  about  7.25,  and  its  tenacity  about 
80,000.  There  are  several  varieties  of  cast 
iron  differing  from  each  other  by  almost  in- 
sensible shades.  The  principal  divisions 
are,  however,  graj'  and  white.  Gray  iron  is 
softer  and  less  brittle  than  the  white,  is 
slightly  malleable  and  flexible,  and  does  not 
resist  the  file.  It  has  a  brilliant  fracture  of 
a  gray  or  bluish-gray  color.  This  iron  melts 
at  a  lower  temperature  than  white  iron  and 
becomes  more  fluid,  contracts  less  and  con- 
tains fewer  cavities;  it  tills  the  mold  well, 
the  edges  of  a  casting  are  short,  and  the 
surface  smooth,  convex,  and  covered  with 
carburet  of  iron.  Gray  iron  is  the  only  kind 
suitable  for  making  castings  which  require 
great  strength,  such  as  cannon.  "White  iron 
18  very  brittle,  resists  the  file  and  chisel,  and 
is  susceptible  of  high  polish,  the  surface  of 
a  casting  is  concave,  the  fracttire  presents  a 
silvery  appearance.  Its  qualities  arc  the 
reverse  of  those  of  gray  iron  ;  it  is  therefore 
unsuitable  for  ordnance  purposes.  Mottled 
iron  is  a  mixture  of  white  and  gray ;  it  has 


a  spotted  appearance,  and  flows  well.  The 
casting  has  a  plane  surface  with  edges  slightly 
rounded.  It  is  suitable  for  making  shot  and 
shells.  Besides  these  general  divisions,  there 
are  several  other  varieties  of  iron  whose 
qualities  depend  upon  the  proportion  of  car- 
bon, and  the  state  in  which  it  is  found  in  the 
metal.  The  color  and  texture  of  cast  iron 
depend  greatly  on  the  size  of  the  casting  and 
the  rapidity  of  cooling.  See  Okunan<;e, 
Strains  upon. 

Wrought  iron  was  among  the  earliest 
metals  employed  in  the  construction  of 
cannf)n,  but  in  consequence  of  the  defects 
which  almost  invariably  accompany  the 
forging  of  large  masses,  it  was  suj)erseded 
by  bronze  and  cast  iron  to  a  great  extent. 
Wrought  iron  is  softer  than  cast  iron,  and, 
being  pure  iron,  is  more  liable  to  be  cor- 
roded by  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  and 
products  of  combustion  of  the  powder;  it 
possesses  also  considerable  ductility.  The 
tensile  strength  of  wrought  iron,  which 
under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  is 
double  that  of  the  best  cast  iron,  depends 
on  the  character  of  the  crystalline  struc- 
ture, and  the  manner  of  applying  the  ten- 
sile force,  or  in  other  words,  wrought  iron 
offers  the  greatest  resistance  to  a  force  of 
extension  when  the  structure  is  fibrous,  and 
the  force  acts  in  the  direction  of  the  fibres. 
The  practical  difficulties  of  rapidly  cooling 
large  masses  so  as  to  form  small  crystals, 
and  compressing  them  by  hammering,  roll- 
ing, or  otherwise  to  develop  and  give  a 
particular  direction  to  the  fibre,  have  not 
thus  far  been  wholly  surmounted.  On  the 
contrary,  large  masses  are  generally  found 
to  contain  such  internal  defects  as  false 
welds,  cracks,  and  a  spongy  and  irregularly 
crj'stalline  structure,  arising  from  the  more 
rapid  cooling  of  the  exterior  surface. 

Steel  is  a  compound  of  iron  and  carbon, 
in  which  the  proportion  of  the  latter  seldom 
exceeds  1.7  per  cent.  It  may  be  distin- 
guished from  iron  by  its  fine  grain,  its  sus- 
ceptibility of  hardening  by  immersing  it 
when  hot  in  cold  water,  and  with  certainty 
bj'  the  action  of  diluted  nitric  acid,  which 
leaves  a  black  spot  on  steel,  and  on  iron  a 
spot  which  is  lighter  colored  in  proportion 
as  the  iron  contains  less  carbon.  For  the 
construction  of  cannon,  steel  may  be  di- 
vided into  high  and  low  steel,  the  difference 
being  that  the  former  contains  more  carbon 
than  the  latter.  High  steel  is  very  hard 
and  has  great  ultimate  tenacity.  It  ha.s 
but  littlecxtensibility  within  or  without 
the  elastic  limit,  and  is  therefore  too  brittle 
for  use  in  cannon,  unless  used  in  such  large 
masses  that  the  elastic  limit  will  not  be  ex- 
ceeded by  the  explosive  force  of  the  powder. 
It  melts  at  a  lower  temperature  than  wrou<;ht 
iron  and  is  difficult  to  weld,  as  its  welding 
temperature  is  but  little  less  than  that  at 
which  it  melts.  Low  steel  is  often  known 
as  "mild  steel,"  "soft  steel,"  "homogene- 
ous metal,'  and  "homogeneous  iron."  and 
is  made  by  fusing  wrought  iron  with  carbon 


OKDNANCE 


390 


OKDNANCE 


in  a  crucible  ;  after  which  it  is  cast  into  an 
ingot  and  worked  under  a  hammer.  As  it 
contains  less  carbon  than  high  steel,  it  has 
greater  specific  gravity.  It  can  be  welded 
without  difficulty,  although  overheating  in- 
jures it.  It  more  nearly  resembles  wrought 
iron  in  all  its  properties,  although  it  has 
much  greater  hardness  and  ultimate  tenacity, 
and  a  lower  range  of  ductility  depending 
on  its  proportion  of  carbon.  It  has  less  ex- 
tensibility within  the  elastic  limit  than 
high  steel,  but  greater  beyond  it,  or  in 
other  words,  greater  ductility.  Its  great 
advantage  over  wrought  iron  for  general 
purposes  is  that  it  can  be  melted  at  a  prac- 
ticable heat,  and  run  into  large  masses  pos- 
sessing soundness  and  tenacity.  Its  advan- 
tages for  cannon  are  greater  elasticity,  te- 
nacity, and  hardness.  Its  tenacity  when 
suitable  for  cannon  is  three  times  as  much 
as  cast  gun  iron,  and  one-half  more  than 
the  best  wrought  iron.  The  principal  va- 
rieties of  steel  are : 

Natural  Steel. — This  is  made  principally 
in  Germany,  and  is  used  for  making  liles 
and  other  tools.  It  is  obtained  by  reducing 
the  rich  and  pure  kinds  of  iron  ore  with 
charcoal,  and  re-fusing  the  cast  iron  so  as  to 
bring  it  to  a  malleable  state.  The  India 
steel,  or  Wootz,  is  a  natural  steel  containing 
a  small  proportion  of  other  metals. 

Blistered  Steel. — This  is  prepared  by  ex- 
posing alternate  layers  of  bar-iron  and  char- 
coal in  a  close  furnace  for  several  days. 
"When  taken  out  the  bars  are  brittle  in 
quality  and  crystalline  in  appearance.  The 
purpose  for  which  the  steel  is  to  be  used  de- 
termines the  degree  of  carbonization.  The 
best  qualities  of  iron  (Russian  and  Swedish) 
are  used  for  the  finest  kind  of  steel. 

Tilted  Steel. — This  is  blistered  steel  moder- 
ately heated  and  subjected  to  the  action  of  a 
tilt-hammer,  by  which  means  its  density  and 
tenacity  are  increased. 

Shear  Steel. — A  blistered  or  natural  steel 
refined  by  piling  thin  bars  into  fagots,  and 
then  rolling  or  hammering  them  into  bars, 
after  they  have  been  brought  to  a  welding 
heat  in  a  reverberatory  furnace.  The  quality 
is  improved  by  a  repetition  of  this  process, 
and  the  steel  is  known  accordingly  by  the 
names,  half  shear,  single  shear,  double  shear, 
etc. 

Cast  Steel. — This  is  made  by  breaking 
blistered  steel  into  small  pieces,  and  melting 
it  in  close  crucibles  from  which  it  is  poured 
into  iron  molds.  The  ingot  is  then  reduced 
to  a  bar  by  hammering  or  rolling  with  great 
care.  Cast  steel  is  the  finest  kind  of  steel, 
and  is  best  adapted  for  most  purposes  ;  it  is 
known  by  a  very  fine,  even,  and  close  grain, 
and  a  silvery  homogeneous  fracture.  The 
most  remarkable  specimen  of  cast  steel  for 
tenacity  which  is  on  record  was  manufac- 
tured at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  It  was  tested  at 
the  Washington  Navy- Yard,  and  found  to 
sustain  242,000  pounds  to  the  square  inch. 
The  strength  of  cast  steel  usually  runs  from 
70  to  140,000  pounds. 


Bessemer  Steel. — This  steel  is  produced  by 
forcing  air  into  melted  iron,  by  means  of 
which  the  carbon  and  silicon  of  the  crude 
cast  iron  is  oxidized.  The  essential  differ- 
ence between  this  process  and  the  ordinary 
puddling  is  mechanical,  and  consists  in  the 
intense  and  violent  stirring  of  the  Bessemer- 
ized  iron,  to  which  alone  is  due  the  produc- 
tion and  maintenance  of  a  temperature, 
without  any  other  fuel  than  the  carbon  and 
silicon  contained,  that  keeps  the  metal  fluid 
so  that  it  can  be  cast  into  homogeneous  mal- 
leable ingots.  When  decarbu ration  has  been 
carried  far  enough,  the  current  of  air  is 
stopped,  and  a  small  quantity  of  white  pig- 
iron  containing  a  large  amount  of  manganese 
is  dropped  into  the  liquid  metal.  No  very 
large  cannon  have  yet  been  made  wholly  of 
Bessemer  steel,  but  several  small  ones  have, 
which  have  shown  great  endurance.  Ex- 
periments at  the  Woolwich  Arsenal  have 
shown  that  the  tenacity  of  this  steel  is  more 
than  doubled  by  hammering. 

Sie7nens-Martin. — In  this  process  the  in- 
gredients of  cast  steel  are  melted  together  on 
the  open  hearth  of  a  reverberatory  furnace 
of  special  construction,  and  a  certain  propor- 
tion of  manganese  necessary  to  make  a  sound 
and  practically  malleable  steel  added.  This 
steel  is,  however,  little  used  in  gun  construc- 
tion. 

Semi-Steel. — If  in  the  process  of  puddling 
or  decarbonizing  cast  iron  the  process  be 
stopped  at  a  particular  time,  determined  by 
indications  given  by  the  metal  to  an  experi- 
enced eye,  an  iron  is  obtained  of  greater 
hardness  and  strength  than  ordinary  iron,  to 
which  the  name  of  semi-steel,  or  puddled 
steel,  has  been  given.  The  principal  difli- 
culty  in  its  manufacture  is  that  of  obtaining 
uniformity  in  the  product,  homogeneity 
and  solidity  throughout  the  entire  mass.  It 
is  much  improved  by  reheating  and  ham- 
mering under  a  heavy  hammer;  but  it  has 
not  been  found  a  reliable  material  for  even 
cannon  of  small  caliber.  The  celebrated 
guns  made  by  Mr.  Krupp  of  Germany  are 
of  cast  steel,  made  from  puddled  steel,  and 
of  peculiar  character,  combining  great  tensile 
strength  with  the  property  of  stretching  to  a 
great  extent  without  breaking.  Sir  Joseph 
Whitworth  improves  the  qualities  of  steel 
for  his  more  recent  guns  by  casting  it  under 
hydraulic  pressure. 

Chrojne  Steel. — An  alloy  of  iron  and  chro- 
mium, which  is  not  steel  in  the  ordinary 
sense,  but  which  possesses  many  of  its  char- 
acteristics. The  tensile  strength  and  resist- 
ance to  crushing  is  much  higher  than  ordi- 
nary cast  steel.  This  material  has  been 
largely  used  in  bridge-building,  but  has  not 
yetTbeen  applied  to  cannon-making. 

Bronze  for  cannon  (commonly  called  brass) 
consists  of  90  parts  of  copper  and  10  of  tin, 
allowing  a  variation  of  one  part  of  tin  more 
or  less  ;  by  increasing  the  proportion  of  tin, 
bronze  becomes  harder,  but  more  brittle  and 
fusible;  by  diminishing  it  it  becomes  too  soft 
for  cannon,  and  at  the  same  time  loses  a  part 


ORDNANCE 


391 


ORDNANCE 


of  its  elasticity.  Bronze  is  more  fusible  than 
coj)per,  much  less  so  than  tin.  It  is  harder, 
less  susceptible  of  oxidation,  and  niucli  less 
ductile  than  either  of  its  constituents.  Its 
fracture  is  of  a  yellowish  color,  with  little 
lustre,  a  coarse  grain,  irregular,  and  often 
exhibiting  spots  of  tin  which  are  of  a  whitish 
color.  The  density  and  tenacity  of  bronze 
when  cast  intotiie  form  of  cannon,  are  found 
to  depend  upon  the  pressure  and  mode  of 
cooling.  In  consequence  of  the  difference  of 
fusibility  of  tin  and  copper,  the  perfection 
of  the  alloy  depends  much  on  the  nature  of 
the  furnace  and  the  treatment  of  the  melted 
metal.  By  these  means  alone  the  tenacity 
of  bronze  has    been    carried    up    to   (50,000 

founds.  Bronze  is  but  slightly  corroded 
y  the  action  of  the  gases  evolved  from  gun- 
powder, or  by  atmospheric  causes ;  but  its 
tin  is  liable  to  be  melted  away  at  the  sharp 
corners  by  the  great  heat  generated  in  rapid 
firing.  It  is  soft,  and  therefore  liable  to 
serious  injury  by  the  bounding  of  the  pro- 
jectile in  the  bore.  This  injury  is  augmented 
as  the  force  of  the  rebound  is  increased  by  the 
elasticity  of  the  metal.  It  was  established 
by  experiments  of  Maj.  "Wade  of  the  U.  S. 
Ordnance  Corps  more  than  twenty  years  ago 
that  the  tensile  strength  of  bronze  is  related 
to  its  density.  It  has  been  discovered  since 
that  this  density  can  be  produced  by  artificial 
compression.  Two  men  claim  the  honors  of 
the  invention — Gen.  Uchutius  of  the  Aus- 
trian army,  and  S.  B.  Dean,  an  American 
inventor.  The  methods  are  essentially  the 
same.  After  the  gun  is  cast,  steel  mandrels 
slightly  conical  in  shape  are  driven  through 
the  bore  by  hydraulic  pressure, — each  being 
succeeded  by  one  slightly  larger, — thus  en- 
larging the  bore  and  compressing  the  metal 
surrounding  it.  It  is  claimed  that  the  bronze 
is  thus  rendered  harder  and  stronger,  and 
the  defects  above  cited  in  a  large  measure 
obviated.  The  term  "steel  bronze"  or 
•'bronze  steel"  has  been  applied  to  the  metal 
so  treated.  Many  guns  have  been  made  of 
it  for  the  Austrian  service, — the  largest  of 
which  is  a  G-inch  breech-loader  throwing  a 
projectile  of  80  pounds.  This  gun  has  proved 
Itself  slightly  superior  in  power  to  the  same 
sized  Krupp  gun  of  steel. 

Aluminium  Brovze — An  alloy  of  90  parts 
of  copper  and  10  of  aluminium.  It  is  harder 
than  ordinary  bronze  ;  much  stronger,  being 
100,000  pounds  to  the  square  inch  ;  it  does  not 
tarnish  readily.  Its  jtroperties  would  seem 
to  especially  tit  it  for  a  gun  metal.  P/tosp/ior 
In'mize  is  an  alloy  with  very  similar  projier- 
ties. 

Comhinrd  Mrtals. — Numerous  trials  have 
been  made  to  improve  the  strength  of  can- 
non by  combining  two  or  more  metals  in 
such  a  way  that  the  good  qiuilities  of  one 
will  counteract  the  defects  of  the  others.  But 
the  only  metals  used  to  any  extent  are  those 
described  above.  iSteel  is  constantly  gain- 
ing in  favor  as  a  cannon  metal.  It  is  now 
almost  exclusively  employed  throughout 
Europe,  and  wherever   the   Krupp  gun  is 


used.  The  great  perfection  arrived  at  by 
Krupp  and  others  in  the  manufacture  of 
steel  seems  to  place  that  metal  above  all 
others  for  gun  construction,  whilst  the  dilfi- 
culty  of  handling  large  masses  has  been 
overcome  by  the  enormous  power  of  the 
machinery  used.  Steel  is  also  sparingly 
employed  both  in  the  United  States  and 
England  for  converting  smooth-bore  guns 
into  rifles  according  to  the  Palliser  method, 
but  experiments  in  tlie  United  States  have 
shown  that  it  is  inferior  to  wrought  iron  for 
this  jiurpose.     See  Ordnance,  Construo- 

TIOX  OF. 

Wrought  and  cast  iron  are  much  used  in 
this  way  for  cannon  in  both  the  United 
States  and  in  England.  In  the  former,  all 
the  larger  cannon  belonging  to  the  official 
system  (both  siege  and  .sea-coast)  are  nuido 
of  the  cast  metal,  whereas  the  Parrott  gun 
and  the  new  rifled  pieces  are  a  combination 
of  both.  (Sec  Okunanck,  Cox.struction 
OF.)  The  metal  chiefly  employed  in  Eng- 
land is  wrought  iron,  in  conibination  wilii 
steel  ;  the  largest  guns  made  at  the  Wool- 
wich Arsenal  are  of  this  nature.  Bronze, 
except  as  modified  by  the  Austrians,  has 
now  nearly  entirely  gone  out  of  use  as  a 
cannon  metal.  In  France  and  the  United 
States,  field-pieces,  mortars,  and  howitzers 
arc  still  made  oi  this  material. 

Ordnance,  Strains  Upon.  The  exterior 
form  of  cannon  is  determined  by  the  varia- 
ble thickness  of  the  metal  which  surrounds 
the  bore  at  different  points  of  its  length.  In 
general  terms,  the  thickness  is  greatest  at 
the  seat  of  the  charge,  and  least  at  or  near 
the  muzzle.  This  arrangement  is  made  on 
account  of  the  variable  action  of  the  pow- 
der and  projectile  along  the  bore,  and  the 
necessity  of  disposing  the  metal  in  the  saf- 
est and  most  economical  manner.  The 
pressure  at  difterent  points  may  be  approxi- 
mately determined  by  calculation,  or,  more 
accurately,  by  experiment.  In  the  latter 
method,  the  plan  generally  employed  con- 
sists in  boring  a  scries  of  small  holes  through 
the  side  of  a  gun  at  right  angles  to  its  axis 
at  known  distances  apart.  A  steel  ball  is 
projected  from  each  hole  in  succession  into 
a  target,  or  ballistic  pendulum,  by  the  force 
of  the  charge  acting  through  it,  and  the 
pressure  at  the  various  points  is  deduced 
from  the  velocities  communicated  to  these 
balls.  This  method  was  adopted  by  Col. 
Bomford.  Instead  of  the  projectile  a  steel 
punch  may  be  emj)loyed,  which  is  pressed 
by  the  force  of  the  charge  into  a  piece  of 
soft  copper.  (See  Pressure-oauoe.)  Tho 
weight  necessary  to  make  an  equal  indenta- 
tion in  the  same  piece  is  then  ascertained  by 
a  testing  machine.  The  strains  to  which  all 
fire-arms  are  subjected  may  be  classified  as 
follows:  (1)  The  tangential  strain  which 
tends  to  split  the  piece  open  longitudinally, 
and  is  similar  in  its  action  to  the  force 
which  bursts  the  hoops  of  a  barrel.  (2) 
The  longitudinal  strain  which  acts  to 
pull    the    piece    apart    in   the  direction  of 


OKDNANCE 


392 


OKDNANCE 


its  length.  Its  action  is  greatest  at  or 
near  the  bottom  of  the  bore,  and  least 
at  the  muzzle,  where  it  is  nothing ;  these 
two  strains  increase  the  volume  of  the  metal 
to  which  they  are  applied.  (3)  A  strain  of 
compression  which  acts  from  the  axis  out- 
ward to  crush  the  truncated  wedges  of  which 
a  unit  of  length  of  the  piece  may  be  sup- 
posed to  consist ;  this  strain  compresses  the 
metal  and  enlarges  the  bore.  (4)  A  trans- 
verse strain  which  acts  to  break  transversely 
by  bending  outward  the  staves  of  which  the 
piece  may  be  supposed  to  consist.  This 
strain  compresses  the  metal  on  the  inner 
and  extends  it  on  the  outer  surface.  It  is 
known  that  rupture  will  take  place  due  to 
the  tangential  strain  alone,  when  three  times 
the  pressure  upon  a  unit  of  surface  of  the 
bore  is  greater  than  twice  the  tensile  strength. 
Due  to  the  longitudinal  strain  alone,  rupture 
will  take  place  in  the  direction  of  the  length, 
when  the  pressure  is  greater  than  twice  the 
tensile  strength  ;  and  if  the  transverse  strain 
alone  is  considered,  rupture  will  take  place 
"when  twice  the  pressure  is  greater  than  three 
times  the  tensile  strength.  It  therefore  ap- 
pears that  the  tendency  to  rupture  is  greater 
from  the  action  of  the  tangential  force  than 
from  any  other,  and  for  lengths  above  two, 
or  perhaps  three  calibers,  the  tangential  re- 
sistance may  be  said  to  act  alone,  as  the  aid 
derived  from  the  transverse  resistance  will 
be  but  trifling  for  greater  lengths  of  bore; 
but  for  lengths  of  bore  less  than  two  calibers, 
this  resistance  will  be  aided  by  both  the 
transverse  and  the  longitudinal  resistance. 
Every  piece  should  therefore  have  sufficient 
thickness  of  breech  to  prevent  splitting 
through  the  latter  ;  after  this  point  has  been 
attained,  any  additional  thickness  of  breech 
adds  nothing  to  the  strength  of  the  piece. 
It  therefore  appears  that  a  tire-arm  is  strong- 
est at  or  near  the  bottom  of  the  bore,  and 
that  its  strength  is  diminished  rapidly  as 
the  length  of  the  bore  increases  to  a  certain 
point  (probably  not  more  than  three  calibers 
from  the  bottom);  after  which,  for  equal 
thickness  of  metal,  its  strength  becomes  sen- 
sibly uniform.  The  metals  of  which  cannon 
are  made  being  crystalline  in  structure,  the 
size  and  arrangement  of  the  crystals  have  an 
important  influence  on  its  strength  to  resist 
a  particular  force ;  and  a  metal  will  have 
the  greatest  strength  with  reference  to  a  par- 
ticular force  when  its  crystals  are  small,  and 
the  principal  faces  are  parallel  to  the  strain- 
ing force,  if  it  be  one  of  extension,  and  per- 
pendicular to  it,  if  it  be  one  of  compression. 
The  position  of  the  principal  crystalline 
faces  of  a  cooling  solid  is  found  to  be  perpen- 
dicular to  the  cooling  surface  ;  the  result  of 
this  arrangement  of  crystals  is  to  create  planes 
of  weakness  where  the  different  systems  of 
crystals  intersect.  The  eftect  of  this  law 
upon  cannons,  it  has  been  discovered,  is 
to  render  radial  specimens  more  tenacious 
than  those  cut  tangentially  from  the  same 
gun.  The  manner  and  rapidity  of  cooling 
have  also  a  great  effect  upon  the  ability  of 


cannon  to  resist  strains,  and  as  all  solid 
bodies  contract  their  size  in  the  operation 
of  cooling,  it  follows  that  if  the  different 
parts  of  a  cannon  cool  unequally,  it  will 
change  its  form,  provided  it  be  not  restrained 
by  the  presence  of  a  superior  force.  If  it 
be  so  restrained,  the  contractile  force  will 
diminish  the  adhesion  of  the  parts  by  an 
amount  which  depends  on  the  rate  of  cool- 
ing of  the  different  parts,  and  the  contrac- 
tibility  of  the  metal.  This  is  an  important 
consideration  in  estimating  the  strength  and 
endurance  of  cannon,  particularly  those 
made  of  cast  iron.  All  such  cannon  cooled 
from  the  exterior  (see  Ordnance,  Con- 
struction of)  are  affected  by  two  straining 
forces  ;  the  outer  portion  of  the  metal  being 
compressed,  and  the  interior  extended,  in 
pro[)ortion  to  their  distances  from  the  neu- 
tral axis  or  line  composed  of  particles  which 
are  neither  extended  nor  compressed  by  the 
cooling  process.  The  effect  of  this  unequal 
contraction  may  be  so  great  as  to  crack  the 
interior  metal  of  cast  iron  even  before  it  has 
been  subjected  to  the  force  of  gunpowder. 
The  strain  produced  by  the  explosion  of 
guhpowder  is  not  distributed  equally  over 
the  thickness  of  metal,  but  it  varies  inversely 
as  the  square  of  the  distance  from  the  centre; 
it  therefore  follows  that  the  sides  of  a  cannon 
are  not  rent  asunder  as  by  a  simple  tensile 
force,  but  they  are  torn  apart  like  a  piece  of 
cloth,  commencing  at  the  surface  of  the  bore. 
Hence  it  is  that  the  effect  of  ordinary  cool- 
ing is  to  diminish  the  strength  and  hardness 
of  the  metal  of  cannon  at  or  near  a  point 
where  the  greatest  strength  and  hardness 
are  required,  i.e.,  at  the  surface  of  the  bore. 
The  strains  produced  by  unequal  cooling 
increase  with  the  diameter  of  the  casting 
and  the  irregularity  of  its  form.  This  ex- 
plains the  great  difficulty  found  in  making 
large  cast-iron  cannon  proportionally  as 
strong  as  small  ones,  and  also  how  projec- 
tions like  bands,  moldings,  etc.,  injure  the 
strength  of  cannon.  It  also  explains  why 
cannon  made  of  "light"  cast  iron,  or  cast 
iron  made  more  tenacious  by  partial  decar- 
bonization,  are  not  so  strong  as  cannon 
made  of  weaker  iron  ;  for  it  is  well  known 
that  such  iron  contracts  more  than  the  latter 
in  cooling,  and  therefore  produces  a  greater 
strain  of  extension  on  the  surface  of  the  bore. 
Capt.  Eodman  of  the  U.  S.  Ordnance  De- 
partment has  proposed  a  plan  for  cooling 
cannon  from  the  interior  (see  Ordnance, 
Construction  of),  thereby  reversing  the 
strains  produced  by  external  cooling,  and 
making  them  contribute  to  the  endurance 
rather  "than  to  the  injury  of  the  piece.  It 
is  likely,  however,  that  the  strains  produced 
by  unequal  cooling  are  modified  by  time, 
which  probablj^  allows  the  particles  to  ac- 
commodate themselves  to  a  certain  extent 
to  their  constrained  position.  In  confirma- 
tion of  this,  great  endurance  has  been  fre- 
quently found  in  old  solid  cast  guns,  as  in 
the  old  42-pounders  tested  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  war,  18G1-G5. 


ORDNANCE 


393 


OREGON 


Ordnance  Department.  In  the  United 
States,  was  lii>t  i"stal)lished  May  14, 1812,  and 
was  not  jtrovidcd  for  in  tiic  reduction  of  the 
army  in  1815,  but  continued  in  the  service. 
In  1821  the  dcpurtinent  was  merged  into  the 
artillery,  attaching  to  each  regiment  of  ar- 
tillery 1  supernumerary  captain,  and  giving 
to  eacli  coMijiany  4  subaltern  officers.  The 
corps  of  ordnance  was  re-established  April  5, 
1832.  The  department  consists  of  1  briga- 
dier-general, 3  colonels,  4  lieutenant-colo- 
nels, 10  majors,  20  captains,  l(j  first  lieuten- 
ants, and  350  enlisted  men.  It  is  the  duty 
of  the  senior  officer  of  the  ordnance  depart- 
ment to  direct  the  inspection  and  proving 
of  all  pieces  of  ordnance,  shot,  shells,  small- 
arms,  and  equipments  procured  for  the  use 
of  the  armies  of  the  United  States  ;  and  to 
direct  the  construction  of  all  cannon  and 
carriages,  and  every  implement  and  appa- 
ratus for  ordnance,  and  all  ammunition- 
wagons,  traveling-forges,  and  artificers' 
wagons  ;  the  inspection  and  proving  of  pow- 
der, and  the  preparation  of  all  kinds  of  am- 
munition and  ordnance  stores.  It  is  also 
the  duty  of  the  senior  officer  of  the  ordnance 
department  to  furnish  estimates,  and,  under 
the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  to 
make  contracts  and  purchases  for  procuring 
the  necessary  supplies  of  arms,  ordnance, 
and  ordnance  stores,  etc.  In  the  British 
service,  the  ordnance  department  was  a  dis- 
tinct branch  of  the  war  department,  origi- 
nally for  the  supply  of  all  warlike  stores 
used  in  the  naval  or  military  service.  The 
first  nuister  of  ordnance  was  created  in  the 
time  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  the  Tower  of 
London  was  probably  the  depot  of  arms 
and  military  stores  ;  Robert,  earl  of  Essex, 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  master-general, 
in  159<).  It  does  not  appear  that  the  ord- 
nance department  of  the  i^ritish  service  be- 
I  came  especially  military  until  the  early  part 
of  the  18th  century,  after  the  organization 
of  the  Royal  Artillery,  in  1743,  under  the 
Duke  of  Montague  as  master-general.  From 
this  time  the  ordnance  department  was  ad- 
1  ministered  by  a  master-general  and  board, 
the  latter  being  composed  of  a  lieutenant- 
I  general  of  ordnance,  surveyor-general,  clerk 
I  of  the  ordnance,  principal  store-keeper,  clerk 
j  <)f  the  deliveries,  and  treasurer.  About  1703 
the  department  became  a  construction  board, 
'  with  charge  of  all  forts  and  fortresses,  and 
directed  the  construction  of  all  the  fortifica- 
I  tions  and  military  store-houses,  and  barracks 
I  for  the  ordminco  corps.  The  board  was 
I  finally  abolished  as  a  separate  department, 
j  the  duties  carried  on  by  the  commander-in- 
I  chief,  and  the  various  civil  branches  by  sep- 
arate oflices  under  the  secretary  of  state  for 
war. 

Ordnance  Office.  Before  the  invention 
of  guns,  this  (iffice  was  supplied  b}'  officers 
under  the  following  names :  the  bowyer, 
the  cross-bowyer,  the  galeater,  or  purveyor 
of  helmets,  the  armorer,  and  the  keeper  of 
the  tents.  Henry  VIII.  placed  under  the 
noHnagement  of  a  master-general,  a  lieuten- 


ant, surveyor,  etc.     The  master-general  was 
chosen  from  among  the  first  generals  in  the 
service  of  the  sovereign.     The  appointment 
was  formerly  for  life  ;  but  since  the  restora- 
tion, was  held  durante  bene  placito,  and  not 
i  unfrequently  by  a  cabinet  minister.  The  let- 
i  ters  patent  for  this  office  were  revoked  May 
j  25,  1855,  and  its  duties  vested  in  the  minis- 
i  tcr  of  war.      The  last   master-general   was 
I  Lord    Fitzroy   Somerset,   afterwards   Lord 
Raglan. 

Ordnance  Projectile.  See  Pkojectile. 
Ordnance  Sergeants.  In  the  U.  S.  ser- 
vice, are  stafl"  sergeants  who  are  selected 
from  the  sergeants  of  the  lino  of  the  arm\'. 
Their  duties  consist  in  receiving  and  pre- 
serving the  ordnance,  arms,  ammunition, 
and  other  ordnance  stores  at  posts,  under  the 
direction  of  the  commanding  officer  of  the 
same.  They  must  not  be  confounded  with 
sergeants  of  ordnance,  who  are  sergeants  in 
the  ordnance  detachments  at  arsenals,  etc. 

Ordnance  Store-keeper.  In  the  I3ritish 
service,  is  a  civil  officer  in  the  artillery  who 
has  charge  of  all  the  stores,  for  which  he  is 
accountable  to  the  office  of  ordnance. 

Ordnance  Store-keeper.  In  the  U.  S. 
army,  an  officer  of  the  ordnance  department 
who  holds  the  rank  of  captain.  The  grade 
has  been  abolished  by  act  of  Congress,  and 
the  duties  appertaining  to  the  office  will  be 
performed  by  other  offecers  of  the  ordnance 
department. 

Ordnance  Stores.     See  Ordxance. 
Oregon.     One  of  the  Pacific  States  of  the 
American    Confederacy.      Oregon   was    the 
name  formerly  given  to  the  whole  territory 
north  of  the   Rocky   Mountains,  and   was 
!  first  claimed  by  the  Spanish  government, 
I  and  next  by  the  government  of  the  United 
I  States,  as  far  as  lat.  54°  40'  N.     This  latter 
;  claim  was  resisted   by  the  British  govern- 
ment, which  asserted  a  right  to  the  entire 
'  territory,  and  in   1818  a  treaty  was  made, 
I  and  renewed  in  1827,  giving  joint  occupa- 
;  tion  to  the  disputed  territory.      In  1846  a 
[  treaty  was  concluded,  by  which  the  bound- 
;  ary  was  settled  on  the  49th  parallel.     Pre- 
'  vious  to  this  latter  treaty  (1839)  emigration 
\  from  the  I'nited  States,  for  the  purpose  of 
settlement,    commenced,    and    it   continued 
j  steadily  until  the  opening  of  the  gold  mines 
I  in  California,  which  attracted  a  great  many 
j  emigrants.     In  1840  it  formed  a  Territorial 
government,  and    in  1859  it  was  admitted 
:  into  the  Union  as  a  State.     This  State  has 
been  troubled  greatly  by  Indians,  and  has 
been  the   scene   of  several   wars  in  earlier 
days,  notably,  in  1853,  on  Rogue  River;  in 
1855,  when  a  general  outbreak  took  place, 
of  which  the  following  is  a  brief  summary  : 
j  In  1855  a  war  broke  out  between  the  whites 
,  and  the  Indians  of  Washington  Territory. 
The  head  and  front  of  the  outbreak  on  the 
part  of  the  Indians  was  Kam-ai-a-kin.     He 
took  this  stand  from  a  fixed  principle  :  that 
1  of  resisting  all  encroachments  on  the  part  of 
the  whites.      He  had  seen  the  fate  of  the 
I  Indian  race  in  the  Willamette  Valley,  and 


OREILLEEE 


394 


ORGANIZATION 


he  determined  to  anticipate  such  a  result 
with  regard  to  his  own  people,  and,  if  possi- 
ble, to  "prevent  it.  When  Gov.  Stevens 
made  his  arbitrary  treaties  with  him,  and 
left  him  no  discretion  but  to  sell  his  land; 
and  when  the  miners  began  to  traverse  his 
country,  he  concluded  that  the  hour  had 
arrived  to  fight,  and  he  called  to  his  aid  as 
many  of  the  adjoining  tribes  as  he  could 
persuade  into  it.  The  manner  in  which  the 
treaties  on  Puget  Sound  were  conducted  cre- 
ated great  dissatisfaction  among  the  Indi- 
ans, and  they  were  quite  ready  to  join  Kam- 
ai-a-kin.  The  war  commenced  by  the  kill- 
ing of  miners,  who  were  picked  off  in  the 
Yakama  country  as  they  were  going  to 
Fort  Oolville,  scarcely  a  month  after  the 
council  which  was  held  at  Walla  Walla. 
The  killing  of  the  agent  Bolen  set  the  war 
in  a  blaze.  The  small  detachment  of  troops 
sent  to  chastise  them  was  driven  back.  This 
success  on  the  part  of  the  Klickatats  en- 
couraged the  Sound  Indians,  who  also  took 
up  arms,  and-  in  the  absence  of  troops,  fell 
upon  and  killed  the  inhabitants  of  White 
Eiver ;  but  the  wholesale  slaughter  of  women 
and  children  by  a  party  under  the  command 
of  Major  Lupton  on  October  8,  1855,  drove 
the  Indians  to  desperation  and  caused  them 
to  commence  the  war  in  earnest ;  hostilities 
continued  until  the  summer  of  1856.  Also, 
in  later  years,  the  Modoc  war  (1872),  the  Nez 
Perces  (1877),  and  the  Bannock  war  (1878). 

Oreillere  (Fr.).  Oreillet,  ear-piece  of  an 
ancient  helmet,  shaped  like  an  oyster-shell, 
for  protecting  the  ear  and  cheek. 

Oreillon  (Fr.).  Ear  of  a  sword,  languet, 
or  small  slip  of  metal  on  the  hilt,  which, 
when  the  sword  is  sheathed,  extends  along 
the  scabbard. 

Organization.  The  act  of  assigning  and 
putting  troops  into  such  uniform  state  of 
discipline  as  may  fit  them  to  co-operate  on 
an}"-  service.  Orgaiiization  may  be  said  to  be 
begun  by  grouping  those  combatants  who 
have  the  same  mode  of  action.  These  groups 
are  known  as  "arms  of  service."  An  arm 
of  service  may  be  defined  to  be  "a  union  of 
combatants  having  the  same  mode  of  action. " 
There  are  four  of  these  arms  in  modern  ar- 
mies, viz. :  Infantry,  Cavalry,  Artillery,  and 
Engineers.  These  four  arms  form  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  a  mobilized  army,  and  as  they 
or  their  representatives  are  always  formed 
into  a  line  of  battle  to  resist  the  attack  of  an 
enemy,  or  to  make  an  attack,  they  are  gen- 
erally known  as  the  "line  of  the  army"  or 
"troops  of  the  line,"  to  distinguish  them 
from  other  bodies  of  men  who  form  parts  of 
an  army.  These  arms  are  subdivided  into 
fractions  for  the  purpose  of  instruction  and 
of  supply.  The  unit  for  instruction  and  the 
unit  for  supply  may  be  the  same  or  difl'erent. 
The  unit  of  supply,  as  a  general  rule,  is  con- 
stant, and  is  also  usually  the  unit  of  instruc- 
tion in  discipline.  The  unit  of  instruction 
in  tactics  will  depend  upon  circumstances, 
and  upon  the  kind  of  movements  the  com- 
mander desires  to  make.     The  common  unit 


for  the  four  arms,  for  supplying  the  men's 
wants  and  for  instruction  in  discipline,  is  the 
"company."  This  unit  receives,  at  other 
times,  other  names,  depending  upon  circum- 
stances. For  instance,  a  battery  of  artillery 
is  the  same  as  company  ;  the  term  squadron 
of  cavalry  frequently  means  a  company,  etc. 

A  company  consists  of  a  given  number  of 
men  commanded  by  a  commissioned  officer 
who  has  the  rank  of  captain.  Two,  some- 
times three,  and  even  more  commissioned 
officers  of  a  grade  below  that  of  captain  are 
appointed  to  assist  the  captain  in  the  dis- 
charge of  his  duties.  These  officers  have  the 
grade  of  lieutenant.  Their  number  and  the 
number  of  men  forming  a  company  are  fixed 
by  law.  A  certain  number  are  selected  from 
the  men  and  appointed  non-commissioned 
officers,  with  the  rank  of  sergeant  or  of  cor- 
poral. These  non-commissioned  officers  are 
used  to  instruct  the  men  in  their  military 
duties  and  in  discipline.  The  whole  com- 
pany should  be  divided  into  squads  of  equal 
numbers,  and  each  squad  placed  under  the 
charge  of  a  non-commissioned  officer,  who 
should  be  held  responsible  for  the  cleanliness 
of  the  men  of  his  squad,  not  only  as  to  their 
persons,  clothing,  and  arms,  but  as  to  their 
tents  or  quarters.  The  company,  with  its 
size  based  on  the  theory  that  it  must  not  be 
larger  than  one  man  on  foot  can  thoroughly 
command  in  person,  is  the  unit  of  organiza- 
tion. Two  or  three  or  more  companies  form 
a  battalioji.  Four,  and  at  the  outside,  five 
companies  placed  in  line  form,  in  these  times, 
so  extended  a  line  that  a  single  person  in 
immediate  and  personal  command  of  them 
will  find  difficulty  in  making  himself  heard 
and  understood  throughout  the  entire  line. 
For  this  reason  the  battalion  should  not,  as 
a  rule,  contain  more  than  four  companies. 

The  battalio7i  is  the  tactical  unit,  both  for 
instruction  in  tactics  and  in  the  execution  of 
its  movements.  The  battalion  is  sometimes 
made  a  vinit  of  administration,  and  forms  51 
complete  organization  under  the  command 
of  a  commissioned  officer  of  the  grade  of 
major  or  lieutenant-colonel.  The  more  usual 
rule  is  to  increase  the  number  of  companies 
so  as  to  have  enough  to  form  at  least  two 
battalions,  and  with  these  companies  to  form 
the  organization  known  as  a  regiment. 

The  regiment  is  always  an  administrative 
unit,  and  is  commanded  by  a  commissioned 
officer  who  has  the  grade  of  coloiiel.  The 
colonel  is  charged  with  the  proper  adminis- 
tration of  the  supplies  for  the  regiment,  and 
with  preserving  good  order  and  promoting 
discipline.  He  takes  every  opportunity  to 
instruct  both  the  officers  and  men  in  the 
principles  and  details  of  all  movements  that 
ought  in  any  case  to  be  made  by  a  battaliDii. 
Upon  the  organization  of  a  regiment,  the 
company  officers  are  assigned  to  companies, 
and  each  company  is  designated  by  a  letter 
of  the  alphabet.  Upon  the  recommendation 
of  the  captains,  the  colonel  appoints  the  non- 
commissioned officers  of  the  companies.  He 
appoints  an  adjutant  from  the  lieutenants  of 


ORGANIZATION 


395 


ORGANIZATION 


the  repjiment,  and  a  non-commissioned  staff 
from  tlie  enlisred  men,  to  assist  him  in  his 
duties.  Ho  selects  from  tlic  lieutenants  a 
quartermaster,  whose  appointment  is  con- 
firmed by  the  Secretary  of  AVar. 

The  elements  of  ori^anizution  for  the  other 
three  arms  of  service  are  practically  the  same, 
being  that  of  a  company  or  similar  body  of 
men  under  the  command  of  a  captain,  and 
these  units  grouped  together  into  a  battalion 
or  regimental  organization  for  administra- 
tive purposes.  This  subdivision  into  compa- 
nies and  into  regiments  is  most  essential  for 
instruction  in  discipline. 

Discipline  is  an  indispensable  condition  for 
the  existence  of  a  good  army.  It  imparts 
cohesion  and  thxibilifi/  to  the  armed  mass. 
Without  discipline  an  army  is  only  an  armed 
mob  over  which  a  commander  would  have 
no  control,  and  upon  which  he  could  not 
rely  in  the  execution  of  his  plans.  When 
the  army  is  to  be  mobilized  the  regiments  are 
brought  together  and  organized  into  hrif/fides 
and  (lirlsiuns.  Two  or  more  regiments  form 
ft  brigade ;  two  or  more  brigades  form  a  di- 
vision. A  general  officer  of  the  grade  of 
brigadier-ijnirrnl  is  assigned  to  the  comnumd 
of  a  brigade,  and  one  of  the  grade  of  )najor- 
general  to  the  command  of  a  division.  These 
divisions  and  brigades  may  be  composed  en- 
tirely of  one  arm,  or  they  may  be  composed 
of  troops  belonging  to  all  four  of  the  arms. 

The  division  is  the  unit  of  organization  and 
administration  of  a  mobilized  army,  and  is 
also  the  tnrtiad  unit  of  the  general  in  com- 
mand. When  the  army  is  very  large,  three 
or  four  divisions  are  joined  together  and 
form  an  army  corps.  The  officer  command- 
ing an  army  corps  should  be  of  a  higher 
grade  than  he  who  commands  a  division. 
This  grade  in  the  U.  S.  army  would  be  that 
of  lieuienanf-gcneral. 

An  army  corps  is  most  generally  composed 
of  all  arms  of^service,  and  is,  to  all  intents 
and  purposes,  an  army  complete  in  itself. 
Two  or  more  army  corps  or  armies  would  be 
under  the  command  of  the  general,  or  of  a 
"general-in-chief. "  There  has  arisen  an  or- 
ganization forming  an  essential  part  of  every 
army,  known  as  the  general  staff,  and  di- 
vided into  corps  and  departments  to  which 
are  assigned  special  duties.  In  some  cases, 
the  term  "general  stafl""  is  limited  to  include 
only  those  officers  who  are  used  by  the  gen- 
eral to  communicate  his  orders,  and  to  inform 
him  of  the  general  and  particular  conditions 
of  the  troops;  and  the  term  "staff  depart- 
ment" or  "supply  department''  is  used  to 
include  those  officers  whose  duties  are  con- 
fined to  distinct  branches  of  service  having 
for  their  object  the  supply  of  troops.  If  the 
army  is  one  of  very  great  size,  the  general 
ordinarily  attaches  to  his  headquarters  a 
representative  of  the  three  arms  of  artillery, 
cavalry,  and  engineers,  giving  them  the  po- 
sition of  staff-officers  with  the  mime  of"  chief 
of  artillery,"  "  chief  of  cavalry,' etc.  They 
are  required  to  keep  the  general  informed  of 
the  state  of  supplies,  and  whatever  concerns 


their  particular  arm,  in  a  similar  manner  to 
that  required  by  the  other  officers  of  the  staff. 
The  general  also  appoints  from  the  subordi- 
nate officers  belonging  to  his  command  a 
certain  number  of  aides-de-camp.  These 
officers  are  e.c  officio  adjutants-general,  and 
receive  orders  from  the  general  himself. 
They  are  confidential  officers,  who  are  sup- 
posed to  be  used  only  in  delicate  and  difficult 
duties,  where  they  may  in  a  degree  represent 
the  general.  Hence,  they  are  intrusted  to 
deliver  verbal  orders  which  cannot  be  in- 
trusted with  propriety  to  enlisted  men  or  to 
the  ordinary  means  of  communication. 

Proportion  of  Ai-ms  of  Service. — The  mass 
of  a  modern  army  is  compt>sed  of  infantry. 
The  amount  of  cavalry  will  depend  upon 
the  topographical  features  of  the  country, 
being  in  some  cases  as  much  as  one-fourth  of 
the  infantry,  and  in  others  as  little  as  one- 
tenth.  The  amount  of  light  artillery  de- 
jH'nds  upon  the  character  of  the  country. 
There  should  be  at  least  two  guns  to  every 
thousand  men.  The  quantity  of  heavy- 
artillery,  or  number  of  siege-batteries,  which 
enter  the  composition  of  an  army,  will  de- 
pend to  a  great  extent  upon  the  plan  of 
campaign  and  the  probable  use  for  which 
they  may  be  intended.  The  circumstances 
of  the  case  in  each  campaign  will  therefore 
decide  as  to  the  proportion  to  be  employed. 
The  number  of  engineer  troops  will  depend 
both  on  the  nature  of  the  country  and  on 
the  probable  amount  of  work  which  will  be 
required  from  this  class  of  troops.  Each 
division  should  contain  at  least  one  com- 
pany of  engineer  troops.  It  is  usual,  if  there 
be  none,  to  detail  one  or  more  companies  of 
infantry  to  act  as  engineer  soldiers  ;  the\^  are 
designated  as  "picmeers."'  These  engineer 
troops,  or  troops  acting  in  that  capacity, 
marching  in  the  advance,  make  the  roads 
practicable  for  the  command  by  repairing 
them,  removing  obstructions,  etc.  At  the 
crossing  of  streams,  where  bridges  are  to  be 
made,  or  where  existing  bridges  are  to  bo 
repaired  to  an  extent  requiring  more  knowl- 
edge of  bridge  construction  than  that  usually 
possessed  by  the  pioneer,  another  detach- 
ment of  troops  belonging  to  the  engineer 
arm  is  brought  forward  to  do  the  work. 
These  troops  are  known  as  pontoniers,  and 
have  special  charge  of  bridge  construction 
for  the  army.  They  may  be  divided  into 
two  parts  :  one  to  have  charge  of  construc- 
tion of  temporary  bridges,  esjiecially  of 
floating  and  trestle  bridges,  and  construction 
of  ferries  ;  the  other  to  have  charge  of  re- 
pairs of  bridges  which  have  been  broken  or 
injured  by  the  enemy,  and  where  quick  re- 
pair is  of  importance  to  an  army's  move- 
ments. These  troops  charged  with  bridge 
construction  usually  form  a  part  of  the 
reserve,  and  are  only  attached  to  a  division 
under  peculiar  circumstances.  There  should 
be  also  in  the  reserve  several  companies  of 
sappers  and  miners;  their  numl>er,  like  the 
heavy  artillery,  being  dependent  upon  the 
nature  of  the  campaign. 


OEGANIZE 


396 


OKKNEY 


The  arimjy  as  a  machine,  is  now  ready  to 
be  used  by  the  general.  The  next  step  is  to 
keep  it  in  a  condition  so  thut  it  can  be  used  ; 
in  other  words,  io preserve  the  fighting  con- 
dition of  the  army.  The  discipline  and 
drill  have  been  cared  for,  and  with  the 
organization  just  sketched  out,  the  general 
can  move  the  whole  mass  as  a  unit  in  accord- 
ance with  his  will.  The  army  can  be  kept 
ready  for  use  only  by  supplying  all  the  ac- 
tual and  necessary  wants  of  the  soldier,  and 
by  keeping  him  in  comfort  and  good  health. 
To  do  this  there  must  be  ammunition,  cloth- 
ing, food,  shelter,  medicines,  surgical  attend- 
ance, hospital  comforts,  etc.,  provided  for 
his  use.  Also  a  good  system  of  recruiting 
must  be  adopted,  by  means  of  which  the 
natural  losses  due  to  sickness  and  death  may 
be  made  good. 

The  tra7isporiation  of  the  munitions,  equip- 
ments, provisions,  hospital  supplies,  tents, 
engineering  tools,  bridge  equipage  and  boats, 
baggage,  cooking  utensils,  etc.,  necessary'  for 
the  use  of  an  army  moving  against  an  enemy, 
requires  the  use  of  large  numbers  of  wagons 
and  a  great  number  of  draught  animals, 
which  of  course  should  not  exceed  the  abso- 
lute necessity  of  the  service.  These  accom- 
paniments to  the  army  received  from  the 
Komans  the  name  of  impedimenta,  for  the 
reason  that  they  hindered  the  movement  of 
the  army.  These  supply  departments  form 
important  parts  of  the  composition  of  a 
modern  army,  and  the  method  of  executing 
the  duties  assigned  them  constitutes  an  im- 
portant branch  of  the  "science  and  art  of 
\war." — Prof.  J.  B.  Wheeler. 

Organize.  To  arrange  or  constitute  in 
parts,  each  having  a  special  function,  act, 
office,  or  relation ;  as,  to  organize  an  army, 
etc. 

Orgue  (Fr.  un  orguc).  A  term  used  to 
express  that  arrangement  or  disposition  of  a 
certain  quantity  of  rnusket-barrels  in  a  row, 
which,  by  means  of  a  priming  train  of  gun- 
powder, may  be  subjected  to  one  general 
explosion.  This  machine  has  been  found 
extremely  serviceable  in  the  defense  of  a  low 
flank,  a  tenaille,  or  to  prevent  an  enemy 
from  crossing  the  ditch  of  a  fortified  place. 

Orgues.  Are  beams  of  wood  hanging 
perpendicularly  over  the  entrance  of  a  forti- 
fied town,  which  were  formerly  used  as  a 
portcullis,  to  be  dropped  in  case  of  any 
emergency.     They  are  not  now  used. 

Orient.  The  east  or  eastern  part  of  the 
horizon.  In  surveying,  io  orie^it  a  plan  sig- 
nifies to  make  its  situation  or  bearing  with 
respect  to  the  four  cardinal  points. 

Oriflamme,  or  Auriflamme.  A  banner 
which  originally  belonged  to  the  abbey  of 
St.  Denis,  and  was  borne  by  the  counts  of 
Vexin,  patrons  of  that  church,  but  which, 
after  the  country  of  Vexin  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  French  crown,  became  the 
principal  banner  of  the  kingdom.  It  was 
charged  with  a  saltire  wavy  or,  with  rays 
issuing  from  the  centre  crossways.  In  later 
timee  the  oriflamme  became  the  insignia  of 


the  French  infantry.  The  name  seems  also 
to  have  been  given  to  other  flags ;  the  ori- 
flamme borne  at  Agincourt  was  an  oblong 
red  flag  split  into  five  parts. 

Orihuela.  A  town  of  Spain,  in  Valencia, 
on  the  Segura,  31  miles  southwest  from  Ali- 
cante. It  was  a  place  of  some  importance 
in  the  Moorish  invasion,  and  was  held  in  713 
successfully  by  Theodoric  against  Abd-el- 
Aziz  after  the  battle  of  the  Guadalete.  It 
was  conquered  in  1205  by  Don  Jaime  of 
Aragon  for  his  father-in-law,  Don  Alonso, 
king  of  Castile.  The  city  was  sacked  in 
1520  in  the  civil  war  at  that  time  raging, 
and  again  in  the  War  of  the  Succession,  1706. 
It  was  held  for  some  time  in  1837  by  the 
Carlist  general  Forcadell. 

Orillon.  This  may  be  described  as  a  pro- 
jection at  the  shoulder  of  a  bastion  beyond 
the  ordinary  flank  of  a  curved  portion  of 
rampart  and  parapet,  the  curve  being  con- 
vex to  the  ditch.  The  orillon,  introduced 
during  the  17th  century,  was  generally  used 
in  conjunction  with  a  retired  flank,  made 
ordinarily  with  a  curve  concave  to  the 
ditch.  Both  orillon  and  retired  flank  are 
now  obsolete. 

Orissa.  An  extensive  province  of  Hin- 
dostan,  in  the  Deccan.  A  race  of  Hindoo 
princes  governed  the  country  till  1592,  when 
they  were  conquered  by  the  viceroy  of  Ak- 
bar.  The  French,  who  had  taken  possession 
of  a  part  of  the  country  long  known  as  the 
Northern  Circars,  attempted  to  drive  the 
English  (who  had  formed  commercial  settle- 
ments on  the  coast)  out  of  India.  The 
result  of  the  contest  for  supremacy  in  India 
between  the  French  and  English  is  well 
known.  The  Mahrattas,  who  had  seized  a 
portion  of  Orissa  in  1740,  were  forced  to 
surrender  it  to  the  English  in  1803.  The 
soldiers  of  the  East  India  Company  were 
marched  into  Orissa  at  the  commencement 
of  the  present  century,  and  an  engagement 
was  subsequently  entered  into  between  the 
Company  and  the  native  chiefs  and  princes, 
by  which  the  former  bound  themselves  to 
perform  certain  services  for  the  country  (as 
maintaining  the  river-banks  in  good  repair), 
while  the  latter  engaged  to  pay  a  yearly 
tribute. 

Orizaba.  A  town  of  Mexico,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Vera  Cruz,  60  miles  southwest 
from  Vera  Cruz.  It  was  occupied  by  Gen. 
Prim,  in  command  of  the  Spanish  troops 
that  formed  part  of  the  expedition  sent  by 
England,  France,  and  Spain  to  Mexico  in 
March,  1862.  A  conference  was  held  here 
shortly  after  the  occupation  of  the  town  be- 
tween the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  three 
powers,  when  the  English  and  Spanish  com- 
missioners determined  to  withdraw  their  con- 
tingents from  Mexico,  in  accordance  with 
the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Soledad,  while 
the  French  on  the  other  hand  resolved  to 
push  on  to  the  capital,  to  establish  a  settled 
government  in  the  country  in  lieu  of  that  of 
Juarez. 

Orkney  Islands  (anc.  Orcades).     A  clus- 


ORLE 


397 


OSNABRUCK 


ter  of  islands  in  the  North  Soa,  separated 
from  the  north  coast  of  Scotland  by  the 
Pentland  Firth.  From  an  early  period  the 
Norsemen  resorted  to  these  islands  as  a  con- 
venient spot  from  which  to  make  a  descent 
on  the  Scotch  and  Knijlish  coasts.  In  87»; 
Ilarald  Ilaarfatjcr  conquered  both  them  and 
the  Hebrides;  they  were  conquered  by  Mag- 
nus III.  of  Norway  in  1499,  and  were  ceded 
to  James  III.  in  14()9. 

Orle.  In  heraldry,  one  of  the  charges 
known  under  the  charge  of  sub-ordinaries, 
m\d  to  be  the  diminutive  of  a  bordure,  but 
difiering  from  it  in  being  detached  from  the 
sides  of  the  shield.  Or  an  orle  gules  was 
the  coat  borne  by  John  Baliol.  An  orle  of 
heraldic  charges  of  any  kind  denotes  a  cer- 
tain number  (generally  eight)  of  these 
charges  placed  in  orle,  as  in  the  coat  of  the 
old  Scottish  family  of  Gladstancs  of  that 
Ilk  ;  argent,  a  savage's  head  couped,  distill- 
ing drops  of  blood  proper,  thereon  a  bonnet 
composed  of  bay  and  holly  leave5  all  proper, 
within  an  orle  of  eight  martlets  sable. 

Orleans.  An  important  town  of  France, 
capital  of  the  department  of  Loiret,  75  miles 
south-south  west  from  Paris  by  railway.  Or- 
leans, originally  called  Genabum,  afterwards 
Aureliaui  (probably  from  the  emperor  Au- 
relian),  was  besieged  by  Attila  in  451,  but 
relieved  by  the  Romans,  who  here  defeated 
Attila.  It  afterwards  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  Franks,  was  taken  by  the  Northmen 
in  855,  and  again  in  865.  In  1428  it  was  be- 
sieged by  the  English  under  the  Duke  of 
Bedford,"  but  was  delivered  from  the  be- 
siegers by  the  inspiriting  exertions  of  Joan 
of  Arc,  who  on  this  account  is  also  named 
the  Maid  of  Orleans.  In  the  civil  wars  of 
the  ir.th  century  it  was  besieged  in  15G3  by 
the  Duke  of  Guise,  who  was  assassinated  be- 
fore the  walls.  During  the  Franco-Prus- 
sian war,  1870-71,  Orleans  was  occupied 
by  the  Germans,  September  27,  and  evacu- 
ated November  10,  1870. 

Ormskirk.  A  town  of  England,  county 
of  Lancaster,  12  miles  north  by  east  from 
Liverpool.  Near  this  place,  in  1044,  the 
royalists  were  defeated  by  the  Parliamentary 
troops  with  great  slaughter. 

Ormus,  or  Ormuz.  A  small  island  in  the 
strait  of  the  same  name,  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Persian  Gulf,  and  within  10  miles  of  the 
Persian  coast.  It  is  about  12  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, and  belongs  to  the  sultan  of 
Muscat.  It  was  occupied  by  the  Portuguese 
in  the  Ifith  century.  The  town  was  demol- 
ished in  lt;22  by  Shah  Abbas,  assisted  by  the 
English,  and  its  trade  was  removed  to  Gom- 
broon. 

Ornamental      Fireworks.      See      Ptro- 

TECHNY. 

Ornaments,  Military.  Are  those  parts  of 
the  dress  of  a  soldier  which  are  more  for  ap- 
pearance or  distinction  than  for  absolute  use, 
as  plates  for  belts,  trimmings,  etc. 

Omeae.  An  ancient  town  in  Argolis, 
near  the  frontiers  of  the  territory  of-  Phi- 
lius,  and  120  stadia   from  Argus.     It  was 


originally  independent  of  Argos,  but  was 
subdued  by  the  Argives  in  the  Peloponne- 
sian  war,  415  U.c. 

Orteil.     See  Bkk.mk. 

Ortelsburg.  A  town  of  East  Prussia,  in 
the  government  of  Konigsberg,  80  miles 
southeast  of  Konigsberg.  Several  engage- 
ments took  place  here  between  the  French 
and  Russians  in  1807. 

Orthez,  or  Orthes.  A  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  the  Lower  Pyrenees, 
situated  on  the  Gave  de  Pau,  25  miles  north- 
west from  Pau.  It  suft'ered  much  during 
the  civil  wars  in  France  after  the  PkCvolu- 
tion.  Near  this  town  the  British  and  Span- 
ish armies  commanded  by  Wellington  de- 
feated the  French  under  Soult,  February 
27,  1814. 

Ortona.  An  ancient  city  of  Latium,  sit- 
uated on  the  confines  of  the  ^quian  terri- 
tory. It  is  twice  mentioned  during  the  wars 
of  the  Romans  with  the  latter  people:  first 
in  481  iJ.f'.,  when  it  was  besieged  and  taken 
by  the  yEquians;  and  again  in  457  B.C., 
when  the  J*]quians  by  a  sudden  attack  took 
Corbio,  and  after  putting  to  the  sword  the 
Roman  garrison  there,  made  themselves 
i  masters  of  Ortona  also ;  but  the  consul 
j  Horatius  engaged  and  defeated  them  at 
i  Mount  Algidus,  and  after  driving  them 
I  from  that  position,  recovered  possession 
both  of  Corbio  and  Ortona.  No  mention 
of  it  is  found  in  later  times,  and  it  probably 
ceased  to  e.\ist. 

Orvieto.  Called  in  the  time  of  the  Longo- 
bards  Vrbs  Veins,  of  which  its  present  name 
is  a  corruption,  a  city  of  Italy,  province  of 
Perugia;  is  of  Etruscan  origin,  but  of  its 
early  history  nothing  is  known.  It  has 
been  a  place  of  residence  and  retreat  in 
turbulent  times  of  upwards  of  thirty  jiopes. 

Osage  Indians.  A  tribe  of  aborigines  of 
Dakota  stock  who  are  located,  to  the  num- 
ber of  about  2500,  on  a  reservati<m  in  Indian 
Territory.  Thev  are  divided  into  eight 
bands,— the  Beavers,  Big  Chiefs,  Big  Hills, 
Black  Dogs,  Clammores,  Half-Breeds,  Lit- 
tle Osages,  and  White  Hairs,  and  have 
made  but  little  progress  in  civilization. 

Oschatz.  A  town  of  Saxony,  circle  of 
Leipsic,  31  miles  east-southeast  from  Leip- 
sic.  It  was  here  that  the  treaty  of  peace 
was  concluded  between  Frederick  the  Great 
and  the  empress  Maria  Theresa  which  put 
an  end  to*the  Seven  Years'  War,  in  17G3. 

Osci,  or  Opici.  One  of  the  most  ancient 
tribes  of  Italy  ;  they  inhabited  the  centre 
of  the  peninsula,  from  which  they  had 
driven  out  the  Siculi.  Their  principal 
settlement  was  in  Campania,  but  we  also 
find  them  in  parts  of  Latium  and  Samnium. 
They  were  subdued  by  the  Sabines  and  Tyr- 
rhenians, and  disappeared  from  history  at  a 
comparatively  early  period.  The}-  were 
called  in  thfirt>\vn  ]:ini,'iiage  I'skns. 

Osnabruck,  or  Osnaburg.  A  town  in 
Hanover,  71  mile.s  Iruni  Hanover.  Here 
was  concluded  the  peace  of  Westphalia  in 
1648. 


OSSUN 


398 


OTTERBURN 


Ossun.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Upper  Pyrenees,  7  miles 
southwest  from  Tarbes.  A  trreat  buttle  was 
fought  with  the  Saracens,  in  the  8th  century, 
in  its  neighborhood. 

Ostend.  A  fortified  seaport  town  of  Bel- 
gium, province  of  West  Flanders,  situated 
on  the  coast  of  the  North  Sea,  67  miles 
northwest  from  Brussels.  During  the  war 
of  the  Dutch  against  Spain,  Ostend  sustained 
a  memorable  siege  for  more  than  three  years 
(1601-4).  So  tremendous  was  the  bom- 
bardment that  the  noise  of  the  Spanish  ar- 
tillery is  said  to  have  been  occasionally  heard 
at  London.  At  last,  after  a  loss  of  50,000 
men  on  the  part  of  the  garrison,  and  80,000 
on  that  of  the  Spaniards,  the  town  surren- 
dered on  honorable  terms,  and  the  Spanish 
general  Spinola  was  put  in  possession  of 
Ostend,  now  reduced  to  heaps  of  ruin.  On 
the  death  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain,  the  French 
seized  Ostend;  but  in  1706,  after  the  battle 
of  Ramilies,  it  was  retaken  by  tlie  allies.  It 
was  again  taken  by  the  French  in  1745,  but 
restored  in  1748.  In  1756  the  Fnench  garri- 
soned this  town  for  the  empress  queen  Maria 
Theresa.  In  1792  the  French  once  more 
took  Ostend,  which  they  evacuated  in  1793, 
but  regained  in  1794.  The  English  de- 
stroyed the  works  of  the  Bruges  Canal ;  but 
the  wind  shifting  before  they  could  re-em- 
bark, they  surrendered  to  the  French,  May 
19,  1798. 

Ostrolenka.  A  town  of  Poland,  on  the 
Narew.  Near  here  the  French  repulsed  the 
Russians  under  Essen,  February  16,  1807, 
and  an  indecisive  and  bloody  engagement 
took  place  between  the  Poles  vinder  Skrzy- 
necki  and  the  Russians  under  Diebitsch, 
May  26,  1831. 

bstrovno.  A  village  of  Ru.ssia,  in  the 
government  of  Mohilev,  90  miles  northwest 
from  Mohilev.  The  Russians  were  defeated 
here  in  1812  by  the  French. 

Oswego,  Fort.     See  Fort  Ontario. 

Oswestry.  A  town  of  England,  in  Shrop- 
shire, 15  miles  northwest  from  Shrewsbury. 
Oswestry  is  said  to  derive  its  name  (origi- 
nally Oswaldstree)  from  Oswald,  the  king  of 
Northumbria,  who  was  slain  here  in  the 
early  part  of  the  7th  century,  in  a  battle 
fought  with  the  ferocious  Penda,  king  of 
Mercia. 

Otaheite,  or  Tahiti.  The  largest  of  a 
cluster  of  islands  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean, 
that  were  frequently  visited  by  Capt.  Cook, 
and  named  by  him  the  Society  Islands.  In 
1799,  King  Pomare  ceded  the  district  of  Ma- 
tavai  to  some  English  missionaries.  Queen 
Pomare  was  compelled  to  put  herself  under 
the  protection  of  France,  September  7, 1843. 
She  retracted,  and  Otaheite  and  the  neigh- 
boring islands  were  taken  possession  of  by 
Admiral  Dupetit-Thuars  in  the  name  of  the 
French  king,  November,  1843.  The  French 
imprisoned  Mr.  Prichard,  the  English  con- 
sul, March  5,  1844,  but  the  act  was  censured 
in  France. 

Otchakow.     A  small  town  and  seaport  of 


South  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Kher- 
son, 40  miles  east-northeast  from  (Odessa. 
During  the  Russian  wars  with  Turkey  in 
the  18th  century,  Otchakow  was  alternately 
the  property  of  each,  until  it  was  taken  by 
Potemkin  in  1788,  and  definitively  annexed 
to  the  Russian  dominions. 

Otoes.  A  tribe  of  Indians  of  Dakota 
stock  who  reside  with  the  Missourias  on  a 
reservation  in  Nebraska.  They  are  generally 
peaceful  and  industrious,  and  number  with 
their  kindred  tribe  about  450. 

Otomis,  or  Othomis.  An  ancient  tribe 
of  Indians  who  are  said  to  have  inhabited 
the  Valley  of  Mexico  before  the  Aztecs. 
They  are  now  scattered  through  different 
parts  of  the  country,  and  having  lost  all 
tribal  distinctions  are  become  amalgamated 
with  other  Mexican  races. 

Otricoli.  A  town  of  Italy,  37  miles  north 
of  Rome.  The  Neapolitans  were  defeated 
by  the  French  in  its  neighborhood  in  1798. 

Ottawas.  A  tribe  of  Algonkin  Indians, 
who  formerly  resided  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
Erie.  They  subsequently  moved  to  Kansas, 
and  in  1870  settled  in  Indian  Territory, 
where  they  now  prosper.  They  are  well  ad- 
vanced in  civilization.  A  number  of  this 
tribe  settled  in  Canada,  where  their  descend- 
ants may  yet  be  found  ;  some  are  also  settled 
on  Lake  Michigan  with  the  Chippewas. 

Otterburn  (or  Chevy  Chase),  Battle  of. 
Was  fought  in  August,  1388;  a  fight  which 
Froissart  declares  to  have  been  the  bravest 
and  most  chivalrous  which  was  fought  in 
his  day.  According  to  the  ballad  (named 
Chevy  Chase)  Percy  vowed  that  he  would 
enter  Scotland  and  take  his  pleasure  for 
three  days  in  the  woods  of  his  rival,  and 
slay  the  deer  therein  at  will.  Douglas,  when 
he  heard  the  vaunt,  exclaimed,  "  Tell  him 
he  will  find  one  day  more  than  enough." 
Accordingly,  at  the  time  of  the  hay  harvest, 
Percy,  with  stag-hounds  and  archers,  passed 
into  the  domains  of  his  foe,  and  slew  a  "  hun- 
dred fallow  deer  and  harts  of  grice."  When 
the  English  had  hastily  cooked  their  game 
and  were  about  to  retire.  Earl  Douglas,  clad 
in  armor  and  heading  his  Scottish  spears, 
came  on  the  scene.  Haughty  challenge  and 
defiance  passed  between  the  potentates,  and 
the  battle  joined.  In  the  centre  of  the  fray 
the  two  leaders  met.  "  Yield  thee,  Percy  !" 
cried  Douglas.  "I  will  yield  to  no  Scot 
that  was  ever  born  of  a  woman!"  cried 
Percy.  During  this  colloquy,  an  English 
arrow  struck  Douglas  to  the  heart.  "  Fight 
on,  my  merry  men!"  cried  he,  as  he  died. 
Percy,  with  all  the  chivalrous  feeling  of  his 
race,  took  the  dead  man  by  the  hand,  and 
vowed  that  he  would  have  given  all  his 
lands  to  save  him,  for  a  braver  knight  never 
fell  by  such  a  chance.  Sir  Hugh  Montgom- 
ery having  seen  the  fall  of  Douglas,  clapped 
spurs  to  his  horse,  dashed  on  Percy,  and 
struck  his  spear  through  his  body,  a  long 
cloth-yard  and  more.  Although  the  leaders 
on  both  sides  had  fallen,  the  battle,  which 
had  begun  at   break  of  day,  continued  till 


OUDE 


399 


OUTWARD 


the  ringing  of  the  curfew-bell.  Scotsmen 
and  Englishmen  claim  the  victory.  When 
the  battle  ended,  representatives  of  every 
noble  fiiinily  on  either  side  of  the  border  lay 
on  the  blodily  greensward. 

Oude,  or  Oudh.  A  province  of  British 
India,  separated  on  the  north  from  Nepaiil 
by  the  lower  ranges  of  the  Himalaya,  whenee 
it  gradually  slopes  to  the  Ganges,  which 
forms  its  boundary  on  the  south  and  south- 
west. The  people  of  this  i>rovince  are  of  a 
decidedly  warlike  disposition  ;  they  mainly 
supply  the  famous  (or  infamous)  Sepoys  of 
the  Bengal  army.  Oude  is  believed  by  San- 
scrit scholars  to  be  the  ancient  Kosala,  the 
oldest  seat  of  civilization  in  India.  The 
country  was  conquered  by  a  Mohammedan 
army  in  ll'.lo,  and  made  a  province  of  the 
Mogul  empire.  In  1753  the  vi/.icr  of  Oudo, 
Sull'dur  Jung,  rebelled  against  his  imperial 
master,  Ahmed  Shah,  and  forced  the  latter 
to  make  the  governorship  hereditary  in  his 
family.  When  the  mutiny  of  1857  broke 
out,  Oude  became  one  of  the  great  centres  of 
rebellion.  The  country  was  subdued  by  the 
British. 

Oudenarde  (Fr.  Audenarde).  A  town  of 
Belgium,  in  East  Flanders,  14  miles  .south- 
west from  Ghent.  The  town  was  taken  by 
the  Frcncii,  aided  by  an  English  force,  in 
1C58;  it  was  atrain  besieged  in  l(j74  by  the 
stadtliolder  William  (HI.  of  England)  of 
Orange;  and  in  170G  it  was  taken  by  Marl- 
borough. An  attempt  made  by  the  French 
to  retake  it  brought  on  the  famous  battle  of 
Oudenarde,  one  of  Marlborough's  most  c(de- 
brated  victories,  which  was  gained  on  July 
11,  1708,  with  the  aid  of  Prince  Eugene, 
over  a  French  army  under  the  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy and  Marshal  Villars.  After  this 
battle  the  French  king  made  offers  of  peace, 
which  were  not  accepted. 

Oulart  (Southeast  Ireland).  Hero  5000 
Irish  insurgents  attacked  the  king's  troops 
in  snnill  number.  May  27,  1798.  The  North 
Cork  militia,  after  great  feats  of  bravery, 
were  cut  to  pieces,  5  men  only  escaping. 

Ourique.  A  town  of  Portugal,  province 
of  Alcmtijo,  30  miles  southwest  of  33eja. 
Hero  Alfonso,  count  or  duke  of  Portugal,  is 
said  to  have  encountered  and  signally  de- 
feated five  Saracen  kings  and  a  prodigious 
army  of  Moors,  July  25,  1139,  and  to  have 
been  hailed  king  on  the  spot.  Lisbon,  the 
capital,  was  taken,  and  he  soon  after  was 
here  crowned  as  the  first  king,  the  Moorish 
dominion  being  overthrown. 

Outbar.     To  shut  out  by  fortification. 

Outbrave.  To  excel  in  bravery  or  bold- 
ness ;  to  defy. 

Outfit.  In  the  British  service,  is  the  ne- 
cessaries, uniform,  etc.,  whicli  an  officer  pro- 
vides when  he  is  gazetted  to  a  regiment,  or 
M  proceeding  to  India.  No  allowance  is 
made  for  an  outfit,  excepting  in  case  of  offi- 
cers first  promoted  from  the  ranks,  when 
XlOO  is  granted  to  infantry  and  £150  to  cav- 
tlry  officers. 

Outflank.    To  go  beyond  on  the  flank  or 


side;  to  get  the  better  of,  as  by  extending 
one's  lines  beyond  or  around  that  of  ones 
enemy. 

Outgeneral.  To  exceed  in  generalship; 
to  gain  advantage  over  by  superior  military 
skill. 

Outguard.  A  guard  at  a  distance  from 
the  main  body  of  an  army;  or  a  guard  at 
the  farthest  distance;  hence,  anything  for 
defense  j)laced  at  a  distance  from  the  thing 
to  be  defended. 

Outline,  or  Tracing.  Is  the  succession  of 
lines  that  siiow  the  figure  of  the  works,  and 
indicate  the  direction  in  which  the  defensive 
masses  are  laid  out,  in  order  to  obtain  a 
proper  defense. 

Outlyers.  In  the  British  service,  for- 
merly this  term  applied  to  men  who  were 
permitted  to  work,  on  condition  that  the 
whole  of  their  pay  was  left  in  the  hands  of 
their  captain  for  the  time  they  were  so  em- 
ployed. This  sum  the  officer  appropriated  to 
his  own  use,  to  enable  him  to  increase  his 
pay  and  to  keep  a  handsome  table  when  he 
mounted  guard.  It  was  also  a  common 
practice  to  place  on  the  muster-rolls  the 
names  of  officers'  children,  and  instances 
have  occurred  of  girls  receiving  men's  pay 
as  outlyers. 

Outlying.  Lying  or  being  at  a  distance 
from  the  main  body;  as,  outlying  pickets. 
Also,  being  on  the  exterior  or  frontier. 

OutmancEuvre.  To  surpass  in  mancsuv- 
ring. 

Outmarch.  To  march  faster  than ;  to 
march  so  as  to  leave  behind ;  as,  the  horse 
outmarched  the  foot. 

Outnumber.  To  exceed  in  number;  as, 
the  French  were  outnumbered. 

Outpart.  At  a  distance  from  the  main 
body. 

Out-pensioner.  A  pensioner  attached  to  a 
hospital,  as  Greenwich  or  Chelsea,  England, 
who  has  liberty  to  live  where  he  pleases. 

Outpost.  A  post  or  station  without  the 
limits  of  a  camp,  or  at  a  distance  from  the 
main  body  of  an  army.  The  troops  placed 
at  such  a  station. 

Outposts.  The  term,  outposts,  is  used  at 
the  present  time  to  designate  the  particular 
detachments  of  troops  and  the  method  of 
arranging  them,  by  means  of  which  an  army 
when  in  bivouac,  in  camp,  or  in  cantonment, 
is  protected  /V«»i  surprise  hy  an  enemy. 

Outrank.  To  take  the  precedence  of,  or 
be  sujterior  to,  in  rank  ;  to  rank. 

Out-sentry.  A  sentry  who  guards  the 
entrance  or  approach  to  a  i)lace  ;  an  out- 
guard. 

Outside.  In  fencing,  that  part  which  is 
to  the  right  of  the  line  of  defense. 

Outside  Guard.  A  guard  used  with  the 
broadsword  and  sabre,  to  defend  the  outside 
of  the  position. 

Outwall.  The  exterior  wall  of  a  building 
or  fortress. 

Outward  Face.  A  word  of  command  for 
troops  to  face  to  the  right  and  left  from  their 
centre. 


OUTWING 


400 


OXFORD 


Outwing,  To.  To  extend  the  flanks  of  an 
army  or  line  in  action,  so  as  to  gain  an  ad- 
vantageous position  against  the  right  or  left 
wing  of  an  enemy. 

Outworks.  In  fortification,  are  minor 
defenses  constructed  beyond  the  main  body 
of  a  work,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the 
enemy  at  a  distance,  or  commanding  certain 
salient  points  which  it  is  undesirable  that 
he  should  occupy.  Such  works  are  ravelins, 
lunettes,  horn  works,  crown-works,  demi- 
lunes, tenailles,  etc.  They  occur  in  certain 
necessary  order,  as  a  ravelin  before  the  curtain 
and  tenaille,  a  hornwork  before  a  ravelin, 
and  so  on. 

Ovation.    See  Triumph. 

Ovens.  Are  always  provided  in  garri- 
sons, so  that  the  troops  may  bake  their  own 
bread.  A  large  saving  of  flour  is  thus 
made,  which  is  the  most  considerable  ele- 
ment of  the  post  fund.  A  brick  oven  large 
enough  to  bake  500  rations  can  be  con- 
structed in  less  than  twenty-four  hours. 
The  cylindrical  form  is  greatly  to  be  pre- 
ferred, as  it  is  more  easily  made  and  requires 
less  material  than  the  ordinary'  forms.  The 
want  of  brick  for  the  arch  and  fireplace  of 
ovens  may  be  supplied  in  the  field  by  two 
gabions  of  semicircular  or  semi-elliptical 
form.  They  are  placed  one  above  the 
other  on  the  flat  side,  and  form  a  cradle. 
The  interior  and  exterior  is  plastered  with 
clay,  which  must  penetrate  the  interstices 
of  the  basket-work.  The  front  and  back 
parts  are  shut  in  the  same  manner,  or  with 
sods.  The  cradle  is  then  covered  with  earth 
to  retain  the  heat;  and  in  order  that  the 
superincumbent  weight  may  not  cause  it  to 
give  way,  withes  are  attached  to  the  top  of 
the  basket-work,  passed  vertically  through 
the  embankment,  and  then  fastened  to  the 
longitudinal  beam  of  a  wooden  horse  strad- 
dled against  the  exterior  curve.  Ovens  may 
also  be  made  of  wood  or  earth.  To  con- 
struct rapidly  an  earthen  oven,  dig  a  slope 
with  a  step,  and  on  its  prolongation  dig  the 
length  of  the  oven  in  a  trench  separated 
from  the  step  by  a  mass  of  earth,  to  be 
pierced  later  as  the  mouth  of  the  oven. 
Then  dig  laterally  portions  of  an  elliptical 
arch  so  as  to  make  the  arch  a  given  breadth. 
This  work  finished,  pierce  the  mouth,  and 
cover  the  trench  with  from  three  to  five  sods 
as  arch  stones,  leaving  a  chimnev-place  at 
the  bottom.  Ovens  for  from  100  to  250 
rations  may  be  thus  made.  In  some  Euro- 
pean armies  they  have  very  convenient 
portable  ovens. 

Over.  Above  in  place,  position,  or  au- 
thority ;  as,  he  was  placed  in  command  over 
Lord  Monkton. 

Overcharge.  An  excessive  charge,  as  of 
a  gun. 

Overcharge.  To  fill  with  too  much  pow- 
der and  ball,  as  a  gun. 

Overcharged  Mine.  A  mine  whose  crater 
is  wider  at  top  than  it  is  deep. 

Overlap.  Is  to  overspread  any  preceding 
object.     In   marching  by   echelon   for   the 


purpose  of  forming  upon  any  given  point, 
but  particularly  in  wheeling  from  column 
into  line,  troops  may  lose  their  relative  dis- 
tances by  not  taking  ground  enough  ;  when 
this  occurs,  the  rear  division,  company,  or 
section,  unavoidably  crowds  upon  its  pre- 
ceding o'he,  and  is  then  said  to  overlap. 

Overmarch.  To  fatigue  or  wear  out  by 
too  much  marching. 

Overmatch.  To  be  too  powerful  for ;  to 
conquer  ;  to  subdue  ;  to  suppress  by  superior 
force.  Also,  one  superior  in  power  ;  one  able 
to  overcome. 

Overpower,  To  vanquish  by  force ;  to 
subdue ;  to  defeat. 

Overrun.  In  a  military  sense,  to  ravage, 
to  lay  waste.  A  country  which  is  harassed 
by  incursions  is  said  to  be  overrun. 

Overseer.  An  officer  in  the  ordnance  de- 
partment, who  superintends  the  artificers  in 
the  construction  of  works,  etc.  He  is  also 
called  a  superintendent. 

Overshoot.     To  shoot  beyond  the  mark. 

Overslaugh.  To  hinder  or  stop  ;  as,  by  an 
overslaugh  or  unexpected  impediment;  as, 
to  overslaugh  a  military  officer,  that  is,  to 
hinder  or  stop  his  promotion  or  employment 
by  the  appointment  of  another  to  his  rank  or 
duties. 

Overthrow.  Total  defeat ;  discomfiture ; 
rout. 

Overturn.     To  overthrow  ;  to  conquer. 

Oviedo.  A  town  of  Spain,  capital  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name,  55  miles  north- 
northwest  of  Leon.  This  city  was  twice 
plundered  of  its  ecclesiastical  and  other 
treasures  during  the  war  of  independence, 
first  by  Soult,  and  subsequently  by  Bonnet. 

Own,  King's  or  Queen's.  A  term  which 
has  been  attached  to  some  British  regiments 
since  the  revolution  in  1688.  Thus  the  4th 
Foot,  which  landed  with  William  III.,  was 
called  the  4th  King's  Own. 

Owyhee,  or  Hawaii.  An  island  in  the 
North  Pacific  Ocean,  the  most  eastern,  and 
by  far  the  largest  of  the  Sandwich  Islands. 
It  was  on  this  island  that  the  celebrated 
Capt.  Cook  fell  a  sacrifice  to  a  misunder- 
standing, or  sudden  impulse  of  revenge  on 
the  part  of  the  natives,  on  Sunday,  Febru- 
ary 14,  1779. 

Ox.     See  Bullock. 

Oxford.  An  ancient  and  famous  city  in 
England,  the  chief  town  of  the  county  of 
Oxford,  55  miles  west-northwest  from  Lon- 
don. The  townsmen  closed  their  gates 
against  William  the  Conqueror,  who 
stormed  the  town  in  1067,  and  gave  it  to 
one  of  his  followers,  Robert  d'Oyley,  who 
built  a  castle  here  to  overawe  the  disaffected 
Saxons.  The  paction  that  terminated  the 
strife  between  Stephen  and  Henry  II.  was 
drawn  up  at  Oxford.  During  the  great  civil 
war  of  the  17th  century,  it  was  for  a  while  the 
headquarters  of  the  royalist  forces,  and  was 
conspicuous  for  its  adherence  to  the  cause  of 
Charles  I. 

Oxford  Blues.  See  Hor.se  Guards, 
Royal. 


1 


PACE 


401 


PACK 


P. 


Pace  (Lat.  passn/t).  In  its  modern  ac- 
ceptation, is  the  distance,  when  the  legs  are 
extended  in  walking,  between  the  heel  of 
one  foot  and  that  of  the  other.  Among  dis- 
ciplined men  the  pace  becomes  one  of  con- 
stant length,  and  as  such  is  of  the  utmost 
value  in  determining  military'  movements, 
the  relative  distances  of  corps  and  men  being 
lixed  by  the  number  of  paces  marched,  and 
so  on.  The  pace  varies  in  ditferent  coun- 
tries; in  the  United  States  it  is  28  inches 
direct  step,  and  33  double  step;  in  Great 
Britain  30  inches  direct  step,  and  33  dou])le 
step.  "With  the  Romans  the  pace  had  a  dif- 
ferent signification  ;  the  single  extension  of 
the  legs  was  not  with  them  a  pace  (passiis), 
but  a  step  {gradus) ;  their  pace  being  the 
interval  between  the  mark  of  a  heel  and  the 
next  mark  of  the  same  heel,  or  a  double  step. 
This  1  acwas  equivalent  to  4.84  English  feet. 

Pack  and  Draught  Animals.  All  ani- 
mals which  arc  used  as  beasts  of  burden  and 
of  draught,  and  all  artillery  horses  are  con- 
sidered under  this  head.  Taking  the  usual 
cfl'ect  of  a  man's  daily  labor  as  unity,  a 
horse  can  carry  a  load  on  a  horizontal  plane 
4.8  to  i).  1  times,  and  a  mule,  7.6  times  greater 
than  a  man.  Taking  a  man  with  a  wheel- 
barrow as  unity,  a  horse  in  a  four-wheel 
wagon  can  draw  17.5,  and  in  a  cart,  24.3, 
and  a  mule  in  a  cart,  23.3  times  greater  bur- 
den. On  account  of  the  peculiar  build  of 
a  mule  he  is  a  superior  pack-animal  to  the 
horse.  There  arc  from  91  to  130  draught 
horses  required  for  a  field-battery  ;  for  siege- 
train  about  1900  (see  Siege-train)  ;  and  8 
for  a  siege-gun.  The  load  alK)tted  to  a  light 
artillery  horse  is  700  pounds  ;  to  a  heavy 
field  artillery  horse,  800  pounds;  and  to  a 
siege  artillery  horse,  1000  pounds,  including 
weight  of  carriages.  It  is  less  than  that 
drawn  by  a  horse  of  commerce,  in  conse- 
quence of  bad  roads,  bad  forage,  rapid  move- 
ments, and  forced  marches.  A  team  of  four 
horses  can  draw,  with  useful  effect,  includ- 
ing the  weight  of  carriage,  2400  pounds  ;  six 
horses,    3000    pounds ;    eight    horses,    3000 

founds;  and  twelve  horses,  4800  pounds, 
t  is  usual  to  estimate  the  weight  of  a  car- 
riage exceeding  1200  pounds  as  part  of  the 
load.  A  pack-horse  can  carry  250  to  300 
pounds  20  miles  a  day;  and  a  draught  horse, 
1600  pounds  23  miles  a  day,  weight  of  car- 
riage included.  Usually  a  horse  can  draw 
seven  times  as  much  as  ho  ran  carry.  An 
ordinary  march  is  about  15  miles  at  2Jj  mile.s 
per  hour  for  six  hours;  this  must  depend 
upon  the  condition  of  the  horses,  state  of 
the  roads,  and  various  other  circumstances. 


Horses  starting  fresh,  and  resting  after  their 
work,  may,  on  tolerable  roads,  perform  2 
i  miles  in  half  an  hour;  4  miles  in  one  and 
!  a  half  hours  ;  8  in  four,  and  16  in  ten  hours. 
j  The  daily  allowance  of  water  fur  a  horse  is 
j  four  gallons.     For  the  daily  ration  of  forage 
',  supplied  to  animals  in  the  U.  S.  service,  see 
i  Forage.     An  army  requires  to  be  accom- 
i  panied  by  several  thousand  pack-animals, 
;  .sometimes  horses,  but  preferably  mules;  and 
!  in    Asia,   commonly   camels,   or   even   ele- 
I  phants.     In  battle,  the  immediate  reserves 
of  small-arm  ammunition  are  borne  in  the 
rear  of  divisions  by  pack-animals  ;  the  heavy 
reserves  being  in  wagons  between  the  army 
I  and  its  base  of  operations. 
j       Bnffalo. — An  animal  of  the  ox  tribe,  very 
important  and  useful  to  man.    It  is  a  native 
of  the  East  Indies,  where  it  has  long  been 
domesticated,  and  from  which  it  was  carried 
to  Egypt  and  the  south  of  Europe.     It  was 
introduced  into  Italy  about  the  close  of  the 
6th   century   .\.d.,    is    now   very   generally 
used  as  a  beast  of  draught  and  of  burden  in 
that  country,  as   it  is  al.<o  in  India;   it  is 
also  used  in  the  latter  country  by  the  mili- 
tary as  a  beast  of  burden. 

iiuUork. — This  beast  is  admirable  for  slow 
draught,  especially  over  rough  roads,  or 
through  forests,  or  other  places  where  there 
are  no  roads  at  all.  Bullocks  stand  fire 
better  than  any  other  animals,  and  used  to 
be  employed  in  India  for  draught  infield- 
batteries.  They  must  not  be  hurried;  their 
ordinary  pace  is  from  2  to  2\  miles  an  hour. 
If  used  over  hard  roads,  they  require  shoe- 
ing. They  want  but  little  care,  and  thrive 
well  on  poor  food.  They  attain  their  prime 
at  six  years,  age  to  be  known  by  annular 
swelling  on  horns,  allowing  three  years  for 
first  ring,  and  one  for  each  of  the  others. 
They  are  u.«ed  in  many  parts  of  India  as 
pack-animals,  when  they  carr}-  a  load  of 
200  pounds. 

Camcts. — These  animals  are  used  in  East 
India  from  three  to  sixteen  years  of  age; 
about  7  feet  high  (to  top  of  hump),  about  8 
feet  long  from  nose  to  tail ;  pace  alxiut  2 
miles  an  hour,  kept  up  steadily  for  the  long- 
est marches  ;  load  for  work  on  service  about 
400  to  4.")0  pounds.  They  thrive  well  upon 
leaves  of  trees,  and  can  go  without  water 
longer  than  any  other  animal.  During  tem- 
p<irary  halts  the  laden  camel  can  kneel  down 
and  rest.  They  are  admirably  adapted  for 
carrying  long  articles,  such  as  scaling-lad- 
ders", pontons,  etc.  The  camel  is  at  home 
in  the  desert  and  works  well  in  the  plains  of 
India;    it  is   unsuited   for  hillv  countries. 


PACKER 


40^ 


PACK-SADDLES 


After  rain  in  clay  soil,  and  over  rocks  and 
stony  places,  they  split  up  and  are  conse- 
quently useless  there.  They  are  good  for 
fording  rivers  that  are  deep  but  not  rapid, 
and  where  the  bottom  of  the  river  is  shift- 
ing sand,  the  passage  of  a  number  of  camels 
over  it  renders  it  hard  and  firm.  The  aver- 
age weight  of  the  camel  is  about  1170  pounds. 

Elephant. — A  gigantic  animal  of  the  order 
Proboscidea,  is  the  largest  and  heaviest  of 
existing  quadrupeds,  and  is  celebrated  for 
sagacity  and  docility.  The  ancient  Cartha- 
ginians and  other  nations  employed  elephants 
in  war,  not  only  as  beasts  of  burden  but  as 
combatants.  These  animals  formed  part  of 
the  army  which  Hannibal  led  across  the 
Alps,  and  they  are  said  to  have  decided  the 
victory  at  the  battle  of  Trebia.  For  a  long 
period  the  elephant  was  as  important  an  arm 
of  war  as  the  artillery  of  modern  nations. 
Seleucus  is  said  to  have  had  more  than  100 
elephants  at  the  battle  of  Ipsus.  The  ele- 
phant is  the  king  of  beasts  of  burden,  be- 
coming fit  for  work  at  twenty  years  of  age, 
and  lasting  well  to  fifty  and  even  sixty  years 
of  age.  The  load  for  steady  work  varies 
from  1680  to  2240  pounds  exclusive  of  the 
pad  ;  pace  from  3  to  3.t  miles  an  hour  ;  when 
laden  can  keep  up  well  with  infantry  in  their 
daily  marches ;  full  grown  his  height  is  from 
10  feet  to  1 1  feet ;  is  most  tractable  in  dis- 
position, is  invaluable  during  marches  in 
countries  flooded  by  rain  for  extricating 
carts,  guns,  and  wagons  that  have  stuck  in 
the  mud.  They  are  now  used  in  India  for 
the  draught  of  guns  in  siege-trains  ;  before 
such  guns  are  taken  under  lire  it  is  necessary 
to  have  the  elephants  taken  out  and  replaced 
by  bullocks,  as  the  former  cannot  be  made 
to  stand  fire.  The  average  weight  of  an  ele- 
phant in  India  is  about  6600  pounds.  They 
are  often  used  in  hilly  countries  to  carry 
mountain  guns  on  their  back. 

Lama,  or  Llama. — Is  a  most  useful  South 
American  quadruped  of  the  family  Cameiidce. 
It  was  in  general  use  as  a  beast  of  burden 
on  the  Peruvian  Andes  at  the  time  of  the 
Spanish  conquest,  and  was  the  only  beast  of 
burden  used  by  the  natives  of  America  be- 
fore the  horse  and  ass  were  introduced  by 
Europeans.  From  the  peculiar  formation 
of  its  feet  it  can  walk  securely  on  slopes  too 
rough  and  steep  for  any  other  animal.  The 
burden  carried  by  the  lama  should  not  ex- 
ceed 125  pounds,  and  its  rate  of  traveling  is 
about  12  to  15  miles  per  day. 

Mule. — This  is  an  excellent  draught  ani- 
mal and  almost  rivals  the  horse  for  general 
military  purposes.  Their  common  load,  in- 
cluding weight  of  pack-saddle,  is  from  200 
to  250  pounds  ;  height  varies  from  13  to  16 
hands.  They  will  eat  almost  anything,  and 
require  less  careful  management  than  the 
horse ;  the  mule  from  the  male  ass  and  the 
mare  is  the  best ;  their  voices  take  after  the 
sire.  The  real  value  of  the  mule  is  felt  most 
strongly  in  mountainous  countries. 

Packer.  A  man  whose  duty  it  is  to  place 
and  adjust  the  loads  of  pack-animals  and  to 


take  charge  of  them  upon  the  march.  As 
packing  requires  long  training  and  experi- 
ence, packers  are  usually  hired  when  needed. 

Packing.  Is  the  act  of  making  up  and 
adjusting  the  load  of  a  pack-animal.  It  may 
be  considered  one  of  the  arts. 

Pack-mule.  Mule  used  for  carrying  a 
pack. 

Pack-saddles  (Sp.  aparejos).  Are  va- 
riously fitted,  according  to  the  objects  to  be 
carried ;  some  for  provisions  or  ammunition  ; 
others  for  carrying  wounded  men,  tents,  and, 
in  mountain  warfare,  even  small  cannon. 
The  one  in  general  use  in  the  U.  S.  army 
(called  aparejo)  is  4  feet  9  inches  long  by  2 
feet  wide. 

To  "  set  u p "  an  aparej o. — Prepare  straight, 
smooth  sticks,  from  ^  to  1  inch  in  diameter 
(wild-rose  stems  are  the  best,  but  any  tough 
elastic  wood  will  answer),  and  the  coarsest 
grass  that  can  be  obtained.  The  grass  should 
be  cut  green,  free  from  flower-stalks,  and 
dried  slowly  in  the  shade.  Place  the  aparejo 
upside-down  ;  take  four  sticks  1  inch  in  dia- 
meter, cut  them  to  fit  tightly,  two  in  the 
width  and  two  in  the  length ;  place  one  in 
each  end,  and  one  in  each  side  of  the  com- 
partment. Then  place  sticks  2"  to  f  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  cut  to  tit  tightly,  length- 
wise of  the  compartment  at  intervals  of  2 
inches.  Shake  the  gwiss  thoroughly,  and 
place  layer  after  layer  on  the  sticks  without 
displacing  them,  until  the  compartment  is 
as  full  as  it  can  be  stufl'ed  with  the  hand. 
Great  care  is  necessary  to  insure  an  equal 
distribution  of  the  grass  in  the  compartment. 
The  corners  are  stufled  as  hard  as  possible, 
a  sharp  stick  being  used  for  the  purpose. 
When  the  aparejo  is  stufted,  it  should  be  put 
on  the  mule  for  which  it  is  intended,  and 
the  crupper  adjusted. 

An  aparejo  cincha  is  canvas,  72  inches  long 
and  20  wide,  folded  so  as  to  bring  the  edges 
in  the  centre  of  the  cincha.  A  semicircle  of 
strong  leather  pierced  with  two  holes  is 
stitched  on  one  end,  and  two  loops  of  strong 
leather  on  the  other. 

The  latigo  strap  is  strong  bridle  leather,  72 
inches  long,  \h  inches  wide  at  one  end  and 
tapering  to  ^  inch  at  the  other.  The  wide 
end  has  holes  punched  in  it.  The  aparejo 
cincha  and  latigo  strap  are  used  to  tighten 
the  aparejo. 

Under  the  aparejo  is  placed  a  saddle- 
blanket,  and  a  corona,,  or  upper  saddle- 
blanket  ;  the  latter  is  made  by  stitching  two 
or  three  folds  of  old  blanket  or  other  woolen 
cloth  together.  It  is  the  same  size  as  the 
saddle-blanket  and  used  over  it. 

The  hammer-cloth  is  made  of  matting  or 
canvas,  of  a  size  to  exactly  cover  the  aparejo. 
Two  pieces  of  hard  wood  20  inches  long,  2 
inches  wide,  IJ  inches  thick,  flat  on  one  side, 
round  on  the  other,  and  beveled  to  an  edge 
at  the  ends,  are  placed  6  inches  from  the 
ends  of  the  cloth.  They  have  leather  caps 
stitched  over  their  ends.  The  hammer-cloth 
is  used  over  the  aparejo  and  under  the  aparejo 
cincha. 


PACK-TRAIN 


403 


PALADIX 


The  aling-rope  is  of  half-inch  rope,  16  feet 
lonsj. 

The  lash-rope  is  of  one  and  a  fourth  inch 
hemp  rope,  32  to  3(i  feot  lonjjj ;  one  end 
spliced  to  the  cincha  ring,  the  other  end 
served. 

The  cincha  is  strong  canvas,  33  inches  long 
by  11  inches  wide;  two  rectangular  pieces  of 
strong  leather  8  inches  long  by  SA  inches 
wide  are  stitched  on  one  end,  one  on  either 
side;  in  one  of  these  pieces  of  loatlu-r  there 
is  a  slit  through  which  a  hard-wood  liuok  is 
passed  and  lirnily  fastened  with  a  leather 
thong.  There  is  a  ring  3  inches  in  diameter 
securely  stitched  in  the  other  end  of  the 
cincha. 

There  is  also  a  pack-cover  made  of  canvas, 
5  feet  square;  and  a  blind  made  of  leather, 
with  strings  and  loop  of  the  same  material. 
The  aparejo  when  securely  placed  on  the 
pack-animal  is  a  very  serviceable  pack-sad- 
dle, and  cannot  readily  be  di.<placed. 

Pack-train.  A  number  of  loaded  pack- 
animals  with  their  drivers.  Pack-trains  are 
employed  in  mountainous  countries  or  re- 
gions impassable  for  vehicles  to  carry  supplies 
for  armies.  The  mule  is  more  generally  ser- 
viceable in  this  work  tlian  the  horse. 

Padua  (anc.  Painvium,  It.  Padova).  A 
town  of  Italy,  capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name.  It  is  surrounded  by  walls  and 
ditclies,  and  is  fortitied  by  bastions.  Pata- 
vium  was  founded  by  the  Trojan  chief  An- 
tenor,  and  according  to  Strabo,  it  could  send 
an  army  of  l'_'0,000  men  into  the  field.  The 
I'ataviaTis  were  constantly  at  war  with,  and 
successfully  withstood,  the  Cisalpine  Gauls  ; 
and  in  301  B.C.  they  also  defeated  Cleonymus 
the  Lacediemonian,  who  had  unexpectedly 
landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Meiloac^ts  (the 
modern  Brcnta),  and  attacked  them.  Pata- 
vium  fell  eventually  under  the  power  of 
Kome,  though  it  seems  to  have  retained  a 
semblance  of  independence.  In  4o2  its  pros- 
perity came  suddenly  to  an  end,  when  it  was 
taken  and  destroyed  by  Attila;  and  in  GOl 
it  was  again  taken  and  burnt  to  the  ground 
by  Agilulf,  king  of  the  Longobards.  It 
rose,  however,  from  its  ashes,  and  in  the  10th 
century  it  had  already  become,  as  it  has  con- 
tinued, one  of  the  most  important  cities  of 
Upper  Italy.  In  11G4  Padua  formed,  with 
Verona,  Vicenza,  and  Treviso,  a  league  for 
the  protection  of  their  liberties  against  Fred- 
erick I.  (Barbaro-ssa) ;  in  1H)7  it  joined  the 
great  Lombard  League  ;  and  by  the  peace  of 
Constance  in  1183  had  at  length  its  liberties 
acknowledged.  In  123'.),  Eccelinoda  Komano 
made  himself  master  of  it,  and  after  having 
practiced  unheard-of  cruelties,  in  VlhQ  he 
was  driven  out  and  defeated  by  a  crusade 
formed  against  him  by  most  of  the  towns  in 
Upper  Italy.  After  a  period  of  sti>rmv  in- 
dependence, Padua  in  1337  fell  iinder  the 
sway  of  tlie  house  of  Carrara,  who  lield  it 
till  the  year  1405,  when  it  was  taken  by  the 
republic  of  Venice,  with  which,  in  17".)7,  it 
passed  into  the  hands  of  Austria,  by  tho 
treaty  of  Campo  Formic.     In  1866  it  was 


ceded  to  Napoleon  III.,  and  by  hira  trans- 
ferred to  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

Pseones.  A  powerful  Thracian  people, 
who  in  early  times  were  spread  over  a  great 
part  of  Macedonia  and  Thrace.  Their  coun- 
try was  called  Paonia.  The  Pa-onian  tribes 
on  the  lower  course  of  the  Strymon  were 
subdued  by  the  Persians,  -313  \i.v.  ;  but  the 
tribes  in  the  north  of  the  country  maintained 
their  independence.  They  frequently  in- 
vaded and  plundered  the  territories  of  the 
ilacedonian  monanhs  ;  but  they  were  event- 
ually subdued  by  Philip,  the  father  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  After  the  conquest  of 
Macedonia  by  the  Eomans,  168,  the  jiart  of 
Pa?onia  east  of  the  Axius  formed  the  second, 
and  the  part  of  Pa-onia  we.-t  of  the  Axius 
formed  the  third  of  the  four  districts  into 
which  Macedonia  was  divided  by  tho 
Komans. 

Paestum  (anc.  Posidonia,  It.  Pesto).  An- 
ciently a  Greek  city  of  Lucania,  in  the  pres- 
ent Neapolitan  province  of  Principato  Cite- 
riore,  on  the  Sinus  Ptcstanns,  now  the  Gulf 
of  Salerno.  It  was  founded  by  the  Trceze- 
nians  and  the  Sybarites  some  time  between 
650  and  610  u.c.  It  was  subdued  by  tho 
Samnites  of  Lucania,  who  named  it  Piestum, 
and  slowly  declined  in  prosperity  after  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  who  estab- 
lished a  colony  here  about  273  n.c.  In  210 
li.c.  it  furnished  ships  to  the  squadron  with 
which  D.  Quintus  repaired  to  the  siege  of 
Tarentum  ;  and  in  the  following  year  it  was 
among  the  eighteen  colonies  which  still  pro- 
fessed readiness  to  furnish  supplies  to  tho 
Roman  armies.  In  the  10th  century  it  was 
burnt  by  the  Saracens,  and  the  site  is  now 
occupied  by  the  modern  village  of  Pesto. 

Pageant.  In  ancient  military  history,  a 
triumphal  car,  chariot,  or  arch,  variously 
adorned  with  colors,  flags,  etc.,  carried  about 
in  public  shows,  processions,  etc.  Also  gor- 
geous show  or  spectacle. 

Pagrse  (now  Pa<iras,  Boqras,  Barijas).  A 
city  of  Syria,  on  the  eastern  side  of  Mount 
Amanus,  at  the  foot  of  the  pass  called  by 
Ptolemy  the  Syrian  Gates,  on  the  road  from 
Antioch  to  Alexandria,  the  scene  of  the 
battle  between  Alexander  Balas  and  Deme- 
trius Nicator,  145  B.C. 

Pah.  The  name  of  the  stockaded  in- 
trenchments  of  the  New  Zealanders. 

Pah-Ute  Indians.  A  tribe  of  aborigines 
of  Shoshone  stock,  who,  to  the  number  of 
2000,  reside  on  two  reservations  in  Nevada. 
(See  Indians  and  tueir  AoENCiK.-i. )  They 
are  a  peaceable  race,  but  are  low  down  in 
the  scale  of  civilization. 

Pailler  (  Fr.).  An  ancient  body  of  French 
militia.  Tho  soldiers  belonging  to  it  were 
probably  so  called  either  from  the  circum- 
stance of  their  wearing  straw  in  their  hel- 
mets, in  order  to  know  one  another  in  ac- 
tion, or  because  they  were  accustomed  to  set 
fire  to  the  habitations  of  their  enemies  with 
bundles  of  straw,  which  they  always  carried 
with  them  for  that  purpose. 

Paladin  (Fr.).    A  name  given  to  those 


PALADIN 


404 


PALE 


ancient  knights  who  were  either  w^hat  the 
French  call  comtes  du  palais,  "  counts  of  the 
palace,"  or  princes  lineally  descended  from 
Charlemagne  and  other  old  kings. 

Paladin.  A  term  originally  derived  from 
the  counts  Palatine,  or  of  the  palace,  who 
were  the  highest  dignitaries  in  the  Byzan- 
tine court,  and  thence  used  generally  for  a 
lord  or  chieftain,  and  by  the  Italian  romantic 
poets  for  a  knight-errant. 

Palaesta  (now  Palasa).  A  town  of  Epi- 
rus,  on  the  coast  of  Chaonia,  and  a  little  south 
of  the  Acroceraunian  Mountains.  Here 
Csesar  landed  his  forces  when  he  crossed 
over  to  Greece  to  carry  on  the  war  against 
Pompey. 

Palaestra.  In  Grecian  antiquity,  a  public 
building  where  the  youth  exercised  them- 
selves in  the  military  art,  wrestling,  run- 
ning, etc. 

Palais  Royal.  A  heterogeneous  mass  of 
buildings  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Rue 
Richelieu,  in  Paris,  composed  of  a  palace, 
theatres,  public  gardens,  shops,  cafes,  etc. 
The  old  palace  was  built  between  1624  and 
1636  on  the  site  of  the  Hotel  Rambouillet  by 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  who,  at  his  death,  be- 
queathed it  to  Louis  XIII.  It  was  taken 
possession  of  by  the  republican  government, 
and  used  for  the  sittings  of  the  tribunes 
during  the  Reign  of  Terror.  The  palace 
was  sacked  by  the  mob  during  the  revolu- 
tion of  1848. 

Palanka.  A  species  of  permanent  in- 
trenched camp  attached  to  Turkish  frontier 
fortresses,  in  which  the  ramparts  are  revetted 
with  large  beams,  rising  7  or  8  feet  above 
the  earthwork,  so  as  to  form  a  strong  pali- 
sade above. 

Palanquin  (Hind,  palki).  A  vehicle  com- 
monly used  in  Hindostan,  China,  Japan,  and 
other  Asiatic  countries  by  travelers.  The 
palanquin  in  use  in  Hindostan  is  a  wooden 
box,  about  8  feet  long,  4  feet  wide,  and  4 
feet  high,  with  wooden  shutters,  which  can 
be  opened  or  shut  at  pleasure,  and  con- 
structed like  Venetian  blinds  for  the  pur- 
pose of  admitting  fresh  air,  while,  at  the 
same  time,  they  exclude  the  scorching  rays 
of  the  sun  and  the  heavy  showers  of  rain  so 
common  in  that  country.  At  each  end  of 
the  palanquin,  on  the  outside,  two  iron  rings 
are  fixed,  and  the  hanmials,  or  palanquin- 
bearers,  of  whom  there  are  four,  two  at  each 
end,  support  the  palanquin  by  a  pole  pass- 
ing through  these  rings.  Traveling  in  this 
mode  is  continued  both  by  day  and  night, 
and  the  palanquin  is  accompanied  by  a  train 
of  attendants,  who  carry  the  traveler's  clothes 
and  whatever  articles  he  may  not  immedi- 
ately need.  Similar  modes  of  traveling  have 
been  at  various  times  in  use  in  Western  Eu- 
rope, but  only  for  short  distances.  The  Ro- 
man lectica  ("litter"),  the  French  chaise  a 
porteu7-s,  and  the  English  sedan-chair  were 
the  forms  of  vehicles  most  in  use,  and  the 
two  latter  were  in  general  use  in  towns  till 
they  were  superseded  by  coaches,  etc.  The 
Roman  litter  was  one  of  the  criteria  of  its 


owner's  wealth,  the  rich  man  generally  ex- 
hibiting the  prosperous  condition  of  his  af- 
fairs by  the  multitude  of  the  bearers  and 
other  attendants  accompanying  him. 

Palatinate,  The  (Ger.  Pfalz).  A  name 
applied  to  two  German  states,  which  were 
united  previously  to  the  year  1620.  They 
were  distinguished  as  the  Upper  and  Lower 
Palatinate.  The  Upper  now  forms  a  part 
of  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria,  and  the  Lower  a 
part  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  situated  on  both 
sides  of  the  Rhine,  between  Worms  and 
Carlsruhe.  By  the  peace  of  Luneville  ( 1801 ), 
the  Duke  Maximilian  of  Zweibriicken  was 
compelled  to  cede  a  portion  of  the  Rhenish 
Palatinate  to  France,  a  part  to  Baden,  a 
part  to  Hesse-Darmstadt,  and  a  part  to  Nas- 
sau. Treaties  of  Paris  of  1814  and  1815  re- 
assigned the  Palatinate  lands  beyond  the 
Rhine  to  Germany,  Bavaria  receiving  the 
largest  share,  and  the  remainder  being  di- 
vided between  Hesse-Darmstadt  and  Prus- 
sia. 

Palatine.  A  town  of  Montgomery  Co., 
N.  Y.,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Mohawk 
River.  Near  here,  at  Stone  Arabia,  an  en- 
gagement took  place  October  18,  1780,  be- 
tween the  Tories  under  Johnson  and  the 
Continental  militia  under  Col.  John  Brown, 
in  which  the  latter  were  defeated  and  their 
leader  slain. 

Pale.  In  heraldry,  one  of  the  figures 
known  as  ordinaries,  consisting  of  a  hori- 
zontal band  in  the  middle  of  the  shield,  of 
which  it  is  said  to  occupy  one-third.  Sev- 
eral charges  of  any  kind  are  said  to  be  "in 
pale"  when  they  stand  over  each  other  hori- 
zontally, as  do  the  three  lions  of  England. 
A  shield  divided  through  the  middle  by  a 
horizontal  line  is  said  to  be  "parted  per 
pale."  The  pallet  is  the  diminutive  of  the 
pale,  and  is  most  generally  not  borne  singly. 
Three  pallets  gules  were  the  arms  of  Ray- 
mond, count  of  Provence.  When  the  field 
is  divided  into  an  even  number  of  parts  by 
perpendicular  lines,  it  is  called  "paly  of" 
so  many  pieces.  When  divided  by  lines  per- 
pendicular and  bendways  crossing,  it  is  called 
"  paly  bend}'."  An  endorse  is  a  further  di- 
minutive of  the  pallet,  and  a  pale  placed  be- 
tween two  endorses  is  said  to  be  endorsed. 

Pale.  In  Irish  history,  means  that  por- 
tion of  the  kingdom  over  which  the  English 
rule  and  English  law  were  acknowledged. 
There  is  so  much  vagueness  in  the  meaning 
of  the  term,  that  a  few  words  of  explanation 
appear  necessary.  The  vagueness  arises  from 
the  great  fluctuations  which  the  English  au- 
thority underwent  in  Ireland  at  various 
periods,  and  from  the  consequent  fluctuation 
of  the  actual  territorial  limits  of  the  Pale. 
The  designation  dates  from  the  reign  of  John, 
who  distributed  the  portion  of  Ireland  then 
nominally  subject  to  England  into  twelve 
counties  palatine,  Dublin,  Meath,  Kildare, 
Louth,  Carlow,  Kilkenny,  Wexford,  Water- 
ford,  Cork,  Kerry,  Tipperary,  and  Lim- 
erick. To  this  entire  district,  in  a  general 
way,  was  afterwards  given  the  designation 


I 


PALEAGAS 


405 


PALESTINE 


of  the  Pale.  But  as  it  may  be  said  that  the 
term  is  commf)nly  applied  by  the  writers  of 
each  a^G  to  the  actual  Eni^iish  territory  of 
the  period,  and  as  this  varied  much,  care 
must  be  taken  to  allude  to  the  a<^e  of  which 
the  name  Pale  is  used.  Thus  at  the  close  of 
the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  the  Ent^lish  law 
extended  only  to  the  four  counties  of  Dub- 
lin, Carlow,  Mcath,  and  Louth.  In  the 
reign  of  Henry  VI.,  the  limits  were  still 
further  restricted.  In  a  general  way,  how- 
ever, the  Pale  may  be  considered  as  com- 
[)rising  the  counties  of  Dublin,  Meath,  Car- 
ow,  Kilkenny,  and  Louth.  This,  although 
not  quite  exact,  will  be  sufficient  for  most 
purposes. 

Paleagas.     See  Polyoars. 

Palembang.  A  Dutch  province  in  the 
i.sland  of  Sumatra,  comprehending  the  for- 
mer kingdom  of  that  name.  In  1811  the 
Dutch  had  merely  a  commercial  factory  at 
Palembang,  when  the  sultan  began  hostili- 
ties against  them;  and  in  order  to  insure 
their  entire  destruction,  under  pretense  of 
conveying  them  safely  to  Batavia,  sunk 
during  the  night  the  ships  in  which  they 
had  embarked  by  means  of  holes  previously 
made.  The  Dutch  regained  Palembang  in 
181(5.  The  Dutch  factory  was  cannonaded 
by  the  sultan's  forces  in  1818,  and  the  coun- 
try remained  in  rebellion  until  18'21,  when 
it  was  entirely  conquered  by  the  Dutch. 
The  sultan  still  retains  his  title,  but  the  su- 
preme j)ower  is  exercised  by  a  Dutch  regent, 
who  resides  at  Palembang,  the  capital. 

Palermo  (anc.  Panot-mus).  A  fortified 
city  of  Sicily,  situated  on  the  north  side  of 
the  island.  Palermo  is  of  Phoenician  origin, 
and  is  tirst  brought  into  notice  in  480  H.c, 
when  the  Carthaginians  under  Ilamilcar 
made  it  their  headquarters  against  llimera. 
How  it  came  into  their  hands  we  have  no 
means  of  knowing;  but  it  continued  for  a 
long  time  to  be  their  principal  naval  station, 
and  the  cajjital  of  their  possessions  in  Sicily. 
\Vith  the  exception  of  a  short  time,  about 
27D  H.C.,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  Greeks, 
it  continued  to  be  the  headquarters  of  the 
Carthaginians,  until  it  was  taken  by  the 
llomans  during  the  firstPunic  war  ^2o4  B.C.). 
"When  Sicily  was  ooixjuered  by  tne  Goths, 
Palermo,  along  with  tlie  rest  of  the  island, 
fell  into  their  hands  ;  but  it  was  recovered 
by  Belisarius,  and  the  Byzantine  empire  re- 
tained possession  of  it  till  855  A.D.,  when  it 
was  taken  by  the  Saracens,  and  made  the 
capital  of  their  Sicilian  possessions.  The 
Vandals  and  afterwards  the  Arabs  made  it 
the  capital  of  the  island,  and  after  the  Nor- 
man conqtiest  it  continued  to  be  the  seat  of 
the  king  of  Sicily.  It  still  remained  the 
royal  residence  under  the  Aragonese  kings  ; 
but  the  court  was  removed  (12»)'.l)  after  Sicily 
became  united  to  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 
In  18l>0  the  inhabitants  Hocked  to  the  stand- 
ard of  Garibaldi,  and  in  the  same  year  the 
city  was  annexed  to  the  new  kingdom  of 
Italy. 

Palestine,  or  Holy  Land.    A  country  of 


Asia,  lying  along  the  east  coast  of  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  and  occupying  the  southwest- 
ern part  of  Syria,  which  is  included  within 
the  limits  of  the  Turkish  empire.  It  now 
forms  the  modern  pashalic  of  Beirut  or  Bey- 
rout,  and  part  of  the  pashalic  of  Damascus, 
This  is  the  country  in  which  the  ])rincii)al 
events  recorded  in  Scripture  took  place. 
When  it  was  conquered  by  the  Israelites, 
Joshua  divided  this  and  a  f>ortion  <»f  the 
country  to  the  east  of  the  Jordan  among  the 
twelve  tribes.  It  was  conquered,  however, 
by  the  kings  of  Assyria,  who  carried  cai>tive, 
first  Israel  and  then  Judah,  into  the  eastern 
provinces  of  their  empire.  After  the  con- 
quest of  Babylon  by  Cyrus,  the  Jews  were 
allowed  to  return  to  their  country,  to  rebuild 
their  temple,  and  re-establish  their  ecclesias- 
tical constitution.  Juda;a  thus  continued  a 
province  of  Persia  until  Asia  was  invaded 
by  Alexander  the  Great,  to  whom  it  sub- 
mitted without  resistance.  The  Jews  were 
again  exposed  to  oppression  from  some  of  the 
Ptolemies,  who  attempted  to  enforce  the 
adoption  of  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the 
Greeks  on  the  Jewish  people.  The  Jews, 
however,  under  the  guidance  of  the  Macca- 
bees, oflered  a  most  determined  resistance  to 
the  Egyptian  monarch  who  sought  to  deprive 
them  of  the  exercise  of  their  own  religion, 
and  Judaja  once  more  became  an  independent 
country.  It  subsequently  fell  under  the  do- 
minion of  Home,  which  established  the  Iler- 
ods  as  tributary  kings.  It  was  at  this  crisis 
that  Judaea  became  the  theatre  of  those  great 
events  which  form  the  foundation  of  the 
Christian  faith.  The  Jews,  however,  hav- 
ing repeatedly  rebelled  against  the  authority 
of" the  Romans,  Titus  entered  Judica  with  a 
large  force  in  70,  and  after  a  long  siege, 
during  which  the  Jews  endured  terrible 
hardships  and  privations,  he  took  Jerusalem, 
and  razed  it  to  the  ground.  The  temple 
which  had  been  twice  rebuilt,  after  having 
been  burnt  by  Nebuchadnezzar  and  plun- 
dered bv  Antiochus,  was  again  destroyed. 
More  than  1,100,000  Jews  peri.shed  in"  the 
siege  and  destruction  of  the  city,  and  about 
sixty-five  years  after  the  Jewish  people  were 
banished  from  Juda-a  by  a  decree  of  the  em- 
peror Hadrian.  The  country  continued  to 
form  a  part  of  the  Roman  empire  until  it 
was  divided  into  the  Eastern  and  "Western 
empires,  when  Palestine  became  a  province 
of  the  former.  Although  it  was  frequently 
invaded  by  the  Partlnans,  Persians,  and 
Saracens,  "it  was  held  by  the  emperors  of 
Constantinople  until  it  was  wrested  from 
them  by  the  last-named  people  in  638.  It 
then  fell  under  the  sway  of  the  Mohammed- 
ans, in  whose  power  the  land  remained  until 
1099,  when  the  Holy  Land  was  recovered  by 
the  Crusaders,  and  erected  into  a  Latin 
kincdom  under  Godfrey  de  Bouillon.  Tiiis 
kingdom  lasted  till  1187,  when  it  was  con- 
quered by  Saladin,  on  the  decline  of  whose 
kingdom'  it  passed  through  various  hands, 
till,"'in  1517,  it  was  finally  swallowed  up  in 
the  Turkish  empire. 


PALESTEINA 


406 


PAMPHYLIA 


Palestrina  (anc.  Prceneste).  An  episcopal 
city  of  the  present  kingdom  of  Italy,  built 
upon  the  site  of  one  of  the  most  ancient  as 
well  as  powerful  cities  of  Latium.  We  first 
hear  of  Prteneste  as  member  of  the  Latin 
League ;  but  in  499  B.C.  it  quitted  the  con- 
federacy and  joined  the  cause  of  the  Romans. 
In  380  B.C.  the  Prsenestines,  having  rejoined 
their  ancient  allies,  waged  war  against 
Rome ;  but  were  completely  routed  on  tlie 
Allia  by  T.  Quintus  Cincinnatus,  and  beaten 
back  to  their  own  gates.  They  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  famous  Latin  war,  340  B.C. 
Having  given  shelter  to  the  younger  Marius 
in  the  year  82  B.C.,  this  city  was  besieged  by 
the  forces  of  Sulla,  and  on  its  being  taken, 
all  the  inhabitants  were  put  to  the  sword 
A  military  colony  was  then  established  in 
their  place,  and  soon  the  city  began  to 
flourish  anew.  The  town  became  the  strong- 
hold of  the  family  of  Colonna  in  the  Middle 
Ages  ;  but  was  given  to  the  Barberini  family 
by  Urban  VIII. 

Palestro.  A  village  of  Piedmont,  12 
miles  southwest  from  Novara.  It  is  famous 
as  the  scene  of  a  battle  between  the  Sardini- 
ans and  Austrians  in  May,  18-59.  On  May 
30  the  Piedmontese  drove  the  Austrians  from 
this  village,  and  on  May  31  defended  it  with 
great  bravery  against  an  Austrian  attack. 
The  Piedmontese  in  the  battle  of  May  31 
were  assisted  hy  3000  French  Zouaves,  and 
on  that  occasion  the  Austrians  lost  2100  men 
killed  and  wounded,  950  prisoners,  and  6 
pieces  of  cannon.  On  July  1  the  allies  en- 
tered Novara. 

Palgaut.  A  city  of  India,  in  the  south  of 
Hindostan,  captured  by  the  British  in  1790. 

Palisade.  To  surround,  inclose,  or  fortifj 
with  stakes  or  posts. 

Palisades.  Are  strong  palings  6  or  7 
inches  broad  on  each  side,  having  about  one 
foot  of  their  summits  sharpened  in  a  pj'ra- 
midal  form.  They  are  frequently  placed  at 
the  foot  of  slopes  as  an  obstacle  tothe  enemy. 
A  large  beam  or  lintel,  sunk  about  2  or  3 
feet,  is  often  used  to  unite  them  more  firmly. 
Their  tops  should  be  a  foot  above  the  crest 
of  the  parapet  behind  which  thej^  stand, 
and  in  field  fortifications  the}^  form  a  very 
good  obstruction,  if  protected  from  artillery. 
An  expeditious  mode  of  planting  them  is  to 
sink  a  small  ditch,  about  2  feet  6  inches  deep 
and  the  same  breadth,  and  to  nail  the  ends 
of  the  palisades  to  a  piece  of  timber,  or  the 
trunk  of  a  tree  laid  on  the  bottom  of  it,  and 
then  fill  in  the  earth,  and  ram  it  well.  The 
palisades  should  be  9  or  10  feet  long,  so  that 
when  finished,  the  ends  shall  be  at  least  7 
feet  above  the  ground.  They  may  be  made 
out  of  the  stems  of  young  trees  of  6  or  8 
inches  diameter;  but  stout  rails,  gates  with 
the  ends  knocked  oft",  planks  split  in  half, 
cart-shafts,  ladders,  and  a  variety  of  such 
things  will  come  into  play,  where  more 
regular  palisades  are  not  to  be  had.  If  the 
materials  are  weak,  a  cross-piece  must  be 
nailed  to  them  near  the  top,  to  prevent  their 
being  broken  down,  and  they  must  not  be 


placed   so   close   together    as    to   cover    an 
enemy. 

Palliser  Gun.  See  Ordnance,  Con- 
struction OF. 

Palmyra.  The  name  given  by  the  Greeks 
to  an  ancient  city  of  Upper  Syria.  It  occu- 
pied a  fertile  oasis,  140  miles  east-northeast 
from  Damascus.  Palmyra  was,  in  the  time 
of  Solomon,  a  bulwark  of  the  Hebrew  king- 
dom against  the  wandering  hordes  of  Bed- 
ouins. After  the  fall  of  Seleucia,  it  became 
a  great  commercial  centre,  and  greatly  in- 
creased both  in  wealth  and  magnificence 
after  the  time  of  Trajan,  who  subjected  the 
whole  country  to  the  Roman  empire.  In 
the  3d  century,  Odonathus,  a  Syrian,  founded 
here  an  empire,  which,  after  his  murder, 
rose  to  great  prosperity  under  his  wife, 
Zenobia,  and  included  both  Syria  and  Meso- 
potamia ;  but  this  was  not  of"  long  duration, 
for  the  Roman  emperor  Aurelian  conquered 
it  in  the  year  275,  and  the  city  was  soon 
after  almost  entirely  destroyed  in  revenge 
for  the  slaughter  of  a  Roman  garrison.  It 
never  recovered  from  this  blow,  although 
Justinian  fortified  it  anew.  The  Saracens 
destroyed  it  in  774,  and  in  1400  it  was  plun- 
dered by  Tamerlane.  A  village  called  Ted- 
mor,  inhabited  by  a  few  Arab  families,  now 
occupies  its  site. 

Palo  Alto.  A  noted  battle-field,  situ- 
ated near  the  southern  extremity  of  Texas, 
between  Point  Isabel  and  Matamoras,  about 
9  miles  northeast  of  the  latter.  Here,  on 
May  8,  1846,  the  Americans,  numbering 
2111,  under  Gen.  Taylor,  defeated  6000 
Mexicans,  commanded  by  Gen.  Arista.  The 
loss  of  the  former  was  32  killed  (among 
whom  was  the  brave  Maj.  Ringgold),  and  47 
wounded  ;  that  of  the  latter,  252  killed. 

Paludamentum.  Was  a  garment  worn 
by  the  Romans,  and  ditfering  little,  if  at  all, 
from  the  chlamys.  It  was  worn  by  the  ofli- 
cers  and  principal  men  in  time  of  war, 
who  were  therefore  called  paludati,  and  this 
distinguished  them  from  the  common  sol- 
diers, who,  because  they  wore  the  saffum, 
were  called  the  sagati.  The  jmludamentum, 
which  was  generally  white  or  red,  came 
down  to  the  knees,  or  lower,  was  open  in 
front,  hung  loosely  over  the  shoulders,  and 
was  fastened  across  the  chest  by  a  clasp. 

Paly,  In  heraldry,  divided  into  four  or 
more  equal  parts  by  perpendicular  lines,  and 
of  two  different  tinctures  disposed  alter- 
nately. 

Pamphylia.  An  ancient  district  on  the 
south  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  with  Cilicia  on 
the  east  and  Lycia  on  the  west.  It  was 
originally  bounded  on  the  inland  or  north- 
ern side  by  Mount  Taurus,  but  was  after- 
wards enlarged,  so  as  to  reach  the  confines 
of  Phrygia.  The  inhabitants — a  mixed 
race  of  aborigines,  Cilicians  and  Greek  col- 
onists— spoke  a  language  the  basis  of  which 
was  probably  Greek,  but  which  was  disfig- 
ured and  corrupted  by  the  infusion  of  bar- 
baric elements.  Along  with  Phrygia  and 
Lvcia,  it  fell  to  the  share  of  Antigonus  on 


/ 


PAMPLO^'A 


407 


PANIPUT 


the  partition  of  the  Mncedoniiin  empire.  It 
afterwards  passed  successively  into  the  hands 
of  the  Gra'co-Syrian  princes,  the  kings  of 
Perj^anuis,  and  the  Kcunans. 

Pamplona,  or  Pampeluna.  A  fortified 
town  of  I?pain,  the  capital  of  the  province 
of  Navarre,  on  the  Arga,  39  miles  southeast 
from  ISt.  Sebastian.  Paniplona  was  called 
by  the  ancients  Pumpeiopoils,  from  the  cir- 
cumstance of  its  having  been  rebuilt  by  the 
sons  of  Pompey  in  *i8  u.c.  It  was  taken  by 
Euric  the  Goth  in  4(5(3,  by  the  Franks  under 
Childebert  in  542,  and  again  under  Charle- 
magne in  778,  who  dismantled  it.  It  was 
subsecpiently  for  a  time  in  possession  of  the 
Moors,  who  corrupted  the  name  Pompei- 
opolis  into  Bambilonah,  whence  the  modern 
Pamplona.  In  the  11  th  century  the  three 
districts  of  the  town  were  separately  forti- 
fied. The  continual  intestine  contests  of 
these  three  fortresses  caused  Carlos  III.,  in 
the  beginning  of  the  15th  century,  to  de- 
stroy the  interior  walls  and  strengthen  the 
common  bulwarks  ;  he  also  erected  a  cita- 
del, in  the  defense  of  which,  against  Andre  de 
Foix,  in  1521,  St.  Ignacio  was  wounded.  It 
was  taken  by  a  stratagem  by  the  French 
under  D'Armagnac,  and  remained  in  their 
pi>wer  until  recaptured  after  a  blockade  by 
AVellintrton  in  1813.  In  the  civil  war  that 
followed  Ihe  death  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  Pam- 
]ilona  was  the  strong  place  of  the  liberals. 
The  citadel  was  sei/.ed  and  held  for  a  short 
time  by  UDonnell  in  September,  1841. 

Pan.  That  part  of  the  lock  of  a  musket, 
pistol,  etc.,  which  holds  the  priming  powder, 
the  necessity  of  which  is  superseded  by  the 
use  of  percussion-caps. 

Pan.  The  distance  which  is  comprised 
between  tl)e  angle  of  the  epaul  and  the 
flanked  angle  in  a  fortification. 

Pan.  A  name  well  known  among  the 
shepherds  of  antiquity,  and  frequently  used 
by  modern  writers  in  their  rural  fictions. 
In  military  history  it  signifies  a  man  who 
was  lieutenant-general  to  Bacchus  and  his 
Indian  expedition.  He  is  recorded  to  have 
been  the  first  autlior  of  a  general  shout, 
which  the  Grecians  practiced  in  the  begin- 
ning of  their  onsets  in  battle. 

Pan  Coupe.  The  short  length  of  parapet 
by  wliicii  the  salient  angle  of  a  work  is 
sometimes  cut  otf. 

Panache  (Fr.).  A  plume  worn  upon  the 
crest  of  an  ancient  helmet;  military  plume 
or  feather. 

Pancarte  (F?-.).  An  ancient  exercise  or 
tournament,  which  was  performed  in  the 
Konuui  amphitheatre,  when  strong  athletic 
men  were  opposed  to  all  sorts  of  enraged 
animals. 

Pandoor.     See  Panpoi-r. 

Pandosia  (now  Canfel  Franco).  A  town 
in  Hruttium  ^whioh  see)  near  the  frontiers 
of  Lucania.  Laninus,  the  Roman  consul, 
was  defeated  at  Pandosia  by  Pyrrhus,  king 
of  Epirus,  280  n.c. 

Pandour  (from  Pandiir,  a  mountainous 
district  of  Hungary).     The  name  has  been 


applied  to  that  portion  of  the  light-armed 
infantrj-  in  the  Austrian  service  which  is 
raised  in  the  Slavonian  districts  on  the 
Turkish  frontier.  The  Pandours  originally 
fought  under  the  orders  of  their  own  proper 
chief,  who  was  called  Hariin-Basha,  and 
rendered  essential  service  to  the  Austrians 
during  the  Spanish  War  of  Succession,  and 
afterwards  in  the  Seven  Years'  War.  They 
originally  fought  after  the  fashion  of  the 
"free  lances,"  and  were  a  terror  to  tho 
enemy,  whom  they  annoyed  incessantly. 
Their  appearance  was  exceedingly  pictur- 
esque, being  somewhat  oriental  in  character, 
and  their  arms  consisted  of  a  musket,  pistol, 
a  Hungarian  sabre,  and  two  Turkish  pon- 
iards. Their  habits  of  brigandage  and 
cruelty  rendered  them,  however,  as  much  a 
terror  to  the  people  they  defended  as  to  the 
enemy.  Since  1750  they  have  been  grad- 
ually put  under  a  stricter  discipline,  and  arc 
now  incorporated  with  the  Austrian  frontier 
regiments. 

Panic.  A  sudden  fright ;  especially,  a 
sudden  fright  without  real  cause,  or  terror 
inspired  by  a  trifling  cause,  or  misapprehen- 
sion of  danger;  as,  the  troops  were  seized 
with  a  panic ;  they  fled  in  a  panic.  These 
terrors  are  attributed  to  Pan,  as  some  say, 
because  when  Osiris  was  bound  by  Typho, 
Pan  and  the  satyrs  appearing,  cast  him  into 
a  fright ;  or  because  he  frightened  all  the 
giants  that  waged  war  against  Jupiter;  or, 
as  others  say,  that  when  Pan  was  Bacchuss 
lieutenant-general  in  his  Indian  expedition, 
being  encomjiassed  in  a  valley  by  an  army 
of  enemies  far  superior  to  them  in  number, 
he  advised  the  god  to  order  his  men  to  give 
a  general  shout,  which  so  surprised  the 
enemy  that  they  immediately  fled  from  their 
camp.  And  hence  it  came  to  pass  that  all 
sudden  fears  impressed  upon  men's  spirits 
without  any  just  reason  were,  by  the 
Greeks  and  Komans,  called  panic  terrors. 
Panic-stricken.  Struck  with  a  panic  or 
I  sudden  fear ;  as,  the  troops  were  panic- 
I  stricken. 

Paniput,  or  Paneeput.     A  town  of  Brit- 

I  ish   India,  cajiital  of  a  district  of  the  same 

I  name   in  the    territorial   division  of  Delhi, 

1  Northwest    Provinces,    78    miles    north    of 

j  Delhi,  and  9f)5  miles  northwest  of  Calcutta. 

I  The  neighborhood  of  Panij)ut,  lying  in  the 

j  great    military    highway    between    Eastern 

India  and  Afghanistan,  has  been  at  various 

times  the   field  of  great   battles.     The  first 

1  great  battle  of  Paniput  was  fought  in  152(3, 

I  and  gained  by  Mirza  Baber,  the  ex-ruler  of 

Ferghana,  at' the  head  of   12,0(X)  Mongols, 

over  Ibrahim,  the  emperor  of  Delhi,  wliose 

I  unwarlike    array    numbered    KKtARtO    men, 

with   1000  elephants.      This  victory  seated 

Baber  on  the  throne  of  Ilindostan  as  the  first 

of  the  "  Great  Mogul"  dynasty.    The  second 

great   battle    was    fought    in    155<3    by    tho 

Mongols  under  Akbar,  grandson  of  Baber, 

and   third  of  the  Alogul  emperors,  against 

Uemu,  an  Indian  prince,  who  had  usurped 

the  throne  of  Delhi.     Uemu's  army  was  de- 


PANNELS 


408 


PAPAL 


feated  with  great  slaughter,  and  himself 
slain.  The  third  battle  was  fought  on  Jan- 
uary 14,  1761,  between  Ahmed  Abdalli, 
ruler  of  Afghanistan,  and  the  till  then  in- 
vineible  Mahrattas.  The  Jats,  who  had 
been  forced  to  join  the  Mahrattas,  deserted 
to  the  Afghans  at  a  time  when  victory 
seemed  to  be  declaring  for  the  former ;  and 
this  act  of  treachery,  together  with  the  loss 
of  their  leaders,  threw  the  Mahrattas  into 
confusion,  and  in  spite  of  their  most  resolute 
valor  they  suffered  a  total  defeat.  They 
left  50,000  slain  on  the  field  of  battle,  in- 
cluding all  their  leaders  except  Holkar,  and 
30,000  men  were  killed  in  the  pursuit,  which 
was  continued  for  four  days.  It  was  at  Kur- 
iiaul,  a  town  a  little  to  the  north  of  Paniput, 
that  Nadir  Shah  of  Persia,  in  1739,  won  the 
celebrated  battle  over  the  Mogul  emperor, 
which  placed  Northwestern  India  at  his  feet. 
Pannels.  Are  the  carriages  upon  which 
mortars  and  their  beds  are  conveyed  upon  a 
march. 

Pannier.  A  shield  of  basket-work  for- 
merly used  by  archers,  who  set  them  up  in 
their  front.  Also  a  basket,  usually  slung  in 
pairs  over  the  back  of  a  beast  of  burden  to 
carry  a  load.  The  term  is  also  applied  to 
leather  bags  to  be  used  in  the  same  way,  and 
especially  to  cases  for  carrying  medicines. 

Pannonia.  A  province  of  the  ancient 
Koman  empire,  bounded  on  the  north  and 
east  by  the  Danube,  on  the  west  by  the 
mountains  of  Noricum,  and  on  the  south 
reaching  a  little  way  across  the  Save;  and 
thus  including  part  of  modern  Hungary, 
Slavonia,  parts  of  Bosnia,  of  Croatia,  and 
of  Carniola,  Stj'ria,  and  Lower  Austria. 
The  Pannonians  (Pannonii)  were  a  brave, 
warlike  people.  They  maintained  their  in- 
dependence of  Kome  till  Augustus,  after  his 
conquest  of  the  Illyrians  (35  B.C.),  turned 
his  arms  against  them  ;  they  were  shortly 
afterwards  subdued  by  his  general  Vibius. 
In  7,  the  Pannonians  joined  the  Dalmatians 
and  the  other  lllyrian  tribes  in  their  revolt 
from  Rome,  and  were  with  difficulty  con- 
quered by  Tiberius,  after  a  desperate  strug- 
gle, which  lasted  three  years  (7-9).  The 
dangerous  mutiny  (14)  of  the  Roman  troops 
which  were  garrisoned  in  Pannonia  was 
with  difficulty  quelled  by  Drusus.  Fifteen 
legions  had  to  be  assembled  against  the  Pan- 
nonians, who  mustered  200,000  warriors. 
Great  numbers  of  the  Pannonian  youth  were 
drafted  into  the  Roman  legions,  and  proved, 
when  disciplined,  among  the  bravest  and 
most  efiective  soldiers  in  the  imperial  armj'. 
Pannonia  was  subsequently  divided  into 
Upper  and  Lower  Pannonia.  Upper  Pan- 
nonia was  the  scene  of  the  Marcomannic 
war  in  the  2d  century.  In  the  5th  century 
it  was  transferred  from  the  Western  to  the 
Eastern  empire,  and  afterwards  given  up  to 
the  Huns.  After  Attila's  death,  in  453,  the 
Ostrogoths  obtained  possession  of  it.  The 
Longobards  under  Alboin  made  themselves 
masters  of  it  in  527,  and  relinquished  it  to 
the  Avari  upon  commencing  their  expedi- 


tion to  Italy.    The  Magyars,  or  Hungarians, 
took  it  in  the  end  of  the  9th  century. 

Panonceau  {Fr.).     An  ancient  name  for 
an  ensign  or  banner. 

Panoply.  Complete  armor,  or  harness. 
Papagos.  A  tribe  of  Indians  closely  al- 
lied to  the  Pimas,  who  reside  on  a  reserva- 
tion on  the  Santa  Cruz  River,  in  Arizona. 
They  were  converted  to  Christianity  by 
Spanish  missionaries  at  an  early  date,  and 
are  a  peaceable  and  industrious  race. 

Papal  States,  or  States  of  the  Church. 
A  territory,  or  rather  group  of  states  in 
Central  Italy,  formerly  united  into  one  sov- 
ereignty, with  the  pope  for  its  head.  The 
Papal  States  were  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Po,  on  the  south  by  Naples,  on  the  east 
by  the  Gulf  of  Venice  and  Naples,  and  on 
the  west  by  Modena,  Tuscany,  and  the  Tyr- 
rhenian Sea.  Detached  portions,  as  Bene- 
vento  and  Pontecorvo,  lay  within  the  Nea- 
politan territory.  About  720,  Gregory  III. 
having  quarreled  with  the  emperor  Leo  the 
Isaurian,  declared  the  independence  of 
Rome.  In  726,  Pepin  le  Bref  compelled  the 
Lombard  king  to  hand  over  Ravenna,  Ri- 
mini, Pesaro,  Fano,  Cesena,  Urbino,  Forli, 
Comacchio,  and  fifteen  other  towns  to  the 
pope,  who  now  assumed  the  state  of  a  tem- 
poral sovereign.  Pepin's  example  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  son  Charlemagne.  In  the  11th 
century  the  Normans  greatly  aided  to  in- 
crease the  papal  temporal  authority,  and  in 
1053  the  duchy  of  Benevento  was  annexed. 
In  1278  the  emperor  Rodolf  I.  confirmed  the 
popes  in  the  acquisitions  thus  obtained,  de- 
fined the  boundaries  of  the  Papal  States,  and 
absolved  their  inhabitants  from  their  oath 
of  allegiance  to  the  empire.  Sixtus  IV.  in 
the  end  of  the  15th  century  annexed  the 
Romagna  to  his  dominions.  By  the  victory 
of  the  French  at  Marignan  (1515),  the  very 
existence  of  the  papal  power  was  threatened. 
In  1598  the  possessions  of  the  house  of  Este, 
viz.  :  Ferrara,  Comacchio,  and  a  part  of  the 
Romagna,  were  seized  by  Pope  Clement 
VIII.  ;  and  the  Papal  States  received  their 
final  additions  in  Urbino  (1623),  Ronciglione, 
and  the  duchy  of  Castro  (1G50).  The  Ro- 
magna was  seized  by  Napoleon  in  1797,  and 
incorporated  in  the  Cisalpine  Republic  ;  and 
in  the  following  year  Rome  was  taken  by  the 
French,  and  the  Papal  States  erected  into 
the  Roman  Republic.  Pius  VII.,  in  1800, 
obtained  possession  of  his  states,  but  they 
were  almost  immediately  retaken  by  the 
French.  In  1814,  the  pope  returned  to  his 
dominions,  and  was  formally  reinstated  by 
the  treaty  of  Vienna.  In  1830,  the  people 
of  Ancona  and  Bologna  rose  in  rebellion ; 
they  were  put  down  by  the  aid  of  an  Aus- 
trian army.  The  Bolognese  again  rebelled  ; 
and  this  revolt  supplied  Austria  with  a  pre- 
text for  occupying  the  northern  Legations, 
and  the  French  at  the  same  time  garrisoned 
Ancona.  Occasional  risings  took  place  from 
time  to  time  up  to  1846.  In  1848,  the  people 
rose,  and  Pius  IX.  fled  to  Gaeta,  whilst 
Rome  was  proclaimed  a  republic.     He  was 


I 


PAPEGAI 


409 


PARAGUAY 


restored  and  his  subjects  reduced  to  submis- 
sion by  the  arms  of  France,  Austria,  Na- 
ples, and  Spain.  The  Austrians  held  the 
Legations  in  subjection  to  the  pope's  au- 
thority till  ISo'J  ;  the  French  occupied  Rome 
in  his  behalf  till  1870.  In  July,  185t»,  the 
four  northern  Legations  (the  Komagna) 
taking  advantage  of  the  witlidrawal  of  the 
Austrian  troops,  threw  otf  the  j>apal  au- 
tln)rity,  and  proclaimed  their  annexation  to 
Sardinia,  which  was  formally  acknowledged 
by  Victor  Emmanuel  in  March,  IBtiO.  The 
pope  now  raised  a  large  body  of  troo|)S,  ap- 
pointing Lamoriciere,  an  eminent  French 
general,  to  command  them,  for  the  purpose 
of  resisting  any  further  encroachments  on 
his  dominions  ;  but  the  news  of  Garibaldi's 
success  in  Sicily  and  Naples  produced  re- 
volt in  the  Legation  of  U rhino  and  in 
the  Marches,  the  people  proclaiming  Vic- 
tor Emmanuel.  The  Sardinians  accordingly 
marched  into  the  Papal  Slates,  defeated 
Lamoriciere,  who  retired  into  Ancona,  wlierc 
he  was  compelled  to  surrender  with  his  whole 
army.  The  revolted  provinces  of  Umbria, 
Urbino,  and  the  Marches,  and  part  of  Fro- 
sinone  were  annexed  to  Sardinia.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1870,  the  remaining  states  were  oc- 
cupied by  the  Italian  troops,  and  the  pope 
was  removed  from  temporal  power.  On  Oc- 
tober 2,  1870,  the  people  pronounced  tlieir 
annexation  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  with 
which  the  territory  of  the- States  of  the 
Church  was  incorporated  by  decree  of  Octo- 
ber 9,  and  Gen.  Marmora  appointed  gover- 
nor of  the  new  provinces. 

Papegai(F/-.).  A  popinjay;  a  bird  made 
of  wood  or  pasteboard,  stuck  upon  a  lance, 
and  used  as  a  mark  when  practicing  with 
the  bow,  cross-bow,  musket,  etc. 

Paper  Shell.     See  Pyroteciiny. 

Paper  Time-fuze.  See  Laboratory 
Stokks. 

Paphlagonia.  Was  a  country  of  Asia 
Minor,  separatcfd  from  Pontus  on  the  east 
by  the  river  Ilalys  {Kiz'd  Ermak),  and  from 
Bithynia  on  the  west  by  the  river  Parthcnius 
(Bartan-Su),  and  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Euxine,  and  on  the  south  by  (Jalatia. 
Its  limits,  however,  were  somewhat  ditlVrent 
at  ditt'erent  times.  The  Paphlagonians  are 
supposed  to  have  been  of  Syrian,  or  at  least 
of  Semitic  origin,  and  were  a  wild  and  war- 
like people.  Crojsus  made  Paphlagonia  a 
})art  of  the  kingdom  of  Lydia,  and  Cyrus 
united  it  to  Persia;  it  subsequently  became 
part  of  the  empire  of  Alexander  tlio  Great, 
and  afterwards  of  the  kingdom  of  Pontus, 
was  included  in  the  Roman  province  of  Ga- 
latia,  and  in  the  4th  century  of  the  Christian 
era  was  nuide  a  separate  })rovince  by  Con- 
stantinc. 

Papilio  (/•''•.).  A  square  Roman  tent  for 
eiirht  men. 

Parachute  Light  Ball.  A  thin  shell,  the 
upper  half  of  wtiiih  is  blown  otV  by  the 
charge  at  a  certain  height.  The  lower  half 
tilled  with  composition,  which  is  kindled  by 
the  explosion,  is  kept  floating  in  the  air  by 
27 


means  of  a  small  parachute,  which  is  set 
free  when  the  upper  half  of  the  shell  flies 
ort". 

Parade.  Signifies  in  its  original  sense  a 
prepared  ground,  and  was  applied  to  the 
court-yard  of  a  castle,  or  to  any  inclosed  and 
level  plain.  From  the  practice  of  reviewing 
troops  at  such  a  spot,  the  review  itself  has 
acquired  the  name  of  parade. 

Parade.  To  assemble  troops  in  a  uniform 
manner  for  the  purpose  of  regular  muster, 
exercise,  and  inspection.  The  parades  are 
general,  regimental,  or  private  (troop,  bat- 
tery, or  company),  according  to  the  strength 
of  the  force  assembled. 

Parade.  In  camp,  is  that  spot  of  ground 
in  the  front  of  each  encampment,  between 
the  camp  colors,  on  the  right  and  left  wings. 

Parade,  Dress.  A  parade  which  takes 
place  in  the  U.  S.  army  at  the  troop  or  re- 
treat on  each  evening,  when  the  soldiers 
appear  in  full  uniform  and  under  arms. 

Parade,  Evening.  The  hour  generally 
fixed  for  the  evening  parade  is  at  sunset. 
When  troops  are  encaniped,  the  signal  for 
evening  parade  is  given  from  the  park  of  ar- 
tillery, by  the  discharge  of  a  piece  of  ord- 
nance called  the  evening  <;un. 

Parade  Guard  Mounting.  The  parading 
of  the  soldiers  who  iirc  to  go  on  guard. 

Parade,  Morning.  In  every  garrison 
town,  fortiliod  place,  and  camp,  as  well  as  in 
every  town  through  which  soldiers  pass,  or 
occasionally  halt,  a  certain  hour  in  the 
morning  is  fixed  for  the  assembling  of  tlie 
different  corps,  troops,  or  companies,  in  reg- 
ular order. 

Parade  Officer.  An  oflScer  who  attends 
to  the  minuti;e  of  regimental  duty,  but  who 
is  not  remarkable  for  military  science. 

Parade  Rest.  A  position  of  rest  for  sol- 
diers, in  which,  however,  they  are  required 
to  be  silent  and  motionless,  used  specially  at 
parade  ;  also,  the  command  for  the  position. 

Parade,  Troop.  Morning  parade  (which 
see). 

Parade-ground.  The  piece  of  ground  on 
which  soldiers  are  paraded. 

Parados.  \n  elevation  of  earth  which 
is  etfected  behind  fortified  places,  to  secure 
them  from  any  sudden  attack  that  may  be 
made  in  reverse. 

Paraetonium,  or  Ammonia.  Formerly  an 
imjiortant  city  on  the  northeast  coast  of 
Africa.  It  was  a  strong  fortress ;  restored 
by  Justinian,  and  continued  a  place  of  some 
consequence  till  its  complete  destruction  by 
Mehemet  Ali  in  1820. 

Paraguay.  A  republic  in  South  America, 
discovered  by  .'Sebastian  Cabot  in  l'>2t);  con- 
quered by  Alvarez  Nunez  in  153.'(,  and  civ- 
ilized by  the  Je^^uits,  who  in  1(>08  com- 
menced their  missions  there,  and  established 
I  an  exclusive  government,  which  they  held 
until  their  expulsion  in  17*»8.  Paraguay 
rose  against  the  Spanish  yoke  in  1811,  and 
achieved  its  independence.  Paraguay  was 
I  recognized  as  an  independent  state  by  the 
Argentine  Confederation   in   1832,  and   by 


PARALLELS 


410 


PARBUCKLES 


Great  Britain  in  1853.  On  November  11, 
1864,  hostilities  between  Paraguay  and  Bra- 
zil began,  when  a  Brazilian  steamer  was 
captured  as  an  intruder  on  Paraguayan 
waters  ;  in  the  same  year  Brazil  was  invaded 
by  the  Paraguayans,  and  on  April  14,  1865, 
Lopez  (president  of  the  republic)  invaded 
the  territories  of  the  Argentine  Republic, 
which  immediately  made  alliance  with  Bra- 
zil. In  September,  1865,  the  army  of  Lopez 
was  defeated.  The  war  continued  almost 
without  intermission  until  1870,  when  Lopez 
was  killed.  Since  that  time  Paraguay, 
though  nominally  independent,  has  been 
almost  completely  under  control  of  Brazil. 

Parallels.  Are  trenches  cut  in  the  ground 
before  a  fortress,  roughly  parallel  to  its  de- 
fenses, for  the  purpose  of  giving  cover  to  the 
besiegers  from  the  guns  of  the  place.  The 
parallels  are  usually  three,  with  zigzag 
trenches  leading  from  one  to  another.  The 
old  rule  used  to  be  to  dig  the  first  at  600 
yards'  distance ;  but  the  improvements  in 
artillery  have  rendered  a  greater  distance 
necessary,  and  at  Sebastopol  the  allies  made 
their  first  trench  2000  yards  from  the  walls. 
The  third  trench  is  very  near  to  the  besieged 
works,  and  from  it  saps  and  zigzag  ap- 
proaches are  directed  to  the  covert  way.  See 
Siege. 

Paramount.  The  highest  in  rank  or  order ; 
the  chief. 

Parapets  (Ital.  pm-apetto,  "  breast- 
guard").  In  fortifications,  are  breastworks, 
walls,  or  bulwarks  of  earth,  brick,  wood, 
iron,  stone,  or  other  material.  The  battle- 
ment around  a  flat  roof,  or  the  railing  of  a 
bridge  is  also  called  a  parapet.  The  para- 
pets of  field-works  are  always  made  of  earth, 
which  is  also  largely  used  in  permanent  for- 
tifications. Earth  has  great  advantages  for 
this  purpose,  being  readily  obtained,  easily 
handled,  and  aff'ords  good  cover  on  account 
of  the  absence  of  splinters  and  flying  frag- 
ments when  struck  by  a  shot.  The  presence 
of  rock  or  large  gravel  in  the  earth  is  objec- 
tionable for  this  reason.  Of  the  diiferent 
earths,  sand,  hard  clay,  tufa,  etc.,  resist  pen- 
etration better  than  rich  soils.  The  profile 
of  the  parapet  is  determined  by  its  location 
and  purpose.  The  earth  to  form  it  is  taken 
from  the  ditch,  which  is  sometimes  in  front 
and  sometimes  in  rear.  In  inclosed  works, 
or  works  built  at  leisure,  the  ditch  is  always 
on  the  outside,  leaving  the  natural  surface 
for  the  parade.  Works  built  hastily,  or 
under  fire,  have  the  ditch  on  the  inside.  In 
this  way  cover  is  more  rapidly  obtained. 
This  form  of  parapet  is  used  in  all  the 
trenches  in  siege  operations  and  the  tem- 
porary lines  thrown  up  on  the  field  of  battle. 
The  command  of  a  parapet  is  the  height  of 
the  interior  crest  above  the  site.  For  isolated 
works  the  command  should  be  at  least  8  feet, 
as  the  chances  of  a  successful  resistance  in- 
crease with  the  command.  The  profile  of  a 
parapet  is  a  section  taken  at  right  angles  to 
its  length.  In  infantry  parapets  the  banquette 
is  the  bank  of  earth  in  rear  of  the  parapet. 


on  which  the  troops  stand  to  deliver  their 
fire.  This  is  usually  about  4  feet  wide,  and 
about  4  feet  3  inches  below  the  interior  crest. 
The  height  of  the  banquette  depends  upon 
the  command  of  the  parapet.  The  interior 
slope  of  the  parapet,  against  which  the  sol- 
dier leans  in  firing,  has  a  slope  of  3  on  1. 
To  support  the  earth  at  this  inclination  a 
revetment  of  sand-bags,  fascines,  gabions, 
sod,  pisa,  or  plank,  is  used.  The  superior 
slope  of  the  parapet  is  usually  1  on  6.  It 
should  be  steep  enough  to  give  a  fire  just 
above  the  farther  edge  of  the  ditch,  but  not 
so  steep  as  to  weaken  the  parapet.  The  ex- 
terior slope  is  1  on  1,  or  the  natural  slope  of 
the  earth.  If  it  is  made  steeper  than  this  it 
will  be  beaten  down  by  the  projectiles  of 
the  enemy ;  if  less  steep,  it  will  offer  a  less 
obstacle  to  open  assault.  The  berme^  or 
space  between  the  foot  of  the  exterior  slope 
and  the  edge  of  the  ditch,  is  objectionable, 
in  offering  a  breathing-place  to  the  enemy  in 
the  assault,  but  it  is  usually  necessary  to  pre- 
vent the  weight  of  the  parapet  from  crush- 
ing in  the  scarp.  The  dimensions  of  the  ditch 
are  regulated  by  the  amount  of  earth  neces- 
sary to  form  the  parapet.  The  scarp  and 
counterscarp  are  made  as  steep  as  the  stifl'ness 
of  the  soil  will  allow.  As  a  general  rule, 
the  depth  of  the  ditch  should  not  be  less  than 
6  feet,  and  its  width  should  not  be  less 
than  12.  The  greatest  width  is  regulated 
by  the  superior  scope  of  the  parapet,  the 
line  of  which  produced  should  not  pass  be- 
low the  crest  of  the  counterscarp.  In  exca- 
vating near  a  salient  it  will  be  found  that 
more  earth  is  furnished  than  in  re-enterings. 
On  this  account  the  width  of  the  ditch  is 
usually  made  variable,  being  less  at  the 
salients  than  elsewhere. 

The  thickness  of  a  parapet  is  the  hori- 
zontal distance  between  the  interior  and  ex- 
terior crests.  This  thickness  should  be  one- 
half  greater  than  the  penetration  of  the  pro- 
jectiles it  is  designed  to  resist.  As  the  rifled 
guns  now  in  use  have  much  greater  penetra- 
tion than  the  smooth-bores  of  former  times, 
a  proportionate  increase  in  the  dimensions 
of  parapets  has  become  necessary.  The 
parapets  of  semi-permanent  field-works  are 
usually  calculated  to  resist  the  fire  of  siege- 
guns;  those  of  permanent  works  to  resist 
the  most  powerful  ordnance  in  use.  The 
trenches  so  much  used  in  modern  times  to 
cover  operations  of  armies  in  the  field  are 
shallow  ditches,  with  the  earth  thrown  out- 
wards. 

Parasang.  A  Persian  military  measure, 
sometimes  assumed  as  a  league,  but  equal  to 
about  4  English  miles. 

Parbuckle.  To  hoist  or  lower  by  means 
of  a  parbuckle. 

Parbuckles.  Are  4-inch  ropes,  12  feet 
long,  with  a  hook  at  one  end  and  a  loop  at 
the  other.  To  parbuckle  a  gun,  is  to  roll 
it  in  either  direction  from  the  spot  in  which 
it  rests.  To  do  this,  place  the  gun  on  skids, 
and  if  it  is  to  be  moved  up  or  down  a 
slope,  two  4.>-inch  ropes   are  made  fast  to 


PARCOURIR 


'411 


PARIS 


some  place  on  the  upppr  part  of  the  slope, 
the  ends  are  carried  under  the  chase  and 
breech  of  the  gun  respectively,  round  it  and 
up  the  slope.  If  the  running  ends  of  these 
mpes  arc  hauled  upon,  the  gun  ascends; 
if  eased  oft',  it  descends.  If  the  ground  is 
horizontal,  handspii<cs  only  are  necessary  to 
move  the  gun. 

Parcourir  (/<>.).  In  a  military  sense,  to 
run  over  the  ground  during  an  action.  This 
word  is  particularly  applicable  to  those 
movements  which  are  made  by  general  offi- 
cers, officers  commanding  brigades,  etc.,  for 
the  purpose  of  encouraging  their  soldiers  in 
the  licat  of  an  ciiiiugeineiit. 

Pardon  and  Mitigation  of  Sentences. 
Sec  AiM'KNmx,  Article.s  of  War,  112. 

Parga.  A  town  of  European  Turkey, 
eyalct  of  Yanina,  stands  on  a  rocky  penin- 
sula on  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  and 
is  defended  by  a  citadel  which  is  nearly  im- 
pregnable, it  has  played  a  part  of  some 
importance  in  history  since  the  beginning  of 
the  lotii  century.  It  maintained  its  inde- 
pendence, under  the  protection  of  Venice, 
from  this  period  till  the  fall  of  the  Venetian 
power  in  1797,  when  it  was  for  a  short  time 
garrisoned  by  the  French.  Ali  Pasha,  the 
governor  of  Yanina,  obtained  command  of 
it  in  1800,  and  in  1814  besieged  it,  on  ac- 
count of  the  inhabitants  refusing  to  submit 
to  his  rule;  and  as  the  French  would  not 
defend  them,  the  inhabitants  applied  for  aid 
to  the  British,  who  took  possession  of  the 
citadel.  Parga  was  finally  given  up  to  Tur- 
key by  the  treaty  of  1819;  but  the  inhabit- 
ant«,  not  wishing  to  come  under  the  Ottoman 
sway,  migrated  to  the  Ionian  Islands,  and 
the  town  was  then  occupied  by  the  Turks. 

Paris  (anc.  Lutctia  I'nrisiorum).  The 
metropolis  of  France,  and  after  London,  the 
most  populous  city  in  Christendom,  is  situ- 
ated on  both  sides  of  the  Seine,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  walls  and  a  strong  line  of  forti- 
fications. When  Cicsar  conquered  Gaul,  he 
rebuilt  Lutetia,  which  had  been  nearly  de- 
stroyed through  the  obstinacy  of  the  Celtic 
tribe  who  here  had  their  stronghold,  and  it 
rose  to  be  a  place  of  considerable  importance 
during  the  5(X>  years  of  Roman  dominion. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  5th  century  it  suf- 
fered much  from  the  northern  hordes,  and 
ultimately  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Franks, 
lieadcd  by  Clovis,  who,  having  embraced 
Christianity,  made  it  his  residence  in  508. 
In  845  the  city  was  ravaged  by  the  Nor- 
mans, and  in  845  and  9'JO  suffered  from 
famine;  in  885  it  was  gallantly  defended  by 
the  C'ount  Kudes  and  the  Bishop  Goslin 
against  the  Danes;  in  1281  it  was  rebuilt; 
and  in  1411-18  sutfcred  by  the  factions  of 
the  Armagmics  and  iiurgundians  ;  taken  bv 
the  Kiigiish  in  1420,  an<l  retaken  by  the 
French  in  14.St; ;  on  August  24,  1572,  the 
massacre  of  St.  Hartholoniew  occurred  ;  in 
1589-90  Henry  IV.  vainly  bosiegetl  it,  and 
he  entered  it  in  March,  1594;  surrendered 
to  the  allies  on  March  .SO.  1814.  Paris  was 
the  scene  of  manv   revolutions  from  July, 


1830,  to  February  22,  1848.  The  following 
are  the  great  treaties  of  Paris :  Between 
England,  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  ces- 
sion of  Canada  to  Great  Britain  by  France, 
and  Florida  by  Spain,  on  February'  10,  1763  ; 
between  France  and  Sardinia;  the  latter 
ceding  Savoy,  May  15,  1796;  France  and 
Sweden,  whereby  Swedish  Pomerania  and 
the  island  of  Rugen  were  given  up  to  the 
Swedes,  who  agreed  to  ado[it  the  French 
prohibitory  system  against  Great  Britain, 
January  6,  1810;  on  April  11,  1814,  Paris 
capitulated,  and  Napoleon  renounced  the 
sovereignty  of  France;  the  convention  of 
Paris,  between  France  and  the  allied  powers, 
the  boundaries  of  France  to  be  the  same  as 
on  the  first  day  of  January,  1792;  peace  of 
Paris  ratified  by  France  and  all  the  allies  on 
May  14,  1814;  convention  of  St.  Cloud,  be- 
tween Marshal  Davoust,  Wellington,  and 
Blucher,  for  the  surrender  of  Paris,  July  3, 
1815,  and  the  allies  entered  it  on  July  C  ; 
treaty  of  Paris,  between  Great  Britain,  Aus- 
tria, Ru-ssia,  and  Prussia,  styling  Napoleon 
the  pri.soner  of  those  powers,  and  confiding 
his  safeguard  to  England  on  August  2, 1815  ; 
establishing  the  boundaries  of  France,  and 
stipulating  for  the  occupation  of  certain  for- 
tresses by  foreign  troops  f(jr  three  years,  on 
November  20,  same  year,  and  the  "treaty  of 
Paris,  confirming  the  treaties  of  Chaumont 
and  Vienna,  same  day  ;  treaty  between  Rus- 
sia and  Turkey,  England,  France,  and  Sar- 
dinia, March  30,  1850;  another  between 
England  and  Persia,  March  4,  1857  ;  the 
treaty  between  the  European  powers,  Prus- 
sia, and  Switzerland,  respecting  Neufchatel, 
May  2f),  1857  ;  and  the  convention  between 
France  and  Italy  for  withdrawal  of  French 
troops  from  Rome,  September  15,  18(J4.  In 
the  late  war  with  Prussia  the  armies  of 
France  having  been  defeated  by  the  Ger- 
mans, on  August  7,  1870,  Paris  wa.s  declared 
in  a  state  of  siege.  On  September  4,  a  re- 
public was  proclaimed  and  a  "  provisional 
government  of  national  defense"  instituted 
under  the  presidency  of  Gen.  Trochu.  On 
September  20,  Paris  was  invested  by  the 
Germans,  and  communication  was  kept  up 
with  the  outer  world  by  means  of  pigeons 
and  balloon  mails.  On  October  30,  riot 
reigned  in  Paris,  and  the  members  of  the 
provisional  government  were  arrested  and 
held  ]irisoners  for  several  hours.  On  No- 
vember 28,  300,000  troops  supported  by  700 
field-pieces,  divided  into  three  corps,  were 
concentrated  at  points  around  the  city  under 
Gen.  Trochu  as  commander-in-chief.  Early 
in  January  the  bombardment  was  begun, 
and  continued  most  of  the  month  without 
serious  injury.  The  city,  nearly  reduced  to 
starvation  and  threatened  with  intestine 
commotion,  surrendered  on  January  28, 
with  liXtO  pieces  of  artillery,  180,t^X)  prison- 
er^,  a  forced  contribution  of  2tX),000,000 
francs  having  been  levied  by  the  enemy. 
The  National  A.ssembly  having  ratified  the 
preliminaries  of  peace  on  February  28,  the 
German  troop,  who,  to  the  number  of  30,000, 


PAEK 


412 


PAESONSTOWN" 


had  occupied  a  quarter  of  Paris,  quietly 
withdrew.  Tlie  terms  of  peace  proving  dis- 
tasteful to  the  populace,  Paris  was  soon 
plunged  into  political  chaos,  and  sanguinary 
conflicts  followed  between  the  government  of 
the  Commune,  or  lied  Republicans,  and  the 
Versailles  government  under  the  presidency 
of  Thiers. 

Park.  The  space  occupied  by  the  animals, 
wagons,  pontons,  and  materials  of  all  kinds, 
whether  of  powder,  ordnance  stores,  hospital 
stores,  provisions,  etc.,  of  an  army  when 
brought  together;  as,  a  park  of  wagons;  a 
park  of  artillery  ;  a  park  of  provisions  ;  en- 
gineer park,  and  the  like. 

Park.  To  bring  together  in  a  park,  or 
compact  body  ;  as,  to  park  the  artillery,  etc. 
Parley.  An  oral  conference  with  an 
enemy.  It  takes  place  under  a  flag  of  truce, 
and  usually  at  some  spot — for  the  time  neu- 
tral— between  the  two  armies.  To  beat  a 
parley,  is  to  give  a  signal  for  such  a  confer- 
ence by  beat  of  drum  or  sound  of  trumpet. 

Parma.  A  kind  of  round  buckler  used 
by  the  velites  in  the  Roman  army.  It  was 
3  feet  in  diameter,  made  of  wood  and  cov- 
ered with  leather.  Its  form  was  round,  and 
its  substance  strong ;  but  Servius  on  the 
^neid,  and  even  Virgil,  say  that  it  was  a 
light  piece  of  armor  in  comparison  with  the 
clypeus,  though  larger  than  the  pelta. 

Parma.  A  city  of  Italy,  situated  on  a 
river  of  the  same  name,  about  72  miles 
southeast  of  Milan.  It  is  supposed  to  be  of 
Etruscan  origin,  but  is  flrst  mentioned  as  a 
Roman  colony,  having  become  of  consider- 
able importance  in  the  time  of  the  republic. 
It  took  a  prominent  part  against  Antony  in 
43  B.C.,  and  was  in  consequence  taken  by 
that  general  and  plundered  by  his  troops. 
Under  Augustus  it  received  a  fresh  colony, 
and  it  again  rose  to  be  one  of  the  principal 
towns  of  this  populous  and  flourishing  part 
of  Italy.  In  377  a  colony  of  Goths  was  set- 
tled in  the  territory  of  Parma  by  order  of 
Gratian ;  Attila  devastated  and  plundered 
it;  and  it  was  taken  by  Narses  in  his  wars 
against  the  Goths  and  their  allies.  In  1247, 
Frederick  II.  besieged  it  without  success. 
It  subsequently  became  a  prey  to  feudal 
lords,  and  afterwards  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  popes.  Parma  is  now  part  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Emilia,  in  the  kingdon  of  Italy,  to 
which  it  was  annexed  March  18,  1860. 

Parma,  Battles  of.  An  indecisive  en- 
gagement took  place  at  Parma,  June  29, 
1734,  between  the  confederated  armies  of 
England,  France,  and  Spain  and  the  Au.s- 
trians ;  and  on  June  19,  1799,  the  French 
under  Macdonald  were  routed  by  the  Rus- 
sians under  Suwarrow,  with  a  loss  of  4  gen- 
erals and  10,000  men. 

Parol  {Fr.).  A  stout  wooden  frame  hav- 
ing long,  sharp-pointed  stakes  driven  into  it 
horizontally ;  it  is  placed  upon  the  parapet 
to  oppose  scaling  parties. 

Parole.  A  watch-word  difl"ering  from 
the  countersign  (which  see)  in  that  it  is  only 
communicated  to  ofiicers  of  guards,  while 


the  countersign  is  given  to  all  the  members. 
The  parole  is  usually  the  name  of  a  person, 
generally  a  distinguished  officer,  while  the 
countersign  is  the  name  of  a  place,  as  of  a 
battle-field.  It  is  also  the  declaration  made 
on  honor  by  an  otficer,  in  a  case  in  which  there 
is  no  more  than  his  sense  of  honor  to  restrain 
him  from  breaking  his  word.  Thus,  a  pris- 
oner of  war  may  be  released  from  actual 
prison  on  his  parole  that  he  will  not  go  be- 
yond certain  designated  limits;  or  he  may 
even  be  allowed  to  return  to  his  own  coun- 
try on  his  parole  not  to  fight  again  during 
the  existing  war  against  his  captors.  To 
break  ^5a?-o?e  is  accounted  infamous  in  all 
civilized  nations,  and  an  officer  who  has  so 
far  forgotten  his  position  as  a  gentleman 
ceases  to  have  any  claim  to  the  treatment  of 
an  honorable  man,  nor  can  he  expect  quar- 
ter should  he  again  fall  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy  he  has  deceived. 

Paros.  One  of  the  larger  islands  of  the 
Grecian  archipelago,  situated  west  of  Naxos. 
In  ancient  times,  it  is  said  to  have  been  col- 
onized by  Cretans,  and  was  very  wealthy 
and  powerful.  It  svibmitted  to  the  Per- 
sians ;  and  after  the  battle  of  Marathon  was 
assailed  ineff'ectually  by  Miltiades,  who  re- 
ceived here  the  wound  of  which  he  soon 
after  died.  After  the  death  of  Xerxes,  Paros 
came  under  the  supremacy  of  Athens,  and 
shared  the  fate  of  the  other  Cyclades. 

Parrain  [Fr.).  In  military  orders,  the 
person  who  introduces  or  presents  a  newly- 
elected  knight.  The  term  is  also  used  to 
signify  the  comrade  who  is  selected  by  a 
soldier  who  is  condemned  to  be  shot  to  bind 
the  handkerchief  over  his  eyes. 

Parrott  Gun.  See  Ordnance,  Construc- 
tion OF. 

Parrott  Projectile.     See  Prcjectile. 

Parry.  To  ward  oft';  to  stop  or  to  put  or 
turn  oft";  to  prevent ;  as,  to  parry  a  thrust, 
a  blow,  or  the  like,  or  anything  that  means 
or  threatens  harm. 

Parry.  A  defensive  movement  in  sword 
and  bayonet  exercises  ;  also  a  command  ;  as, 
tierce  parry,  quarie  parry,  etc. 

Parrying.  The  action  of  warding  otf  the 
push  or  blow  aimed  at  one  by  the  other. 

Parsees,  or  Guebres.  The  followers  of 
Zerdusht,  dwelt  in  Persia  till  638,  Avhen,  at 
the  battle  of  Kadseah,  their  army  was  deci- 
mated by  the  Arabs,  and  the  monarchy  an- 
nihilated at  the  battle  of  Naharand  in  641. 
Many  submitted  to  the  conquerors  (and 
their  descendants  are  termed  Guebres),  but 
others  fled  to  India,  and  their  descendants 
still  reside  at  Bombay  (where  they  are 
termed  Parsees),  where  the}'  numbered  114,- 
698  in  1849. 

Parsons  Gun.  See  Ordnance,  Con- 
struction OF. 

Parsonstown  (anc.  Birr).  A  considerable 
inland  town  on  the  river  Brosna,  in  King's 
Co.,  Ireland,  69  miles  west-southwest  from 
Dublin.  Birr  was  the  scene  of  nuiny  im- 
portant events,  both  in  the  Irish  and  in  the 
post-invasion  period.     The  castle,  which  was 


PARTHENI^ 


413 


PARTITION 


anciently  the  seat  of  the  O'Carrols,  was 
{,'ranted  by  Henry  II.  to  Philip  de  Worces- 
ter;  but  it  frequently  chuTiijed  masters,  and 
even  alternated  between  Eni^lish  and  Irish 
hands.  Through  the  entire  jieriod  of  the 
civil  wars  it  was  constantly  disputed,  until 
after  KiOO,  when  the  Parsons  family  was 
finally  established  in  possession  of  the  castle 
and  adjoining  lands.  Parsonstown  is  a 
large  military  station. 

Partheniae.  A  word  derived  from  the 
Greek,  signifying  cliildren  born  of  unmar- 
ried women.  The  name  was  applied  to  a 
particular  class  of  citizens  in  Sparta  after 
the  Messenian  war,  whose  origin  was  as- 
cribed to  the  following  circumstances  :  The 
Spartans  having  been  at  war  with  the  Mes- 
scnians  for  twenty  years,  and  having  by  that 
means  very  much  depopulated  their  coun- 
try, and  apprehending  that  if  the  war  con- 
tinued it  might  eventually  strip  Sparta  of 
all  its  male  inhabitants,  they  sent  some  of 
their  young  men  from  the  army  into  the 
city,  with  license  to  be  familiar  with  as 
many  unmarried  women  as  they  would  ; 
and  the  children  begotten  by  them  in  this 
manner  were  called  parthcnifr,  on  account 
of  'the  uncertainty  as  to  who  were  their 
fathers.  At  the  end  of  the  war,  this  brood 
were  deemed  bastards,  and  were  denied  the 
bearing  of  any  office  in  the  government, 
etc.  This  unjust  exclusion  enraged  them 
so  much  that  they  conspired  with  the  slaves 
to  destroy  all  the  nobility  ;  but,  on  the  dis- 
covery of  their  jilot,  they  were  driven  out  of 
the  city  ;  after  which,  being  headed  by  Pha- 
lantus,  a  bold  and  enterprising  son  of  chance, 
they  traveled  into  Magna  Grecia  in  Italy, 
and  built  Taruntum. 

Parthenopean  Republic.  Was  the  name 
given  to  the  state  into  which  the  kingdom 
of  Naples  was  transformed  by  the  French 
republicans,  January  2o,  1799,  and  whicii 
only  lasted  till  the  following  June,  when 
the  invading  army  was  forced  to  retreat. 

Parthia.  Anciently  a  country  of  Western 
Asia,  lying  at  the  southeast  end  of  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  from  which  it  was  separated  by  a 
narrow  strip,  known  as  Hyrcania,  now  forms 
the  northern  portion  of  Khorassan,  and  is  an 
almost  wholly  mountainous  region.  The 
original  inhabitants  are  believed  to  have 
been  of  Scytiiian  race,  as  shown  by  their 
language  as  well  as  by  their  manners,  and 
to  belong  to  the  great  Indo-(iermanic  family. 
The  Parthians.  during  the  time  of  the  KI)- 
man  republic,  were  distinguished  by  primi- 
tive simplicity  of  life  and  extreme  bravery, 
though,  at  the  same  time,  much  given  to 
baccluxnalianimrl  voluptuous  pleasures.  They 
neglected  agriculture  and  commerce,  devot- 
ing their  wliole  time  to  predatory  expedi- 
tions and  warfare.  They  fought  on  horse- 
back, and  after  a  peculiar  fashion.  Being 
armed  solely  with  bows  and  arrows,  they 
were  rendered  defenseless  after  the  first 
discharge,  and,  to  gain  time  for  adjusting  a 
second  arrow  to  the  bow,  turned  their 
horses,  and  retired,  as  if  in  full  llight;  but 


an  enemy  incautiously  pursuing  was  imme- 
diately assailed  by  a  second  flight  of  arrows; 
a  second  pretended  flight  followed,  and  the 
I  conflict  was  thus  carried  tm  till  the  Par- 
I  thiaris  gained  the  victory,  or  exhausted  their 
quivers.  They  generally  discharged  their 
arrows  backwards,  holding  the  bow  behind 
the  shoulder;  a  mode  of  attack  more  dan- 
gerous to  a  pursuijig  enemy  than  to  one  in 
order  of  battle.  The  Parthians  first  ap- 
peared in  history  as  subject  to  the  great 
Persian  empire.  After  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  Parthia  formed  part  of  the 
Syrian  kingdom,  but  revolted  under  Antio- 
chus  II.,  and  constituted  itself  into  an  inde- 
pendent kingdom  under  the  Arsncidcv,  260 
B.C.,  a  race  of  kings  who  exercised  the  most 
completely  despotic  authority  ever  known. 
The  Parthian  dominion  rapidly  became  a 
most  powerful  and  flourishing  empire.  In 
spite  of  repeated  attacks  on  the  part  of  the 
Romans,  the  Parthians  maintained  their  in- 
dependence;  and  though  Trajan,  in  ll'>- 
lltj,  seized  certain  portions  of  tlie  country, 
the  Romans  were  soon  compelled  to  abandon 
them.  In  214,  during  the  reign  of  Arta- 
banus  IV.,  the  last  of  the  Arsacidse,  a  re- 
volt headed  by  Ardshir,  son  of  Babegan, 
hrfike  out  in  Persia,  and  the  Parthian  mon- 
arch, beaten  in  three  engagements,  lost  his 
throne  and  life,  while  the  victor  substituted 
the  Persian  dynasty  of  the  Sassanida;  for 
that  of  the  Arsacidie.  Some  scions  of  the 
Parthian  royal  family  continued  for  several 
centuries  to  rule  over  the  mountainous  dis- 
trict of  Armenia,  under  the  protection  of 
the  Romans,  and  made  frequent  descent* 
upon  Assyria  and  Babylcmia. 

Partiality.  An  unequal  state  of  judg- 
ment or  leaning  in  fiivor  of  one  of  two 
parties.  Every  member  of  a  court-martial 
is  sworn  to  do  justice,  without  partiality, 
favor,  or  aflcction.  A  previous  opinion  ex- 
pressed by  a  member,  before  the  court  is 
sworn,  is  deemed  a  good  and  sufficient  cause 
of  challenge  by  either  the  prisoner  or  prose- 
cutor, and  the  individual  cannot  sit  on  the 
trial  and  judgment  of  the  case. 

Partisan.       The    name    given    to    small 
corps  detached  from   the  main  body  of  an 
army,  and  acting  independently  against  the 
enemy.     In  partisan  warfare  much  lilierty 
is    allowed    to  partisans.      Continually    an- 
j  noying  the  flanks  and  rear  of  columns,  they 
1  intercept  convoys,  cut  oft"  communications, 
'  attack  detachments,  and  endeavor  to  spread 
I  terror  everywhere.     This  kind  of  warfare  is 
!  advantageously  pursued  only  in  mountain- 
I  ous  or  thickiy-woodiHl  districts.     In  an  open 
!  country,  cavalry  very  readily  destroys  par- 
I  tisans.     The  Spanish  race  make  active  par- 
tisans.     The  party  is  called  giurrilta,  the 
partisan  a  (juerrillero. 
I       Partisan.     A  term  formerly  applied  to  a 
I  pike  or  halbert. 

Partition   Lines.     In   heraldry,  lines  di- 
viding the  shield  in  directions  corresjxmd- 
ing    to  the  ordinaries.      According    to   the 
i  direction  of  the  partition  lines,  a  shield  is 


PARTRIDGES 


414 


PASSAROWITZ 


said  to  be  party  or  parted  per  fess,  per  pale, 
per  bend,  per  chevron,  per  saltire  ;  a  shield 
divided  by  lines  in  the  direction  of  a  cross 
is  said  to  be  quartered  ;  and  a  shield  parted 
at  once  per  cross  and  per  saltire  is  said  to  be 
gironne  of  eight.  The  partition  lines  are 
not  always  plain  ;  they  may  be  engrailed, 
invected,  embattled,  wavy,  nebuly,  indented, 
dancette,  or  raguly. 

Partridges.  In  artillery,  were  very  large 
bombards,  formerly  in  use  at  sieges  and  in 
defensive  works. 

Parts,  Bridges  By.     See  Pontons. 

Party.  A  small  detachment  of  men,  horse 
or  foot,  sent  upon  any  kind  of  duty  ;  as,  into 
an  enemy's  country,  to  pillage,  to  take  pris- 
oners, and  oblige  the  country  to  come  under 
contribution. 

Party.  In  heraldry,  parted  or  divided  ; — 
used  with  reference  to  any  division  of  a  field 
or  charge. 

Party,  Firing.  Are  those  who  are  se- 
lected to  fire  over  the  grave  of  any  one 
interred  with  military  honors. 

Party,  Recruiting.  Is  a  certain  number 
of  men,  under  an  officer  or  non-commis- 
sioned officer,  detached  from  their  respective 
regiments  for  the  purpose  of  enlisting  men. 

Party,  Working.    See  Working  JParty. 

Pas  de  Sours  {Fr.).  Steps  leading  from 
the  bottom  to  the  top  of  a  ditch  in  perma- 
nent fortification. 

Pasha,  or  Bashaw  (from  the  Persian 
padishah,  "powerful  ruler").  A  title  ap- 
plied in  the  Ottoman  empire  to  governors 
of  provinces,  or  military  and  naval  com- 
manders of  high  rank.  The  distinctive 
badge  of  a  pasha  is  a  horse-tail,  waving 
from  the  end  of  a  staff  crowned  with  a  gilt 
ball;  in  war,  this  badge  is  always  carried 
before  him  when  he  goes  abroad,  and  is  at 
other  times  planted  in  front  of  his  tent. 
There  are  three  grades  of  pashas,  which 
are  distinguished  by  the  number  of  horse- 
tails on  their  standards  ;  those  of  the  high- 
est rank  are  pashas  of  three  tails,  and  in- 
clude, in  general,  the  highest  functionaries, 
civil  and  military.  All  pashas  of  this  class 
have  the  title  of  vizier.  The  pashas  of  two 
tails  are  the  governors  of  provinces,  who 
are  generally  called  by  the  simple  title 
"pasha."  The  pashas  of  one  tail,  the 
lowest  rank  of  pashas,  are  provincial  gov- 
ernors.    See  Horse-tail. 

Pass,  A  straight,  difficult,  and  narrow 
passage,  which,  well  defended,  shuts  up  the 
entrance  to  a  country. 

Pass.  A  certificate  of  leave  of  absence 
given  to  a  soldier  for  a  short  period. 

Pass  of  Arms.  In  ancient  chivalry,  a 
bridge,  road,  etc.,  which  the  knights  under- 
took" to  defend,  and  which  was  not  to  be 
passed  without  fighting  the  person  who  kept 
it.  He  who  was  disposed  to  dispute  the 
pass  touched  one  of  the  armories  of  the 
other  knight  who  held  the  pass,  that  were 
hung  on  pales,  columns,  etc.,  erected  for  the 
purpose;  and  this  was  a  challenge  which 
the  other  was  obliged  to  accept.     The  van- 


quished gave  the  conqueror  such  prize  as 
was  agreed  on. 

Pass,  To.    Is  to  march  in  review  by  open 
order  of  columns,  for  the  purpose  of  saluting. 
Passable.    Capable  of  being  passed,  trav- 
eled, traversed,  or  the  like;   as,  the  roads 
are  not  passable  for  troops. 

Passade,  or  Passado.  In  fencing,  a  push 
or  thrust ;  also,  a  sudden  movement  to  the 
front. 

Passage.  A  pass  or  encounter ;  as,  a 
passage  at  arms. 

Passage  of  Ditches.  In  siege  operations 
the  passage  of  a  dry  ditch  consists  in  the 
descent  (which  is  bj'  a  blindage,  if  the  ditch 
is  not  too  deep,  or  a  blindage  and  gallery  for 
deep  ditches)  and  a  full  sap,  which  leads 
from  the  outlet  of  the  descent  to  the  bottom 
of  the  breach.  The  passage  of  a  wet  ditch 
is  more  difficult,  and  specially  perilous  if 
the  besieged  can  produce  sudden  freshets 
by  flood-gates  or  other  contrivance.  The 
method  usually  followed  is  to  build  a  dike 
or  bridge  of  fascines  and  hurdles  across  the 
ditch.  The  abutment  for  this  bridge  is 
formed  by  excavating  a  grand  gallery  be- 
hind the  counterscarp  and  throwing  the 
earth  taken  from  it  into  the  ditch  through 
the  outlet  of  the  descent.  The  dike  is  car- 
ried forward  from  this  abutment  by  sappers, 
who  work  on  a  raft  carrying  a  musket-proof 
mask  on  the  side  of  the  enemy.  A  gabion- 
ade parapet  on  the  exposed  side  of  the  dike 
serves  to  protect  the  men  in  bringing  for- 
ward the  fascines,  hurdles,  etc.,  to  extend 
the  dike. 

Passage  of  Rivers.  The  passage  is  effected 
by  surprise  or  by  main  force,  and  detach- 
ments are  thrown  by  one  means  or  the  other 
upon  the  enemy's  bank  of  the  river  before 
proceeding  to  the  construction  of  bridges. 
The  passage  by  force  ought  always  to  be 
favored  by  diversions  upon  other  points. 
Infantry  cross  bridges  without  keeping  step. 
Cavalry  dismount  in  crossing,  leading  their 
horses.  Wagons  heavily  loaded  pass  at  a 
galop.  _ 

Passages.  Are  openmgs  cut  in  the  para- 
pet of  the  covered  wa}',  close  to  the  traverses, 
in  order  to  continue  the  communication 
through  all  parts  of  the  covered  way.  See 
Traverses. 

Passandeau  (Fr.).  An  ancient  8-pounder 
gun,  which  was  15  feet  long,  and  weighed 
about  3500  pounds. 

Passant.  A  heraldic  term,  used  to  ex- 
press the  attitude  of  an  animal  in  a  walk- 
ing position,  with  his  head  straight  before 
him. 

Passarowitz.  A  well-built  town  of  Eu- 
ropean Turkey,  in  the  province  of  Servia,  5 
miles  south  of  the  Danube,  and  15  miles 
east  of  Semendria.  The  town  is  chiefly 
noteworthy  for  the  treaty  which  was  signed 
here  by  Prince  Eugene  and  the  grand  viziers, 
July  21,  1718.  By  this  treaty,  which  put 
an  end  to  the  war  undertaken  by  the  Turks 
against  Venice  in  1714  for  the  conquest  of 
the  Morea,  a  truce  of  twenty-five  years  was 


PASSAU 


415 


PATNA 


established,  and  the  Banat  of  Temesvars, 
the  western  portion  of  Walhichia  and  Ser- 
via,  the  town  and  territory  of  Belgrade, 
and  a  part  of  Bosnia,  were  secured  to  the 
lionsc  of  Austria. 

Passau.  A  picturesque,  fortified,  frontier 
town  of  Bavaria,  at  the  confluence  of  tlie 
Inn  and  the  Ilz  with  the  Danuhp,  90  miles 
east-northeast  from  Munich.  Fort  Ober- 
haus,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  stands 
on  steep  wooded  cliti's,  at  an  elevation  of 
upwards  of  4(K)  feet,  and  commands  the  pas- 
saire  of  both  the  Inn  and  Danube,  besides 
wiiich  the  town  is  further  defended  by  the 
castle  of  Niederhause,  and  by  ten  detached 
forts.  The  treaty  whereb}'  relii;ious  free- 
dom was  established,  was  ratified  here  be- 
tween the  emperor  Charles  V.  and  the  Prot- 
estant princes  of  Germany,  -luly  31,  1552. 

Pass-box.     See  Implements. 

Passegardes.  In  ancient  armor,  were 
ridi^es  on  tht;  shoulder-pieces  to  turn  the 
blow  of  a  lance. 

Passe-Mur.  An  ancient  IG-pounder  gun, 
18  feet  loiiir,  weighinix  4200  pounds. 

Passes-Balles  (/"'/•.).  Boards  or  ma- 
chines made  of  iron  or  brass,  used  in  dis- 
parting cannon,  and  fitted  to  every  species 
of  caliber. 

Passion  Cross.  A  cross  of  the  form  on 
which  our  Saviour  suft'ercd,  with  a  long 
stem  and  a  short  traverse  near  the  top.  It 
is  of  occasional  occurrence  as  a  heraldic 
charge,  though  less  frequent  than  many 
other  varieties  of  cross.  A  passion  cross, 
when  elevated  on  three  steps  or  degrees 
(which  have  been  said  by  heralds  to  repre- 
sent the  virtues  of  Faith,  Hope,  and  Char- 
ity), is  called  a  Cross  Calvary. 

Passive  Operations.  Are  operations  the 
object  of  which  is  solely  to  repel  an  attack 
of  the  enemy  and  thus  prevent  his  advance. 

Pass-parole.  An  order  passed  from  front 
to  rear  of  an  army  by  word  of  mouth. 

Passport.  A  document  given  by  the 
competent  officer  of  a  state,  which  permits 
the  person  therein  named  to  pass  or  travel 
from  place  to  place  by  land  or  water.  Also 
a  license  granted  in  time  of  war  for  the  re- 
moval of  persons  and  eflects  from  a  hostile 
country  ;  a  safe-conduct. 

Pataremo.  A  sort  of  small  swivel  artil- 
lery, having  a  movable  chamber. 

Patavium  (now  Padorn,  or  Padua).  An 
ancient  town  of  the  Veneti  in  the  north  of 
Italy,  on  the  Medoacus  Minor,  and  on  the 
road  from  Mutina  to  Altinum.  In  .302  n.c. 
it  was  powerful  enough  to  drive  back  the 
Spartan  king  Cleoinenes  with  great  loss  when 
he  attcujpted  to  plunder  the  surrounding 
country.  It  was  jtlundered  by  Attila;  and 
in  consequence  of  a  revolt  of  its  citizens,  it 
was  subsequently  destroyed  by  Agilolf,  king 
of  the  Longobards,  and  ra/.ed  to  the  ground. 

Patay.  A  town  of  France,  department 
of  Loiret,  14  miles  northwest  of  Orleans, 
where  John  of  Arc,  the  Maid  of  Orleans, 
was  present,  when  the  Earl  of  Richemont 
signally  defeated  the  English,  June  18,  1429. 


Talbot  was  taken  prisoner,  and  the  valiant 
Fastolfe  was  forced  to  fly.  In  consequence, 
Charles  VII.  of  France  entered  Kheims  in 
triumph,  and  was  crowned  July  17,  follow- 
ing year,  Joan  of  Arc  assisting  in  the  cere- 
'mony  in  full  armor,  and  holding  the  sword  of 
state. 

Patched-up  Peace,  The.  In  French  his- 
tory, the  iiaiiK-  <,'ivfii  to  a  tnaty  of  jieace 
between  the  Duke  of  (Jrleans  and  John  of 
Burgundy,  in  14t»9. 

Pat6  [Fr.].  In  fortification,  a  sort  of 
horseshoe,  that  is,  a  platform  or  terre-plein, 
irregularly  built,  yet  generally  constructed 
in  an  oval  form.  It  is  surrounded  by  a 
parapet,  without  anything  to  flank  it,  and 
having  no  other  defense  than  what  is  front 
or  fore  right.  Pates  are  usually  erected  in 
marshy  grounds  to  cover  the  <rHte  of  a  forti- 
fied town  or  place.  Also  an  iron  or  earthen 
pot  tilled  with  powder  and  grenades  for 
throwing  airainst  besiegers  ;  some  were  used 
at  Lille  "in  1708. 

Patereros.  Were  small  pieces  of  ord- 
nance, now  obsolete,  worked  on  swivels ; 
most  commonly  used  on  board  of  ships, 
where  they  were  mounted  on  the  gunwale, 
and  discharged  showers  of  old  nails,  etc  , 
into  hostile  boats.  The  French  called  them 
Pierriers,  from  loading  them  with  stones. 

Patience.     The  power  or  faculty  of  suf- 
fering; endurance;  the  power  of  expecting 
hmg,  without  rage  or  discontent ;  the  power 
of  supporting  faults  or  injuries,  without  re- 
venge;    long   suflering.      In    military   life, 
patience  is  an  essential  requisite.     Without 
patience  half  the  toils  of  war  would  be  in- 
supportable ;  with  patience  there  are  scarcely 
any  hardships  but  what  coolness,  courage, 
and  ability  may  overcome.     It  is  one  of  the 
greatest  virtues,  indeed,  in  an  officer  or  sol- 
1  dier  patiently  to  support,  not  only  the  rigor 
I  of  discipline,  but  the  keen   and  vexatious 
■  circumstances  of  disappointment. 
!       Patna,  f>r  Pattana.     A  town  of  British 
\  India,  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name, 
!  in   the  presidency  of  Bengal,  on  the  right 
'  bank  of  the  Ganges,  10  miles  east  of  Dina- 
pore,  and  377  miles  northwest  of  Calcutta. 
Factories  were  established  here  at  an  early 

Eeriod   by  the    British.      In    17H3   disputes 
egan  to  arise   between   Meer  Cossim,  the 
nawaub  of  Bengal  and  Behar,  and  the  ser- 
vants of  the   East   India   Company,  about 
the  transit  dues    levied    on   native   traders, 
from  which  the  English  claimed  exemption. 
The  nawaub  for  some  time  refused  to  accede 
to  these  demands;  but  finally  he  aK^lished 
j  all  the  imposts,  both  on    British  and  native 
I  goods,  a  step  which  was   not  desired  by  the 
!  Company,    and    which    must    have   greatly 
I  diminished    his   revenues.     In    revenge  for 
this   injury,  he  proceeded  in  various   ways 
to  annoy  the  British  ;  and  at  length  went  so 
far  as  to  seize  some  of  their  Iniats  on  the 
Ganges.     On   this    Mr.    Ellis,   the   chief  of 
the  factory  at  Patna.  made  an  attack  on  the 
city  and  took  po.ssession  of  it.  although  Meer 
Cossim   soon   afterwards   recovered   it,  and 


PATOMEMETER 


416 


PATTERN 


forced  the  British  to  take  refuge  in  the  fac- 
tory. For  four  months  liostilities  continued 
between  the  two  parties,  in  the  course  of 
which  the  nawaub  was  several  times  de- 
feated, until  he  became  so  exasperated  at  the 
loss  of  the  city  of  Monghyr,  that  he  ordered 
the  murder  in  cold  blood  of  200  prisoners. 
On  November  6,  in  the  same  year,  Patna 
■was  taken  by  the  British ;  and  in  May, 
1764,  Meer  Cossim's  troops  were  totally  de- 
feated under  the  walls.  Since  that  time  the 
place  has  remained  undisturbed  in  the  hands 
of  the  British. 

Patomemeter.  An  instrument  for  meas- 
uring the  force  of  currents. 

Patonce,  Cross.  In  heraldry  (Lat.  pa- 
tens, "expanding"),  a  cross  with  its  termi- 
nations expanding  like  early  vegetation  or 
an  opening  blossom. 

Patoo-patoo.  A  formidable  weapon  with 
sharp  edges,  used  by  the  Polynesian  Island- 
ers and  New  Zealanders  as  a  sort  of  battle- 
axe  to  cleave  the  skulls  of  their  enemies. 

Patrae  (now  Patras).  One  of  the  twelve 
cities  of  Achaia,  was  situated  west  of  Rhium, 
near  the  opening  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf. 
The  town  was  chiefly  of  importance  as  the 
place  from  which  the  Peloponnesians  di- 
rected their  attacks  against  the  opposite 
coast  of  -^tolia.  Patrse  was  one  of  the  four 
towns  which  took  the  leading  part  in  found- 
ing the  second  Achiean  League.  Patra?  as- 
sisted the  ^Etolians  against  the  Gauls  in  279 

B.C. 

Patriarchal  Cross.  A  cross  which,  like 
the  patriarchal  crosier,  has  its  upright  part 
crossed  by  two  horizontal  bars,  the  upper 
shorter  than  the  lower.  A  cross  patriarchal 
fimbriated  or  was  a  badge  of  the  Knights 
Templar. 

Patrick,  St.,  Order  of.  A  national  order 
of  knighthood  for  Ireland,  established  by 
George  III.  on  February  5,  1783,  and  en- 
larged in  1833.  As  originally  constituted, 
it  consisted  of  the  sovereign,  the  grand 
master  (who  was  always  the  lord-lieutenant 
of  Ireland  for  the  time  being),  and  15 
knights.  By  the  statutes  of  1833  the  num- 
ber of  knights  was  increased  to  22.  The 
collar  of  the  order  (of  gold)  is  composed  of 
roses  alternating  with  harps,  tied  together 
with  a  knot  of  gold,  the  roses  being  enam- 
eled alternately  white  within  red,  and  red 
within  white,  and  in  the  centre  is  an  impe- 
rial crown  surmounting  a  harp  of  gold,  from 
which  the  badge  is  suspended.  The  badge 
ov  jewel  is  of  gold,  and  oval ;  surrounding  it 
is  a  wreath  of  shamrock  proper  on  a  gold 
field ;  within  this  is  a  band  of  sky-blue 
enamel  charged  with  the  motto  of  the  order, 
quis  Separabit  MDCCLXXXIII.  in  gold 
letters  ;  and  within  this  band  a  saltire  gules 
(the  cross  of  St.  Patrick)  surmounted  by  a 
shamrock  or  trefoil  slipped  vert,  having  on 
each  of  its  leaves  an  imperial  crown  or.  The 
field  of  the  cross  is  either  argent  or  pierced, 
and  left  open.  A  sky-blue  ribbon,  worn  over 
the  right  shoulder,  sustains  the  badge  when 
the  collar  is  not  worn.     The  star,  worn  on 


the  left  side,  diff'ers  from  the  badge  only  in 
being  circular  in  place  of  oval,  and  in  substi- 
tuting for  the  exterior  wreath  of  shamrocks 
eight  rays  of  silver,  four  rays  of  which  are 
larger  than  the  other  four.  The  mantle  is 
of  rich  sky-blue  tabinet,  lined  with  white 
silk,  and  fastened  by  a  cordon  of  blue  silk 
and  gold  with  tassels.  On  the  right  shoulder 
is  the  hood,  of  the  same  materials  as  the 
mantle.  The  order  is  indicated  by  the  ini- 
tials K.P. 

Patriot.  A  sincere  and  unbiased  friend 
to  his  country  ;  an  advocate  for  general  civil- 
ization, uniting  in  his  conduct  through  life, 
moral  rectitude  with  political  integrity. 
Such  a  character  is  seldom  found  in  any 
country ;  but  the  specious  appearance  of  it 
is  to  be  seen  everywhere,  most  especially  in 
Europe.  It  is  ditficult  to  say  how  far  the 
term  can  be  used  in  a  military  sense, 
although  it  is  not  uncommon  to  read  of  a 
citizen  soldier,  and  a  patriot  soldier.  Indi- 
vidually considered  the  term  may  be  just, 
but  it  is  hardly  to  be  understood  collectively. 

Patrol.  To  go  the  rounds  in  a  camp  or 
garrison  ;  to  march  about  and  observe  what 
passes  as  a  guard.  To  pass  round  as  a  senti- 
nel ;  as,  to  patrol  the  city. 

Patrolling.  Performing  the  duties  of  a 
patrol. 

Patrols.  A  patrol  is  a  detachment  which 
is  employed  to  obtain  information  respecting 
the  enemy's  movements  and  position,  and 
relating  to  the  nature  of  the  country  over 
which  the  army  has  to  move,  and  to  keep 
open  the  communications  between  thedifter- 
ent  portions  of  a  command.  Patrols  are 
generally  composed  entirely  of  cavalry,  al- 
though they  are  sometimes  composed  of  in- 
fantry and  cavalry ;  and  in  very  much 
broken  and  obstructed  ground,  it  might  be 
necessarj'  that  they  contain  only  infantry. 

Patte  {Fr.).  A  term  used  in  mining; 
when  a  well  or  excavation  is  made  in  loose 
or  crumbling  earth,  and  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  frame  it  in,  the  rafters  must  be  laid 
horizontally  to  support  the  boai-ds  in  pro- 
portion as  the  workmen  gain  depth.  The 
ends  of  the  rafters  that  are  first  laid  run  10 
or  12  inches  beyond  the  border  of  the  well, 
for  the  purpose  of  sustaining  the  platform. 
These  supports  are  called  oreilles ;  conse- 
quently, that  every  frame  may  be  supported 
the  second  is  attached  or  made  firm  to  the 
first  by  means  of  the  ends  of  boards  which 
are  nailed  together.  In  this  manner  the 
third  is  joined  to  the  second,  and  the  fourth 
to  the  third.  These  ends  are  called  j^o-Ucs, 
or  handles. 

Pattee,  Cross,  or  Cross  Formee  (Lat. 
patidus,  "spreading").  In  heraldry,  a  cross 
Avith  its  arms  expanding  towards  the  ends, 
and  flat  at  their  outer  edges. 

Patte  d'Oie  (Fr.).  A  term  used  in  mining 
to  describe  three  small  branches  which  are 
run  out  at  the  extremity  of  a  gallery.  They 
are  so  called  from  their  resemblance  to  the 
foot  of  a  goose. 

Pattern  Regiment.     A  phrase  of  distinc- 


PAULUS 


417 


PAY-ROLL 


tiou  which  is  applied  to  a  corps  of  officers 
and  soldiers  who  are  remarkable  for  tlieir 
observance  of  ^ood  order  and  discif)line. 

Paulus  Hook.  A  point  <>n  the  Jersey 
shore  which  ran  into  the  Hudson  River  near 
where  the  Pavonia  ferries  now  are.  The 
first  settlement  was  Tiiade  here  in  1033.  A 
British  fort  erected  at  this  puint  was  taken 
on  the  morninfj  of  An<;ust  1',),  1779,  by  the 
Americans  under  ilaj.  Harry  Lee,  who 
made  a  descent  on  it  by  way  of  the  Point  of 
Rocks,  and  captured  179  i)risoners,  a  num- 
ber of  fTuns,  and  a  quantity  of  stores. 

Pavade.  Formerly  a  short  dagger  was 
so  called  in  Scotland. 

Pavecheur,  or  Pavesier.  An  ancient 
militia  who  carried  the  (parois)  shield. 

Pavia  (anc.  TU-inuui).  A  city  of  North- 
ern Italy,  capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ticino, 
20  miles  south  of  Milan,  and  3  miles  above 
the  confluence  of  the  Ticino  and  the  Po. 
Pavia  was  founded  by  the  Ligurii ;  it  was 
sacked  by  Hrennus  and  by  Hannibal ;  burned 
by  the  Huns  ;  conquered  by  the  Romans, 
and  became  a  place  of  considerable  impor- 
tance at  the  end  of  the  Ronuin  empire.  Then 
it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Goths  and 
Lombards,  and  the  kings  of  the  latter  made 
it  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  It 
became  independent  in  the  12th  century, 
then,  weakened  by  civil  wars,  it  was  con- 
quered b.rMatthew  Visconti  in  13-lo.  Since 
that  period,  its  history  is  merged  in  that  of 
the  conquerors  of  Lombardy.  Here,  in  1525, 
the  French  were  defeated  by  the  Imperial- 
ists, and  their  king  taken  prisoner;  but  in 
1527,  and  again  in  the  following  year  it  was 
taken  and  laid  waste  by  the  French.  It 
was  stormed  and  pillaged  by  Napoleon  in 
179(5,  and  came  into  the  possession  of  Aus- 
tria by  the  peace  of  1814.  Since  1859  it  has 
been  included  within  the  reorganized  king- 
dom of  Italy. 

Pavilion.  A  tent  raised  on  posts  ;  a  flag, 
colors,  ensign,  or  banner;  in  heraldry,  a 
covering  in  form  of  a  tent,  investing  the 
armories  of  kings. 

Pavilion,  To.  To  furnish  or  cover  with 
tents  ;  to  shelter  with  a  tent. 

Pavise  (written  also  I'arnis,  Pnvr.ie,  and 
P(iresse).  A  large  shield  covering  the 
whole  body,  having  an  inward  curve,  man- 
aged by  a  puvisor,  who  with  it  screened  an 
archer. 

Pavisor.  In  military  antiquity,  a  sol- 
dier who  nuinaged  a  pavise. 

Pavon.  An  ancient  military  flag  shaped 
like  a  right-angled  triangle. 

Pawnees.  A  warlike  tribe  of  Indians 
who  formerly  resided  in  Nebraska,  but  are 
now  located  in  Indian  Territory.  Their 
numbers  have  been  greatly  reduced,  owing 
to  their  wars  with  the  Sioux,  with  whom 
they  maintained  a  hereditary  warfare.  They 
now  number  about  2000  souls,  and  are  di- 
vided in  four  bands. 

Pay.  Is  the  stipend  or  salary  allowed  for 
each  individual  serving  in  the  armv. 


Pay  Bills.  In  the  British  service,  ac- 
counts regularly  tendered  by  captains  of 
troops  or  companies  of  the  money  required 
by  them  for  the  effectives  of  such  troop  or 
company. 

Pay,  Colonial.  In  the  British  service  is  a 
certain  allowance  which  is  made  to  troops 
serving  in  the  colonies. 

Pay  Department.  Is  that  department  of 
a  governnieiit  which  takes  charge  of  all  mat- 
ters relating  to  the,  pay  of  the  army.  In  the 
U.  S.  army  the  pay  department  consists  of 
1  paymaster-general,  with  the  rank,  pay,  and 
emoluments  of  a  brigadier-general;  2  as- 
sistant paymaster-generals,  with  the  rank, 
pay,  and  emoluments  of  colonels  of  cav- 
alry ;  2  deputy  paymaster-generals,  with  the 
rank,  pay,  and  emoluments  of  lieutenant- 
colonels  of  cavalry  ;  and  50  paymasters,  with 
the  rank,  pay,  and  emoluments  of  majors  of 
cavalry. 

Pay,  Half-.     Sec  Half-pay. 

Pay,  Full.     See  Full  Pay. 

Pay,  Staff.  Is  the  pay  and  allowances 
which  are  made  to  officers  serving  on  the 
start"  of  an  army,  or  in  any  particular  di- 
vision or  department. 

Paymaster-General.  In  the  U.  S.  army, 
is  the  chief  officer  of  the  pay  department, 
with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  Under 
the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  the 
paymaster-general  assigns  jiaymasters  to  dis- 
tricts ;  he  receives  from  the  treasurer  all  the 
moneys  which  are  intrusted  to  him  for  the 
purpose  of  paying  the  pay,  the  arrears  of 
pay,  etc.,  apjiertaining  to  the  army.  He  is 
also  charged  with  all  necessary  instructions 
to  his  subordinates  in  reference  to  the  supply 
and  distribution  of  funds  for  the  payment  of 
the  army,  and  all  other  things  appertaining 
to  the  financial  duties  of  his  department  and 
the  accountability  of  its  officers.  In  these 
and  all  other  matters  having  relation  spe- 
cially to  the  internal  administration  of  the 
pay  department,  the  correspondence  and  or- 
ders is  direct  between  the  paymaster-general 
and  his  subordinates,  and  between  the  de- 
partment and  district  chiefs  and  their  suD- 
ordi  nates. 

Paymasters.  Are  officers  appointed  in 
the  army  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  its  pay 
accounts,  and  the  disbursing  of  moneys  in 
payment  of  troops.  In  the  U.  S.  service  it 
is  the  duty  of  paymasters  to  pay  all  the  reg- 
ular and  other  troops  ;  and  to  insure  punctu- 
ality and  responsibility,  correct  reports  shall 
be  made  to  the  paymaster-general  once  in  two 
months,  showing  the  disposition  of  the  funds 
previously  transmitted,  with  accurate  esti- 
mates for  the  next  payment  of  such  regi- 
ment, garrison,  or  department,  as  may  do 
assigned  to  each.  In  the  British  service  a 
payuuister  is  attiuhed  to  each  regiment. 

iPaymaster-Sergeant.  In  the  English 
army,  a  non-commissioned  officer  who  assists 
the  paymaster. 

Pay-roll.  A  roll  or  list  of  persons  entitled 
to  payment,  with  the  sums  which  are  to  be 
paid  on  them.     In  the   U.  S.  army,  com- 


PAY-SERGEANT 


418 


PEEL-TOWERS 


manders  of  companies  are  required  to  pre- 
pare at  each  regular  muster,  beside  one  mus- 
ter-roll, three  copies  of  the  ''muster-  and 
pay-roll,"  two  for  the  paymaster,  and  one  to 
be  retained  in  the  company  files.  "When 
the  paymaster's  rolls  have  been  computed 
and  returned  to  the  company  for  examina- 
tion and  signature,  the  calculations  thereon 
will  be  transcribed  on  the  triplicate  muster- 
and  pay-roll,  under  the  direction  of  or  by 
the  company  commander,  who  is  responsible 
for  the  correct  performance  of  this  duty. 

Pay-Sergeant.  In  the  British  service,  a 
sergeant  who,  on  the  responsibility  of  the 
captain  of  a  troop,  battery,  or  company, 
keeps  the  men's  accounts.  He  is  generally, 
but  not  invariably,  the  color-sergeant  in  the 
infantry,  or  the  troop  or  battery  sergeant- 
major  in  the  cavalry  or  artillery. 

Pea  Ridge.  A  range  of  hills  in  Benton 
Co.,  Ark.,  which  gives  its  name  to  the  battle 
fought  here  March  6-8,  1862,  between  the 
Union  forces  under  Gen.  Curtis  and  the 
Confederates  under  Van  Dorn,  in  which  the 
latter  were  defeated  with  loss  of  over  2500 
killed,  wounded,  and  captured. 

Peabody-Martini  Rifle.  A  breech-load- 
ing rifle  invented  by  an  American — Pea- 
body — and  improved  by  a  Swiss.  It  is 
called  Mariini-Henry  in  England,  in  which 
country  it  is  the  official  arm.  More  than 
half  a  million  of  these  rifles  were  manu- 
factured for  the  Turkish  government  during 
the  late  Russo-Turkish  war  by  the  Provi- 
dence Tool  Company  of  Rhodelsland.  The 
gun  has  a  great  reputation  on  account  of  its 
long  range. 

Peace.  Freedom  from  war,  exemption 
from,  or  cessation  of,  hostilities.  This  condi- 
tion of  affairs  is  effected  and  maintained  by 
treaties  between  independent  powers. 

Peace  Establishment.  The  reduced  num- 
ber of  effective  men  in  the  army  during  a 
period  of  peace. 

Peal.  A  long  sound,  or  a  succession  of 
long  sounds,  as  of  cannon,  etc. 

Pean  (Old  Fr.  jmnnes,  "furs").  One  of 
the  furs  borne  in  heraldry,  differing  from 
ermine  only  in  the  tinctures, — the  ground 
being  sable  and  the  spots  of  gold. 

Pea-rifle.  A  rifle  of  small  bore  carrying 
a  ball  of  the  size  of  a  pea. 

Peasants'  War.  In  German  history,  the 
name  given  to  that  great  insurrection  of  the 
peasantry  which  broke  out  in  the  beginning 
of  the  year  1525.  The  oppression  of  the 
peasants  had  gradually  increased  in  severity, 
as  the  nobility  became  more  extravagant  aiid 
the  clergy  more  sensual  and  degenerate. 
The  example  of  Switzerland  encouraged  the 
hope  of  success,  and  from  1476  to  1517  there 
were  risings  here  and  there  among  the  peas- 
ants of  the  south  of  Gernniny.  A  peasant 
rebellion,  called  from  its  cognizance,  the 
Bundschuh  (laced  shoe),  took  place  in  the 
Rhine  countries  in  1502,  and  another  called 
the  "  League  of  Poor  Conrad,"  in  Wurtem- 
berg,  in  1514,  both  of  which  were  put  down 
without   any   abatement  of  the  grievances 


which  occasioned  them.  The  Reformation, 
by  the  mental  awakening  which  it  produced, 
and  the  diffusion  of  sentiments  favorable  to 
freedom,  must  be  reckoned  among  the  causes 
of  the  great  insurrection  itself.  The  Ana- 
baptists, and  in  particular  Munzer,  encour- 
aged and  excited  them,  and  a  peasant  insur- 
rection took  place  in  the  Hegau  in  1522. 
Another  known  as  the  "  Latin  War"  arose 
in  1523  in  Salzburg,  against  an  unpopular 
archbishop,  but  these  were  quickly  sup- 
pressed. On  January  1,  1525,  the  peasantry 
of  the  abbacy  of  Kempten,  along  with  the 
towns-people,  suddenly  assailed  and  plun- 
dered the  convent;  this  event  proved  the 
signal  for  a  general  rising  of  the  peasantry 
on  all  sides  throughout  Uie  south  of  Ger- 
many. They  organized  themselves  into 
bands  of  from  9000  to  30,000,  and  destroyed 
convents  and  castles,  murdered,  pillaged, 
and  were  guilty  of  the  greatest  excesses, 
which  must  indeed  be  regarded  as  partly  in 
revenge  for  the  cruelties  practiced  against 
them.  In  May  and  June,  1525,  they  sus- 
tained a  number  of  severe  defeats  from  the 
regular  forces  under  Truchsess  von  Wald- 
burg,  in  which  large  bodies  of  them  were 
destroyed.  The  landgraf  Philip  of  Hesse 
was  also  successful  against  them  in  the  north 
of  Germany.  The  peasants  after  they  had 
been  subjiigated  were  everywhere  treated 
with  terrible  cruelty  ;  a  great  body  of  them 
were  massacred  ;  multitudes  were  hanged  in 
the  streets,  and  many  were  put  to  death 
with  the  greatest  tortures.  It  is  supposed 
that  more  than  150,000  persons  lost  their 
lives  in  this  war.  The  lot  of  the  defeated 
insurgents  became  harder  than  ever. 

Pebble  Powder.     See  Gunpowder. 

Pecq,  Le.  A  village  of  France,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Seine,  about  half  a  mile 
east  from  St.  Germain  en  Laye.  The  allied 
forces  crossed  the  Seine  at  this  spot  in  1815. 

Pectoral  (Fr.  pectorale).  A  breastplate. 
Among  the  Romans  the  poorer  soldiers, 
who  were  rated  under  1000  drachmas,  in- 
stead of  the  lorica,  or  brigantine  (a  leathern 
coat  of  mail)  wore  a  pectoral,  or  breastplate 
of  thin  brass,  about  twelve  fingers  square. 
Some  modern  troops,  such  as  the  cuirassiers, 
etc.,  wear  pectorals  for  the  direct  purposes 
of  defense  and  bodily  protection ;  but  in 
general  small  ornamental  plates  with  clasps 
have  been  substituted. 

Peculation.  A  term  used  in  a  military 
sense  for  embezzling  public  moneys,  stores, 
arms,  or  ammunition.  See  Appendix,  Ar- 
ticles OF  War,  60. 

Pedro.  An  early  gun  of  large  caliber 
for  throwing  stone  balls. 

Peel.  To  strip;  to  plunder;  to  pillage; 
as,  to  peel  a  province  or  conquered  people. 

Peel.     A  small  tower  or  fort. 

Peel-house.     A  small  fortified  place. 

Peel-towers.  The  name  given  to  the 
towers  erected  on  the  Scottish  borders  for 
defense.  They  are  square,  with  turrets  at 
the  angles,  and  the  door  is  sometimes  at  a 
height'from  the  ground.     The  lower  story 


PEEP 


419 


PELOPONNESIAN 


is  usually  vaulted,  and  forms  a  stable  for 
liorses,  cattle,  etc. 

Peep  o'  Day  Boys.  Were  insurgents  in 
Ireland,  who  visited  the  houses  of  their 
antagonists  ut  break  of  day,  in  search  of 
arms.  They  first  appeared  .July  4,  1784, 
and  for  a  long  period  were  the  terror  of  the 
country. 

Pegu.  A  British  province  of  Eastern 
India,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Bur- 
mese empire,  east  by  the  Tenasserini  prov- 
inces, south  by  the  Gulf  of  Martaban,  and 
west  by  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  the  province 
of  Arracan.  It  was  discovered  by  the  Por- 
tuguese in  1520.  The  early  history  of  Pegu 
consists  of  little  more  than  a  narrative  of 
barbarous  and  cruel  contests  between  that 
country  and  the  kingdom  of  Ava,  in  which 
the  latter  was  tinally  successful,  and  re- 
duced Pegu  to  a  province  of  that  kingdom, 
or,  as  it  is  generally  called,  the  Burinan 
empire.  Pegu,  the  capital,  was  taken  by 
Maj.  Cotton,  with  300  men,  in  June,  1852, 
without  loss ;  and  afterwards  abandoned. 
It  was  again  occupied  by  the  Burmese  and 
strongly  fortified,  with  a  garrison  of  4000 
men.  It  was  recaptured  by  Gen.  Godwin 
with  1200  men  and  2  guns,  in  two  hours, 
with  the  loss  of  tj  killed  and  82  wounded. 
The  province  was  annexed  to  the  British 
possessions,  by  proclamation,  December  20, 
1852,  and  has  since  prospered.  In  Febru- 
ary, 18(J2,  it  was  united  with  Arracan  and 
Tenasserim  as  Britisli  Burmah. 

Pei-ho.  A  river  of  China,  which  rising 
on  the  confines  of  Tartary,  traverses  the 
northern  part  of  the  province  of  Chih-le  or 
Pe-chih-le,  and  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Pe- 
chih-le,  in  about  38°  30'  N.  lat.  The  at- 
tack on  the  escort  of  the  British  and  French 
ambassadors  whilst  ascending  the  Pei-ho  to 
Pekin  (June,  1859),  led  to  the  war  with 
China  of  18t)0,  in  which  year  the  Taku 
forts  on  this  river  were  taken  by  the  British. 
Peishwa.  The  title  of  the  military  gov- 
ernor of  the  Mahrattas,  whose  olfice  became 
hereditary  in  the  family  of  Balajee  Bis- 
wanath,  its  first  possessor,  who  fixed  his 
residence  at  Poonah. 

Peking,  or  Pekin.  The  capital  of  the 
Chinese  empire,  situated  between  the  Pei-ho 
and  Iloon-ho,  100  miles  northwest  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Pei-ho  River.  About  5  miles 
north  from  tlie  city  the  famous  Yuen-ming- 
yuen  palaces  are  situated,  which  were  sacked 
and  de-^troyed  by  the  allies  in  October,  1800; 
these  were  30  in  number.  Here  had  been 
lieaped  up  for  centuries  all  the  movable 
riches  and  presents  of  the  emperors  of  China. 
At  the  approach  of  the  allies  Hicn-fung  tied 
in  haste;  and  when  Lord  Elgin  learned  that 
it  was  in  those  grounds  that  the  British  and 
French  prisoners,  captured  by  treachery, 
had  been  tortured,  he  gave  the  order  to  sack 
and  destroy  this  favorite  residence  of  the 
emperor's,  as  it  could  not  fail  to  be  a  blow 
to  his  pride  as  well  as  his  feelings  ;  and  it 
became  a  solemn  act  of  retribution.  Peking 
has  thus  been  rendered  memorable  by  this 


march  of  the  British  and  French  forces 
{I860)  to  the  walls  of  the  city,  on  which  the 
British  and  French  flags  were  raised.  The 
provisions  of  the  treaty  of  Tien-tsin  (1858) 
were  subsequently  ratified  and  sujiplementcd 
by  the  convention  of  Peking,  which  was 
signed  in  the  English  and  French  languages 
at  Peking,  October  24,  1800. 

Pelican.  An  ancient  name  for  a  6- 
pounder  culverin,  'J  feet  long  and  weighing 
2400  pounds. 

Pelican.  In  heraldry,  the  pelican  is 
drawn  with  her  wings  endorsed,  and  wound- 
ing her  breast  with  her  beak.  When  repre- 
sented in  her  nest  feeding  her  young  with 
her  blood,  she  is  called  a  pelican  in  her  piety. 

Peligni.  A  brave  and  warlike  people  of 
Sabine  origin,  in  Central  Italy,  bounded 
southeast  by  the  Marsi,  north  by  the  Mar- 
rucini,  south  by  Samium  and  the  Frentani, 
and  east  by  the  Frentani  likewise.  They 
ofl'ered  a  brave  resistance  to  the  liomans,  but 
concluded  a  peace  with  the  republic  along 
with  their  neighbors  the  3Iarsi,  Marrucini, 
and  Frentani,  in  304  B.C.  They  took  an  ac- 
tive part  in  the  Social  war  (<.>6,  89).  They 
were  subdued  by  Pompeius  Strabo,  after 
which  time  they  are  rarely  mentioned. 

Pelinna,  or  more  commonly  Pelinnaeum 
(now  Oanl/ii/d).  A  town  of  Thessaly,  in 
Hestiieotis,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Peneus, 
was  taken  by  the  Uonnms  in  their  war  with 
Antiochus. 

Pellene.  A  city  in  Achaia,  bordering  on 
Sicyonia,  the  most  easterly  of  the  twelve 
Achaean  cities,  was  situated  on  a  hill  60 
stadia  from  the  sea,  and  was  stnmgly  forti- 
fied. Its  port-town  was  Aristonautie.  In 
the  Peloponnesian  war  Pellene  sided  with 
Sparta.  In  the  later  wars  of  Greece  between 
the  Achajan  and  ^Etolian  leagues,  the  town 
was  several  times  taken  by  the  contending 
parties. 

Pellet.     An  old  word  for  shot  or  bullet. 

Pellet,  or  Ogress.  In  English  heraldry, 
a  roundle  sable. 

Pell-mell.  In  utter  confusion  ;  with  dis- 
orderly mixture;  with  conl"used  violence; 
as,  the  battle  was  a  confused  heap,  the 
ground  UMe(|ual,  men,  horses,  chariots, 
crowded  j»ell-inoll. 

Peloponnesian  War.  One  of  the  most 
celebrated  and  imi)ortantof  the  wars  carried 
on  between  the  difi'erent  states  of  Greece; 
the  particulars  of  which  are  related  in  the 
writings  of  Xenophon  and  Thucydides.  It 
existed  for  twenty-seven  years,  during  which 
time  the  Athenians  and"  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Peloponnesus,  the  most  southern  penin- 
sula of  Greece,  were  the  principal  belliger- 
ents. After  the  Athenians  had  sustained 
immense  lo.sses,  it  was  at  last  agreed  that  to 
establish  the  peace  the  fortifications  of  the 
Athenian  harbors  should  be  demolished,  and 
all  their  ships,  except  twelve,  be  surrendered 
to  the  enemy.  They  were  to  resign  every 
pretension  to  their  dominions  abroad ;  to 
follow  the  Spartans  in  war,  and  in  time  of 
peace  to  frame  their  constitutions  according 


PELTA 


420 


PENETRATION 


to  the  will  and  prescription  of  their  Pelopon- 
nesian  conquerors.  Their  walls  and  fortifi- 
cations were  instantly  leveled  to  the  ground  ; 
and  the  conquerors  observed  that  in  the 
demolition  of  Athens,  succeeding  ages  would 
fix  the  era  of  Grecian  freedom.  This  mem- 
orable event  happened  about  404  years  be- 
fore the  Christian  era  ;  and  thirty  "  tyrants" 
were  appointed  by  Lysander  over  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  city. 

Pelta.  A  small  light  shield,  sometimes 
attributed  to  the  Amazons,  but  used  by  nu- 
merous nations  of  antiquity,  such  as  the  in- 
habitants of  Thrace,  Spain,  and  Mauritania, 
before  its  general  introduction  among  the 
Greeks.  It  consisted  mainly  of  a  frame  of 
wood  or  wicker-work  covered  with  skin  or 
leather,  without  the  metallic  rim,  and  of  a 
great  variety  of  shapes.  It  was  sometimes 
round,  as  in  the  special  case  of  the  cetra^ 
sometimes  elliptical,  sometimes  variously 
situated  round  the  rim,  sometimes  even 
quadrangular,  but  most  commonly  crescent- 
shaped  or  lunated,  as  alluded  to  in  the 
^'Amazonidum  lunatls  agminapeltis"  of  Vir- 
gil. Soldiers  bearing  the  pelta  were  called 
2yeltasta'. 

Pelusium.  The  Greek  name  of  an  an- 
cient Egyptian  city  situated  on  the  north- 
eastern angle  of  the  Delta,  and  important  as 
the  key  of  Egypt  on  the  Asiatic  side.  Pe- 
lusium is  called  S'm  in  the  Old  Testament. 
It  first  figures  in  semi-authentic  history  as 
the  scene  of  Sennacherib's  defeat,  when  (ac- 
cording to  the  Egyptian  tradition,  as  re- 
ported by  Herodotus)  the  camp  of  the  As- 
syrians was  invaded  at  night  by  a  host  of 
field-mice,  who  gnawed  their  bow-strings 
and  shield-straps,  so  that  in  the  morning, 
when  the  Egyptians  fell  upon  them,  they 
were  defenseless.  In  525  B.C.,  Cambyses 
overthrew,  near  Pelusium,  the  forces  of 
Pharaoh-Psanimetichus.  It  surrendered  to 
Alexander  in  333  B.C.  The  city  was  also 
taken  by  the  Persians  in  809  B.C. ;  and  in 
173  B.C.,  it  was  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of 
Ptolemy  Philometor  by  Antiochus  Epipha- 
nes.  Mark  Antony  captured  it  55  B.C.,  and 
it  opened  its  gates  to  Octavian  after  his  vic- 
tory at  Actium,  31  B.C.  It  was  taken  after  a 
protracted  resistance  by  Amrou,  the  Saracen, 
in  618. 

Pembroke.  A  seaport  town  of  South 
"Wales,  on  a  navigable  creek  of  Milford 
Haven,  210  miles  west  of  London.  In  1648 
its  castle  was  beleaguered  by  Cromwell,  and 
taken  after  a  siege  of  six  weeks. 

Penalba,  or  Penalva.  A  village  of  Spain, 
province  of  Huesca,  18  miles  northwest  of 
Mequinenza.  During  the  War  of  the  Suc- 
cession the  troops  of  Philip  V.  were  here 
defeated  in  a  bloody  battle  bj'^  the  armj'  of 
the  Archduke  Charles,  August  15,  1710. 

Penalty.  In  a  military  sense,  signifies 
forfeiture  for  non-performance,  likewise  pun- 
ishment for  embezzlement,  etc. 

Pencel.  A  small  flag  ot  streamer  which 
was  formerly  carried  at  the  top  of  a  lance ; 
— called  also  pejmoncel. 


Pend  d'Oreilles,  or  Kalispels  (Cnlispels). 
A  tribe  of  partially  civilized  Indians,  di- 
vided into  several  bands  aggregating  about 
2000,  who  reside  in  Washington,  Idaho,  and 
Montana  Territories.  A  few  of  this  tribe 
are  also  to  be  found  in  British  Columbia. 

Pendant.  In  heraldry,  a  part  hanging 
from  the  label,  resembling  the  drops  in  the 
Doric  frieze. 

Pendulum,  Ballistic.  See  Ballistic 
Pendulum. 

Pendulum  Hausse.  See  Hausse,  Pen- 
dulum. 

Penetrating.  Having  the  power  of  en- 
tering or  jiiercing  another  body. 

Penetration  of  Spherical  Projectiles. 
Their  penetration  when  of  the  same  size, 
with  difterent  velocities  or  charges,  is  nearly 
as  the  squares  of  the  velocities  ;  when  of  dif- 
ferent sizes  the  penetration  will  be  propor- 
tionate to  their  diameters  multiplied  by  the 
density,  and  inversely  as  the  tenacity  of  the 
medium.  The  depth  of  penetration  of  a 
projectile  fired  from  field-pieces  at  the  dis- 
tance of  500  or  600  yards,  is  from  4^  to  6  feet 
in  parapets  recently  constructed,  and  will 
traverse  walls  of  ordinary  construction  ;  but 
a  12-pounder  is  necessary  to  make  a  breach 
in  walls  of  good  masonry  and  of  4  feet  in 
thickness,  and  in  this  case  the  position  of 
the  battery  must  be  favorable,  and  the  oper- 
ation a  slow  one.  The  depth  of  penetration 
of  projectiles  fired  from  the  4^-inch  siege- 
gun,  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  projectiles 
fired  from  the  30-pounder  Parrott  gun, 
namely,  12  feet.  Sand,  sandy  earth  mixed 
with  gravel,  small  stones,  chalk,  and  tufa, 
resist  shot  better  than  the  productive  earths. 
Shells  may  be  considered  as  round  shot  of  a 
lower  specific  gravity,  and  their  penetrations 
are  therefore  proportionally  less.  A  bank 
of  earth,  to  afford  a  secure  cover  from  heavy 
guns,  will  require  a  thickness  from  18  to  24 
feet.  In  guns  below  18-pounders,  if  the 
number  of  the  feet  in  thickness  of  the  ank 
be  made  equal  to  the  number  of  pounds  in 
the  weight  of  the  shot  by  which  it  is  to  be 
assailed,  the  requisite  protection  will  be  ob- 
tained. Earth  possesses  advantages  over 
every  other  material.  It  is  easily  obtained, 
regains  its  position  after  displacement,  and 
the  injury  done  to  an  earthen  battery  by  day 
can  be  readily  repaired  at  night.  Where 
masonry  is  liable  to  be  breached,  it  should 
be  covered  with  earth.  Wrought-iron  plates 
4.}  inches  in  thickness  will  withstand  the  ef- 
fects of  32-pound  shots,  and  of  all  inferior 
calibers  at  short  ranges,  as  400  yards.  Plates 
of  this  thickness,  however,  are  soon  destroyed 
by  68-pound  shots,  and  aflbrd  little  protec- 
tion from  the  elongated  shots  of  the  new 
rifled  ordnance.  To  resist  successfully  the 
fall  of  heavy  shells,  buildings  must  be  cov- 
ered with  arches  of  good  masonry,  not  less 
than  3  feet  thick,  having  bearings  not  greater 
than  25  feet,  and  these  must  be  again  pro- 
tected by  a  covering  of  several  feet  of  earth. 
Iron  plates  half  an  inch  thick,  oak  planks 
4  inches  thick,  or  a  9-inch  brick  wall,  are 


PENINSULAR 


421 


PENSIONER 


proof  against  musketry  or  canister  at  a  range 
of  100  yards.  Iron  plates  1  inch  illicit,  oak 
from  8  to  10  inches  thick,  a  good  wall  a  foot 
thick  or  a  firm  hank  of  earth  4  feet  thick, 
will  aflbrd  secure  cover  from  grape-shot, 
from  any  hut  the  largest  guns  at  short  ranges. 
The  common  musket  will  drive  its  hullet 
about  a  foot  and  a  half  into  well-rammed 
earth,  or  it  will  penetrate  from  (J  to  10  half- 
inch  elm  boards  placed  at  intervals  of  an 
inch.  Th(!  penetration  of  the  rifled  musket 
is  about  twice  that  of  the  common  musket. 
A  rope  matting  or  mantlet  3A  inches  thick 
is  found  to  resist  small-arm  j)rojectiles  at  ail 
distances  ;  it  may  therefore  be  eujployed  as 
a  screen  against  riflemen. 

Peninsular  War.  A  war  which  had  for 
its  theatre  the  kingdoms  of  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal, and  in  which  England,  Spain,  and 
Portugal  fought  against  France.  It  lasted 
from  March,'  1808,'  until  May,  1,814,  when 
the  former  powers  were  completely  victori- 
ous. 

Penneti^re,  or  Panetifere  (Fr.).  A  pocket 
or  small  bag  in  which  slingers  carried  stones 
and  leaden  halls. 

Pennon  (Fr.).  Formerly  a  copper  wing 
of  a  long,  light  arrow  {vireton),  substituted 
for  a  feather. 

Pennon.  In  former  times  was  something 
like  a  banner,  but  with  the  addition  of  a 
triangular  point,  charged  with  arms,  and 
borne  before  knights-bachelors. 

Pennsylvania.  One  of  the  Middle  States 
of  the  Atlantic  slope,  the  second  in  popula- 
tion in  the  Union,  and  one  of  the  thirteen 
of  the  original  confederacy.  The  earliest 
settlements  were  made  in  ltj27  by  a  colony 
of  Swedes  and  P'inns,  who  established  them- 
selves on  the  Delaware  River,  going  as  far 
northward  as  the  locality  of  Pliiladelphia. 
In  IG'jo  a  Dutch  expedition  from  New  Am- 
sterdam took  formal  possession  of  the  coun- 
try. The  Dutch  in  their  turn  were  super- 
seded by  the  English  after  the  capture  of 
New  York  in  \W)4  ;  and  in  1(581  the  territory 
was  granted  by  Charles  II.  to  William  Penn, 
who  with  his  co-religionists  of  the  Society  of 
Friends  established  a  Christian  government 
"founded  on  jieace,  reason,  and  right." 
Having  purchased  the  lands  of  the  Indians, 
and  conciliated  them  by  kindness  and  good 
will,  he  secured  their  friendship  during  sev- 
enty years.  Previous  to  the  French  and 
Indian  war  in  1755,  the  contests  waged  be- 
tween the  French  and  English  colonists  had 
not  reached  Pennsylvania;  but  in  that  year 
oi'curred  the  disastrous  defeat  of  Braddock, 
near  Pittsburgh,  in  which  Washington,  then 
a  young  man,  distinguished  himself.  Penn- 
svlvania  took  an  active  part  in  the  Revolu- 
tionary contest,  and  on  her  soil  occurred  the 
battles  of  Hrandywine  and  (iermantown, 
September  and  October,  1777,  the  massacres 
of  Wyiuuing  and  J'aoli,  and  the  sutlering 
winter  encamjiment  at  Valley  Forge  in 
1777-78.  The  most  prosperous  of  the  colo- 
nies, and  in  a  central  position,  it  became  the 
seat  of  the  congress  held  by  the  colonies  both 


before  and  after  tlie  decision  of  the  struggle. 
Independence  was  proclaimed  here,  and  it 
retiiaiiied  the  seat  of  the  general  government 
until  1800.  No  State  in  the  confederacy  has 
been  more  loyal  to  the  Constitution.  During 
the  war  of  1812  she  promjitly  furnished  her 
quota  of  troops,  and  during  the  civil  war 
she  sent  nearly  400,000  men  into  the  field. 
During  this  trying  period  her  territory  was 
three  times  invaded:  in  18<>2,  when  Cham- 
bersburg  (which  see)  was  caj>tured,  and  in 
18ij4,  when  it  was  burned;  and  in  18»»8, 
when  it  was  invaded  by  Lee,  and  the  battle 
of  Gettysburg  fijught  on  its  soil. 

Penobscots.  A  tribe  of  Indians,  of  Al- 
gonkin  stock  (numbering  about  5(J0),  who 
reside  on  an  island  in  the  Penobscot  Uiver, 
about  8  miles  north  of  Bangor,  Me.  They 
were  allies  of  the  colonists  in  the  war  of  the 
Revolution,  and  received  lor  their  services  a 
large  tract  of  hind,  the  greater  part  of  which 
has  been  from  time  to  time  disposed  of. 

Penon  de  Velez.  A  fortified  town,  built 
on  a  high  and  steep  rock,  lying  oft'  the  north 
coa.st  of  Morocco,  75  miles  southeast  from 
Ceuta.  It  belongs  to  Spain,  and  was  founded 
by  Pedro  of  Navarre  in  1508.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Moors  in  1522;  but  recovered  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1004. 

Penrith.  A  town  of  England,  county  of 
Cumberland,  282  miles  north-northwest  of 
London.  On  a  knoll  to  the  west  of  the  town 
stand  the  ruins  of  a  castle,  which  was  built 
by  the  Nevilles  during  the  wars  of  the  Roses, 
and  dismantled  in  the  civil  war  by  the  Par- 
liamentary party.  The  town  is  a  place  of 
considerable  antiquity,,  and  it  formerly 
played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  border  war- 
fare. It  was  taken  by  the  Scots  several 
times  in'the  14th  century,  and  in  1715  and 
1745  was  occupied  by  the  insurgents. 

Pensacola.  City  and  capital  of  Escambia 
Co.,  Fia.,  situated  on  the  west  shore  of  Pen- 
sacola Bay,  about  10  miles  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  has  an  excellent  harbor,  and  is  one 
of  the  safest  in  the  Gulf.  Pensacola  was 
settled  by  the  Spaniards,  occupied  by  the 
British  in  1814,  and  acquired  by  the  United 
States  in  1821.  It  contains  a  navy-yard,  and 
is  defended  by  Forts  Pickens  and"  ^IcRae. 
During  the  civil  war,  1801-r)5,  it  was  the 
scene  of  several  military  and  naval  opera- 
tions. The  navy-yard  was  surrendered  to 
the  Confederates"  in  18tJl,  but  was  recovered 
by  the  Union  forces  in  the  following  year. 

Pension.  Specifically,  a  stated  allowance 
to  a  person  in  consideration  of  past  services  ; 

j  payment  made  to  one  retired  from  service, 
for   age,   disability,  or  other   cause ;    espe- 

j  cially  a  yearly  stipend  jiaid  by  government 
to    retired    officers,    disabled    soldiers,    the 

I  families  of  soldiers  killed,  etc. 

Pensioner.  In  the  British  army,  is  a 
soldier  nuiintained  in  Chelsea  Hospital. 

Pensioner,  Out-.  In  the  British  army,  is 
a  soldier  receiving  a  pension,  but  not  main- 
tained in  Chelsea  Hospital.  Those  who  are 
capable  of   bearing  arms  are  available   for 

i  military  service  wjien  required. 


PENSIONERS 


422 


PERIGUEUX 


Pensioners,  Gentlemen.      See  Gkntle- 

MEN-AT-ARMS. 

Penstock.  A  machine  composed  of  tim- 
ber, whicli,  by  means  of  a  movable  board, 
enables  the  defenders  of  a  fortress  to  allow 
such  a  rush  of  water  from  the  batardeaux 
as  to  inundate  and  destroy  the  works  which 
the  enemy  may  have  constructed  in  the 
ditch. 

Pentagon.  In  fortification,  a  figure 
bounded  by  five  sides,  which  form  so  many 
angles,  capable  of  being  fortified  with  an 
equal  number  of  bastions.  It  also  denotes 
a  fort  with  five  bastions. 

Pentathlon.  The  five  exercises  performed 
in  the  Grecian  games,  namely,  leaping,  run- 
ning, quoiting,  darting,  and  wrestling. 

Penthouse.  A  shed  hanging  forward  in 
a  sloping  direction  from  the  main  wall  of 
a  place. 

Pentland  Hills.  A  range  of  hills  in 
Scotland,  commencing  about  4  miles  west 
from  Edinburgh.  Here  the  Scotch  Presby- 
terians, since  called  Cameronians,  who  hsid 
risen  against  the  government,  on  account 
of  the  establishment  of  Episcopacy,  were 
defeated  by  the  royal  troops,  November  28, 
1G66. 

Pentri.  One  of  the  most  important  of 
the  tribes  in  Samnium  ;  were  conquered  by 
the  Romans  along  with  the  other  Samnites, 
and  were  the  only  one  of  the  Samnite  tribes 
who  remained  faithful  to  the  Romans  when 
the  rest  of  the  nation  revolted  to  Hannibal 
in  the  second  Punic  war. 

Peons.  East  Indian  municipal  foot-sol- 
diers. These  men  are  chiefly  employed  to 
assist  in  collecting  the  revenues,  and  carry  a 
pike  or  staff.  Most  persons  in  India  keep 
servants,  who  wear  a  belt  with  their  mas- 
ter's name  on  it.     These  are  called  peadahs. 

Peoria  Indians.  A  tribe  of  aborigines 
who  formerly  resided  in  Illinois,  but  are 
now  settled  on  the  Quapaw  agency,  in  In- 
dian Territory,  in  confederation  with  the 
Kaskaskias  and  other  tribes.  They  are  but 
few  in  number,  the  northern  tribes  having 
nearly  exterminated  them  in  1769,  in  re- 
venge for  the  murder  of  Pontiac. 

Pequots,  or  Pequods.  A  tribe  of  Indians 
of  Algonkin  stock,  closely  allied  to  the  Mo- 
hegans,  who  resided  in  Eastern  Connecti- 
cut The  tribe  was  nearly  exterminated  by 
the  colonists  in  the  Pequot  war  (1637). 

Perclose,  or  Demi-Garter.  In  heraldry, 
the  lower  half  of  a  garter  with  the  buckle. 

Percussion.  Is  the  impression  which  a 
body  makes  in  falling  or  striking  against 
another,  or  the  shock  of  two  moving  bodies. 
It  is  either  direct  or  oblique. 

Percussion,  Centre  of.  That  point 
wherein  the  shock  of  the  percutient  bodies 
is  the  greatest. 

Percussion,  Direct.  Is  where  the  impulse 
is  given  in  the  direction  of  a  right  line  per- 
pendicular to  the  point  of  contact. 

Percussion,  Oblique.  Is  where  the  im- 
pulse is  given  in  the  direction  of  a  line  ob- 
lique to  the  point  of  contact. 


Percussion-bullet.  A  bullet  made  by 
placing  a  small  quantity  of  percussion  pow- 
der in  a  copper  envelope  in  the  point  of  an 
ordinary  rifled-musket  bullet. 

Percussion-caps.  See  Caps,  Percus- 
sion-. 

Percussion-fuze.     See  Fuze. 

Percussion-lock.  A  lock  of  a  gun  in 
which  gunpowder  is  exploded  by  fire  ob- 
tained from  the  percussion  of  fulminating 
powder. 

Percussion-match.  A  match  which  ig- 
nites by  percussion. 

Percussion-powder.  Powder  composed 
of  such  materials  as  to  ignite  by  slight  per- 
cussion ;  fulminating  powder. 

Percutient.  That  which  strikes  or  has 
power  to  strike. 

Perdu.  A  word  adopted  from  the  French, 
signifying  to  lie  flat  and  closely  in  wait.  It 
likewise  means  employed  on  desperate  pur- 
poses ;  accustomed  to  desperate  enterprises. 

Pered  (Hungary).  Here  the  Hungarians 
under  Gorgey  were  defeated  by  Wohlge- 
muth and  the  Russians,  June  21,  1849. 

Perekop.  An  isthmus  5  miles  broad,  con- 
necting the  Crimea  with  the  mainland.  It 
was  called  by  the  Tartars  Orkapou,  "gate 
of  the  Isthmus,"  which  the  Russians  changed 
to  its  present  name,  which  signifies  a  bar- 
ren ditch.  The  Tartar  fortress  of  the  same 
name,  which  was  situated  on  this  isthmus, 
was  taken  and  destroyed  by  the  Russian 
marshal  Miinich  in  1736,  by  assault,  although 
it  was  defended  by  1000  Janissaries  and 
100,000  Tartars.  It  was  again  strongly  for- 
tified by  the  khan,  but  was  again  taken  by 
the  Russians  in  1771,  who  have  since  re- 
tained it. 

Peremptory.  Whatever  is  absolute  and 
final,  not  to  be  altered,  renewed,  or  re- 
strained. Peremptory  execution^  what  takes 
place  immediately. 

Perfidious.  Treacherous  ;  false  to  trust ; 
guilty  of  violated  faith  ;  hence  a  perfidious 
foe.  War,  however  melancholy  in  its  ef- 
fects, and  frequently  unjustifiable  in  its 
cause  and  progress,  is  nevertheless,  among 
civilized  nations,  so  far  governed  by  certain 
principles  of  honor  as  to  render  the  obser- 
vance of  established  laws  and  customs  an 
object  of  general  acquiescence.  When  two 
or  more  countries  are  engaged  in  a  hostile 
contest,  whatever  belligerent  party  grossly 
deviates  from  those  rules  is  deservedly 
stamped  with  infamy,  and  justly  called  a 
perfidious  foe. 

Perfidy.     Want  of  faith  ;  treachery. 

Perforated  Cake  Pow^der.  See  Gunpow- 
der. 

Perigueux.  A  town  of  France,  capital 
of  the  department  of  Dordogne,  296  miles 
south-southwest  from  Paris.  Perigueux  oc- 
cupies the  site  of  the  ancient  Yesunna, 
which  was  at  the  time  of  the  Roman  inva- 
sion the  capital  of  the  Petrocorii.  Under 
the  empire,  it  was  a  place  of  no  small  im- 
portance, as  it  stood  at  the  junction  of  five 
roads,  and  was  strongly  fortified.     It  was 


PERIL 


423 


PERPIGNAN 


ceded,  alonpj  with  Aquitaine,  to  the  English 
by  Louis  IX.  After  having  been  recovered 
by  the  French,  the  town  was  again  lost ; 
but  it  was  finally  taken  from  the  English 
by  Charles  V.  During  the  civil  wars  of  the 
Keformation,  it  was  a  stronghold  of  the 
Protestants  till  the  year  1581  ;  and  it  was 
not  till  1653  that  it  came  into  the  power  of 
the  crown. 

Peril.  Instant  or  impending  danger ; 
risk  ;  hazard  ;  jot)pardy ;  exposure  to  in- 
jury, loss,  or  destruction. 

Peril.  To  expose  to  danger  ;  to  hazard  ; 
to  risk,  etc. 

Perim.  A  small  island  belonging  to  Great 
Britain,  situated  in  the  strait  of  Bub-ol- 
Mandcl),  at  the  entrance  to  the  Ked  Sea, 
about  1  mile  distant  from  the  Arabian,  and 
about  13  miles  from  the  African  coast.  On 
its  southwest  side  is  an  excellent  harbor, 
capable  of  accommodating  40  men-of-war. 
Fortifications  have  been  erected  on  the 
island,  and  the  guns  command  the  strait  on 
both  sides.  It  was  first  occupied  by  the 
English  in  1799,  and  held  by  them  as  a 
check  upon  the  designs  of  the  French,  who 
were  then  in  Egypt.  It  was  abandoned  in 
1801,  but  was  reofcupied  by  Great  Britain 
in  February,  1857,  with  a  view  to  the  pro- 
tection of  her  Indian  possessions,  which 
were  thought  to  bo  exposed  to  some  chance 
of  danger  from  the  opening  of  the  Suez 
Canal. 

Perjury.  False  swearing ;  the  act  or 
crime  of  willfully  nuiking  a  false  oath, 
when  lawfully  administered;  or  the  crime 
committed  when  a  lawful  oath  is  adminis- 
tered, in  some  judicial  proceeding,  to  a  per- 
son who  swears  willfully,  absolutely,  and 
falsely  in  a  matter  material  to  the  issue. 
For  punishment  of  persons  convicted  of 
perjury,  see  Appendix,  Articles  of  War, 
GO  and  «)2. 

Perkernucka.  Petty  officers  are  so  called 
in  India. 

Perm.  A  government  of  Russia,  situated 
partly  in  Russia  in  Europe  and  partly  in 
Russia  in  Asia.  It  was  invaded  and  ruined 
by  tile  Mongols  in  the  13th  century. 

Permanent  Fortification.  See  Fortifi- 
cation. 

Permanent  Rank.  A  rank  in  the  military 
service  which  does  not  cease  with  any  par- 
ticular service,  or  locality  of  circumstimces  ; 
in  opposition  to  local  or  temporary  rank. 

Peronne.     A  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 

tartment  of  Somme,  30  miles  east  of  Amiens, 
(ouis  XL  of  France,  having  placed  himself 
in  the  power  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  was 
forced  to  sign  the  treaty  of  Peronne,  contirm- 
ing  those  of  Arras  and  Conllans,  with  several 
humiliating  stipulations,  October  14,  1468. 
Louis  XL  had  promised  Champagne  and 
Brie  as  ap|)anages  to  his  brother  Charles, 
duke  of  Berry,  not  intending  to  keep  his 
word,  apprehending  that  those  provinces, 
being  so  near4iurgundy,  would  prove  a  fresh 
source  of  broils  and  disputes.  Peronne  was 
a  place  of  much  importance  in  the  Middle 


Ages,  and  bore  the  name  of  La  Pucelle 
("The  Maiden  City"),  as  it  was  never  cap- 
tured till  Wellington  took  it  eight  davs  after 
the  battle  of  Waterloo. 

Perpendicular  Direction.  In  the  march 
of  a  line,  is  the  direction  at  right  angles  to 
the  line  which  each  man  should  take  in  a 
direct  movement  to  the  front.  Without  the 
strictest  attention  is  piiid  to  tliis  essential 
princijjle  in  all  movements,  the  greatest 
irregularity,  and  ultimately  the  greatest 
confusion,  must  ensue.  Perpendicular  and 
parallel  movements  constitute,  indeed,  the 
whole  system  of  good  marching.  When 
several  columns,  divisions,  or  companies  ad- 
vance, the  lines  and  directions  of  marching 
must  be  strictly  perpendicular  and  parallel 
to  each  other,  otherwise  the  distance  will  be 
lost,  and  the  ultiniiite  obji'd  of  forming  a 
correct  line  niu>t  be  d.  Irnird. 

Perpendicular  Fortification.  Owes  its 
origin  to  the  Marquis  de  Montalembert,  a 
distinguished  French  general,  who  published 
his  works  upon  the  subject  in  1776.  Vauban 
had,  it  was  admitted,  rendered  the  art  of 
attack  superior  to  that  of  defense.  Montalem- 
bert strove  to  reverse  this  relation,  and  in  his 
endeavors,  rejected  entirely  the  bastion  sy.s- 
tem  of  the  older  engineers.  Instead  of  the  oc- 
casional bastions,  with  intervening  curtains, 
with  which  they  surrounded  their  enceinte, 
he  broke  the  whole  polygon  into  salient  and 
re-entering  angles,  tlie  latter  being  generally 
at  right  angles.  Before  the  connected  redans 
thus  formed  were  counterguards  of  low  ele- 
vation and  ravelins,  to  which  the  approaches 
were  through  casemated  rapon)iierfii.  In  the 
salient  angle  of  each  redan  he  built  a  brick 
tower,  40  feet  in  diameter,  twelve-sided,  and 
four  stories  high.  The  second  and  third 
tiers  were  built  for  heavy  guns,  and  the 
upper  loop-holed  for  musketry.  In  the 
centre  of  the  tower  was  a  circular  rcduit, 
intended  as  a  last  refuge  for  the  garrison. 
Montalembert  maintained  that  from  these 
towers  every  possible  approadi  could  be  com- 
manded, which  to  a  great  extent  is  true;  but 
it  must  be  also  remembered  that  the  greater 
space  a  gun  commands,  by  so  much  the  more 
is  it  raised  above  the  plain,  and  rendered 
visible.  These  towers  would  have  little 
chance  against  the  ritlcd  ordnance  of  the 
I  present  day.  Montalembert's  system  was 
I  violently  attacked  by  the  French  engineers, 
j  but  Carnot  subsequently  adopted  it,  with 
some  modifications,  and  it  enters  largely 
into  the  modern  German  defensive  works. 
The  system  has  never,  however,  found  favor 
with  British  engineers. 

Perpendicular,  Gunner's.  See  Gunner's 
Lkvkl. 

Perpignan.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
\  partment  of  the  Ea.stern  Pyrenees,  situated 
I  on  the  Tet,  35  miles  from  Narb<»nne.  It 
'  commands  the  passage  by  the  Eastern  Pyre- 
.  nees  from  Spain  into  France,  and  is  defended 
on  the  south  by  a  citadel  and  by  ramparts 
flanked  with  bastions,  and  protected  by 
,  raised  works.     Perpignan  now  ranks  as  one 


PERRH^BI 


424 


PERTH 


of  the  first  strongholds  in  France.  In  1474 
the  town  was  taken  by  Louis  XI.  of  France, 
but  having  been  restored  to  Spain,  it  was 
again  taken  by  Louis  XIII.  in  1642,  and, 
along  with  the  province  of  Roussillon,  finally 
ceded  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  the  Pyre- 
nees in  1659.  In  1793  a  battle  was  fought 
in  its  neighborhood  between  the  Spaniards 
and  the  French,  in  which  the  former  were 
defeated. 

Perrhaebi.  A  powerful  and  warlike  Pe- 
lasgis  people,  who,  according  to  Strabo,  mi- 
grated from  Eubcea  to  the  mainland,  and 
settled  in  the  districts  of  Hestitetos  and  Pe- 
lasgiotis  in  Thessaly.  The  Perrhaebi  were 
members  of  the  Amphictyonic  League.  At 
an  early  period  they  were  subdued  by  the 
Lapith.-e  ;  at  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war  they  were  subject  to  the  Thessalians, 
and  subsequently  to  Philip  of  Macedon  ;  but 
at  the  time  of  the  Roman  wars  in  Greece 
they  appear  independent  of  Macedonia. 

Perrieres.  A  kind  of  short  mortars  for- 
merly much  used  for  throwing  stone  shot. 

Persepolis.  An  ancient  city,  the  capital 
of  Persia  at  the  time  of  the  invasion  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  the  seat  of  the 
chief  palaces  of  the  Persian  kings.  The 
city  is  said  to  have  been  burned  by  Alex- 
ander, and  is  not  subsequently  mentioned  in 
history  except  in  tlie  second  book  of  the 
Maccabees,  where  it  is  stated  that  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  made  a  fruitless  efl'ort  to  plunder 
its  temples.  In  the  later  times  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan rule,  the  fortress  of  Istakhr  seems 
to  have  occupied  the  place  of  Persepolis. 

Persia  (Per.  Iran).  A  country  of  Asia, 
which  may  be  considered  as  the  most  opu- 
lent and  powerful  of  any  that  lie  to  the  west 
of  India  ;  it  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  Tur- 
key in  Asia,  north  by  Caucasus,  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  and  Asiatic  Russia,  east  by  Afghan- 
istan and  Beloochistan,  and  south  by  the 
Persian  Gulf  and  Arabian  Sea.  The  Per- 
sians, as  a  nation,  first  rose  into  notice  on 
the  ruins  of  the  great  empires  founded  on 
the  Euphrates.  Babylon  was  taken  by  Cyrus 
in  638  B.C.,  and  soon  after  he  extended  it 
more  widely  than  any  that  had  been  previ- 
ously established  in  the  world.  It  com- 
prised, on  one  side,  the  west  of  India,  and 
on  the  other,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Egypt; 
and  the  valor,  indeed,  with  which  the  Greeks 
defended  their  small  territory,  alone  pre- 
vented him  from  annexing  a  considerable 
part  of  Eui-ope  to  his  domains.  After  a 
feeble  struggle,  it  succumbed  to  the  brave 
and  disciplined  armies  of  Alexander,  who 
won  the  entire  empire  of  Darius  Codomanus 
for  his  own  by  force  of  arms,  in  381.  After 
his  death,  his  immense  possessions  were  di- 
vided among  his  generals  ;  but  Greeks  and 
Greek  sovereigns  continued  during  several 
centuries  to  reign  over  Western  Asia. 
About  2  B.C.  Artaxerxes  founded  the  mon- 
archy of  the  Parthians;  and  in  3  a.d.  the 
dynasty  of  the  Sassanidae  arose,  who  restored 
the  name,  with  the  religion  and  laws,  of 
ancient  Persia.     They  were  overthrown  by 


the  Mohammedan  invaders,  who  suffered 
in  their  turn  from  the  successive  invasions 
of  the  country  by  the  descendants  of  Gen- 
ghis Khan,  Tamerlane,  and  the  Turks,  who 
entirely  changed  the  aspect  of  Western  Asia. 
At  length,  in  1501,  a  native  dynasty  again 
arose,  under  Ismael  Shah,  who  placed  him- 
self on  the  throne.  After  the  reign  of  Abbas 
the  Great,  who  died  in  1628,  the  princes  of 
the  Safi  dynasty  became  enervated  by  lux- 
ury and  dissipation,  and  Persia,  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  last  century,  was  overrun  by 
the  Afghans,  who  carried  fire  and  sword 
throughout  the  whole  country,  and  reduced 
its  proudest  capitals  to  ashes.  The  atrocities 
of  the  Afghans  were  avenged,  and  the  inde- 
pendence of  Persia  vindicated,  by  Nadir 
Shah ;  but  though  the  victories  of  this  daring 
chief  threw  a  lustre  on  his  country,  it  was 
almost  torn  to  pieces  after  his  death  by  civil 
war,  till  the  fortune  of  arms  gave  a  decided 
superiority  to  Kerim  Khan.  His  death  gave 
rise  to  another  disputed  succession,  with 
civil  wars  as  furious  as"  before.  At  length 
Aga-Mohammed,  a  eunuch,  raised  himself 
in  1795  by  crimes  and  daring  to  the  sover- 
eignty, and  not  only  held  it  during  his  life- 
time, but  transmitted  it  to  his  nephew,  who 
assumed  the  title  of  Feth  Ali  Shah,  and 
subdued  the  rebellious  tribes  in  Khorassan, 
but  was  dragged  into  a  war  with  Russia,  in 
which  he  lost  the  power  of  Derbend  and 
several  districts  on  the  Kur.  In  1848, 
Nasr-ed-Din,  the  great-grandson  of  Feth  Ali, 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  in  consequence 
of  the  capture  of  Herat  by  the  Persians  in 
1856,  war  was  declared  against  them  by 
Great  Britain.  Bushire  was  occupied,  and 
the  Persian  troops  were  twice  defeated  by 
Gen.  Outram  at  Kooshab  and  Mohammerah 
in  the  following  year.  These  victories  were 
followed  by  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  of 
peace,  April,  1857,  and  the  evacuation  of 
Herat  by  the  Persians  in  the  month  of 
July. 

Personnel  (Fr.).  All  the  officers  and  men, 
military  and  civil,  composing  an  army,  or 
any  part  of  one,  as  opposed  to  matcfiel. 

Personnel  of  a  Battery.  All  officers  and 
men  necessary  for  the  manceuvre,  manage- 
ment, and  care  of  a  battery. 

Perspective.  Is  the  art  of  drawing  the 
resemblance  of  objects  on  a  plane  surface,  as 
the  objects  themselves  appear  to  the  eye,  etc. 

Perth.  The  principal  town  of  Perthshire, 
and  formerly  the  metropolis  of  Scotland,  sit- 
uated on  the  Tay,  which  is  crossed  here  by  a 
fine  stone  bridge,  33  miles  from  Edinburgh. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  towns  of  Scot- 
land. It  is  a  generally  received  opinion  that 
Perth  was  built  and  fortified  by  Agricola, 
who  erected  a  citadel  to  maintain  his  con- 
quests, and  check  the  wild  spirit  of  the  sav- 
age natives.  In  1298,  after  the  battle  of 
Falkirk,  Edward  I.  fortified  Perth  and  re- 
built the  walls  in  the  strongest  manner.  The 
worthy  burgesses  of  this  town  seem  to  have 
been  men  of  mettle  in  those  days,  and  on 
various  occasions  sallying  forth  from  behind 


PERU 


'425 


PERU 


their  walls,  set  fire  to  the  castles  of  their 
hiiiijjhty  neighbors,  when  the  latter  had  for- 
bidden their  vassals  to  carry  jjrovisions  to 
the  city.  In  the  year  1311,  li«)bert  Bruce 
laid  siege  to  the  town,  but  was  obliged  to 
withdraw  his  troops,  after  various  unsuccess- 
ful attempts  to  take  it ;  but  subsequently, 
choosing  a  dark  night,  he  led  a  selected  band 
of  determined  men  against  it,  scaled  the 
walls,  and  carried  the  town  sword  in  hand, 
the  king  himself  being  the  second  man  who 
entered  the  place.  About  the  beginning  of 
the  14th  century,  the  famous  ccmibat  between 
the  Clan  Chattan  and  the  Clan  Quhele,  or 
Clan  Kay,  took  place  on  the  North  Inch, 
and  was  decided  in  favor  of  the  former, 
partly  by  the  bravery  of  a  citizen  or  bur- 
gess called  Harry  Wind,  whom  the  chief  of 
the  Clan  Chattan  had  engaged  on  the  spot 
to  supply  the  place  of  one  of  his  men  who 
had  failed  to  a)»pear.  In  1544,  the  regent,  at 
the  instigation  of  Cardinal  Bethune,  turned 
Lord  Ituthveii,  provost  of  the  town,  out  of 
his  ofTice,  and  conferred  it  upon  Chartres  of 
Kinfauns.  The  citizens,  however,  resisted 
the  attempt,  and  repulsed,  in  a  smart  skir- 
mish, the  cardinal's  nominee,  who  came  to 
enter  upon  his  duties  at  the  head  of  an 
armed  force.  In  1'j59,  after  a  riotous  insur- 
rection, during  which  the  Catholic  churches 
Avere  demolished,  the  queen  determined  to 
inflict  the  severest  vengeance  on  the  Re- 
formers. Both  parties  took  the  field  ;  nego- 
tiations ensued  ;  Perth  was  thrown  open  to 
the  queen,  and  occupied  by  a  French  garri- 
son. Relief  from  the  insolence  and  exac- 
tions of  the  garrison  was  only  obtained  after 
a  regular  siege  by  the  Reformers.  On  June 
20,  Lord  Ruthvcn  attacked  the  town  on  the 
west,  and  Provost  Ilalyburton  of  Dundee 
fired  into  it  from  the  bridge,  and  speedily 
obliged  the  garrison  to  capitulate.  Subse- 
quently, Argyle,  and  Stewart,  prior  of  St. 
Andrews,  marched  out  of  Perth  with  300 
citizens,  resolved  to  prosecute  the  Reforma- 
tion, or  perish  in  the  attempt.  The  people 
joined  them  everywhere  as  they  proceeded, 
and  before  they  reached  Stirling  their  num- 
bers had  increased  to  5000.  The  gates  of 
Stirling  and  every  other  town  in  their  way 
were  thrown  open  to  receive  them.  They, 
without  violence,  took  possession  of  Edin- 
burgh, cast  the  images  out  of  its  churches, 
and  placed  in  them  ministers  of  the  Refor- 
mation. 

Peru.  A  republic  of  South  America, 
formed  out  of  the  former  Spanish  viceroyalty 
of  the  sanie  name.  The  first  information 
received  of  the  country  by  the  Spaniards 
•was  obtained  from  a  young  cacique  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien 
about  the  year  loll.  In  lol3,  Viu-co  Nunez 
de  Balboa  crossed  the  mountains  which 
separated  the  two  oceans,  and  tt>ok  possession 
of  the  Pacilic  in  the  name  of  the  king  of 
Castile.  He  extended  his  discoveries  many 
leagues  southward,  but  appears  not  to  have 
reached  the  territory  of  Peru.  In  l.)2o, 
Franci>f>   I'izarro,  a  soldier  of  mean  birth 


but  of  daring  spirit,  who  had  accompanied 
Balboa  in  the  previous  expedition,  embark- 
ing at  Panama  with  about  100  men,  landed 
in  Peru,  and  spent  three  years  in  exploring 
the  country-.  Having  returned  to  Spain 
with  presents  of  gold  and  jewels  for  the  king, 
he  was  sent  out  with  orders  to  eflect  the 
conquest  of  the  newly-discovered  country. 
Recrossing  the  ocean  with  180  men  and  27 
horses,  he  again  set  sail  from  Panama,  and 
receiving  some  furtlier  reinforcements  at 
Puerto  Viejo  and  Puna,  now  considered 
him.self  in  a  fit  position  to  enter  upon  the 
proper  scene  of  his  labors.  He  accordingly 
cro.ssed  over  to  Tunibez,  and  there  learned 
that  the  country  had  for  sometime  been  dis- 
tracted by  a  civil  war  between  liuascar  and 
Atahuallpa,  two  sons  of  the  late  inca. 
Pizarro  saw  at  once  the^mportance  to  him 
and  his  oause  of  this  state  of  the  country. 
After  some  time  spent  in  reconnoitring, 
he  fixed  upcm  a  fertile  spot  in  the  rich 
valley  of  Tangarala  as  a  site  for  a  set- 
tlement. Here  he  established  a  town  which 
he  called  San  Miguel.  On  September  24, 
1532,  leaving  60  men  as  a  guard  for  this 
new  settlement,  he  started  out  with  167 
men,  07  of  whom  were  cavalry,  to  meet 
the  inca  Atahuallpa,  who  now  victorious 
over  his  brother  was  encamped  with  his 
army  about  ten  or  twelve  days'  journey  oft'. 
His  force  was  everywhere  received  with 
kindness;  an  envoy  from  the  inca  was  sent 
with  presents  to  meet  and  invite  him  to  an 
interview  at  Caxamarca.  The  Spaniards 
arrived  here  November  15,  1532,  and  treach- 
erously prepared  to  use  the  unsuspecting 
kindness  of  the  Peruvians  as  the  means  of 
their  destruction.  When  at  the  appointed 
time  the  inca  accompanied  by  his  nobles 
and  retinue  was  proceeding  to  the  place  of 
interview,  he  and  his  followers  were  assailed 
by  the  Spaniards  who  were  concealed  in  the 
neighboring  buildings,  thousands  of  the  un- 
suspecting and  unarmed  natives  were  slain, 
and  Atahuallpa  himself  taken  prisoner. 
An  immense  ransom  was  off'ercd  for  him  ;  it 
was  accepted  by  Pizarro,  who,  however, 
basely  refused  to  give  up  his  prisoner,  but 
after  a  mockery  of  a  trial  put  him  to  death. 
For  many  years  the  country  was  in  a  state 
of  war  and  anarchy,  resulting  finally  in 
Pizarrobecoming  master  of  Peru  in  1540,  and 
it  became  a  viceroyalty  of  Spain-.  In  its 
subsequent  history  there  is  matter  of  little 
interest  till  the  war  of  inde|tendence,  which 
was  proclaimed  in  1821  by  (Jen.  San  Martin, 
and  successfully  terminated  by  Bolivar, 
who,  after  a  succession  of  engagements,  the 
most  notable  of  which  was  thatof  Ayacucho 
^which  see),  finally  drove  the  Spaniards 
from  Callao,  their  "last  stronghold,  July  29, 
1820.  The  country  has  since  on  several  oc- 
casions been  the  scene  of  those  insurrections 
to  which  the  states  of  Spanish  America  have 
been  subject.  In  IHT'.t  war  was  proclaimed 
between  Peru  and  Chili,  which  has  recently 
terminated  in  a  complete  victory  for  the 
latter. 


PEPvUGIA 


426 


PETEKSBUKG 


Perugia  (anc.  Pei-usia).  A  city  of  Central 
Italy,  10  miles  east  of  the  lake  of  the  same 
name,  and  85  north  of  Kome.  It  formed  in 
ancient  times  one  of  the  twelve  Etrurian  re- 
publics. In  conjunction  with  other  cities 
of  Etruria,  it  long  resisted  the  power  of  the 
Komans,  but  was  finally  ruined  by  the  lat- 
ter, having  been  defeated  in  two  engage- 
ments, 309  and  295  B.C.,  and  becoming  sub- 
ject to  Rome  in  294.  It  is  memorable  in 
the  civil  wars  as  the  refuge  of  L.  Antonius, 
the  brother  of  the  triumvir,  when  unable  to 
oppose  the  progress  of  Octavianus.  It 
was  held  by  the  latter  for  some  months 
and  was  compelled  to  surrender  through 
famine,  and  burned  to  the  ground  in  40  B.C. 
It  was  afterwards  rebuilt  by  Augustus,  and 
was  captured  by  the  Goths  under  Totila  at 
the  fall  of  the  Western  empire.  It  was 
afterwards  united  to  tlie  Papal  States,  and 
in  1860  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

Perugia,  Lake  of.     See  Tkasimbnus  La- 

CTJS. 

Perusia.     See  Perugia. 

Pescara.  A  town  of  Italy,  province  of 
Chieti.  It  was  formerly  strongly  fortified, 
and  has  stood  many  sieges. 

Peschiera.  A  frontier  town  and  fortress 
of  Italy,  in  Lombardy,  at  the  south  extrem- 
ity of  "the  Lake  of  Garda,  20  miles  north- 
northwest  from  Mantua.  Peschiera  com- 
mands the  right  bank  of  the  river  Mincio. 
During  the  French  republican  war,  it  was  a 
simple  pentagon.  Its  fortifications,  however, 
have  been  greatly  strengthened  by  the  Aus- 
trians.  It  is  defended  by  walls  and  by  forts, 
lunettes,  fosses,  and  a  covered  way  ;  and  the 
purpose  which  it  is  mainly  intended  to  serve, 
besides  that  of  forming  an  intrenched  camp 
capable  of  accommodating  a  considerable 
number  of  troops,  is  to  harass  an  army  at- 
tempting to  cross  the  Mincio  by  Goito  or 
Valeggio.  It  has  been  taken  frequently  by 
siege,  by  the  French  in  1796;  by  the  Aus- 
trians  and  Russians,  1799 ;  by  the  French 
again,  1801 ;  given  up  by  them,  1814  ;  taken 
by  the  Sardinian  troops  under  Charles  Al- 
bert, May  30,  1848 ;  retaken  by  Radetzky, 
1849.  It  was  invested  by  the  Sardinians  in 
June,  1859,  after  the  battle  of  Solferino. 
The  conclusion  of  the  treaty  of  Villafranca, 
however  (July  11,  1859),  relieved  Peschiera 
from  a  siege,  and  it  was  included  in  the 
kingdom  of  Italy  by  treaty  of  Vienna,  1866. 

Peshawur.  A  city  of  British  India,  cap- 
ital of  the  province  of  Peshawur  (or  Pe- 
shawer),  about  18  miles  east  of  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  Khyber  Pass.  It  was 
founded  by  the  Mogul  emperor  Akbar.  Run- 
jeet  Singh  took  it  after  his  victory  over  the 
Afghans  at  Noushera,  and  destroyed  many 
of  its  finest  buildings. 

Pesth.  A  city  of  Hungary,  situated  on 
the  Danube,  opposite  to  Buda,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  a  bridge  of  boats  three- 
quarters  of  a  m'ile  in  length.  It  was  re- 
peatedly taken  and  besieged  in  the  wars  of 
Hungary,  particularly  in  the  long  contests 
with   the   Turks.      The   great  insurrection 


broke  out  here  September  28,  1848.  Buda- 
Pesth  was  taken  by  the  Imperialists,  Janu- 
ary 5,  1849.  The  Hungarians  afterwards 
defeated  the  Austrians,  who  were  obliged  to 
evacuate  it  April  18,  1849;  but  the  latter, 
under  Gen.  Hentzi,  occupied  Buda,  and  a 
severe  contest  began  between  the  two  parties. 
On  May  4,  Gorgei,  with  an  army  of  40,000 
Hungarians,  occupied  the  heights  above 
Buda,  and  began  to  bombard  that  town  ; 
while  the  Austrians  in  their  turn  directed 
their  artillery  against  the  lower  city  of  Pesth. 
On  May  16,  the  Hungarians  made  an  unsuc- 
cessful attack  on  Buda,  but  on  the  20th  the 
place  was  taken  by  assault,  after  an  obstinate 
and  bloody  struggle. 

Pestle.  An  instrument  used  in  the  fab- 
rication of  gunpowder. 

Petards.  Are  instruments  used  for  blow- 
ing open  gates,  demolishing  palisades,  etc. 
They  consist  of  a  half-cone  of  thick  iron, 
filled  with  powder  and  ball ;  they  are  usually 
fastened  to  a  ])lank,  and  the  latter  is  pro- 
vided with  hooks  to  alloAV  of  its  being  at- 
tached securely  to  a  gate,  etc.  The  petard 
has  been  almost  universally  superseded  by 
the  use  of  powder-bags. 

Petardeer,  or  Petardier.  One  who  man- 
ages petards. 

Petelia,  or  Petilia  (now  Strongoli).  An 
ancient  Greek  town  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Bruttium;  founded,  according  to  tradition, 
by  Philoctetes.  It  was  situated  north  of 
Croton,  to  whose  territory  it  originallj'^  be- 
longed, but  it  was  afterward  conquered  by 
the  Lucanians.  It  remained  faithful  to  the 
Romans  when  the  other  cities  of  Bruttium 
revolted  to  Hannibal,  and  it  was  not  till 
after  a  long  and  desperate  resistance  that  it 
was  taken  by  one  of  Hannibal's  generals. 

Peterero,  or  Pedrero.  A  short  piece  of 
chambered  ordnance  was  formerly  so  called. 

Petersburg.  A  city  of  Dinwiddie  Co., 
Va.,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Appomattox 
River,  about  25  miles  from  Richmond.  The 
city  is  one  of  historic  interest.  It  was  twice 
occupied  by  the  British  forces  as  headquar- 
ters during  the  Revolutionary  war ;  but  it 
is  principally  noted  as  the  scene  of  several 
sanguinary  encounters  during  the  civil  war, 
and  for  the  obstinate  and  bloody  defense 
which  it  made.  On  June  15-16, 'l864,  two 
formidable  assaults  were  made  on  it  by  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac  under  Gen.  Grant, 
but  they  were  repulsed  with  heavy  loss.  It 
was  then  determined  to  invest  the  city,  which 
was  done  a  few  days  later.  On  July  30, 
another  attempt  was  made  to  take  it  by 
storm,  but  without  success.  The  siege  wa8 
prolonged  with  many  indecisive  operations 
until  April  3,  1865,  after  a  week's  bombard- 
ment it  was  evacuated  by  Gen.  Lee,  who 
surrendered  six  days  later. 

Petersburg,  St.  The  capital  and  most 
populous  city  of  the  Russian  empire,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Neva  in  the  Gulf  of  Finland, 
16  miles  east  of  Cronstadt,  and  400  miles 
northwest  of  Moscow.  It  was  founded  by 
Peter  the  Great,  May  27,  1703.     The  peace 


PETERWALDEN 


427 


PHARAX 


of  St.  Petersburg,  between  Russia  and  Prus- 
Kiu,  tlie  former  restoring  all  her  conquests  to 
tiic  latter,  was  signed  May  5,  1702.  Treaty 
of  St.  Petersburg  for  the  partition  of  Poland, 
August  5,  1772.  Treaty  of  St.  Petersburg, 
let  to  a  coalition  against  France,  September 
8,  1805.  Treaty  of  Alliance,  signed  at  St. 
Petersburg,  between  Bernadotte,  prince 
royal  of  Sweden,  and  the  emperor  Alex- 
ander; the  former  agreeing  to  join  in  the 
campaign  against  France,  in  return  for 
which  Sweden  was  to  receive  Norway,  March 
24,  1812. 

Peterwalden  (Germany),  Convention  of. 
Bi'twocii  (ircat  Britain  and  Russia,  by  which 
a  firm  and  decisive  alliance  between  these 
powers  was  made  against  France  and  the 
course  of  action  against  Napoleon  Bonaparte 
was  planned,  signed  July  8,  1813.  This  al- 
liance led  to  the  overthrow  of  Bonaparte  in 
the  next  year. 

Peterwardein,  or  Varadin,  The  capital 
town  of  Slavonia,  Austria,  and  the  strongest 
fortress  on  the  Danube,  is  situated  on  a 
scarped  rock,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dan- 
ube, opposite  Neusatz,  with  which  town  it 
is  connected  by  a  bridge  of  boats,  defended 
by  a  strong  tcte-de-pont,  44  miles  northwest 
of  Belgrade.  It  is  the  residence  of  the  gen- 
eral commandant  of  the  Slavonian  military 
frontier,  and  of  several  subordinate  military 
authorities.  It  derives  its  present  name 
from  Peter  the  Hermit,  who  here  marshaled 
the  soldiers  of  the  first  Crusade.  Peter- 
wardein was  taken  by  the  Turks,  July,  152(). 
In  1()88,  the  fortifications  were  blown  up  by 
the  Imperialists,  and  the  town  was  soon  after 
burned  to  the  ground  by  the  Turks ;  but  at 
the  peace  of  Passarowitz,  on  July  21,  1718, 
it  remained  in  the  possession  of  the  emperor. 
It  was  here  that,  on  August  5,  171t!,  the 
Austrians,  under  Prince  Eugene,  obtained  a 
great  victory  over  the  Turks  under  Grand 
Vizer  Ali ;  the  latter  then  lost  their  last 
footing  in  Central  Europe. 

PetVa.  The  Srla  of  the  Old  Testament, 
the  chief  town  of  Arabia  Petra>a,  once  the 
capital  of  the  Idumeans,  and  subsequently 
of  the  Nabata'i.  It  was  subdued  by  A.  Cor- 
nelius Pahiui,  a  lieutenant  of  Trajan's,  and 
remained  under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans 
a  considerable  time,  and  its  destruction  is 
supposed  at  length  to  have  been  wrought 
by  the  .Mohammedans. 

Petra.  An  ancient  town  of  Colchis,  in 
the  land  of  the  Lazi,  founded  by  Joannes 
Tzibus,  a  general  of  Justinian,  to  keep  these 
people  in  subjection.  It  was  situated  on  a 
rock  near  the  coast,  and  was  very  strongly 
fortified.  It  was  taken  by  Chosroes  in  541 
A.D.,  and  its  subsequent  siege  by  the  Ro- 
mans is  described  by  Gibbon  as  "one  of  the 
most  remarkable  actions  of  the  age.  The 
first  siege  was  relieved;  but  it  was  again  at- 
Uicked  by  the  Romans,  and  was  at  length 
taken  by  assault,  after  a  long  protracted  re- 
sistance, in  551  A.u.  It  was  then  destroyed 
by  the  Romans,  and  from  that  time  disap- 
pears from  history. 


Petra.  An  ancient  and  strong  fortress  in 
Sogdiana,  held  by  Arimazes  when  Alexander 
attacked  it. 

Petronel  (Fr.  jictrinal,  or  poiironal).  A 
piece  between  a  carbine  and  a  pistol  (with  a 
wheel-lock),  which  was  used  by  the  French 
during  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  ;  it  was  held 
against  the  breast  when  fired.  To  prevent 
any  injury  from  its  recoil,  the  soldier  who 
used  it  was  jirovided  with  a  jiad. 

Petropaulovski.  A  fortified  town  on  the 
east  coast  of  Kamtschatka,  was  attacked  bv 
an  English  and  French  squadron  August 
•SO,  1854.  They  destroyed  the  batteries,  and 
a  party  of  700  sailors  aiid  marines  landed  to 
assault  the  place,  but  fell  into  an  anibuscade, 
and  many  were  killed.  After  this  the  Rus- 
sians greatly  strengthened  their  defenses, 
but  on  May  30,  1855,  the  allied  squadron  in 
the  Pacific  arriving  here  found  the  place  de- 
serted. The  fortifications  were  destroyed, 
but  the  town  was  spared. 

Pettah.  In  Southern  India,  a  term  ap- 
plied to  the  enceinte  of  a  town,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  fortress  by  which  it  is  pro- 
tected. 

Pettman  Fuze.     See  FuzK. 

Pfaffendorf  and  Liegnitz.    See  Lieonitz. 

Pfedersheim.  A  town  of  Germany,  in 
Ilesse-Darnistadt,  4  miles  northwest  from 
Worms.  A  battle  was  fought  here,  in  1555, 
which  brought  the  "  PeaWnts'  war"  to  a 
termination. 

Phalanx.  The  ancient  Greek  formation 
for  heavy  infantry,  which  won  for  itself  a 
reputation  of  invincibility.  It  may  be  de- 
scribed as  a  line  of  parallel  columns,  ren- 
dered by  its  depth  and  solidity  capable  of 
penetrating  any  line  of  troops.  The  oldest 
{)halanx  was  the  Laced;emonian,  or  Spartan, 
in  which  the  soldiers  stood  8  deep,  but  this 
was  reduced  to  4  men  by  Miltiades,  in  order 
to  increase  his  front  at  the  battle  of  Mara- 
thon, 480  B.C.  The  Macedonian  phalanx,  as 
the  latest  form  that  organizatinii  assumed, 
and  as  the  shape  in  which  the  phalanx  en- 
countered the  military  skill  of  the  West,  is 
deserving  of  description.  The  line  was  Itj 
deep  :  a  grand-phalanx  comprising  If!, 384 
men,  composed  of  four  phalanxes  or  divis- 
ions, each  under  a  general  officer,  called  a 
plinlancjarch  ;  his  command  was  divided  into 
two  brigades,  or  merarchies,  each  of  these 
comprising  two  regiments,  or  chiliarc/ict,  of 
four  battalions,  or  si/nfapmafa,  each,  and  each 
syntagma  of  IG  men  each  way,  making  a  per- 
fect square.  The  Roman  legion  was  far  su- 
perior to  the  phuhmx. 

Phalsbourg.  A  strong  town  of  Alsace,  de- 
partment of  La  Meurthe,  Northeast  France. 
It  was  ceded  to  France  in  1G61,  and  its  for- 
tress erected  by  Vauban,  1<)79.  It  checked 
the  progress  of  the  victorious  allies  both  in 
1814  and  1815,  and  withstotnl  the  Germans 
from  August  KJ  to  December  12,  1870,  when 
it  capitulated  unconditionally. 

Pharax.  One  of  the  council  of  ten  ap- 
pointed by  the  Spartans  in  418  n.c.  to  con- 
trol  Agis!     At   the  battle  of    Mantinea  in 


PHAKSALUS 


PIACENZA 


that  year,  he  restrained  the  Laccdiemonians 
from  pressing  too  much  on  the  defeated  en- 
emy, and  so  running  the  risk  of  driving 
tliem  to  despair.  In  39G  iJ.c.  he  laid  siege 
with  120  ships  to  Caunus,  where  Conon  was 
stationed,  but  was  compelled  to  withdraw  by 
the  approach  of  a  large  force. 

Pharsalus  (now  Fersala,  or  PharsaUn). 
Anciently  a  town  of  Thessaly,  to  the  south 
of  Larissa,  on  the  river  Enipeus,  a  branch 
of  the  Peneus  (now  the  Salambria),  and  his- 
torically notable  mainly  for  the  great  battle 
fought  here  between  Csesar  and  Pompey, 
August  9,  48  B.C.  Pompey  had  about  45,000 
legionaries,  7000  cavalry,  and  a  great  number 
oflight-armed  auxiliaries.  Caesar  had  22,000 
legionaries  and  1000  German  and  Gallic  cav- 
alry. The  battle-cry  of  Caesar's  army  was 
'■'■Venus  victrix,"  i\\&i  of  Pompey's  "Her- 
cules invictus."  Caesar's  right  wing  began 
the  battle  by  an  attack  on  the  left  wing 
of  Pompey,  which  was  speedily  routed. 
Pompey  fled  into  the  camp,  and  his  army 
broke  up  ;  Caesar's  troop  stormed  his  camp 
about  mid-day,  and  he  himself,  awaking  as 
from  stupefaction,  fled  to  Larissa,  whither 
Caesar  followed  him  next  day.  Caesar  lost 
about  1200  men.  On  Pompey's  side  about 
6000  legionaries  fell  in  battle,  and  more  than 
24,000  who  had  fled,  were  taken,  whom  Ca?- 
sar  pardoned  and  distributed  among  his 
troops. 

Pheon.  In  heraldry,  the  barbed  iron  head 
of  a  dart ;  used  also  as  a  royal  mark,  to  de- 
note crown  property,  and  termed  the  broad, 
or  broad  ai'row. 

Philadelphia.  A  city  and  metropolis  of 
Pennsylvania,  situated  between  the  Dela- 
Avare  and  Schuylkill  Rivers.  The  city  was 
settled  and  planned  by  William  Penn  in 
1682,  and  its  name  (City  of  Brotherly  Love) 
given  through  the  Society  of  Friends,  of 
whom  he  was  the  great  leader  in  America. 
It  had  a  prominent  position  in  the  Kevolu- 
tion,  and  was  in  possession  of  the  British 
troops  after  the  disastrous  battles  of  Brandy- 
wine  and  Germantown,  until  1778.  Being 
the  second  city  of  the  United  States  in 
wealth  and  importance,  it  has  been  ever  for- 
ward in  promoting  her  interests. 

Philibeg.     SeeFiLLiBEO. 

Philiphaugh.  Near  Selkirk,  Southern 
Scotland,  where  the  Marquis  of  Montrose 
and  the  royalists  were  defeated  by  David 
Leslie  and  the  Scotch  Covenanters,  Septem- 
ber 13,  1645. 

Philippi.  A  city  of  Macedonia.  It  was 
named  after  Philip  II.  of  Macedon,  who 
conquered  it  from  Thrace.  Here  Antony 
and  Octavianus,  in  two  battles,  defeated  the 
republican  forces  of  Cassius  and  Brutus,  who 
both  committed  suicide,  October,  42  B.C. ; 
this  ended  the  republican  government  of 
Rome. 

Phocsea.  The  most  northern  of  the  cities 
of  Ionia,  was  situated  about  25  miles  north- 
west from  Smyrna.  It  was  founded  by  a 
colony  of  Phocians,  led  by  two  Athenians, 
Philogenes  and  Damon.    Its  citizens  are  said 


to  have  been  the  first  among  the  Greeks  who 
extended  their  commercial  voyages  to  great 
distances ;  and  its  inhabitants  abandoned 
their  city  rather  than  submit  to  the  Persians, 
644  B.C.  They  settled  in  Italy,  and  founded 
Velia.  Massilia  in  France,  and  Alalia  in 
Corsica,  were  colonies  of  the  Phocseans. 

Phocis.  A  province  of  Greece  Proper, 
or  Hellas,  bounded  on  the  north  bj-  the  Ozo- 
lian  Lokri,  on  the  north  by  Doris,  on  the 
east  by  the  Opuntian  Lokri,  and  on  the  south 
by  the  Gulf  of  Corinth.  During  the  Pelo- 
p'onnesian  war,  the  Phocians  were  close  allies 
of  the  Athenians.  In  357  B.C.  they  seized 
Delphi,  and  commenced  the  second  Sacred 
war.  They  were  opposed  by  Thebes  and 
other  states,  and  were  utterly  subdued  by 
Philip  II.  of  Macedon  in  846. 

Phoenicia.  Is  the  name  given  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  to  a  certain  territory 
situated  about  34°-36°  N.  lat.,  bounded  by 
the  Mediterranean  on  the  west,  by  Syria  to 
the  north  and  east,  and  Judaea  to  the  south. 
Its  length  may  be  .said  to  have  been  about 
200  miles,  while  its  breadth  never  exceeded 
20  miles.  The  natives  were  the  most  emi- 
nent navigators  and  traders  of  antiquity; 
their  cities  or  allied  states  being  Tyre,  Sidon, 
Berytus,  Tripolis,  Byblos,  and  Ptolemais,  or 
Acre.  From  the  19th  to  the  13th  century 
B.C.,  they  established  colonies  on  the  shores 
or  isles  of  the  Mediterranean,  Carthage, 
Hippo,  Utica,  Gades,  Panormus,  and  are 
said  to  have  visited  the  British  Isles.  Phoe- 
nicia was  conquered  by  Cyrus,  537  B.C. ;  by 
Alexander,  332 ;  by  the  Romans,  47  ;  and 
after  partaking  of  the  fortunes  of  Palestine, 
was  added  to  the  Ottoman  empire,  1516. 

Phous-dan.  An  East  Indian  term  for  a 
commander  of  a  large  body  of  forces. 

Phrygia.  A  country  of  Asia  Minor. 
According  to  the  division  of  the  provinces 
under  the  Roman  empire,  Phrygia  formed 
the  eastern  part  of  the  province  of  Asia,  and 
was  bounded  on  the  west  by  Mysia,  Lydia, 
and  Caria,  on  the  south  by  Lycia  and  Pisidia, 
on  the  east  by  Lycaonia  (which  is  often 
reckoned  as  a  part  of  Phrygia)  and  Galatia 
(which  formerly  belonged  to  Phrygia),  and 
on  the  north  by  Bithynia.  The  kingdom  of 
Phrygia  was  conquered  by  Croesus,  and 
formed  part  of  the  Persian,  Macedonian, 
and  Syro-Grecian  empires ;  but,  under  the 
last,  the  northwestern  part  was  conquered 
by  the  Gauls ;  and  a  part  west  of  this  was 
subjected  by  the  kings  of  Bithynia;  this 
last  portion  was  the  object  of  a  contest  be- 
tween the  kings  of  Bithynia  and  Pergamus. 
The  whole  of  Phrygia  was  assigned  by  the 
Romans  to  the  kingdom  of  Pergamus,  after 
the  overthrow  of  Antiochus  the  Great  in 
190  B.C. 

Piacenza  (anc.  Placentia).  A  city  of 
Northern  Italy,  in  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Po,  2  miles 
below  the  confluence  of  the  Trebbia.  It  is 
of  an  oblong  form,  surrounded  by  ancient 
walls  and  ditches,  and  defended  by  a  citadel, 
which  was  garrisoned  by  the  Austrians  till 


PIANOSA 


429 


PICTS 


1859.  Piacenza  is  first  mentioned  in  219 
B.C.,  when  a  Roman  colony  was  settled 
there.  In  200  n.c.  it  was  piundored  and 
burned  by  the  Gauls,  but  rapidly  recovered 
its  prosperity,  and  was  lonj;  an  important 
military  station.  It  was  the  western  terminus 
of  the  great  yEmilian  road,  which  began  at 
Ariminum  on  the  Adriatic.  In  later  history, 
it  plays  an  important  {)art  as  one  of  the  in- 
dependent Lombard  cities. 

Pianosa.  An  island  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, aln)ut  10  miles  south-southwest  of 
Elba.  Pianosa  was  annexed  to  Elba  and 
granted  to  Napoleon  I.  after  his  first  abdi- 
cation. 

Pibroch  (Gael.  piobaireacM).  A  wild, 
irregular  species  of  music,  peculiar  to  the 
Ilighlands  of  Scotland.  It  is  performed  on 
a  bagpipe,  and  adapted  to  e.xcite  or  assuage 
passion,  and  particularly  to  rouse  a  martial 
spirit  among  troops  going  to  battle. 

Picador  (Sp.).  A  horseman  armed  with 
a  lanco,  who  commences  the  exercises  of  a 
bull-tight  by  attacking  the  animal  without 
attempting  to  kill  him. 

Picardy.  An  ancient  province  in  the 
north  of  France,  was  bounded  on  the  west 
by  the  English  Channel,  and  on  the  east  by 
Champagne.  The  name  does  not  occur  till 
the  13th  centurv.  It  was  conquered  by  the 
English  in  134(>,  and  by  the  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy in  1417,  to  whom  it  was  ceded  by  the 
treaty  of  Arras,  September  21, 1435,  and  an- 
nexed to  France  by  Louis  XI.,  1403. 

Picaroon.  A  pillager,  one  who  plunders  ; 
one  who  violates  the  laws. 

Picentia  {Picentinua ;  now  Acei^no).  A 
town  in  the  south  of  Campania,  at  the  head 
of  the  Sinus  Piestanus,  and  between  Saler- 
num  and  the  frontiers  of  Lucania,  the  in- 
habitants of  which  were  compelled  by  the 
Romans,  in  consequence  of  their  revolt  to 
Hannihal,  to  abandon  their  town  and  live  in 
the  neighboring  villages.  Between  the  town 
and  the  frontiers  of  Lucania,  there  was  an 
ancient  temple  of  the  Argive  Juno,  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Jason,  the  Argonaut. 
The  name  of  Picentia  was  not  confined  to 
the  inhabitants  of  Picentia,  but  was  given 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  whole  coast  of  the 
Sinus  Pajstanus,  from  the  promontory  of 
Minerva  to  the  river  Silarus.  They  were  a 
portion  of  the  Sabine  Picentes,  who  were 
transplanted  by  the  Romans  to  this  part  of 
Campania  after  the  conquest  of  Picenum, 
2t)8  H.c,  at  which  time  they  founded  the 
town  of  Picentia. 

Picentines  (Picentes).  A  Sabine  tribe, 
subdued  by  the  Romans,  and  their  capital, 
Asculum,  takt-n,  2G8  n.c.  They  began  the 
So<.ial  war  in  IH),  and  were  conquered  in  89 

B.C. 

Picenum.  An  ancient  province  of  Italy, 
was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Galli  Se- 
nones,  on  the  west  by  the  Umhrians  and 
Sabines,  on  the  south  by  the  Vestini,  and  on 
the  east  by  the  Adriatic  Sea.  The  Picentes, 
its  inhahitant.s,  remained  long  in  undis- 
turbed tranquillity,  while  the  neighboring 


tribes  were  vainly  struggling  against  the 
all-usurping  ambition  of  Rome.  That  power 
condescended  in  299  B.C.  to  enter  into  an 
alliance  with  them.  Even  when  they  were 
at  length  obliged,  in  208  n.c.,  to  bow  before 
the  resistless  destinies  of  the  Romans,  they 
sutfered  little  injury.  It  was  not  until  the 
outbreak  of  the  Social  war,  in  90  B.c  ,  that 
the  Picentes  appear  to  have  experienced  the 
toils  and  calamities  of  a  great  struggle. 
Then  they  assumed  an  active  and  zealous 
part  in  the  general  revolt  against  Rome. 
Their  capital  city,  Asculum,  gave  the  signal 
of  insurrection,  by  assassinating  the  Roman 
proconsul.  Their  armies  kept  the  Roman 
general  Cn.  Pompeius  Strabo  for  a  long 
time  at  bay.  Nor  when  the  tide  of  battle 
began  to  turn  against  them  did  their  cour- 
age waver.  They  continued  to  fight  until 
89  iJ.c,  and  were  put  down  by  sheer  force. 

Pichegru's  Conspiracy.  See  Georges 
Conspiracy. 

Pickeer.  To  pillage  ;  to  pirate.  To  skir- 
mish, as  soldiers  on  the  outpost  of  an  army, 
or  in  pillaging  parties. 

Picker.  A  small,  pointed  brass  wire, 
which  was  formerly  supplied  to  every  infan- 
try soldier  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  the 
vent  of  his  musket. 

Picket.  A  detachment  composed  of  cav- 
alry or  infantry,  whose  principal  duty  is  to 
guard  an  army  from  surprise  and  oppose 
such  small  parties  as  the  enemy  may  push 
forward  for  the  purpo.se  of  reconnoitring. 

Picket.  A  sharp  stake  used  for  securing 
the  fascines  of  a  battery,  or  fastening  the 
tent-ropes  of  a  camp,  etc. 

Picket.  To  fortify  with  pickets  or  pointed 
stakes.  Also,  to  fasten  to  a  picket,  as  a  horse 
while  grazing. 

Picket,  Inlying.    See  Inlying  Picket. 

Picket,  Outlying.  Is  a  detachment  of 
troops,  sometimes  with  light  guns,  posted  on 
the  front  and  flanks  of  an  army  in  the  field, 
in  order  to  guard  against  surprise,  and  to 
keep  reconnoitring  parties  at  a  proper  dis- 
tance. 

Picket-guard.  A  guard  of  horse  and 
foot,  always  in  readiness  in  case  of  alarm. 

Picket-line.  A  rope  to  which  horses  are 
secured  when  groomed. 

Picket-line.  A  position  held  and  guarded 
by  small  bodies  of  men  placed  at  intervals. 

Picket-pin.  An  iron  j)in  with  a  rinsr  at 
the  top.  It  is  driven  in  the  ground  and  the 
lariat  is  attached  to  it  to  secure  a  horse  while 
grazing. 

Pickets,  Tracing.  See  Tracing  Pick- 
ets. 

Picqueering,  Pickering,  or  Pickerooning. 
A  little  flying  skirmish,  which  marauders 
make  when  detached  for  pillage,  or  before  a 
main  battle. 

Picrate.     See  Explosives. 

Picric  Acid.     See  Explosive.s. 

Picric  Powder.     See  E.kplosivks. 

Picts  I  Picii).     The  ancient  inhabitants  of 

the  northeast  provinces  of  Scotland.     The 

1  Pictish  territory  extended  along  the  whole 


PICTS 


430 


PILE 


sea-coast  from  theFirth  of  Forth  to  the  Pent- 
land  Firth.  It  was  bounded  on  the  west  by 
the  country  of  the  Scots,  which  extended 
along  the  western  coast  from  the  Firth  of 
Clyde  to  the  modern  Eoss-shire ;  but  the 
precise  line  between  the  two  nations  cannot 
be  ascertained.  The  country  of  the  Picts 
was  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Firth  of 
Forth  and  the  province  of  Lothian,  then 
possessed  by  the  English  ;  while  the  country 
of  the  Scots  had  for  its  southern  boundaries 
the  Firth  of  Clyde  and  the  Idngdom  of  Cum- 
bria, held  by  the  independent  Britons.  In 
the  middle  of  the  7th  century,  a  portion  of 
the  southern  province  of  the  Pictish  territo- 
ries was  subdued  by  Oswy,  king  of  North- 
umbria.  Egfrid,  Oswy's  son  and  successor, 
seems  to  have  contemplated  the  subjugation 
of  the  whole  Pictish  kingdom.  He  advanced 
northwards  with  his  army  ;  Brude,  son  of 
Bili,  king  of  the  Picts,  retreating  before  him. 
The  English  sovereign  pa.ssed  the  Tay,  and 
the  Picts  made  a  stand  at  Nechtansmere, 
supposed  to  be  Dunnichen,  in  Anchus  ;  the 
English  were  utterly'  defeated,  and  their  king 
slain,  May  20,  685.  The  most  active  of  all 
the  Pictish  sovereigns  was  Hungus,  son  of 
Urgust,  who  succeeded,  in  730,  and  reigned 
for  thirty  years.  He  was  in  constant  wars 
with  the  Scots,  the  Britons,  and  the  English, 
in  which  he  was  generally  victorious.  After 
his  death  the  kingdom  began  to  decline. 
Between  838  and  842,  the  Scots  under  Ken- 
neth II.  totally  subdued  the  Picts,  and  seized 
all  their  kingdom.  Their  incursions  in  Eng- 
land led  to  the  Saxon  invasion. 

Picts'  \Vall.  One  of  the  barriers  erected 
by  the  Eomans  across  the  northern  part  of 
England  to  restrain  the  incursions  of  the 
Picts  (which  see). 

Piece.  A  general  name  for  any  kind  of 
ordnance  or  musket. 

Piece.  In  heraldry,  an  ordinary  or  charge ; 
as,  the  fesse,  the  bend,  the  pale,  the  bar,  the 
cross,  the  saltire,  the  chevron,  are  called 
honorable  pieces. 

Piece,  Battering-.  See  Battering- 
pieces. 

Piece,  Field-.     See  Field-piece. 

Piedmont.  An  Italian  principality,  which 
now  forms  the  northwest  part  of  the  king- 
dom of  Italy.  In  1796  it  was  seized  by  the 
French,  and  parceled  out  into  six  depart- 
ments, five  being  incorporated  with  France, 
and  one  with  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  but  after 
the  fall  of  Napoleon,  the  house  of  Savoy 
recovered  possession  of  it.  Since  1860  the 
name  Piedmont,  as  a  provincial  designation, 
has  been  disused  ;  and  in  the  new  division  of 
Italy  into  provinces,  the  boundaries  of  Pied- 
mont as  a  distinct  country  have  been  disre- 
garded. 

Piegans.  A  tribe  of  Blackfeet  Indians, 
numbering  about  2000,  who  reside  in  Mon- 
tana, and  were  frequently  at  war  with  the 
Shoshones,  Flat  Heads,  and  Gros  Ventres. 
Like  the  majority  of  nomadic  tribes,  they  at 
A'arious  times  make  raids  on  the  settlers,  and 
as  a  natural  result  require  the  correctionary 


discipline  of  the  military  forces.  In  1870 
they  were  severely  punished  by  Col.  Baker, 
and,  owing  to  disease  and  pestilence,  they 
will  probably  soon  cease  to  exist. 

Pierced.  In  heraldry,  a  term  used  to  in- 
dicate that  a  charge  is  perforated  so  as  to 
show  the  field  beneath  it.  The  aperture  is 
presumed  to  be  circular,  unless  some  other 
form,  as  square-pierced  or  lozenge-pierced, 
be  specified  in  the  blazon. 

Piercer.  See  Ordnance,  Constrttction 
OF,  Boring  and  Turning. 

Pieria.  A  narrow  slip  of  country  on  the 
southeastern  coast  of  Macedonia,  extending 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Peneus  in  Thessaly 
to  the  Haliacmon,  and  bounded  on  the  west 
by  Mount  Olympus  and  its  oftshoots.  The 
inhabitants  of  this  country,  the  Pieres,  were 
a  Thracian  people,  and  are  celebrated  in  the 
early  history  of  Greek  poetry  and  music. 
After  the  establishment  of  the  Macedonian 
kingdom  in  Emathia  in  the  7th  century  B.C., 
Pieria  was  conquered  by  the  Macedonians, 
and  the  inhabitants  were  driven  out  of  the 
country. 

Pierrier.  Was  a  term  originally  applied 
to  an  engine  for  casting  stones ;  then  to  a 
small  kind  of  cannon  ;  now  to  a  mortar  for 
discharging  stones,  etc. 

Piers.  The  columns  upon  which  a  bridge 
is  erected. 

Pies  (Fr.).  Counts  palatine  who  were 
created  in  1560,  by  Pope  Pius  IV.,  and  who 
had  precedence  at  Rome  over  knights  of  the 
Teutonic  order  and  order  of  Malta. 

Pike,  Pikeman.  Previously  to  the  use  of 
the  bayonet,  infantry  of  the  line — that  is, 
the  heavy-armed  troops — were  from  the  earl- 
iest times  armed  with  pikes  or  spears.  The 
Macedonians  carried  pikes  24  feet  long ; 
those  of  modern  warfare  averaged  12  or  14 
feet.  They  were  of  stout  wood,  and  tipped 
with  a  flat  iron  spear-head,  which  sometimes 
had  cutting  edges.  As  a  defense  against 
cavalry,  the  pike,  from  its  length  and  rigiditj', 
was  of  great  value  ;  but  though  it  long  sur- 
vived the  introduction  of  gunpowder,  that 
event  was  really  fatal  to  it.  For  success 
with  the  pike,  especially  in  offensive  war,  a 
depth  of  several  men  Avas  essential,  and  this 
depth  rendered  the  fire  of  artillery  peculiarly 
fatal.  The  pike  is  now  superseded  by  the 
bayonet  on  the  end  of  the  musket. 

Pikestaff.  The  wooden  pole  or  handle  of 
a  pike. 

Pile.  A  beam  of  wood  driven  into  the 
ground  to  form  a  solid  foundation  for  build- 
ing. Also  a  heap,  as  a  pile  of  balls.  Balls 
are  piled  according  to  kind  and  caliber, 
under  cover  if  practicable,  in  a  place  where 
there  is  a  free  circulation  of  air,  to  facilitate 
which  the  piles  should  be  made  narrow  if 
the  locality  permits ;  the  width  of  the  bot- 
tom tier  may  be  from  twelve  to  fourteen 
balls,  according  to  the  caliber.  Prepare  the 
ground  for  the  base  of  the  pile  by  raising  it 
above  the  surrounding  ground  so  as  to  throw 
ofl'  the  water  ;  level  it,  ram  it  well,  and" cover 
it  with  a  layer  of  screened  sand.     Make  the 


PILE 


431 


PINTLE 


bottom  of  the  pile  with  a  tier  of  unservice- 
uble  balls  buried  about  two-thirds  of  their 
diameter  in  the  sand ;  this  base  may  be 
made  jiermaneiit ;  clean  the  base  well  and 
form  the  pile,  j)Uttint;  the  fuze-holes  of 
shells  downwards,  in  the  intervals,  and  not 
restinff  on  the  shells  below.  Each  pile  is 
marked  with  the  number  of  serviceable 
balls  it  contains.  The  base  may  be  made  of 
bricks,  concrete,  stone,  or  with  borders  and 
braces  of  iron.  Grape-  and  canister-shot 
should  be  oiled  or  lackered,  put  in  piles,  or 
in  strong  bo.\es,  on  the  ground-floor,  or  in 
dry  cellars ;  each  parcel  marked  with  its 
kind,  caliber,  and  number. 

Pile.  In  heraldry,  one  of  the  lesser  ordi- 
naries, having  the  form  of  a  wedge,  usually 
placed  j)ale-wise,  with  the  broadest  end  up- 
permost, resembling  a  pile  used  in  laying 
the  foundations  of  buildings  in  watery 
places,  whence  it  has  its  name. 

Pile.  The  head  of  an  arrow  was  for- 
merly SCI  called. 

Pile  Arms,  To.  To  place  three  guns 
together  in  such  a  manner  that  they  may 
stand  upright  stcJidily.  Also  called  stack 
arms. 

Pile-bridge.  A  bridge  of  which  the  piers 
are  built  with  piles.  These  may  be  either 
temporary  wooden  structures,  in  which 
wooden  piles,  driven  into  the  ground,  serve 
also  as  piers,  or  they  may  be  permanent 
bridges,  with  iron  cylinders  forming  the 
piles  below  the  surface,  and  piers  above. 

Piletus.  A  kind  of  arrow  formerly  used, 
having  a  knob  upon  the  shaft,  near  the  head, 
to  prevent  it  from  j)enetrating  the  object 
aimed  at  too  deeply. 

Piling  Balls.     See  Pile. 

Pillage.  The  act  of  plundering.  Also 
that  which  is  taken  from  another  by  open 
force,  particularly  and  chietiy  from  enemies 
in  war;  plunder;  spoil. 

Pillage.  To  strip  of  money  or  goods  by 
open  violence;  to  plunder;  to  spoil;  as, 
troops  pillage  the  camp  or  towns  of  an 
enemy. 

Pilinitz,  or  Pilnitz.  A  palace  and  ordi- 
nary summer  residence  of  the  royal  family 
of  Sa.xony,  in  a  beautiful  situation  7  miles 
southeast  of  Dresden.  Pillnitx  acquires  a 
historic  interest  from  the  meeting  of  princes 
held  in  the  castle  in  August,  1791,  when 
the  Declaration  of  Pilinitz  was  framed, 
according  to  which  Austria  and  Prussia 
agreed  to  declare  the  circumstances  of  the 
king  of  France  (then  a  prisoner  in  the  Tuil- 
eries,  after  his  ineft'ective  flight  to  Varenncs) 
to  be  a  matter  of  common  interest  to  the 
.sovereigns  of  Europe,  and  to  exj^ress  the 
hope  that  common  cause  would  be  made  for 
his  restoration.  The  convention  of  Pilinitz 
took  place  between  the  emper«>r  Leopold 
and  the  king  of  Prussia,  July  20,  17111. 
On  August  27,  1701.  the  treaty'of  Pilinitz, 
or  as  some  style  it,  the  Partition  Treaty,  was 
finally  agreed  upon  at  Pavia  by  the  courts 
in  concert.  It  was  to  the  efl'ect  "that  the 
emperor  should  retake  all  that  Louis  XIV. 


had  conquered  in  the  Austrian  Netherlands, 
and  uniting  these  provinces  to  the  Nether- 
lands, give  them  to  his  serene  highness  the 
elector  palatine,  to  be  added  to  the  palati- 
nate; Bavaria  to  be  added  to  Austrian  pos- 
sessions," etc. 

Pillow,  Fort.    See  P'ort  Pillow. 

Pilon  (/•'/•.).  A  half-pike,  7  feet  long  ex- 
clusive of  the  iron,  which  was  18  inches.  It 
consisted  of  a  fir  tube  covered  with  parch- 
ment and  varnished.  Marshal  Saxe  pro- 
posed to  draw  up  un  army  four  deep,  the 
two  front  ranks  armed  with  muskets,  and 
the  two  rear  with  pilons  and  muskets  too. 

Pilum.  A  missile  weapon,  used  by  the 
Koman  soldiers,  and  in  a  charge  darted  upon 
the  enemy.  Each  man  of  the  legionary  sol- 
diers carried  two  of  these  pila. 

Pimas,  or  Nevomes.  A  tribe  of  aborig- 
ines, about  4000  in  number,  who  are  located 
on  a  reservation  along  the  Gila  Kiver,  in 
Pima  and  Maricopa  Counties,  Arizona. 
They  are  an  active,  athletic  race,  cultivate 
the  soil  and  pursue  a  few  crude  industries, 
and  are  at  hereditary  enmity  with  the 
Apaches. 

Pin.     See  Ordnance. 

Pincers,  Gunner's.  See  Gunners  Pin- 
cers. 

Pindarees.  In  the  East  Indies,  are  plun- 
derers and  marauders,  who  accompany  a 
Mahratta  army.  The  name  is  properly  that 
of  persons  who  travel  with  grain  and  mer- 
I  chandise ;  but  war  affording  so  many  op- 
portunities and  creating  so  many  necessities, 
the  merchants,  as  it  is  all  over  the  world, 
become  plunderers  and  the  worst  of  ene- 
mies. 

Pinerolo,  or  Pignerol.  A  town  of  North- 
ern Italy,  province  of  Turin.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  of  no  great  strength,  and 
though  originally  a  part  of  Piedmont,  was 
in  possession  of  France  from  1G31  till  the 
peace  of  Utrecht  in  1713.  It  was  once  very 
strongly  fortified ;  but  its  defenses  were 
blown  up  by  the  French  in  1713. 

Ping.  The  whistle  of  a  shot,  especially 
the  ritle-bullets  in  their  flight. 

Pinion.  To  bind  the  hands  or  arms  of  a 
person  so  as  to  prevent  his  having  the  free 
use  of  them. 

Pinkney  (near  Edinburgh).  Here  the 
English  under  the  Earl  of  Hertford,  protec- 
tor^ totallv  defeated  the  Scots,  September  10, 
1547.  About  10,000  of  the  Scots  were  slain, 
and  about  1500  taken  prisoners.  The  Eng- 
lish loss  was  scarcely  200. 

Pintle.  In  artillery,  is  the  vertical  bolt 
around  which  the  chassis  is  traversed.  In 
the  centre-pintle  carriage  it  is  the  centre  of 
the  chassis,  but  in  the  front-pintle  carriage 
it  is  in  the  centre  of  the  front  transom.  It 
is  a  stout  cvlinder  of  wrought  iron  inserted 
in  a  block  of  stone,  if  the  battery  be  a  fixed 
one;  or  it  is  secured  to  cross-pieces  of  tim- 
ber bolted  to  a  platform  firmly  imbedded  in 
the  ground,  if  it  be  of  a  temjKjrary  nature. 
In  casemate  batteries  the  pintle  is  placed 
immediatelv  under  the  throat  of  the  embra- 


PINTLE-HOLE 


432 


PISTOL-GKIP 


sure,  and  the  chassis  is  connected  with  it  by 
a  stout  strap  of  iron,  called  the  tongue. 

Pintle-hole.  An  oval-shaped  aperture 
made  in  the  trail  transom  of  a  tield-carriage, 
wider  above  than  below,  to  leave  room  for 
the  pintle  to  play  in. 

Pintle-hook.  See  Ordnance,  Car- 
riages FOR,  Nomenclature  of  Artil- 
lery Carriage. 

Pintle-plate.  Is  a  flat  iron  through  which 
the  pintle  passes,  and  is  nailed  to  both  sides 
of  the  bolster. 

Pintle-washer.  An  iron  ring  thi-ough 
which  the  pintle  passes,  placed  close  to  the 
bolster  for  the  trail  to  move  upon. 

Piombino.  A  town  of  Italy,  province  of 
Pisa,  opposite  the  island  of  Elba.  Here  is 
a  large  metallurgic  establishment  for  the 
manufacture  of  Bessemer  steel  and  military 
projectiles  of  great  hardness  and  perfection. 

Pioneer  Sergeant.  In  the  British  ser- 
vice, the  non-commissioned  otHcer  who  com- 
mands the  pioneers. 

Pioneers.  Are  soldiers  sometimes  detailed 
from  the  different  companies  of  a  regiment 
and  formed  under  a  non-commissioned  offi- 
cer, furnished  with  saws,  felling  axes,  spades, 
mattocks,  pickaxes,  and  bill-hooks.  Their 
services  are  very  important,  and  no  regi- 
ment is  well  fitted  for  service  without  pio- 
neers completely  equipped.  In  European 
armies  there  are  a  certain  number  of  pio- 
neers to  each  regiment. 

Pipe  of  Peace.     See  Calumet. 

Pipe-clay.  A  composition  wliich  soldiers 
use  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  their  buff 
cross-belts,  etc.,  clean. 

Piquichins  (Fr.).  Irregular  and  ill-armed 
soldiers,  of  which  mention  is  made  in  the 
history  of  the  reign  of  Philip  Augustus. 
They  were  attached  to  the  infantry. 

"PiquieT  (F?-.).  A  pikeman,  or  one  who 
is  armed  with  a  pike. 

Pirmasens,  or  Pirmasenz.  A  town  of 
Rhenish  Bavaria.  Here  Moreau  and  the 
Prench  were  defeated  by  the  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick and  the  Prussians,  September  14,  1793. 

Pirogue.  American  Indian  canoe,  dug 
out,  formed  out  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree;  or 
two  canoes  united.  A  term  also  applied  in 
the  United  States  to  a  narrow  ferry-boat 
carrying  two  masts  and  a  leeboard. 

Pisa  (anc.  Pisce).  One  of  the  oldest  and 
most  beautiful  cities  of  Italy,  and,  till  lately, 
the  capital  of  the  now  extinct  grand  duchy 
of  Tuscany,  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Arno. 
Pisis  was  one  of  the  twelve  cities  of  Etruria  ; 
it  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Ligurian 
wars  as  the  headquarters  of  the  Roman  le- 
gions. Early  in  the  11th  century,  Pisa  had 
risen  to  the  rank  of  a  powerful  republic.  Its 
troops  took  part  in  all  the  great  events  of  the 
Holy  Land  ;  and  its  fleet  in  turn  gave  aid  to 
the  pope  in  Southern  Italy,  to  the  emperor 
in  Northern  France,  chastised  the  Moors, 
and  exacted  its  own  terms  from  the  Eastern 
emperors.  In  their  wars  with  the  Saracens 
of  Sardinia,  the  Pisans  had  conquered  Sar- 
dinia, Corsica,  and  the  Balearic  Islands,  and 


for  a  time  maintained  their  ground  against 
their  hereditary  enemies,  the  Genoese ;  but 
having  sided  with  the  Gbibellines  in  the 
long  wars  which  desolated  the  empire,  Pisa 
sufl'ered  severely  at  the  hands  of  the  victori- 
ous Guelphic  party.  Indeed,  the  rivalry  of 
the  Guelphic  cities  of  Florence,  Lucca,  and 
Siena  nearly  brought  Pisa  to  the  brink  of 
ruin  at  the  close  of  the  13th  century;  and 
after  struggling  for  more  than  a  hundred 
years  against  external  foes  and  the  internal 
dissensions  between  the  democratic  mob  and 
the  Ghibelline  nobles,  without  losing  their 
character  for  indomitable  valor,  the  Pisans 
finally  threw  themselves  under  the  protec- 
tion of  Galeazzo  Visconti  of  Milan.  It  be- 
came subject  to  Florence  after  a  long  siege, 
1405-6.  In  1494,  Pisa  became  independent 
under  the  protection  of  Charles  VIII.  of 
France.  When  the  French  left  Italy,  the 
old  struggle  was  renewed  ;  and  after  offering 
a  desperate  resistance,  the  Pisans,  in  1509, 
were  compelled  by  hunger  to  surrender  the 
city  to  the  Florentine  army  besieging  the 
walls. 

Pisidia.  A  district  of  Asia  Minor,  origi- 
nally included  within  Pamphylia,  or  Phry- 
gia,  was  constituted  a  separate  province  in 
the  division  of  the  Roman  empire  under 
Constant! ne  the  Great.  It  was  bounded 
north  and  west  by  Phrygia  and  Lycia,  and 
south  by  Pamphylia,  and  east  by  Cilicia  and 
Isauria.  The  inhabitants  were  a  lawless 
and  freebooting  people,  spurning  the  ad- 
vance of  civilization,  and  daring  any  in- 
vader to  follow  them  into  their  rugged  fast- 
nesses. Rome  conquered  them  only  to  find 
that  their  spirit  of  independence  was  not 
broken.  They  would  not  brook  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  single  garrison  or  colony.  It 
was  only  their  towns  that  paid  tribute.  They 
carried  their  invincible  dispositions  down  to 
modern  times  ;  and  under  the  appellation  of 
Karamanians  they  still  continue  to  be  wild, 
rapacious,  and  suspicious  of  strangers. 

Pistol.  Is  the  smallest  description  of  fire- 
arm, and  is  intended  to  be  used  with  one 
hand  only.  Pistols  were  first  used  by  the 
cavalry  of  England  about  1544.  They  vary 
in  size  from  the  delicate  saloon-pistol,  often 
not  6  inches  long,  to  the  horse-pistol,  which 
may  measure  18  inches,  and  sometimes  even 
2  feet.  They  are  carried  in  holsters  at  the 
saddle-bow,  in  the  belt,  or  in  the  pocket. 
Every  cavalry  soldier  should  have  pistols, 
for  a  fire-arm  is  often  of  great  service  for 
personal  defense,  and  almost  indispensable 
in  giving  an  alarm  or  signal.  Of  late  years 
pistols  have  been  made  with  revolving  cyl- 
inder breeches,  in  which  are  formed  several 
chambers  for  receiving  cartridges,  and  bring- 
ing them  in  succession  into  a  line  with  the 
barrel  ready  for  firing.     See  Revolvers. 

Pistol-carbine.  A  horeman's  pistol  with 
a  detachable  gun-stock. 

Pistolet.     A  little  pistol. 

Pistol-grip.  A  shape  given  to  the  small 
of  the  stock  in  shot-guns  and  rifles,  to  give 
a  better  hold  for  the  hand. 


PISTOLIER 


433 


PLANE 


Pistolier  {Fr.).  Soldier  armed  with  a 
pistol  ;  a  i^nod  pistol  shot. 

Pitan  Nabobs.  Certain  chiefs  in  India 
are  so  culk-d,  namely,  of  Cudapa,  Carroul, 
and  Savanare. 

Pitans,  or  Patans.  A  tribe  in  the  East 
Indies,  who  are  supj)osod  to  be  the  descend- 
ants of  the  northern  Indians,  and  wlio  were 
early  converted  to  Mohammedanism.  They 
are  very  fierce,  and  have  been  reckoned 
anion!,'  the  best  troops  in  India. 

Pitaux  (Fr.).  This  word  is  sometimes 
written  petaux,  and  was  formerly  used  to 
distinguish  those  peasants  that  were  pressed 
into  the  service,  in  contradistinction  to  sol- 
diers who  were  regularly  enlisted. 

Pitch.  To  Hx  tirmly  ;  to  plant ;  to  set  in 
array;  as,  to  pitch  a  tent;  to  pitch  a  camp. 

Pitched  Battle.  A  battle  in  which  the 
hostile  forces  have  firm  or  fixed  positions,  in 
distinction  tVoni  a  skirmish. 

Pitched  Fascines.     See  Pyrotechny. 

Pitch-field.     A  pitched  battle. 

Pittsburgh.  A  city  and  port  of  entry  of 
Alleghany  Co.,  Pa.  Pittsburgh  was  first  set- 
tled in  1754,  a  stockade  having  been  erected 
here  whiih  was  occupied  by  the  French 
as  a  trading-post,  and  given  the  name  of 
Fort  Duquesne.  An  English  expedition 
against  this  fort  under  Gen.  Hraddock  was 
defeated  by  the  French  and  Indians,  July 
0,  1755.  In  1758  another  English  expedi- 
tion marched  against  this  post,  which  was 
then  regarded  by  the  youthful  Washington  as 
the  key  of  the  West.  An  advanced  detach- 
ment under  Capt.  Grant  having  encamped 
on  what  is  still  called  Grant's  Hill,  was 
attacked  and  defeated  by  a  party  of  French 
and  Indians  from  Fort  Duque.sne.  But  on 
the  approach  of  Gen.  Forbes,  with  a  force  of 
6200  men,  the  disheartened  garrison  set  fire 
to  the  fort  and  descended  the  Ohio  Kiver. 
The  victorious  troops,  on  entering,  Novem- 
ber 25,  by  general  acclamation  called  the 
place  Pittsburgh,  in  honor  of  William  Pitt, 
then  prime  minister  of  England.  The  town 
of  Pittsburgh  was  incorporated  as  a  borough 
in  18U4.  and  chartered  as  a  city  in  1810. 

Pivot.  That  otticer  or  soldier  upon  whom 
the  company  wheels. 

The  pivot  fank  in  a  column  is  that  which 
when  wheeled  up  preserves  the  proper  front 
of  divisions  of  the  line  in  their  natural 
order.  The  opposite  flank  of  the  column  is 
called  the  reverse  flank. 

Pivot-gun.  A  cannon  which  turns  on  a 
pivot  in  any  direction. 

Pivot-man.  The  same  as  pivot  (which 
see). 

Pizzo.  A  city  of  Italy,  in  the  Neapolitan 
province  of  Calabria  Ultra  II.,  situated  on 
the  Gulf  of  Santa  Euphemia,  6  miles  north- 
east from  Monteleone.  It  was  at  Pizzo  that 
Murat.  the  ex-king  of  Naples,  landed  with 
a  few  followers,  October  8,  1815,  with  the 
view  of  recovering  his  kingdom.  He  was 
immediately  taken  prisoner  and  shot  in  the 
castle  of  PiV.zo  on  the  13th.  In  IS'SO  it  was 
taken  bj'  Garibaldi. 


Placage  (Fr.).  In  fortification,  a  kind 
of  revetment,  which  is  made  of  thick  plastic 
earth  laid  along  the  talus  of  such  parapets  as 
have  no  mason-work,  and  which  is  covered 
with  turf. 

Place.  In  fortification,  signifies,  in  gen- 
eral terms,  a  fortified  town,  a  fortress  ;  hence 
we  say  it  is  a  strong  place. 

Place  Basse  (Fr.).  In  fortification,  the 
lower  Hanks  according  to  certain  systems  are 
so  called. 

Placed,  To  be.  This  expression  is  fre- 
quently used  in  military  matters,  to  signify 
the  appointment  or  reduction  of  officers. 
Hence,  io  be  placnl  ujion  full  or  half-pay. 
It  is  more  generally  applicable  to  the  latter. 

Placentia.     See  Pi.\<knza. 

Places  of  Arms.  This  term  has  various 
significations,  although  it  uniformly  means 
places  which  are  calculated  for  the  rendez- 
vous of  men  in  arms,  etc.  AVhen  an  army 
takes  the  field,  every  stronghold  or  fortress 
which  supports  its  operations  by  affording  a 
safe  retreat  to  its  depots,  heavy  artillery, 
magazines,  hospitals,  etc.,  is  called  a  place 
of  arms.  In  offensive  operations,  those  lines 
are  called  places  of  arms,  or  parallels, 
which  unite  the  different  means  of  attack, 
secure  the  regular  approaches,  etc.,  and  con- 
tain bodies  of  troops  who  either  do  duty  in 
the  trenches,  protect  the  workmen,  or  are 
destined  to  make  an  impression  upon  the 
enemy's  outworks.  There  are  drmi-plnccs 
of  arms  between  the  places  of  arms.  These 
are  more  or  less  numerous  in  j>roportion  to 
the  resistance  made  by  the  besieged.  See 
Ke-enterin'g  Places  ok  Ar.ms. 

Plain.     A  field  of  battle. 

Plan.  A  scheme  devised  ;  a  method  of 
action  or  procedure  expressed  or  described 
in  language;  a  project.  A  plan  of  cam- 
paign (says  Napoleon)  should  anticipate  all 
that  an  enemy  may  do,  and  combine  within 
itself  the  means  necessary  to  bafHe  it.  Plans 
of  campaign  are  modified  by  circumstances, 
the  genius  of  the  chief,  the  nature  of  the 
troops,  and  topography.  There  are  good 
and  bad  plans  of  campaign,  but  sometimes' 
the  good  fail  from  misfortune  or  misman- 
agement, while  the  bad  succeed  by  caprices 
of  fortune. 

Plan  of  a  Work.  A  plan  shows  the 
tracing ;  also  the  horizontal  lengths  and 
breadths  of  the  works  ;  the  thickness  of  the 
ramparts  and  parajtets  ;  the  width  of  the 
ditches,  etc.  It  exhibits  the  extent,  division, 
and  distribuficm  of  the  works;  but  the 
depth  of  the  ditches  and  the  height  of  the 
works  arc  imt  rcprosciited  in  a  plan. 

Plane  of  Comparison.  In  the  plan  of  a 
fortress,  and  of  the  surrounding  country, 
are  expressed  the  distances  of  the  principal 
points  from  a  horizontal  plane,  imagined  to 
pass  through  the  highest  or  lowest  points  of 
ground,  in  the  survt-y.  This  imaginary 
plane  is  called  a   plnue  of  comparison. 

Plane  of  Defilade.  Is  a  plane  supposed 
to  pass  throiii;h  the  summit  or  crest  of  a 
work,  and  parallel  to  the  plane  of  site. 


PLANE 


434 


PLATFORM 


Plane  of  Fire.     See  Pointing. 

Plane  of  Sight.     See  Pointing. 

Plane  of  Site.  The  general  level  of  the 
ground  or  ground  line,  upon  which  the 
works  are  constructed,  is  called  the  plane  of 
site,  whether  that  plane  be  horizontal  or 
oblique  to  the  horizon. 

Plane  Table.  A  surveying  instrument, 
consisting  of  a  table  or  board  and  arrange- 
ments for  leveling  and  traversing  it.  It  is 
much  used  in  military  surveys  and  in  gun- 
nery in  getting  the  ranges  of  projectiles  by 
the  method  of  intersections. 

Plant,  To.  In  a  military  sense,  to  place  ; 
to  iix  ;  as,  to  plant  a  standard.  It  likewise 
signifies  to  arrange  different  pieces  of  ord- 
nance for  the  purpose  of  doing  execution 
against  an  enemy  or  his  works  ;  hence,  to 
plant  a  battery.  Some  authors  apply  this 
word  to  the  act  of  directing  a  cannon 
properly. 

Plantagenet.  The  surname  of  a  dynasty 
of  English  kings  who  ruled  from  1154  to 
1485.  Henry  II.  was  the  founder,  and 
llichard  III.',  who  was  killed  at  Bosworth, 
the  last  of  the  line.  They  were  generally 
warlike  and  ambitious  rulers,  being  engaged 
in  contests  at  home  (see  Roses, Wars  of  the) 
and  in  France.  The  name  belonged  to  the 
house  of  Anjou,  and  is  said  to  have  been  de- 
rived from  the  circumstance  of  the  first  count 
of  this  house  having  caused  himself  to  be 
scourged  with  branches  of  broom  {planta 
(fenisia)  as  a  penance  for  some  crime.  The 
name  passed  to  the  English  line  of  kings 
through  the  extinction  of  the  old  Norman 
dynasty  in  the  male  line  in  the  person  of 
Henry  II.,  and  the  marriage  of  Matilda,  his 
daughter,  to  Geotfrey,  count  of  Anjou,  their 
son  succeeding  to  the  throne. 

Plassey.  A  village  of  British  India,  in 
the  district  of  Nuddea,  presidency  of  Ben- 
gal, on  the  left  bank  of  the  Hooghly,  9G 
miles  north  of  Calcutta.  It  is  memorable 
as  the  scene  of  the  victory  that  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  British-Indian  empire. 
On  June  23,  1757,  Clive,  with  a  force  of  900 
Europeans  and  2100  Sepoys,  crossed  the 
river  to  attack  68,000  men  under  Sooraj-oo- 
Dowlah,  soubahdar  of  Bengal.  After  much 
cannonading  on  both  sides,  Meer  Jaflaer, 
who  was  in  the  interest  of  the  British,  ad- 
vised the  soubahdar  to  retreat.  Clive  im- 
mediately advanced,  routed  the  army,  and 
took  the  camp  of  the  soubahdar,  who  was 
dethroned  to  make  way  for  the  traitor  Meer 
JafSer. 

Plastron  (i^r.).  Stuffed  pad  or  cushion, 
formerly  worn  at  the  shoulder  to  sustain  the 
recoil  of  heavy  muskets  and  other  fire-arms, 
still  used  by  fencers  upon  the  right  side ; 
also  a  breastplate  or  half  cuirass.  In  the  old 
French  service,  the  gens  d'armes,  the  heavy 
cavalry,  the  light  horse,  etc.,  were  obliged 
to  wear  them  on  all  occasions,  at  reviews, 
etc. 

Platsea  (more  commonly  Platcece).  An 
ancient  city  of  Bceotia,  on  the  northern 
slope  of  Mount  Cithasron,  on  the  frontiers  of 


Attica.  At  an  early  period,  the  Plataeans 
deserted  the  Boeotian  confederacy,  and  placed 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  Athens  ; 
and  when  the  Persians  invaded  Attica  in 
490  B.C.,  they  sent  1000  men  to  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Athenians,  and  had  the  honor  of 
fighting  on  their  side  at  the  battle  of  Mara- 
thon. Ten  years  afterwards  (480  B.C.)  their 
city  was  destroyed  by  the  Persian  army  un- 
der Xerxes  at  the  instigation  of  the  The- 
bans.  It  was  the  site  of  the  battle  between 
Mardonius,  commander  of  the  army  of  Xer- 
xes of  Persia,  and  Pausanias,  commanding 
the  Lacedfemonians  and  Athenians,  479  B.C. ; 
the  same  day  as  the  battle  of  Mycale.  Of 
300,000  Persians,  scarce  3000  escaped  with 
their  lives.  The  Grecian  army,  about  110,- 
000,  lost  but  few  men.  The  Greeks  obtained 
immense  plunder,  and  were  henceforth  de- 
livered from  the  fear  of  .Persian  invasions. 
In  the  third  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war 
(429),  the  Thebans  persuaded  the  Spartans 
to  attack  Platsea,  and  after  a  siege  of  two 
years  at  length  succeeded  in  obtaining  pos- 
session of  the  place  (427).  Platfea  was  then 
razed  to  the  ground,  but  was  again  rebuilt 
after  the  peace  of  Antalcidas  (387  B.C.).  It 
was  destroyed  the  third  time  by  its  inveter- 
ate enemies,  the  Thebans,  in  374  B.C.  It 
was  rebuilt  by  Philip  II.  of  Macedon,  after 
his  victory  at  Ch^ronea,  338  B.C. 

Plate.  Metallic  armor  composed  of  broad 
pieces,  and  thus  distinguished  from  mail. 

Plate.  To  arm  with  plate  or  metal  for 
defense.  "  Why  plated  in  habiliments  of 
war  ?" 

Plate-armor.  Armor  of  strong  metal 
plates  for  protecting  fortifications  and  the 
like  ;  also  mail  consisting  entirely  of  me- 
tallic plates,  formerly  worn  to  protect  the 
person. 

Platform.  Is  a  strong  flooring  upon  which 
a  piece  of  ordnance,  mounted  on  its  carriage, 
is  manceuvred  when  in  batterj'.  Its  object  is 
to  facilitate  the  service  of  heavy  guns  and 
mortars,  and  to  insure  accuracy  of  fire. 
Fixed  platforms  are  used  for  casemate  and 
barbette  batteries  in  fortifications,  and  are 
constructed  with  the  works  ;  siege-platforms 
for  guns  and  howitzers  ;  and  siege-platforms 
for  mortars ;  the  other  kinds  are  the  rail- 
platform,  the  ricochet-platform,  and  the 
platforms  for  sea-coast  mortars.  Platforms 
should  possess  strength  and  portability,  and 
the  pieces  composing  them  should  be  con- 
structed of  the  same  dimensions,  viz.  :  9  feet 
long,  5  inches  wide,  and  3^-  inches  thick. 
The  weight  of  each  piece  in  a  platform  is 
about  50  pounds  ;  and  in  a  siege-platform 
for  guns  and  howitzers,  there  are  49  pieces, 
1  being  used  as  a  hurter  on  the  front  part  of 
the  platform  to  prevent  the  carriage  from 
running  too  far  forward,  and  12  for  sleepers. 
The  weight  of  this  platform  complete  is 
260U  pounds.  This  platfurm  is  laid  with 
an  elevation  to  the  rear,  of  H  inches  to  the 
yard,  or  4^  inches  in  the  whole  length. 
This  elevation  is  given  to  diminish  the  re- 
coil of  the  piece  and  to  permit  the  water  to 


PLATFORM 


435 


PLYMOUTH 


run  off.  The  lent^th  of  tliis  platform  is  15 
feet  by  9  feet.  The  pliitfonn  for  a  siepe- 
mortiir  is  composed  of  only  (>  sleepers  and  21 
deck-planks.  It  is  laid  level,  and  the  front 
and  rear  deck-planks  are  connected  by  eye- 
bolts  to  every  sleeper.  This  platform  is 
about  y  feet  deep  by  9  feet  wide,  and  weighs 
1220  pounds.  The  rail-platform  for  sietce- 
mortars  consists  of  3  sleepers  and  2  rails  for 
the  cheeks  of  the  mortar-bed  to  slide  on,  in- 
stead of  the  deck-plank,  and  is  very  strong, 
and  easily  constructed  and  laid.  For  method 
of  laying  platforms  for  siege-gun  or  howit- 
zer, and  for  mortars,  sec  "Hand-book  of 
Artillery,"  by  Koberts,  pages  143-47. 

Platform  Wagon.  A  sort  of  wagon  used 
fur  truii^porting  heavy  ordnance. 

Platoon.  Probably  from  the  French  pe- 
loitm,  a  "ball  of  thread,"  a  "knot,"  was  a 
term  formerly  used  in  the  English  service 
to  designate  a  body  of  men  who  fired  to- 
gether. In  IT.  S.  tactics,  it  is  now  a  recog- 
nized subdivision  of  a  company,  being  one- 
half. 

Plattsburg.  A  township  and  capital  of 
Clinton  Co.,  N.  Y.,  situated  on  both  banks 
of  the  Saranac  Kiver,  at  its  entrance  into 
Lake  Champlain.  In  the  bay  was  fought 
the  naval  battle  of  Champlain,  in  which  the 
British  flotilla,  under  Commodore  Downie, 
was  defeated  by  the  American  commodore 
McDonough,  September  11,  1814;  while  the 
land  forces  amounting  to  14,000  men,  under 
8ir  George  Provost,  were  defeated  by  Gen. 
ilacomb. 

Play,  Is  occasionally  applied  to  a  military 
action  ;  as,  the  guns  played  upon  the  enemy. 

Plea,  That  which  is  alleged  by  a  party 
in  support  of  his  cause;  in  a  stricter  sense, 
an  allegation  of  fact  in  a  cause,  as  distin- 
guished from  a  demurrer;  in  a  still  more 
limited  sense,  and  in  modern  practice,  the 
defendant's  answer  to  the  plaintitl''s  declara- 
tion and  demand.  That  which  the  plaintifi' 
alleges  in  his  declaration  is  answered  and 
repelled  or  justified  by  the  defendant's  p/cfir. 

Plevna.  A  town  of  Bulgaria,  which  be- 
came important  in  a  military  sense  through 
the  battles  which  took  place  around  it  during 
the  Russo-Turkish  war.  The  first  battle  took 
place  July  15-1»),  1877,  resulting  in  the  cap- 
ture of  Nikopolis.  The  second  took  place 
July  80,  with  considerable  loss  to  both  sides, 
but  without  any  decisive  results.  The  third 
took  place  September  11. 

Plombie  (Fr.).  An  ancient  war-club, 
whose  head  was  loaded  with  lead. 

Plongee.  In  artillery  and  fortification, 
means  a  slope  toward  the  front.  Thus,  in 
sneaking  of  the  course  of  a  shell  through 
the  air,  its  plongee  is  from  the  point  of  great- 
est altitude  to  the  point  at  which  it  strikes 
the  earth.  So,  iti  fortification,  the  j)longee 
is  the  top  of  the  parapet,  sloping  gently  to- 
ward the  front.  Tliis  depression  varies  from 
one-fourth  to  one-sixth  of  the  thickness  of 
the  parapet. 

Ploy.  To  form  n  column  from  a  line  of 
battle  on  some  designated  subdivision. 


Ployments.  A  general  terra  for  all  tacti- 
cal movements  by  which  a  column  is  formed 
from  line  upon  a  designated  subdivision. 

Pluck.  Spirit ;  perseverance  under  oppo- 
sition or  discouragement;  indomitablencss  ; 
courage. 

Plume.  A  large  and  handsome  feather 
worn  as  an  ornament  on  a  helmet,  on  a  mil- 
itary hat,  and  the  like. 

Plummet.  In  gunnery,  is  a  simple  line 
and  bob  for  jxiinting  mortars.  A  plummet 
is  also  used  for  regulating  the  march  of  in- 
fantry. It  is  made  by  means  of  a  musket- 
ball,  suspended  by  a  silk  string,  upon  which 
the  required  lengths  are  marked  ;  the  length 
is  measured  from  the  point  of  suspension  to 
the  centre  of  the  ball.  The  difl'erent  lengths 
of  these  plummets  are  as  follows  :  for  com- 
mon time,  90  steps  in  a  minute,  17.37  inches  ; 
quick  time,  llOsteps  in  a  minute,  11.6  inches; 
double  time,  1G5  steps  in  a  minute,  5.17 
inches. 

Plunder.  To  take  the  goods  of  another 
by  force;  to  take  from  by  robbery;  to  spoil ; 
to  strip ;  to  rob  ;  as,  to  plunder  a  place.  Also 
to  take  by  pillage  or  open  force  ;  as,  the 
enemy  plundered  all  the  goods  they  found. 

Plunder.  That  which  is  taken  from  an 
enemy;   pillagf;  spoil. 

Plunging  Fire.     See  Fikk,  Pi.unoino. 

Pluteus.  A  kind  of  wicker  helmet  covered 
with  raw  o.\-hide,  worn  by  the  ancient  Greeks 
when  engaged  in  sapping  walls.  Others  were 
made  of  hurdles,  covered  in  the  same  way, 
running  upon  three  wheels,  and  affording 
cover  to  7  or  8  miners. 

Plymouth.  A  seaport  town  in  England, 
county  of  Devon,  on  the  east  side  of  a  penin- 
sula, between  the  rivers  Plym  and  Tamar, 
at  the  head  of  Plymouth  Sound,  37  miles 
southwest  of  Exeter.  Prior  to  the  time  of 
the  Norman  conquest  it  was  called  South 
Toivn,  or  Sutton  ;  under  the  Saxon  dynasty 
it  was  called  Tntucrweorth.  The  growing 
prosperity  of  the  town  excited  the  jealousy 
of  France;  and  in  1339  a  force  from  thence 
landed,  and  attempted  to  burn  it.  They 
succeeded  in  burning  a  portion,  but  were 
ultimately  repulsed,  with  the  loss  of  500 
men,  by  Hugh  Courtenay,  earl  of  Devon, 
aided  by  a  number  of  "  knights  and  men  of 
the  countrie."  A  similar  attein})t  was  made 
in  1377,  but  with  no  great  result  ;  and  after 
each,  the  lortitications  wore  extended  and 
strengthened.  In  1335  the  Black  Prince 
embarked  from  Plynn)Uth  for  France,  and  on 
his  return  to  England  he  landed  here  with 
his  prisoner.  King  John  of  France,  who  had 
been  captured  at  the  famous  battle  of  Poi- 
tiers, During  the  civil  war  between  Charles 
I.  and  the  Parliament,  Plymouth  was  held 
by  the  troops  of  the  latter  party,  who,  though 
besieged,  and  almost  reduced  by  famine,  re- 
sisted for  three  years  every  eflbrt  of  the 
royalists.  After  the  restoration  the  citadel 
was  erected,  and  in  the  reign  of  William 
III.  the  dock-yard  and  the  naval  arsenal 
were  established  toward  the  west,  upon  the 
eastern  shore  of  Ilamoaze. 


PLYMOUTH 


436 


POINTING 


Plymouth.  A  town  of  Washington  Co., 
N.  C,  on  the  south  bank  of  Koanoke  Eiver 
about  8  miles  from  its  mouth,  where  it  emp- 
ties into  Albemarle  Sound.  During  the 
civil  war  it  was  held  for  some  time  by  the 
Union  troops  as  a  key  to  the  river,  and  was 
strongly  fortified.  On  April  17,  1864,  a 
Confederate  force  under  Gen.  Hoke  attacked 
this  place,  and  after  four  days'  severe  fight- 
ing, being  five  times  repulsed  with  great 
slaughter,  succeeded  in  capturing  it,  by  the 
powerful  assistance  of  an  ironclad  ram  and 
a  floating  sharpshooter  battery. 

Pocket  Ledger.  In  the  British  service, 
is  a  small  book  in  the  possession  of  each 
soldier,  containing  the  result  of  the  monthly 
settlement  of  pay,  the  state  of  his  savings- 
bank  account,  the  date  of  his  enlistment,  his 
services,  wounds,  decorations,  date  of  birth, 
next  of  kin,  a  summary  of  the  regulations 
which  aflect  him,  and  many  other  useful 
particulars. 

PodoU  (Bohemia).  The  site  of  a  severe 
conflict  between  the  Austrians  and  a  part  of 
the  army  of  Prince  Frederick  Charles  of 
Prussia,  June  26,  1866,  in  Avhich  the  latter 
had  the  advantage. 

Point.  In  heraldry,  a  triangular  figure 
issuing  from  the  dexter  and  sinister  base  of 
the  shield.  It  is  common  in  French  and 
German  heraldry,  and  occurs  in  the  shield 
of  Hanover,  which  was  a  part  of  the  royal 
arms  of  Great  Britain  from  the  accession  of 
George  I.  till  that  of  the  present  sovereign. 
A  shield  charged  with  a  point  is  in  heraldic 
drawing  hardly  distinguishable  from  one 
parted  per  chevron. 

Point  d'Appui.  Any  particular  given 
point  or  body,  upon  which  troops  are  formed, 
or  by  which  they  are  marched,  in  line  or 
column.  Points  d'appiii  also  signify  the 
different  advantageous  posts,  such  as  castles, 
fortified  villages,  etc.,  which  the  general  of 
an  army  takes  possession  of  in  order  to  secure 
his  natural  position. 

Point  of  Alignment.  The  point  which 
troops  form  upon  and  dress  by. 

Point  of  Formation.  A  point  taken, 
upon  which  troops  are  formed  in  military 
order. 

Perpendicular  points,  the  points  upon 
which  troops  march  in  a  straight-forward 
direction. 

Relative  points,  the  points  by  which  the 
parallelism  of  a  march  is  preserved. 

Point  of  Honor.     See  Honor,  Point  of. 

Point  of  War.  A  loud  and  impressive 
beat  of  the  drum,  the  perfect  execution  of 
which  requires  great  skill  and  activity. 
The  point  of  war  is  beat  when  a  battalion 
charges. 

Point-blank.  The  second  point  at  which 
the  line  of  sight  intersects  the  trajectory  of 
a  projectile.     See  Pointing. 

Point-blank.  Directed  in  a  line  toward 
the  object  aimed  at;  aimed  directly  toward 
the  mark. 

Point-blank  Range.  Is  the  distance  from 
the  muzzle  of  the  piece  to  that  point  in  a 


projectile's  trajectory  where  it  cuts  the  pro- 
longation of  the  natural  line  of  sight,  a 
second  time,  the  natural  line  of  sight  being 
horizontal.  The  British  define  point-blank 
range  as,  "  the  distance  from  the  muzzle  to 
the  first  graze  when  the  axis  of  the  piece  is 
parallel  to  the  horizontal  plane  upon  which 
the  carriage  stands."  This  definition  is 
being  adopted  in  the  U.  S.  service.-  See 
Pointing. 

Point-blank  Shot.  The  shot  of  a  gun 
pointed  directly  toward  the  object  to  be 
hit. 

Pointing.  To  point  or  aim  a  fire-arm  is, 
to  give  it  such  direction  and  elevation  that 
theprojectile  shall  strike  the  object. 

Definitions. — The  axis  of  the  piece  is  the 
centre  line  of  the  bore. 

The  line  of  fire  is  the  axis  of  the  piece 
prolonged. 

T\\Q  plane  of  fire  is  a  vertical  plane  through 
the  line  of  fire. 

The  line  of  sight  is  the  right  line  from 
the  eye  to  "the  object  to  be  hit,  passing 
through  the  front  and  rear  sights. 

The  plane  of  sight  is  a  vertical  plane 
through  the  line  of  sight. 

Thb  angle  of  sight,  or  the  elevation,  is  the 
vertical  angle  included  between  the  line  of 
sight  and  the  plane  containing  the  axis  of 
the  piece  and  a  horizontal  line  at  right  an- 
gles to  it. 

The  natural  line  of  sight  is  the  line  of 
sight  nearest  to  the  axis  of  the  piece.  In 
guns  without  rear  sights  it  is  the  right  line 
through  the  highest  point  of  the  base-ring 
and  swell  of  the  muzzle  or  top  of  the  front 
sight  when  there  is  one.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  line  of  metal,  as  in  mortars.  For 
convenience  and  accuracy  the  natural  line 
of  sight  is  usually  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the 
piece.  When  special  breech-sights  are  used, 
it  passes  through  the  zero  of  the  scale,  which 
in  ihQ  ])endulum  hausse  and  other  vibrating 
scales  coincides  with  the  axis  of  vibration. 
All  other  lines  of  sight  are  called  artificial 
lines  of  sight. 

Point-blank,  in  small-arms,  is  the  second 
point  in  which  the  natural  line  of  sight 
(when  horizontal)  cuts  the  trajectory.  In 
artillery,  it  is  the  point  where  the  projectile 
first  strikes  the  horizontal  plane  on  which 
the  gun  stands,  the  axis  of  the  piece  being 
horizontal. 

Pointing  Guns  and  Howitzers. — In  point- 
ing old  model  guns  and  howitzers  under 
ordinary  angles  of  elevation,  the  piece  is 
first  directed  toward  the  object,  and  then 
elevated  to  suit  the  distance.  The  accuracy 
of  the  aim  depends  :  (1)  On  the  fact  that  the 
object  is  situated  in  the  plane  of  sight;  (2) 
That  the  projectile  moves  in  the  plane  of 
fire,  and  that  the  planes  of  sight  and  fire 
coincide,  or  are  parallel  and  near  to  each 
other;  and  (3)  On  the  accuracy  of  the  ele- 
vation. The  first  of  these  conditions  de- 
pends on  the  eye  of  the  gunner,  and  the 
accuracy  and  delicacy  of  the  sights  ;  the 
errors  under  this  head  are  of  but  little  prac- 


I 


POINTING 


437 


POINTING 


tioal  importance.  "VVlicn  the  trunnions  of 
the  piece  are  horizontal,  and  the  sights  are 
properly  placed  on  the  surface  of  tlie  piece, 
the  planes  of  sight  and  fire  will  coincide  ;  but 
when  the  axis  of  the  trunnions  is  inclined, 
and  the  natural  line  of  sight  is  oblique  to 
the  axis  of  the  bore,  the  planes  are  neitlier 
}>arallel  nf>r  coincident,  but  will  intersect  at 
a  short  distance  from  the  muzzle,  and  the 
aim  will  be  incorrect.  If  the  natural  line  of 
sight  be  made  parallel -to  the  line  of  fire,  by 
making  the  height  of  the  front  sight  equal 
to  the  dispart  of  the  piece,  the  planes  of 
sight  and  lire  will  be  parallel.  Field-gun's 
of  the  jiresent  day  have  special  breech-sights 
or  peiululum-sigiits.  The  zero  of  the  scale 
and  top  of  front  sight  are  in  a  line  parallel 
to  the  axis  of  the  piece,  and  in  pendulum- 
sights  this  zero  coincides  with  the  pivot  at 
which  the  scale  vibrates.  Siege  and  sea- 
coast  cannon  are  generally  fired  from  fixed 
]ilatforms,  which  renders  the  axis  of  the 
trunnions  horizontal;  they  arc,  therefore, 
not  furnished  with  pendulum-sights,  but 
usually  with  breech-sights  set  in  sockets  at 
the  breech.  In  the  absence  of  a  breech- 
sight  the  piece  can  be  pointed  with  a  natu- 
ral line  of  sight  so  as  to  strike  objects  not 
situated  at  point-blank  distance.  Owing  to 
the  shape  and  size  of  the  reinforce  of  sea- 
coast  cannon,  the  natural  line  of  sight  is 
formed  by  alfixing  a  front  sight  to  the  muz- 
zle, or  to  a  projection  cast  on  the  piece  be- 
tween the  trunnions.  Although  tlie  latter 
arrangement  does  not  give  quite  so  long  a 
distance  between  the  sights  i\s  is  desirable,  it 
permits  the  use  of  a  shorter  breech-sight, 
and  the  front  sight  does  not  interfere  with 
the  roof  of  the  embrasure,  when  the  piece  is 
tired  under  high  elevation. 

Errors  in  Po'uiiinp. — When  the  platform 
or  ground  upon  which  the  gun  stands  is  not 
level  there  is  an  error  in  pointing  (except 
when  compensating  sights  such  as  i\\G  pendu- 
lum /lausse  are  used),  which  varies  in  direc- 
tion with  the  circumstances  of  the  pointing 
and  in  amount  with  the  elevation  of  the 
piece.  • 

If  the  natural  line  of  sight  is  pointed  upon 
the  object  and  the  elevation  then  given  by 
a  gunner's  quadrant  or  other  device,  the  shot 
will  go  to  the  side  of  the  lower  wheel.  If 
the  gun  be  depressed,  it  will  go  to  the  side  of 
the  upper  wheel. 

If  the  tanijent  scale  or  old  pattern  breech- 
sight  is  used  with  the  ordinary  fixed  muzzle- 
sight,  and  it  be  placed  on  a  chalk-mark  just 
determined,  the  shot  will  fall  on  the  side  of 
the  upper  wheel.  If  the  scale  Ls  placed  on 
the  permanent  mark,  the  contrary  will  hold. 

If  a  siickrt  or  fiu-eii  breech-sight  is  used, 
the  shot  will  fall  on  the  lower  or  upper  side 
according  as  the  gun  is  elevated  or  depressed. 

Pointing  Mortars. —  In  pointing  mortars, 
the  piece  is  first  given  the  elevation,  and  then 
the  direction  necessary  to  attjiin  the  object. 
Mortars  are  generally  firetl  from  behind 
epaulemenfs,  which  screen  the  object  fr(nn 
the  eye  of  the  gunner.     The  elevation  is  first 


given  by  a  gunner's  quadrant,  and  the  di- 
rection is  given  by  moving  tlie  mortar-bed 
with  a  handspike,  .so  as  to  bring  the  line  of 
metal  into  the  plane  of  sight,  which  passes 
through  the  object  and  the  centre  of  the 
platform.  The  plane  of  sight  may  be  de- 
termined in  several  ways;  the  method  pre- 
scribed is  to  plant  two  stakes,  one  on  the 
crest  of  the  epaulement,  and  the  other  a  lit- 
tle in  advance  of  the  fir.-t,  so  that  the  two 
shall  be  in  a  line  with  the  object,  and  the 
gunner  standing  in  the  middle  of  the  rear 
edge  of  the  platform  ;  a  cord  is  attached  to 
the  second  stake  and  held  so  as  to  touch  the 
first  stake;  a  third  stake  is  driven  in  a  line 
with  the  cord,  in  rear  of  the  platform,  and 
a  plummet  is  attached  to  this  cord  so  as  to 
fall  a  little  in  rear  of  the  mortar.  Tlie  cord 
and  plummet  determine  the  required  plane 
of  sight  into  which  the  line  of  metal  of  the 
mortar  must  be  brought.  With  the  13-inch 
mortar  mounted  upon  centre-pintle  chassis, 
the  plane  of  sight  must  be  so  determined  as 
to  pass  through  the  pintle  to  obtain  perfect 
accuracy.  One  of  the  best  methods  of  point- 
ing mortars  so  mounted,  is  to  place  on  the 
crest  of  the  parapet  in  line  with  the  axis  of 
the  platform  a  goniometer,  the  alidade  of 
which  can  be  directed  upon  the  object, — the 
angle  is  read  from  the  vertical  plane  con- 
taining the  axis  of  the  platform.  The  tra- 
verse circle  is  similarly  graduated  from  the 
axis  of  the  platform.  A  pointer  attached  to 
I  the  chassis  enables  tlie  gunner  to  lay  the 
mortar  very  nearly  in  the  vertical  plane 
passing  through  the  object, — the  error  being 
the  perpendicular  distance  from  the  pintle 
to  the  plane  of  sight.  This  is  the  method 
of  Lieut.  A.  B.  Dyer,  4th  U.  S.  Artillery. 
Gen.  Abbot  of  the  U.  S.  Engineer  Corps 
used  a  similar  principle  during  the  late  war, 
1801-(J5.  The  usual  angle  of  fire  of  mortars 
is  45°,  which  corresponds  nearly  with  the 
maximum  range.  "The  advantages  of  the 
angle  of  greatest  range  are  :  ( 1 )  Economy  of 
powder ;  (2)  Diminished  recoil,  and  strain 
on  the  piece,  bed,  and  platform  ;  (3)  More 
uniform  ranges.  AVhen  the  distance  is  not 
great,  and  the  object  is  to  penetrate  the  roofs 
of  magazines,  buildings,  etc.,  the  force  of 
fall  may  be  increased  by  firing  under  an 
angle  of  60°.  The  ranges  obtained  under  an 
angle  of  (50°  are  about  one-tenth  less  than 
those  obtained  with  an  angle  of  4-3°.  If  the 
object  be  to  produce  eflVct  by  the  bursting  of 
the  projectile,  the  penetration  should  be  di- 
minished by  firing  under  an  angle  of  30°. 
AV'lien  the  object  is  not  on  a  level  with  the 
piece,  the  angle  of  greatest  range  is  consid- 
I  ered  in  practice  to  be  45°  incrwised  or  dimin- 
I  islifd  by  one-half  the  angle  of  elevation  or 
;  depression  of  the  object.  The  angle  of  fire 
'  being  fixed  at  45°  for  objects  on  the  same 
I  levei  with  the  piece,  the  range  is  varied  by 
varying  the  charge  of  powder.  Stone-mor- 
tars are  pointed  in  the  same  manner  as  com- 
I  mon  mortars  ;  the  angli-  of  fire  for  stones  is 
;  from  tiO°  to  7"J°,  in  order  that  they  may  have 
1  great  force  in  falling  ;  the  angle  for  grenades 


POINTING-BOAED 


438 


POITOU 


is  about  33°,  in  order  that  their  bursting 
effect  may  not  be  destroyed  by  their  penetra- 
tion into  the  earth. 

Night-firing. — Cannon  are  pointed  at  night 
by  means  of  certain  marlcs,  or  measure- 
ments, on  the  carriage  and  platform,  which 
are  accurately  determined  during  the  day. 

PoinUng  Sma.ll-ai'niH. — The  rear-sights  of 
small-arms  are  graduated  with  elevation 
marks  for  certain  distances,  generally  every 
hundred  yards;  in  aiming  with  these  as 
with  all  other  arms,  it  is  first  necessary  to 
know  the  distance  of  the  object.  This  being 
known  and  the  slider  being  placed  opposite 
the  mark  corresponding  to  this  distance,  the 
bottom  of  the  rear-sight  notch,  and  the  top 
of  the  front-sight,  are  brought  into  a  line 
joining  the  object  and  the  eye  of  the  marks- 
man. The  term  coarse-sight  is  used  when  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  front-sight  is 
seen  above  the  bottom  of  the  rear-sight 
notch;  and  the  tavm fine-sight,  when  but  a 
small  portion  of  it  is  seen.  The  graduation 
marks  being  determined  for  a  fine-sight,  the 
effect  of  a  coarse-sight  is  to  increase  the  true 
range  of  the  projectile. 

Graduation  of  Rear-sights. — If  the  form 
of  the  trajectory  be  known,  the  rear-sight  of 
a  fire-arm  can  be  graduated  by  calculation  ; 
the  more  accurate  and  reliable  method,  how- 
ever, is  bj'  trial. 

Distance  of  Objects. — Various  instruments 
have  been  devised  to  determine  the  distance 
of  objects,  based  on  the  measurement  of  the 
visual  angles  subtended  by  a  foot  or  cavalry 
soldier,  of  mean  height,  at  different  dis- 
tances, and  upon  other  principles.  (See 
Eange-finder.)  The  range  being  known, 
the  proper  elevation  (or  charge  of  powder  in 
mortars)  and  length  of  fuze  is  given  by 
tables  of  tire  obtained  from  calculation  or 
experiment.  The  ranges  for  guns  of  posi- 
tion are  determined  by  thorough  surveys  of 
the  surrounding  country  or  harbor  channels, 
by  which  the  distances  of  all  prominent 
points  in  the  route  of  an  approaching  enemy 
are  fixed  beforehand.  The  ranges  in  field 
artillery  are  usually  obtained  by  trial  shots 
at  the  enemy.  For  small-arm  and  field-gun 
firing,  the  importance  of  at  once  getting  the 
range  cannot  be  overvalued  ;  hence  the  im- 
portance of  estimating  distances  without 
instrumental  aid.  The  soldier  is  guided  by 
his  experience  of  aerial  perspective,  by  the 
apparent  size  of  known  objects,  and  numer- 
ous other  aids  too  delicate  for  enunciation. 
The  art  can  be  acquired  to  a  high  degree  of 
perfection  by  practice,  which  now  forms  a 
very  important  part  of  the  soldier's  training. 

Pointing-board.     See  Board,  Pointing. 

Pointing-cord.  Cord  used  in  pointing 
mortars  ( which  see).   See  Pointing-stakes. 

Pointing-rings.     See  Ordnance. 

Pointing-stakes.  Are  used  in  pointing 
mortars,  and  by  them  one  of  the  fixed  points 
is  established  upon  the  crest  of  the  parapet 
or  at  the  foot  of  the  interior  slope,  and  an- 
other in  rear  of  the  piece.  Then  by  a  cord 
called  the  pointing-cord,  stretched  between 


these  two  points,  with  the  plummet  sus- 
pended from  it,  a  vertical  plane  is  detemined 
with  which  the  line  of  metal  is  made  to  coin- 
cide. Mortars  are  also  pointed  by  means  of 
pointing-wires. 

Pointing-virires.  Are  wires  which  are 
used  in  directing  mortars.  The  two  fixed 
points  required  in  directing  a  mortar  are 
determined  by  planting  two  wires  upon  the 
epaulement,  one  upon  its  crest,  and  the  other 
about  a  yard  in  advance  of  it,  both  as  nearly 
as  possible  in  the  vertical  plane  passing 
through  the  centre  of  the  platform  and  the 
object.  The  points  being  thus  established, 
the  direction  is  thus  given  to  the  mortar,  by 
causing  a  plummet  held  in  rear  of  it  to 
cover  the  wires  and  the  line  of  metal.  This 
method  is  defective  both  in  accuracy  of  aim 
and  the  liabilit}'-  of  the  wires  being  deranged 
by  the  shots  of  the  enemy  or  by  other 
causes. 

Points  of  Passing.  The  ground  on  which 
one  or  more  bodies  of  armed  men  march  by 
a  reviewing  general. 

Points  of  the  Escutcheon.  In  heraldry, 
in  order  to  facilitate  the  description  of  a 
coat  of  arms,  it  is  the  practice  to  suppose  the 
shield  to  be  divided  into  nine  points,  which 
are  known  by  the  following  names :  The 
dexter  chief  point,  the  middle  chief,  the 
sinister  chief,  the  collar,  or  honor  point,  the 
fess  point,  the  nombril,  or  navel  point,  the 
dexter  base  point,  the  middle  base  point,  and 
the  sinister  base  point.  The  dexter  and  sin- 
ister sides  of  the  shield  are  so  called,  not  in 
relation  to  the  eye  of  the  spectator,  but  from 
the  right  and  left  sides  of  the  supposed  bearer 
of  the  shield. 

Poitiers,  or  Poictiers.  A  town  of  France, 
capital  of  the  department  of  Yienne,  on  the 
Clain,  58  miles  south-southwest  of  Tours. 
In  the  vicinity  of  Poitiers,  Alaric  II.,  the 
Visigoth,  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Clovis 
in  507.  Somewhere  between  Poitiers  and 
Tours  a  great  battle  took  place  on  October 
10,  732,  between  the  Franks  under  Charles 
Martel  and  the  Saracens  under  Abder- 
Rahman.  The  Saraceils  were  routed  with 
enormous  slaughter, — 357,000  of  them  (ac- 
cording to  one  old  chronicler,  and  supposed 
to  be  exaggerated)  being  left  dead  on  the 
field.  Near  here  was  fought  the  battle  be- 
tween Edward  the  Black  Prince  and  John, 
king  of  France,  September  19,  1356,  in 
which  Edward,  with  some  12,000  or  14,000 
Englishmen  and  Gascons,  defeated  60,000  of 
the  troops  of  King  John,  and  took  tlie  mon- 
arch himself  and  one  of  his  sons  prisoners. 
See  Tours. 

Poitou.  A  former  province  of  Western 
France,  now  mainly  comprised  in  the  de- 
partments of  Deux  Sevres,  Vendee,  and 
Vienne.  It  became  an  English  possession 
in  1152.  In  1204,  Philip  Augustus  regained 
it  by  conquest  from  England,  and  in  1295  it 
was  formally  ceded  to  France.  It  again  re- 
verted to  England  in  1360  by  the  peace  of 
Bretigny,  but  was  retaken  by  Charles  V., 
and  incorporated  with  the  French  crown. 


POITREL 


439 


POLAND 


Poitrel  (/*>.).  Armor  for  tho  breast  of  a 
horse. 

Pokanokets.  See  Massachusetts  In- 
dians. 

Poland.  Called  by  the  natives  Pnlska,  "  a 
plain,"  a  former  kingdom  of  Europe, — re- 
newed, in  mediieval  history,  as  the  sole  cham- 
pion of  Christendom  against  the  Turks,  and 
more  recently,  and  at  present,  an  object  of 
general  and  profound  sympathy  throughout 
Western  Europe,  from  its  unprecedented 
misfortunes.  The  natives  belong  to  the  groat 
Shivonic  family.  The  word  Pole  is  not 
older  than  the*  lOth  century.  Poland  first 
took  rank  as  one  of  the  political  powers  f>f 
Europe,  when  Micislas  I.  (902-91*2)  occupied 
the  tlirone  and  became  a  convert  to  Chris- 
tianity. Boleslas  I.  (992-1025)  surnamed 
"  the  Great,"  reunited  the  separate  portions 
of  the  kingdom  (which  had  been  divided  by 
Micislas  among  his  sons)  and  extended  it 
beyond  the  Oder,  the  Carpathians,  and  the 
Dniester,  and  sustained  a  successful  war 
with  the  emperor  Henry  II.  of  Germany, 
comjuering  Cracovia,  Moravia,  Lu.satia,  and 
Misnia.  He  also  took  part  in  the  dissensions 
among  the  petty  Russian  princes.  ^Boleslas 
was  recognized  as  "  king"  by  the  German 
emperors.  After  a  period  of  anarchy  he  was 
succeeded  by  his  .son,  Casimir  (1040-1058), 
whose  reign,  and  that  of  his  warlike  son, 
Boleslas  11.  (1058-1081),  though  brilliant, 
were  of  little  real  profit  to  the  country. 
Boleslas  III.  (1102-1189),  an  energetic 
monarch,  annexed  Pomerania,  defeated  the 
pagan  Prussians,  and  defended  Silesia 
against  the  German  emperors.  A  division 
of  the  kingdom  among  his  sons  was  produc- 
tive of  much  internal  dissensions,  under 
cover  of  which  Sile.sia  was  severed  from  Po- 
land ;  ultimately,  Casimir  II.  (1177-1194) 
reunited  the  severed  portions,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Silesia.  His  death  was  the  signal 
for  a  contest  among  the  various  claimants 
for  the  throne,  which  was  speedily  followed, 
as  usual,  by  a  division  of  the  country,  and 
during  this  disturbance  Pomerania  emanci- 
pated itself  from  Polish  rule.  About  the 
same  time  the  Teutonic  Knights  were  sum- 
moned by  the  Duke  of  Masovia  to  aid  him 
against  the  pagan  Prussians,  but  they  soon 
became  as  formidable  enemies  to  Poland  as 
the  Prussians;  and  conquered  a  great  part 
of  Podlachia  and  Lithuania.  The  Mongols 
swept  over  the  country  in  1241,  reducing  it 
to  the  verge  of  ruin,  and  defeating  the  Poles 
in  a  groat  battle  near  "Wahlstatt.  From 
this  time  Polnnd  began  to  decline ;  various 
districts  were  cededi  to  the  markgrafs  of 
Brandenburg,  while  many  districts  began  to 
be  colonized  by  (Germans.  Ladislaus  (1805- 
1838),  surnamed  Lokirtck,  "the  Short," 
again  restored  unity  to  the  country.  In 
conjunction  with  (todymin,  grand  duke  of 
Lithuania,  a  vigonms  war  was  carried  on 
against  the  Teutonic  Knights,  on  returning 
from  which  the  aged  monarch  (ho  was 
now  seventy  year3  old)  experienced  a  tri- 
umphant reception  from  his  subjects,  who 


hailed  him  as  the  "  father  of  liis  country." 
His  son,  Casimir  IIL  the  Great  (1883- 
1370),  greatly  increased  the  power  and 
prosperity  of  Poland.  In  the  latter  part 
of  his  reign  he'  was  compelled  to  defend 
sundry  new  acquisitions  against  the  Tar- 
tars, Lithuanians,  and  Wallachians,  which 
he  did  successfully.  With  Casimir,  the 
Piast  dynasty  became  extinct.  Jagello 
(Ladislaus  IV.),  grand  duke  of  Lithuania, 
the  son-in-law  of  Louis  the  Great,  king  of 
Hungary,  founded  the  dynasty  of  the  Jagel- 
lons  (1880-1572,  and  for  the  first  time  united 
Lithuania  and  Poland.  Casimir  IV.  (1444- 
1492)  recovered  West  Prussia  fr<jm  the  Teu- 
tonic Knights.  The  AVallachian  invaders 
carried  off  100,000  Poles,  and  sold  them  to 
the  Turks  as  slaves,  1498.  Sigismund  I. 
(1506-1548)  surnamed  "the  Great,"  raised 
the  country  to  the  utmost  pitch  of  prosperity  ; 
he  was  forced  into  a  war  with  Russia,  in 
which  ho  lost  Smolensk.  Sigismund  II., 
Augustus,  was  a  successor  worthy  of  him  ; 
Lithuania  was  finally  joined  indissolubly  to 
Poland.  Livonia  was  ccmquered  from  the 
Knights  Sword-bearers.  (See  Sword-bear- 
ers, Kniqiits.)  Stephen  Battory  (1575- 
158G),  voivode  of  Transylvania,  the  second 
elective  monarch,  a  man  of  energy  and 
talent,  carried  on  war  successfully  against 
the  Russians,  pursued  them  into  the  very 
heart  of  their  own  country,  and  compelled 
the  czar  to  sue  for  peace;  he  also  subdued  the 
semi-independent  Cossacks  of  the  Ukraine. 
His  successor,  Sigismund  III.  (1580-1032), 
who  was  succeeded  by  his  sons,  Ladis- 
laus VI.  (1632-1048)  and  John  Casimir 
(1648-1G72),  was  of  the  Vasa  family,  and 
was  the  crown  prince  of  Sweden.  These 
three  monarchs  were  most  unworthy  suc- 
cessors of  Poland's  ablest  king.  They  were 
always  quarreling  with  their  neighbors,  de- 
claring war  with  Russia,  Sweden,  or  Turkey, 
in  the  most  imprudent  and  reckless  manner, 
and  often  without  valid  pretext.  But  the 
Polish  armies,  though  as  little  fostered  and 
cared  for  as  the  other  portion  of  the  nation, 
were  everywhere  victorious;  the  Swedish  and 
Muscovite  armies  were  successively  anni- 
hilated; Mo.scow  was  taken,  and  the  Rus- 
sians reduced  to  such  an  abject  condition 
that  they  otfercd  to  make  Sigismund's  son, 
Ladislaus,  their  czar.  Sweden  made  a  similar 
otter  to  another  son  of  the  Polish  monarch  ; 
but  the  hitter's  absurd  behavior  lost  for  Po- 
land this  rich  result  of  her  great  victories ; 
and  the  foolish  policy  of  the  whole  three  not 
only  rendered  fruitless  all  the  lavish  expendi- 
ture of  Polish  blood  and  treasure,  but  lost 
the  country  many  of  her  richest  provinces, 
and  left  her  without  a  single  ally.  During 
the  reign  of  this  dynasty  Wallaobia  and 
Moldavia  were  snatched  by  the  Turks  from 
under  the  Polish  protectorate  :  Livonia  with 
Riga  was  conquered  (lt;().>-1021),  along  with 
a  part  of  Prussia  (1029)  by  Sweden;  and 
Brandenburg  established  it.self  in  complete 
independence.  The  Cossacks  rose  in  rebel- 
lion to  a  man,  put  themselves  under  the  pro- 


POLAND 


^440 


POLEAXE 


tection  of  Russia,  and  ever  afterwards 
proved  themselves  the  most  inveterate  ene- 
mies of  the  Poles.  In  the  reign  of  John 
Casimir,  Poland  was  attacked  simultane- 
ously by  Russia,  Sweden,  Brandenburg,  the 
Transylvanians  and  the  Cossacks;  the  coun- 
try was  entirely  overrun  ;  Warsaw,  Wilna, 
and  Lemburg  taken;  but  Czarniecki,  after 
defeating  Poland's  enemies  in  detail,  igno- 
miniously  expelled  them  from  the  country. 
But  in  subsequent  treaties  Ducal  or  East 
Prussia  was  given  up  to  Brandenburg ;  al- 
most all  Livonia  to  Sweden,  and  Smolensk, 
Severia,  or  Tchernigov,  and  the  Ukraine 
beyond  the  Dnieper  were  given  to  Russia. 
During  the  reign  of  Michael  Wisniowiecki 
(1G68-1674)  a  war  with  Turkey,  concluded 
by  an  ignominious  peace,  was  the  chief 
event.  But  the  senate  rejected  the  shameful 
treaty,  the  Polish  army  was  reinforced,  the 
Polish  monarch  resigned  the  command  to 
John  Sobieski,  and  the  Turks  were  routed 
with  great  slaughter  at  Choczim  (1673). 
After  the  reign  of  Sobieski,  Augustus  II.  of 
Saxony  entered  Poland  at  the  head  of  a 
Saxon  army,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  the 
throne.  His  war  with  the  Turks  restored 
to  Poland  part  of  the  Ukraine  and  the  for- 
tress of  Kaminiec  ;  but  that  with  Charles 
XII.  brought  nothing  but  misfortune. 
Augustus  returned  after  the  battle  of  Pol- 
tava ;  his  rival  retired  without  a  contest ; 
a  close  alliance  was  formed  with  Russia,  and 
the  Russian  troops  which  had  campaigned 
in  Poland  against  the  Swedes  were,  along 
with  his  Saxon  army,  retained.  The  Poles 
demanded  their  extradition,  but  in  vain  ; 
and  the  Russian  cabinet  interfered  (1717) 
between  the  king  and  his  subjects,  compel- 
ling both  parties  to  sign  a  treaty  of  peace. 
This  was  the  commencement  of  Poland's  de- 
pendence on  Russia  nnd  her  consequent  de- 
cline. By  the  instigation  of  Peter  the  Great, 
the  Polish  army  was  reduced  from  80,000  to 
18,000.  For  the  massacre  of  Protestants 
at  Thorn  see  Massacre.  Civil  war  so 
weakened  the  kingdom  that  it  fell  an 
easy  prey  to  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia, 
in  1772,  when  the  first  partition  was  ef- 
fected. Catherine  II.  of  Russia,  on  various 
pretexts,  advanced  her  army  into  Poland 
(1792),  and  the  fruitless  resistance  to  the 
united  Prussians  and  Russians,  headed  by 
Joseph  Antony  Poniatowski  and  Kosciusko, 
was  followed  by  a  second  partition  (1793) 
between  Russia  and  Prussia,  which  the  diet 
were  forced  to  sanction  at  the  point  of  the 
bayonet.  A  general  rising  took  place  (1794) ; 
the  Prussians  were  compelled  to  retreat  to 
their  own  country  ;  the  Russians  were  sev- 
eral times  routed;  but  an  Austrian  army 
advanced,  compelling  the  Poles  to  retreat ; 
and  fresh  hordes  ofthe  Russians  arriving, 
Kosciusko  at  the  head  of  the  last  patriot 
army,  was  defeated  ;  and  the  sack  of  Praga, 
follo'wed  by  the  capture  of  Warsaw,  finally 
annihilated  the  Polish  monarchy.  The  third 
and  last  partition  (1795)  distributed  the  re- 
mainder  of    the   country   between    Russia, 


Prussia,  and  Austria.  King  Stanislaus  re- 
signed the  crown,  and  died  broken-hearted 
at  St.  Petersburg  in  1798.  Napoleon  I. 
established  the  duchy  of  Warsaw  (1807), 
chiefly  out  of  the  Prussian  share  of  Poland, 
with  the  elector  of  Saxony  at  its  head.  The 
division  of  Poland  was  re-arranged  by  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  in  1815.  On  Novem- 
ber 30,  1830,  Constantine  (brother  of  the 
czar  and  military  governor)  and  his  Rus- 
sians were  driven  out  of  Warsaw,  and  a 
general  insurrection  of  the  people,  headed 
by  the  aristocracy,  took  place;  and  military 
leaders,  as  Radzivil,  Dembinski,  Bem,  etc., 
were  soon  found.  From  January,  1831,  till 
September  8  of  the  same  year,  a  series  of 
bloody  conflicts  were  fought,  in  which  the 
Prussians  and  Austrians,  with  pitiable  sub- 
servience, aided  the  czar.  At  first,  the  Poles 
were  successful ;  but  the  taking  of  the  cap- 
ital by  Paskievitch  soon  ended  the  war, 
which  was  followed,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
by  imprisonment,  banishment,  confiscation, 
and  enforced  service  in  the  Russian  army. 
From  this  time,  the  independence  of  Poland 
was  suppressed,  and  in  1832  it  was  declared 
to  be  an  integral  part  of  the  Russian  empire, 
and  the  most  severe  and  arbitrary  measures 
taken  to  Russianize  the  people.  The  out- 
breaks of  1833  and  1846  were  punished  by 
the  gallows.  Simultaneous  disturbances 
(1846)  in  the  Prussian  and  Austrian  por- 
tions of  Poland  were  summarily  suppressed  ; 
their  leaders  in  Prussia  were  imprisoned, 
and  only  saved  from  death  by  the  revolu- 
tion of  March,  1848,  at  Berlin;  and  those 
in  Austria  were  butchered  by  the  peasantry, 
who  preferred  the  Austrian  to  a  national 
government.  On  November  6,  1846,  the 
republic  of  Cracow  was  incorporated  with 
Austria.  In  1861  another  insurrection  broke 
out,  and  Poland  was  declared  (in  October) 
in  a  state  of  siege;  the  country  continued 
in  a  state  of  commotion  without  any  verj"- 
decided  outbreak  ;  and  on  January  13,  1863, 
Lithuania  and  Volhynia  were  also  put  in  a 
state  of  siege.  In  February,  1863,  Miero- 
slavski  raised  the  standard  of  insurrection 
in  the  northwest,  on  the  Posen  frontier, 
and  many  districts  of  Augustovo,  Radom, 
Lublin,  Volhynia,  and  Lithuania,  were 
speedily  in  insurrection.  It  was  a  mere 
guerrilla  war,  and  no  great  or  decisive 
conflicts  took  place,  but  the  whole  popula- 
tions of  villages  were  put  to  the  sword  by 
the  Russians  ;  while  murders  and  assassina- 
tions marked  the  reign  of  terror  of  the 
National  Committee.  At  last,  with  the 
officious  assistance  of  Prussia,  and  the  se- 
cret sympathy  and  support  of  Austria,  the 
czar's  troops  succeeded  in  trampling  out 
(1864)  the  last  embers  of  insurrection.  In 
1868  the  government  of  Poland  was  abso- 
lutely incorporated  with  that  of  Russia. 

Polans.     Knee-pieces  in  armor. 

Pole,  See  Ordnance,  Carriages  for. 
Nomenclature  of  Artillery  Carriage. 

Poleaxe.  An  axe  fixed  to  a  pole  or  handle ; 
or  rather,  a  sort  of  hatchet  with  a  handle 


I 


POLEMARCH 


441 


roNcno 


about  15  inches  in  length,  and  often  a  point 
or  claw  bending  downward,  or  projecting 
from  the  bacl<  of  its  head.  It  was  formerly 
used  by  mounted  soldiers. 

Polemarch.  In  Grecian  antiquity,  was 
origiiiiilly  the  commander-in-chief,  but  after- 
wards, a  civil  magistrate  who  had  under  his 
care  all  strangers  and  sojourners  in  the  city. 

Pole-pad.  A  pad  placed  on  the  end  of 
the  j)ol(!  in  field-gun  carriages  to  prevent 
injury  to  tiie  horses. 

Poie-prop.  A  short  stick  attached  to  the 
under  side  of  the  pole  in  field-gun  carriages. 

Pole-strap.     See  Okdn'anck,  Li.mhkr. 

Pole-yoke.      See  Okunanck,  Limukr. 

Pole-yoke    Branches.     See   Ordnance, 

LiMItKK. 

Poliabole,  or  Palintonne  (Fr.).  A  ballista 
which  was  capable  of  throwing  both  arrows 
and  stones. 

Police.  The  cleaning  of  a  camp  or  garri- 
son ;  the  state  of  a  camp  in  regard  to  cleanli- 
ness. 

Police  Guard.  An  interior  guard  having 
care  of  the  arms,  property,  and  prisoners  of 
the  regiment;  also  charged  with  the  regula- 
tion of  the  camp  in  regard  to  order  and 
cleanliness.  A  guard  for  prisoners  occupied 
in  cleaning  the  camp. 

Police,  Military.  This  word  has  two  sig- 
nifications: (1)  The  organized  body  em- 
ployed within  an  army  to  preserve  civil 
order,  as  distinct  from  military  discipline. 
(2)  A  civil  police  with  a  military  organiza- 
tion. The  police  of  an  army  commonly  con- 
sists of  steady  intelligent  soldiers,  who  act 
under  the  orders  of  the  provost-marshal,  and 
arrest  all  persons  out  of  bounds,  civilians 
not  authorized  to  pass  the  lines,  disorderly 
soldiers,  etc.  ;  they  also  attend  to  sanitary 
arrangements.  As  in  all  military  matters, 
the  police  of  an  arm}'  possess  summary 
powers,  and  a  sentence  of  the  provost-mar- 
shal is  carried  out  immediately  after  it  is 
pronounced.  Of  civil  police  with  luilitary 
organization  may  be  instanced,  as  speci- 
mens, the  gendarmerie  of  France,  the  sbirri 
of  Italy,  and,  in  an  eminent  degree,  the 
Irish  constabulary. 

Police  Party.  A  working  party  engaged 
in  cleaning  the  camp  or  garrison. 

Police  Sergeant.  A  sergeant  specially 
charged  with  cleaning  the  camp. 

Polkownick.  Colonel  of  a  Polish  regi- 
ment. 

Pollentia  (now  Polrnza,  Northern  Italy). 
A  town  of  the  Statielli  in  Liguria,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Sturia  and  the  Tanarus, 
and  subse<iuently  a  Uonutn  mr.nicipum.  In 
its  neighborhood  Stilicho,  the  imperial  gen- 
eral, defeated  Alaric  the  Goth,  March  20, 
403. 

Polotzk,  Polotsk,  or  Polock.  A  town  of 
Russian  Poland,  tiO  miles  west-northwest  of 
^'itebsk,  at  the  conlluenco  of  the  Dwina  and 
the  Polota.  It  was  taken  by  the  lUissians 
from  the  Poles  in  l'»7'.>,  and  again  in  1055. 
The  French  uiuler  Marshal  C)ndinot  were 
here  defeated  bv  the  Russians  under  Gen. 
29 


Wittgenstein,  July  30-31,1812,  the  next  day 
the  Russians  were  defeated.  After  several 
smaller  actions  with  various  results,  Polotzk 
was  stormed  by  the  Russians,  and  retaken 
October,  1812. 

Polron.  That  part  of  the  armor  which 
covered  the  neck  and  shoulders. 

Poltava,  or  Pultowa.  A  town  of  Russia, 
capital  of  the  government  of  the  same  name, 
situated  on  the  Vorskla,  about  934  milea 
south-southeast  from  St.  Petersburg.  Here 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  was  defeated  by 
Peter  the  Great  of  Russia,  July  8,  1700. 

Polygars,  or  Paleagas.  Chiefs  of  moun- 
tainous and  woody  districts  in  the  peninsula 
of  India,  who  pay  onl}'  a  temporary  hom- 
age. 

Polygon.  The  name  applied  to  thelnany- 
anglcd  forms  in  which  the  outer  walls  of  all. 
fortified  places  are  built. 

Polygon.  A  school  of  practice  for  artil- 
lery is  so  called  in  Japan. 

Polyorcetes.  Taker  of  cities;  a  name 
applied  by  the  Greeks  to  a  very  successful 
general. 

Polytechnic     School.       See    Military 

ACAr)EMlK.S. 

Pomada.  An  exercise  of  vaulting  the 
wooden  horse,  by  laying  one  hand  over  the 
pommel  of  the  saddle. 

Pomerania.  A  province  of  Prussia, 
bounded  north  by  the  Rallic,  east  by  West 
Prussia,  south  by  Brandenburg,  and  west  by 
the  Mecklenburg  duchies.  It  was  held  by 
the  Poles,  980,  and  by  Denmark,  1210;  made 
an  independent  duchy,  1479  ;  occupied  by 
the  Swedes  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and 
divided  between  Sweden  and  Brandenburg, 
1048.  The  Swedish  part,  awarded  to  Den- 
mark in  1814,  was  given  up  to  Prussia  for 
Lauenburg,  1815. 

Pomerium.  In  ancient  architecture,  that 
space  of  ground  which  lay  between  the  walls 
of  a  fortified  town  and  the  inhabitants' 
houses.  The  term  is  still  used  among  mod- 
ern architects,  particularly  by  the  Italians, 
to  describe  the  breadth  of  the  terre-plcin  of 
the  rampart,  its  inward  talus,  and  the  va- 
cant space  which  is  usually  left  between  this 
talus  and  the  houses  of  the  town. 

Pomfret.     See  Pontefract. 

Pomme.  In  heraldry,  a  bearing  or  de- 
vice representing,  or  in  the  form  of,  an 
apple. 

Pommee.  In  heraldry,  having  the  ends 
terminating  in  rounded  protuberances  re- 
sembling apples  ; — said  of  crosses. 

Pommel.  The  knob  on  the  hilt  of  a 
sword.  Also  the  protuberant  part  of  a  sad- 
dle-bow. 

Pommeled,  or  Pommelled.  In  heraldry, 
furnished  or  mounte.l,  with  one  or  more 
pommels,  as  a  sword,  dagger,  or  the  like. 

Pommelion.  The  cascabel,  or  hindmost 
knob  of  a  cannon. 

Pompon.  A  tuft  of  wool,  sometimes 
worn  by  soldiers  on  the  top  of  the  hat  in 
front,  instead  of  a  feather. 

Poncho.     A  Spanish-American  garment^ 


PONDICHERRY 


442 


PONTONS 


consisting  of  a  piece  of  woolen  cloth,  5  to  7 
feet  long,  3  to  4  feet  broad,  having  in  the 
middle  a  slit  through  which  the  wearer 
passes  his  head,  so  that  the  poncho  rests 
upon  the  shoulders  and  hangs  down  before 
and  behind.  In  the  U.  S.  army  mounted 
troops  are  issued  a  waterproof  poncho,  con- 
sisting of  painted  cotton  or  rubber  cloth. 

Pondicherry.  A  maritime  town,  and  the 
capital  of  the  French  settlements  in  India, 
on  the  Coromandel  coast,  83  miles  south- 
southwest  from  Madras.  Pondicherry  was 
first  settled  by  the  French  in  1674,  they 
having  purchased  the  town  two  years  before 
from  the  rajah  of  Bejapoor.  The  Dutch 
toolt  the  town  in  1693  ;  but  by  the  treaty  of 
Ryswick  it  was  restored  to  the  French  in 
1697.  In  1748  it  was  besieged  by  the  Eng- 
lish under  Admiral  Boscawen,  who,  two 
months  later,  was  compelled  to  raise  the 
siege.  In  1758,  Count  de  Lally  became 
governor-general,  and  attacked  the  English 
settlement  of  Fort  St.  David,  which  sur- 
rendered, and  was  totally  destroyed.  In 
1761  it  was  taken  by  the  English,  under 
Col.  Coote.  By  the  peace  of  Paris,  Pondi- 
cherry was  restored  to  the  French  in  1763 
with  reduced  territory.  It  was  again  taken 
by  the  English  under  Sir  Hector  Monro  in 
1778,  and  restored  in  1783.  In  1793  the 
English  again  repossessed  themselves  of  Pon- 
dicherry, but  the  treaty  of  Amiens  in  1802 
again  restored  it,  but  only  till  the  following 
year.  From  this  time  it  was  held  by  the 
English  till,  by  the  treaties  of  1814  and 
1815,  it  was  for  the  last  time  restored  to 
France,  reduced  to  the  narrow  limits  as- 
signed by  the  treaty  of  1783. 

Poniard.  A  pointed  instrument  for  stab- 
bing; borne  in  the  hand,  or  at  the  girdle, 
or  in  the  pocket;  a  small  dagger. 

Poniard.  To  pierce  with  a  poniard  ;  to  stab. 

Pont  a  Noyelles.  At  this  place  near 
Amiens,  France,  took  place  a  fierce  inde- 
cisive conflict  lasting  from  11  a.m.  to  6  p.m. 
between  the  Germans  under  Manteutfel  and 
the  French  Army  of  the  North  under  Faid- 
herbe,  December  23,  1870.  Both  sides 
claimed  a  victory. 

Pontefract,  or  Pomfret.  A  town  of  Eng- 
land, in  the  West  Biding  of  Yorkshire,  near 
the  river  Aire,  and  21  miles  southwest  from 
York.  Its  castle,  which  was  finished  in 
1080,  was  taken  after  three  successive  and 
desperate  sieges,  by  jthie  Parliamentarj'  army, 
and  demolished  by  order  of  the  Parliament. 

Pontia  (now  Ponza)..  A  rocky  island  oft' 
the  coast  of  Latium,  opposjta  Formiaj,  which 
was  taken  by  the  Romaics  from  the  Vol- 
scians,  and  colonized,  §13  s:.,e.  Under  the 
Romans  it  was  used  as  a  jplaoe  off  banishment 
for  state  criminals.  There  i£  *  group  of 
smaller  islands  round  Pontia  .wlijicjj  are 
sometimes  called  In&uliE  Pontiae. 

Pontianak.  The  capital  of -the  ,ki,ngd.om 
of  the  same  name  ok  tbe  west  coa^t  of  Bor- 
neo, is  situated  near  the  junction  of  the 
Landak  and  Kapuas.  There  has  been  con- 
stant war  on  the    6outhefts,t  cQa3.t  .of   the 


kingdom  since  1859.  The  interior  of  the 
kingdom  was  very  much  disturbed  in  1864. 

Pontifical  States.     See  Papal  States. 

Pontones.  Ancient  square-built  ferry- 
boats for  passing  rivers,  as  described  by 
Ca3sar  and  Aulus  Gellius. 

Pontonier,  or  Pontonnier.  A  soldier 
having  the  charge  of  constructing  bridges. 

Pontons.  A  kind  of  portable  boats 
specially  adapted  for  the  formation  of  floating 
bridges  required  by  armies.  They  are  con- 
structed in  various  ways,  of  wood,  metal,  or 
prepared  canvas,  stretched  over  frames  made 
for  the  purpose  (the  latter  it  is  said  are  much 
in  favor),  and  have  the  necessary  gear  placed 
with  them  for  transport.  The  ponton  used 
in  the  U.  S.  army  is  constructed  as  follows  : 

The  ponton  frame  is  composed  of  two  side 
frames,  of  twelve  narrow  and  of  two  wide 
transoms.  The  former  are  strengthened  at 
the  ends  by  iron  straps,  which  are  counter- 
sunk and  perfectly  smooth  ;  all  the  edges  of  tlie 
frame  and  transoms  are  well  rounded  to  pre- 
vent chafing  the  canvas.  The  wide  transoms 
are  of  10-inch  by  H-inch  plank,  provided 
with  tenons  to  fit  the  mortises  in  the  frame. 
The  narrow  transoms  are  of  4-inch  by  2i-inch 
scantling.  The  articles  of  each  of  the  above 
classes  are  made  exactly  alike,  so  that  they 
may  be  interchanged.  Two  of  the  narrow 
transoms  are  provided  with  an  iron  mooring 
becket. 

The  frame  when  assembled  is  held  together 
by  a  rope  passed  through  the  rings  in  the 
ends  of  the  side  frame,  and  tightened  with 
a  rack-stick. 

The  ponton  cover  is  of  0000  cotton  duck, 
double-seamed,  with  the  border  double  for 
1^  inches  in  width.  The  clew-line  eyelets 
are  of  metal.  The  lashings  are  of  1-inch 
rope  18  feet  in  length,  and  looped  atone  end, 
and  the  cable  used  is  of  3-inch  Manilla  rope, 
30  fathoms  long. 

Bridge  Equipage. — The  United  States 
bridge  equipage  is  composed  of  reserve  and 
of  advance-guard  trains.  The  former  are 
intended  to  accompany  large  bodies  of  troops 
in  the  field,  and  are  provided  with  the  mate- 
rial necessary  for  the  construction  of  bridges 
of  sufficient  capacity  to  pass  large  armies 
with  their  heaviest  trains  over  rivers  of  any 
size  and  rapidity. 

The  advance-guard  equipage  is  intended 
for  the  use  of  light  troops,  such  as  advance- 
gqards,  cavalry  expeditions,  etc.  It  is  or- 
ganized, both  as  regards  material  and  car- 
riages, with  a  view  to  rapidity  of  movement. 
At  the  same  time,  it  is  capable  of  furnishing 
a  bridge  which  will  fulfill  all  the  require- 
ments of  troops  engaged  on  such  service. 

Organization. — The  reserve  equipage  is 
divided  into  trains,  each  of  which  is  com- 
posed of  four  ponton  divisions  and  one  sup- 
ply division.  Each  division  is  accompanied 
by  tool-wagon  and  traveling-forge. 

Each  ponton  division  is  complete  in  itself, 
containing  all  the  material  necessary  for 
constructing  a  bridge  of  eleven  bays,  or  225 
fee.t  i*  length. 


PONTONS 


443 


PONTONS 


Each  of  these  divisions  is  subdivided  into 
four  sections,  two  of  vviiioh  iire  ponton  and 
two  abutment  sections  ;  the  former  contain 
three  ponton-wagons  and  one  chess-wagon  ; 
the  latter,  one  ponton-,  one  chess-,  and  one 
trestle-wagon  each. 

The  ponton  section  contains  the  material 
for  three  bays,  and  should  never  be  subdi- 
vided. The  division  may  be  increased  or 
diminished  at  pleasure,  by  the  changing  the 
number  of  its  ponton  sections. 

The  carriages  are  loaded  as  follows  :  Each 
ponton-wagon  contains  1  ponton,  7  long 
tiulks,  1  anchor,  1  cable,  5oars,  2  boat-hooks, 
20  lashings,  6  rack-sticks,  1  scoop-shovel,  2 
small  scoo])s,  1  a.\c,  1  hatchet,  1  bucket,  and 
20  pounds  (jf  spun  yarn. 

Each  trestle- wagon  (identical  with  ponton- 
wagon)  contains  7  long  balks,  7  trestle  balks, 
1  trestle  complete,  2  abutment  sills,  2  coils  of 
3-inch  rope. 

Each  chess-wagon  contains  CO  chess. 

The  forge  is  identical  with  forge  A  fur- 
nished by  the  ordnance  department. 

Each  tool-wagon  contains  50  axes,  20 
shovels,  20  spades,  15  picks,  25  hatchets,  4 
broad-axes,  4  adzes,  4  cross-cut  saws,  12  au- 
gers (assorted),  2  crow-bars,  2  calking- 
irons,  12  tin  lanterns,  2  monkey-wrenches,  1 
sledge,  1  steel  square,  1  grindstone,  1  spirit- 
level,  1  coil  telegraph  wire,  1  coil  3-inch 
rope,  1  coil  1-inch  rope,  1  coil  spun  yarn,  50 
pounds  iron  (assorted),  25  pounds  paint,  0 
paint-brushes,  1  dozen  chalk  lines,  1  pound 
red  chalk,  4  pounds  white  chalk,  0  sail- 
needles,  1  palm,  0  balls  twine,  50  pounds 
(J-inch  spikes,  100  pounds  (>-,  8-,  10»  and 
20-penny  nails,  2  sets  blocks  and  falls,  2 
gross  each  of  1-,  2-  and  5-inch  screws,  1  roll 
canvas,  20  pounds  calking  cotton.  Also  4 
boxes  of  carpenters'  and  saddlers'  tools 
nearly  identical  with  those  furnisiied  by  the 
ordnance  department  for  battery. wagon  C. 
If  desirable,  extra  stores  to  the  amount  of 
500  pounds  may  be  added  to  the  load. 

The  supply  divi.iio7i  is  prvivided  with  ar- 
ticles necessary  to  replace  material  lost  or 
■worn  out,  such  as  balk,  chess,  spare  parts  of 
carriages,  a  few  complete  carriages,  etc. 

Thecarriagesof  this  division  consist  of  pon- 
ton-, chess-,  and  tool-wagons,  and  of  forges. 
Their  number  and  proportion  will  be  deter- 
mined by  the  nature  of  the  country  in  which 
the  army  is  operating,  and  by  the  pro.\imity 
of  the  nmin  depot. 

The  ponton-wagon  contains  17  long  «nd  7 
trestle  balks.  The  chess-wag<m,  t>Q  chess. 
Tool. wagon  No.  1  carries  the  same  Joad  as 
that  attached  to  a  ponton  divisioHr  T(U)l- 
wagon  No.  2  contains  80  rack-collars  ;  of  G-, 
8-,  10-,  and  20-penny  nails,  2  kegs  each  i  of  4- 
and  (5-inch  spikes,  2* kegs  each  ;"of  1-,  2-,  and 
6-inch  screws,  4  gross  each  ;  of  1-  and  S-^^ch 
rope,  2  coils  each. 

The  loads  may  be  increased  to  the  «octcnt 
that  circumstunces  will  permit,  by  adding 
spare  parts  of  carriages. 

The  forges  are  of  the  patterns  A  and  B 
issued  by  the  ordnance  department. 


Advatife-giinrd  Equipage. — The  trains  of 
this  equipage  are  composed  of  4  ponton  di- 
visions, each  of  which  consists  of  8  ponton-, 
2  chess-,  and  2  trestle-wagons. 

The  load  of  the  ponton-tcngon  consists  of  7 
balks,  IG  chejs,  2  side  frames,  1  cable,  1 
anchor,  and  a  ponton-chest  containing  1 
ponton  cover,  14  transoms,  5  paddles,  2 
scoops,  2  mallets,  20  lashings,  2  boat-hooks, 
1  scoop-shovel,  and  8  rack-sticks. 

The  c/iess-wagoti  contains  50  chess  and  2 
spare  ponton  covers. 

The  trestle-wagon  carries  14  balks,  1 
trestle  complete,  1  abutment  sill,  and  1  coil 
of  3-inch  rope  and  1  of  1-inch  rope. 

The  forge  is  forge  A  of  the  ordnance  de- 
partment. 

"NVhen  necessary,  this  load  maybe  reduced 
by  transferring  a  part  of  the  tools  and  coal 
to  a  forage-wagon. 

The  ponton-wagon  carries  all  the  material 
necessary  for  constructing  a  complete  bay. 
The  division  may,  therefore,  be  increased  or 
diminished  by  one  or  more  ponton-wagons 
without  disorganizing  it.  when  a  forced 
march  is  to  be  made,  and  it  is  desirable  to 
lighten  the  loads,  the  chess  may  be  removed 
from  the  ponton-wagons,  the  rope  from  the 
trestle-wagons,  and  the  load  of  the  chess- 
wagons  may  be  reduced  to  40  chess.  Tho 
number  of  the  latter  wagons  in  this  case 
must  be  increased  to  live. 

The  tool-wagon  is  loadetl  with  the  neces- 
sary tools,  materials,  etc.,  suitable  to  the  ad- 
vance-guard equipage. 

There  are  four  methods  of  constructing  a 
ponton-bridge:  by  successive  pontons;  by 
parts  ;  by  rafts  ;  and  by  conversion. 

Bi/  Succe.'isive  Vviitons. — The  location  of 
the  bridge  having  been  selected,  the  ponton- 
wagons  are  brought  as  near  the  river-bank 
as  practicable,  with  the  rear  of  the  carriage 
toward  the  stream.  The  pontons  are  un- 
lashed  and  slid  from  the  wagon-bed  into  the 
water  ;  cables  are  attached  to  the  anchors  ; 
one  of  the  former  is  coiled  in  the  bow  of  each 
ponton  with  its  anchor  on  the  top,  the  flukes 
projecting  over  the  gunwale. 

Those  }>ontons  which  cast  up-stream  an- 
chors are  moored  above  the  approach  to  tho 
bridge,  and  the  others  below. 

A  trench  about  1  foot  in  width  and  depth 
is  o.xcavatiMi  to  receive  the  abutment  sill  ; 
this  should  be  laid  horizontally,  and  exactly 
perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  bridge  j  >t 
is  secured  by  four  pickets,  two  drives  in 
front  and  two  in  rear,  about  8  inches 
from  each  end.  A  ponton  is  btiSAJgbt  up 
opposite  to  the  abutment,  and  c!(0!«e  to  the 
shore.  The  ponton  is  then  pu.-k«d  ofl"  and 
adjusted  in  its  place  by  lusans  *.vf  shore- 
lines, which  are  niade  f»tst  ta  m<><>rir»g-p4>sts. 

As  soon  as  the  lirst  se»  of  balks  is  Lnid,  a 
chess  is  placed  on  od^i*  ia  the  trench  above 
mentioned,  uud  iu  cwivtact  with  the  ends  of 
the  bal^s.  its  wpper  edge  should  be  H 
inches  a,bovt>  the  L»lks.  Earth  is  rammei 
behind  it,  crowding  it  firmly  against  tU^ 
bull^s^     The  chess  i,»  thvij  laid  on,. 


PONTONS 


444 


PONTONS 


The  ponton  which  has  cast  the  first  up- 
stream anchor,  having  dropped  down  to  the 
head  of  the  bridge,  is  entered  by  the  pon- 
toniers.  Five  balks  are  then  brought  up 
and  delivered  to  the  lashers  in  the  second 
ponton,  which  is  puslied  off";  the  shore  ends 
of  the  balks  are  delivered  to  the  lashers  in 
the  first  ponton,  who  place  them  on  the 
down-stream  side,  and  in  contact  with  those 
of  the  first  set,  their  cleats  against  the  out- 
side of  the  interior  gunwale.  They  lash 
the  balks  firmly  together  and  to  the  lashing- 
hooks  at  both  gunwales,  and  then  step  into 
the  third  ponton. 

"When  a  bay  is  covered  with  chess,  the 
side-rails  are  laid.  They  are  placed  directly 
over  the  outside  balks,  to  which  they  are 
lashed  at  three  points, — at  the  middle  and 
immediately  over  the  axis  of  each  ponton, 
at  which  point  the  two  side-rails  and  balks 
of  two  bays  lap  and  are  all  lashed  together. 

In  constructing  a  ponton-bridge  there  are 
two  points  that  require  particular  attention  : 
the  anchorage,  and  the  lashing;  the  men 
who  are  intrusted  with  their  execution 
should  be  selected  from  the  most  intelligent 
and  experienced  poiitoniers  in  the  command. 

The  Anchorage. — The  distance  of  the  an- 
chor from  the  bridge  should  be  at  least  ten 
times  the  depth  of  the  stream  ;  with  a  less 
distance  the  bows  of  the  ponton  would  sink 
too  deeply  in  the  water. 

The  direction  of  the  cable  when  made 
fast  to  the  bridge  must  coincide  with  that 
of  the  current, — i.e.,  a  ponton  in  the  bridge 
must  have  the  same  position  which  it  would 
assume  if  riding  freely  at  anchor.  It  will 
be  remembered  that  the  cable  is  not  finally 
made  fast  to  the  ponton  which  casts  its  an- 
chor, but  to  the  one  following  it  in  the 
bridge  ;  and  due  allowance  must  be  made 
for  this  in  selecting  the  place  for  casting 
anchor. 

The  number  of  anchors  required  will  de- 
pend somewhat  on  the  strength  of  the  cur- 
rent. It  is  generally  sutficient  to  cast  an 
anchor  up-stream  for  every  alternate  ponton, 
and  half  that  number  down-stream  ;  but 
where  the  current  is  very  rapid  it  may  be 
necessary  to  anchor  every  up-stream  boat, 
especially  near  the  middle  of  the  bridge. 
The  number  of  anchors  cannot  be  much  di- 
minished, however  moderate  the  current,  as 
the  anchorage  has  a  very  marked  effect  in 
checking  the  horizontal  oscillation  to  which 
bridges  are  subject  when  troops  are  march- 
ing over  them. 

The  Lasldngs. — "With  respect  to  the  lash- 
ings, the  corresponding  balks  of  adjacent 
bays  lap  each  other  by  G  feet,  and  are  lashed 
together  and  to  the  gunwales  at  two  points 
about  5  feet  apart.  Thus  a  strong  splice  is 
formed,  making  five  continuous  beams  run- 
ning the  entire  length  of  the  brjd-e.  The 
stability  of  the  bridge  is  further  increased 
by  the  manner  of  placing  and  securing  the 
side-rails. 

By  Parts. — The  abutment  bay  is  formed  as 
in  the  previous  method.     The  parts  are  con- 


structed at  suitable  points  along  the  shore 
above  the  bridge,  and  for  each  is  required 
the  material  for  three  bays.  They  are  con- 
structed as  follows : 

A  ponton  is  moored  bow  and  stern  close 
to  the  shore,  and  five  chess  are  temporarily 
liiid  from  the  bank  to  its  interior  gunwale, 
for  the  convenience  of  the  pontoniers  during 
the  construction  of  the  part. 

The  other  two  pontons  are  brought  up  in 
succession,  and  two  bays  are  constructed  in 
the  ordinary  manner,  except  that  six  chess 
are  omitted  from  the  roadway  at  both  ends. 
Twenty-six  chess  and  seven  balks  are  loaded 
on  the  parts  thus  formed,  which  is  then 
pushed  oif  and  conducted  to  the  line  of  up- 
stream anchors,  where  it  casts  its  anchor 
and  drops  down  to  its  place  in  the  bridge. 

The  first  part  is  connected  with  the  abut- 
ment bay  by  the  pontoniers  on  shore,  who 
construct  one  length  of  bridge  flooring  in 
the  usual  manner,  to  join  the  abutment  pon- 
ton with  the  first  ponton  of  the  part. 

The  other  parts  are  united  as  they  come  in 
position,  by  bays  formed  from  the  balks  and 
chess  with  which  they  are  loaded. 

The  down-stream  anchors  are  cast  by  sep- 
arate pontons  provided  for  the  purpose  ;  and 
it  may  sometimes  be  necessary  to  cast  the 
up-stream  anchors  in  the  same  way,  as  the 
parts  are  not  easily  managed  in  a  rapid  cur- 
rent. 

"When  the  current  is  moderate,  the  parts 
may  be  constructed  below  as  well  as  above 
the  bridge. 

By  Rafts. — The  abutment  bay  is  laid  in 
the  same  manner  as  in  the  last  method,  and 
the  rafts  differ  from  the  parts  only  in  having 
the  roadway  completed,  —  that  is,  the  six 
chess  at  each  end  are  not  omitted.  The 
rafts  are  not  loaded  with  extra  balks  and 
chess,  but  are  provided  with  two  false  balks, 
6  feet  9  inches  by  5  feet  5  inches,  and  with 
four  rack-collars  and  wedges. 

The  rafts  cast  their  up-stream  anchors,  and 
drop  down  to  their  places  in  the  bridge. 
The  outer  pontons  of  the  adjacent  rafts  are 
in  contact,  and  are  lashed  together  bow  and 
stern  by  their  mooring-posts.  False  balks 
are  laid  over  the  side-rails  of  the  two  rafts 
at  their  junction  ;  and  two  rack-collars  em- 
brace each  false  balk,  and  the  side-rails  and 
balks  under  them.  These  collars  are  placed 
on  each  side,  and  2  feet  frona,  the  junction 
of  the  side-rails.  The  wedges  are  driven 
between  the  false  balks  and  the  tops  of  the 
collars. 

By  Conversion. — The  position  of  the  bridge 
having  been  determined,  and  the  width  of 
the  stream  accurately  measured,  a  suitable 
place  at  some  distance  above  the  position  of 
the  abutment  is  selected  for  the  construction 
of  the  bridge.  This  place  may  be  at  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  that  which  the  bridge 
is  to  occupy  ;  it  is  frequently  on  some  tribu- 
tary of  the  stream  to  be  bridged,  out  of  sight 
of  the  enemy's  shore. 

The  bridge  is  constructed  parallel  to  the 
shore  ;  side-rails  are  lashed  on  all  except  the 


i 

1 


PONTONS 


445 


PONTONS 


extreme  bays.  The  balks,  chess,  etc.,  for 
the  abutment  bay  on  the  enemy's  side,  arc 
embarked  on  the  next  to  the  last  bay  of  the 
bridije  ;  a  ponton  is  hislied  to  the  hist  ponton 
in  the  brid<(e ;  this  contains,  in  udditi<jn  to 
the  articles  necessary  for  constructing  the 
abutmci\t,  two  stroncj  ])ickcts.  The  up- 
stream anchors  are  deposited  in  the  bows  of 
the  boats  on  the  wbeelin<;  (lank,  10  or  15 
yards  of  their  cables  coiled,  the  remainder 
stretched  along  the  bridge.  Two  strong 
spring-lines  are  extended  and  hished,  the  one 
over  the  bows,  the  other  over  the  sterns  of 
all  tlie  ))ontons;  these  lines  should  be  con- 
siderably longer  than  tlie  bridge,  and  the 
ends  coiled  on  the  jilatform.  The  bridge  is 
then  allowed  to  float  down  to  within  15 
yards  of  the  first  abutment. 

The  material  for  the  first  abutment  and 
bay  is  brought  down  in  a  ponton.  Two 
strong  ))ickets  are  planted  to  receive  the 
spring-lines  and  two  to  receive  the  shore- 
lines, which  are  coiled  on  the  platform  be- 
tween the  first  and  second  pontons. 

The  wheeling  flank  is  pushed  off,  and  men 
are  stationed  in  the  bow  and  stern  of  each 
ponton  with  oars  and  boat-hooks  to  increase 
or  retard  the  progress  of  their  ponton,  as 
may  be  necessary.  A  detachment  is  sta- 
tioned at  the  first  abutment  to  mananivre 
the  sfiring-lines ;  atiother  to  prevent  tlie 
pivot  flank  from  touching  shore  ;  a  turn  of 
the  shore-lino  is  also  taken  around  the  nioor- 
ing-post  of  the  ponton,  and  this  line  is  eased 
ofl^,  as  the  case  may  require.  The  anchors 
are  cast  as  the  pontons  in  which  they  are 
carried  come  in  their  proper  places,  and 
their  cables  are  shifted  to  the  pontons  to 
which  they  are  to  be  attached.  The  pro- 
gress of  the  bridge  is  checked  when  it  arrives 
opposite  the  abutments,  which  should  be 
constructed  during  the  conversion  of  the 
bridge,  if  the  force  bo  strong  enough. 

The  down-stream  anchors  are  cast  by  the 
spare  pontons,  as  in  the  bridge  by  successive 
pontons. 

Fhi'iu;!  Bridfje. — This  term  is  applied  to 
any  flouting  support  anchored  to  a  fixed 
point  (usually  in  tlio  stream),  and  driven 
from  shore  to  shore  by  the  oblique  action  of 
the  current  on  its  sides. 

A  though  these  bridcos  do  not  afford  a 
continuous  communication,  yet  they  possess 
Bome  decided  udvantage.-j,  viz. : 

They  are  readily  established,  oven  over 
the  most  rapid  streams. 

They  require  but  littlo  material  for  their 
construction. 

They  may  bo  worked  by  very  few  men. 

They  permit  the  passago  of  troops  of  all 
arms,  and  of  the  heaviest  carriages. 

Tlie  entrance  to  and  exit  from  them  is  easy. 

Tiiey  do  not  interrupt  navigation;  and 
they  are  not  liable  to  be  injured  by  flouting 
bodies  which,  eitlier  by  accident  or  design, 
are  carried  down-stream  by  the  current. 

The  current  should  not  bo  less  than  one 
yard  per  second. 

To  Construct  the  Rn/t —The  raft  is  formed 


of  six  pontons.  Two  pontons  are  lashed 
stern  to  stern,  and  to  these  a  third,  break- 
ing joints.  A  second  set  similar  to  the 
above  are  placed  at  a  distance  from  the  first 
of  2U  feet  from  set  to  set.  The  two  sets  are 
connected  by  six  balks  over  which  four 
courses  are  lashed.  Then  fifteen  balks  in  a 
manner  suitable  for  receiving  chess.  The 
extreme  chess  are  nailed  down,  and  the 
outer  courses  secured  by  side-rails.  The 
length  fif  the  cable  should  be  at  least  one 
and  a  half  times  the  width  of  the  river. 
One,  two,  or  three  anchors  are  used,  depend- 
ing on  the  strength  of  the  current.  The 
cable  is  supported  by  pontons.  The  boat 
nearest  the  anchor  is  the  largest;  the  dis- 
tance between  the  boats  should  be  such  that 
the  cable  shall  not  touch  the  water  between 
the  first  boat  and  the  raft ;  each  boat  is  fitted 
with  a  staging,  composed  of  two  short  balks, 
and  a  supporting  block,  on  which  the  cable 
rests  and  to  which  it  is  lashed.  The  cable  is 
also  connected  with  the  bow  of  the  boat  by 
a  line  of  such  length  that  the  boat  is  allowed 
to  turn  just  enough  to  keep  parallel  with 
the  raft.  After  the  raft  is  attached  to  the 
cable  it  is  passed  from  shore  to  shore  once  or 
twice,  using  a  stern  veering-line  if  neces- 
sary, until  the  anchors  are  firmly  imbedded 
and  the  cable  is  stretched ;  the  two  abut- 
ments are  then  constructed ;  these  do  not 
differ  from  the  first  bay  of  the  ordinary 
bridge. 

The  proper  angle  for  the  axis  of  th6  boat 
to  make  with'the  current  is  about  55°.  This 
angle  is  gradually  incre:ised  on  nearing  the 
shore,  until  the  way  of  the  raft  is  diminished 
sufficiently  to  prevent  it  from  striking  the 
abutment  with  a  shock. 

Trnil  Bridges. — When  the  river  is  not 
more  than  150  yards  wide,  a  sheer-line  may 
be  used  in  place  of  the  anchor  and  cable; 
the  sheer-line  must  bo  taut  enough  to  keep 
above  water. 

If  the  banks  are  not  high  enough,  the 
sheer-line  should  be  elevated  at  each  shore 
by  passing  it  over  a  frame  formed  by  three 
poles,  arranged  like  an  artillery  gin.  Upon 
this  line  a  pulley  is  fixed,  so  that  it  can  run 
freely  from  shore  to  shore  ;  through  the  eye 
of  tlie  pulley-block  a  lino  is  passed,  one  end 
of  which  is  attached  to  the  bow  of  the  first, 
and  the  other  to  the  bow  of  the  second,  boat 
forming  the  raft.  The  raft  is  mananivred 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  flying  bridge;  or 
one  end  of  a  line  niaj'  be  made  fast  to  tho 
running-block  on  the  sheer-line,  while  the 
other  passes  through  a  snatch-block  near 
the  stern  of  the  raft  on  tho  up-stream  side; 
by  hauling  in  or  letting  out  this  line  the 
proper  direction  is  given  to  the  raft. 

liopr-ferrica. — The  rojie-fcrry  is  used  when 
the  velocity  of  the  current  is  not  sufficient 
to  propel  the  raft.  It  consists  of  a  raft  or 
flat,  provided  with  a  standard  near  each  end 
on  the  up-stream  side.  These  standards  are 
forked  on  top  to  receive  the  sheer-line,  which 
is  stretched  across  the  stream  in  the  same 
manner  as  for  the  trail  bridge.     Tho  raft  \i 


PONTON-TRAIIf 


446 


PORT-riEE 


propelled  across  the  stream  by  men  on  its 
deck  hauling  on  the  sheer-line. 

Prairie  Raft. — It  frequently  occurs  in  the 
Western  country  that  expeditions,  unaccom- 
panied by  regular  ponton-trains,  are  com- 
pelled to  cross  streams  so  situated  that  it  is 
impossible  to  obtain  timber  or  other  material 
suitable  for  the  construction  of  rafts  or 
bridges.  Under  these  circumstances,  a  raft 
may  be  constructed  of  two  canvas  pontons, 
by  means  of  which  loaded  wagons  may 
readily  be  ferried  over  the  stream.  All  the 
material  required  for  such  a  raft  is  easily 
carried  in  one  ponton-wagon.  The  con- 
struction is  as  follows:  The  wagon  to  be 
floated  is  backed  into  the  stream  until  the 
rear  wheels  stand  in  about  one  foot  of  water. 
A  canvas  ponton  is  placed  on  each  side  of 
the  wagon,  parallel  to  and  one  foot  from  it. 
A  balk  is  placed  against  the  tail-board  of 
the  wagon,  and  resting  upon  the  gunwales 
of  the  pontons.  A  second  balk  is  similarly 
placed  against  the  front-board  of  the  wagon. 
On  each  side  of  the  wagon  a  strong  rope  is 
made  fast  to  the  front  balk,  passed  under  the 
axle-trees  round  the  rear  balk,  and  thence 
back  to  the  starting-point,  where  it  is  made 
fast.  The  raft  and  wagon  are  pushed  into 
the  stream,  and,  as  soon  as  the  latter  is  clear 
of  the  bottom,  the  balks  are  lashed  to  the 
gunwales  of  the  pontons.  A  line  is  attached 
to  the  wagon-pole,  and  coiled  in  the  bow  of 
one  of  the  pontons.  This  raft  may  be  con- 
veyed across  the  stream  either  by  rowing, 
or  in  the  manner  of  a  trail  bridge.  On  ap- 
proaching the  opposite  shore,  it  should  be 
turned  with  the  wagon-pole  toward  the  bank. 
As  soon  as  the  wagon  grounds,  the  balks  are 
removed  and  the  wagon  is  drawn  on  shore 
by  means  of  the  rope  attached  to  its  pole. 
A  single  hinged  canvas  ponton,  which  is 
readily  packed  in  an  ordinary  quartermaster 
wagon,  will  suffice  for  the  crossing,  if  the 
wagons  are  unloaded  and  taken  apart. 

Box  Pontons. — In  localities  where  plank 
and  boards  can  be  conveniently  procured, 
pontons  may  be  constructed  verj^  expedi- 
tiously, by  placing  ten  partitions  of  2-inch 
plank,  each  5  feet  long,  and  2h  inches  high, 
in  parallel  positions,  on  the  top  and  sides  of 
which  boards  are  nailed :  the  box  thus 
formed  to  be  covered  witli  pitched  canvas, 
as  described  in  the  mode  of  constructing 
crib  pontons. 

Wagon-body  Pontona. — Ordinary  wagon- 
bodies,  covered  with  pitched  canvas  or  india- 
rubber  blankets,  may  be  used  either  as  boats 
or  pontons.  The  small  capacity  of  the 
wagon-body  requires  such  pontons  to  be 
placed  more  closely  to  compensate  for  it. 

Ponton-train.  See  Pontons,  Bridge 
Equipage. 

Pontus.  An  ancient  kingdom  in  the 
northeast  of  Asia  Minor,  which  derived 
its  name  from  its  being  on  the  Pontics 
Euxinus  (Black  Sea),  extending  from  the 
river  Colchis  in  the  east  to  the  river  Halys 
in  the  west.  In  early  times,  its  various 
parts  were  designated  after  the  tribes  which 


inhabited  them.  The  most  important  of 
those  tribes  are, — the  Leucosyri,  Tihareni, 
Chalybes,  Mosyncsci,  Heptacometse,  Drilse, 
Bechires,  Byzeres,  Colchi,  Macrones,  Mares, 
Taochi,  and  Phasiani.  From  the  middle  of 
the  7th  century  B.C.,  many  of  those  tribes 
inhabiting  the  coast  rose  to  great  power  and 
opulence,  spreading  Greek  culture  and  civ- 
ilization around  them  ;  while  many  of  those 
of  the  interior  were  extremely  savage  and 
wild.  According  to  tradition,  it  was  con- 
quered by  Ninus,  founder  of  the  Assyrian 
empire;  and  it  was  certainly  under  the 
Persian  dominion  after  the  time  of  Cyrus 
the  Great.  In  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  II., 
Ariobarzanes  conquered  several  of  the  Pon- 
tian  tribes,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  an 
independent  kingdom.  Mithridates  II.  suc- 
ceeded him  837  B.C.,  who  by  availing  him- 
self of  the  disputes  of  the  successors  of  Alex- 
ander, considerably  enlarged  his  dominions. 
Under  Mithridates  VI.,  from  120  to  63  B.C., 
the  kingdom  of  Pontus  rose  to  its  highest 
dignity.  In  his  war  Avith  the  Romans  his 
kingdom  was  dismembered  by  Pompey  in 
65  B.C.,  who  annexed  the  western  part  of 
the  nation,  and  gave  the  remainder  to  the 
native  chiefs.  In  63  a.d.  Pontus  was 
made  a  Roman  province,  and  in  the 
changes  which  transpired  under  Constan- 
tine  the  province  was  divided  into  two 
parts. 

Pontvalent.  A  kind  of  light  bridge,  used 
in  sieges,  for  surprising  a  post  or  outwork 
which  has  but  a  narrow  moat;  a  flying 
bridge. 

Poor  Knights  of  Windsor.  See  Knights, 
Military. 

Port  Royal.  In  Beaufort  Co.,  S.  C,  noted 
as  one  of  the  earliest  settlements  made  by 
the  Spaniards  within  the  present  limits  of 
the  United  States,  and  for  important  events 
during  the  war  of  the  Rebellion. 

Portable  Forge.  A  light  and  compact 
blacksmith's  forge,  with  bellows,  etc.,  that 
may  be  moved  from  place  to  place ;  used 
frequently  in  the  quartermaster's  depart- 
ment. 

Portate.  In  heraldry,  borne  not  erect, 
but  athwart  an  escutcheon ;  as,  a  portate 
cross. 

Portcullis.  Is  an  assemblage  of  several 
large  pieces  of  wood,  joined  across  one  an- 
other like  a  harrow,  and  each  pointed  with 
iron  at  the  bottom.  They  are  sometimes 
suspended  over  the  gateway  of  old  fortified 
towns  and  castles,  ready  to  be  let  down  in 
the  case  of  surprise,  when  the  gates  cannot 
be  shut. 

Portcullis.  In  heraldry,  the  portcullis  is 
represented  with  rings  at  its  uppermost  an- 
gles, from  which  chains  depend  on  either 
side.  It  was  a  badge  of  the  Beaufort  family, 
and  borne  in  virtue  of  their  Beaufort  de- 
scent by  their  Tudor  sovereigns.  Portcullis 
is  the  title  of  one  of  the  pursuviants  belong- 
ing to  the  English  College  of  Arms,  whoso 
office  was  instituted  by  Henry  VII. 

Port-fire.    See  Laboratory  Stores. 


PORTFOLIO 


447 


PORTUGAL 


Portfolio,  A  portable  case  for  keeping 
loose  papers  in.  Hence,  also,  the  office  and 
functions  of  a  minister  of  state  or  member 
of  the  cabinet  ;  as,  to  receive  the  portfolio  of 
war. 

Portglave.  An  ancient  name  for  a  sword- 
bearer. 

Portland  Isle.  An  island  off  the  coast  of 
Dorset,  Kngland,  which  was  fortified  before 
114-J. 

Porto  (or  Puerto)  Bello.  A  seaport  town 
of  South  America,  on  the  north  coast  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Darien. 

Porto  Novo.  A  seaport  of  British  India, 
in  the  Presidency  of  Madras,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Vellaur.  It  suffered  severely  in  the 
wars  of  the  British  <;ovcrnment  against  My- 
sore, and  fell  into  a  state  of  decay.  At  Porto 
Novo,  Ilyder  Ali,  with  an  immensely  su- 
perior army,  was  totally  defeated  by  the 
British  under  Sir  Eyre  Coote  in  1791. 

Porto  Rico.  A  Spanish  possession,  one 
f)f  the  group  of  West  India  Islands  called 
the  (4rcHt  Antilles.  Porto  Rico  was  invaded 
in  1509  by  Spaniards  from  Hayti,  and  the 
natives  were  soon  exterminated  by  them. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  17th  century  the 
island  was  captured  by  the  British,  but  was 
abandoned  by  them  soon  afterwards.  In 
1820  a  revolution  took  place  in  Porto  Rico, 
which  was  linally  put  down  in  1823. 

Portugal  (anc.  LnsHnnin).  A  kingdom 
in  the  southwest  of  Europe,  forming  the 
western  part  of  the  Spanish  peninsula. 
After  nine  years'  struggle,  under  Viriathes, 
a  brave  and  able  leader,  the  Lusitanians 
submitted  to  the  Roman  arms  about  187  B.C. 
In  the  5th  century  the  Suevi,  Vandals,  and 
Visigoths  became  possessors  of  the  country. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  8th  century  Portu- 
gal shared  the  fate  of  Spain,  and  was  over- 
run by  the  Moors.  After  a  long  struggle, 
during  which  many  battles  were  fought,  and 
many  illustrious  deeds  achieved,  the  Portu- 
guse  monarchy  was  formally  established  by 
the  Cortes  at  Lamego  in  lli"],  with  Alfonso 
I.  (of  the  Burgundian  house)  as  king.  The 
immediate  successors  of  Alfonso  I.  were 
engaged  in  many  severe  struggUiS  with  the 
clergy,  who  were  always  ready  to  combine 
against  the  sovereign;  but  on  the  whole,  the 
dignity  of  the  kingdom  was  well  maintained 
by  the  representatives  of  this  family,  who 
are,  moreover,  distinguished  as  the  promo- 
ters and  upholders  of  the  maritime  glory  of 
Portugal.  Alfonso,  surnamed  "the  Brave," 
ascended  the  throne  in  1325,  and  his  reign 
wius  almost  wholly  occupied  in  wars  with 
the  Castilians  and  the  Moslems.  AVith  his 
grandson,  Ferdinand  I.,  the  legitimate 
branch  of  the  Burgundian  house  became 
extinct  in  1.383.  During  the  reign  of  John 
II.,  the  Azores,  Madeira,  Cape  de  Verde, 
and  other  islands  were  seized.  The  discov- 
ery of  Brazil  and  the  settlements  made  there 
and  on  the  western  coast  of  India  increased 
the  maritime  power  and  fame  of  Portugal, 
which  were  further  extended  under  .John 
III.,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1521,  and 


during  whose  reign  the  Inquisition  was  in- 
troduced. At  this  period  Portugal  ranked 
as  one  of  the  most  powerful  monarchies  in 
Europe.  Seba.stian  (grandson  of  John  III), 
urged  by  the  Jesuits,  entered  upon  a  fatal 
expedition  to  Africa  against  the  infidels. 
The  defeat  of  the  Portuguese,  and  the  cap- 
ture and  death  of  their  young  king  at  the 
battle  of  Alcazar  in  1578,  and  the  extinction 
of  the  old  Burgundian  line  in  1580,  plunged 
the  country  into  difficulties  and  niisfortuneH 
of  every  kind.  Philin  II.  of  Spain  suc- 
ceeded in  securing  to  himself  the  crown  of 
Portugal,  and  annexing  the  Portuguese 
kingdom  to  the  Spanish  monarchy.  This 
event  proved  disastrous  in  the  extreme  t<» 
Portugal,  involving  it  in  all  the  ruinou.s 
wars  of  Spain  in  the  Low  Countries  and  in 
Germany,  the  greater  part  of  the  expenses 
of  which  it  bore;  while  the  Dutch,  in  re- 
taliation for  Spanish  aggression  at  home, 
attacked  the  Portuguese  settlements  in  Bra- 
zil, and  almost  completely  deprived  them  of 
their  possessions  in  the  Indian  Archipelago. 
In  1640,  after  a  forced  union  of  l(j0  years, 
Portugal  was  freed,  by  a  bold  and  successful 
conspiracy  of  the  nobles,  from  all  connection 
with  Spain,  and  the  Dukede  Braganza  placed 
on  the  throne,  under  the  title  of  John  IV. 
The  war  with  Spain,  which  was  the  natural 
result  of  this  act,  terminated  in  lOtlS,  when 
by  the  treaty  of  Lisbon,  the  independence  of 
Portugal  was  ftirmally  recognized  by  the 
Spanish  government.  For  the  next  hundred 
years,  Portugal  vegetated  in  a  state  of  in- 
glorious apathy.  It  was  invaded  by  the 
French  in  1807, — a  measure  which  gave  rise 
to  the  Peninsular  war.  The  victory  of  Vi- 
meira,  gained  by  the  combined  English  and 
Portuguese  army  in  1808,  freed  the  land  from 
its  French  assailants.  A  revolution  broke 
out  in  Lisbon  in  1820.  Id  1832,  Dom  Pedro 
raised  a  fleet  and  made  a  landing  at  Oporto. 
Admiral  Napier  in  the  mean  while  operated 
on  the  coast  of  Algarve  successftilly  in  favor 
of  the  young  queen  Dona  Maria  de  Gloria, 
whose  cause,  by  these  victories  and  the  sup- 
port of  an  alliance  with  the  great  powers, 
finally  proved  victorious.  Dona  Maria  made 
her  entry  into  Lisbon  in  1833;  and  in  the 
following  year  Dom  Miguel  (who  had  dis- 
puted the  throne)  signed  the  convention  of 
Evora,  by  which  he  renounced  all  preten- 
sions to  the  throne.  During  the  reign  of 
Dona  Maria  insurrections  and  counter- 
insurrections  were  of  frequent  occurrence, 
the  troops  were  not  to  be  depended  on  in 
moments  of  emergency;  guerrilla  bands 
scoured  the  country  at  will,  and  openly  de- 
fied the  queen's  authority.  An  armed  in- 
tervention of  the  great  powers  in  1847  pro- 
duced a  partial  abatement  of  the  national 
disorders;  but  the  queens  partiality  for  her 
unpopular  ministers,  Count  Thomar  and  his 
brother  Cabral.  led  to  the  insurrection  which, 
without  bloodshed,  made  the  national  idol, 
the  Marquis  do  Saldanha,  dt^  fnrto  military 
dictator  of  Portugal.  The  eldest  son  of  the 
queon  tvsocndcd  the  throne  in  1853,  as  Pedro 


POSITIONS 


448 


POST-TRADERS 


v.,  under  the  regency  of  the  king-consort 
his  father.  The  latter  used  his  power  dis- 
creetly, and  the  financial  disorders  were 
partially  adjusted,  and  since  that  period  the 
general  condition  of  the  nation  is  more 
promising. 

Positions,  Military.  The  sites  occupied 
by  armies,  either  for  the  purpose  of  covering 
and  defending  certain  tracts  of  country,  or 
preparatory  to  the  commencement  of  often- 
aive  operations  against  an  enemy.  A  posi- 
tion is  considered  as  advantageously  chosen 
when  it  is  on  elevated  ground  ;  when  it  is  not 
commanded  by  eminences  within  the  range 
of  artillery;  and  when,  from'  the  existence 
of  natural  obstacles,  as  rivers  or  marshes, 
on  the  wings,  it  is  incapable  of  being  turned, 
— that  is,  the  enemy  cannot,  without  mak- 
ing an  extensive  movement,  get  to  the  rear 
of  the  army  by  which  the  position  is  occu- 
pied. In  the  event  of  such  points  of  sup- 
port being  wanting,  the  position,  whether 
it  be  a  plain  or  an  eminence,  should  have 
its  flanks  protected  by  villages,  or  by  re- 
doubts raised  for  the  purpose.  A  village, 
or  even  a  single  building,  on  the  ground  oc- 
cupied by  the  army,  may  become  the  key  of 
the  position  ;  and  as,  not  unfrequently,  on 
the  preservation  of  this  point  depends  the 
field  of  battle,  such  point  should  be  well 
supported  by  troops  and  artillery.  The 
highest  point  of  ground,  particularly  if  near 
the  lines  of  operation,  may  also  constitute 
the  key,  and  is  usually  strengthened  by  one 
or  more  redoubts.  Artillery  should  always 
be  placed  where  it  can  act  with  the  most 
effect ;  and  when  the  ground  occupied  by 
an  army  presents  alternately  salient  and  re- 
tired points  along  the  front  of  the  line,  the 
batteries  should  be  placed  at  such  points. 
Infantry  may  occupy  any  kind  of  ground, 
but  should,  if  possible,  always  form  a  close 
line.  It  is  usually  placed  between  the  bat- 
teries ;  and  if  exposed  to  a  distant  cannon- 
ade, the  troops  may  bo  drawn  up  in  a 
trench,  the  earth  from  which  will  serve  to 
cover  them  without  preventing  them  from 
marching  out  in  line  to  meet  the  enemy. 
Cavalry  must  be  posted  on  a  level  plain, 
over  which  it  may  advance  with  regularity 
when  a  charge  is  to  be  made  ;  if  compelled 
to  act  on  broken  ground,  it  is  formed  in 
small  detachments  behind  the  infantry, 
through  whose  intervals  it  may  pass  at  proper 
opportunities.  The  power  of  readily  appre- 
ciating the  character  of  ground  for  military 
purposes  is  what  is  called  by  foreign  writers 
the  military  coup  d'onl ;  and  this  can  only 
be  acquired  by  a  profound  knowledge  of 
military  tactics  of  war,  joined  to  much  ex- 
perience in  the  practice  of  executing  mili- 
tary surveys,  and  of  contemplating  the  ap- 
pearance of  ground  from  all  possible  points 
of  view. 

Posse  Comitatus.  A  sheriff  or  marshal, 
for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  peace  and 
pursuing  felons,  may  command  all  the  peo- 
ple of  his  county  above  fifteen  years  old  to 
attend  him,  which  is  called  the  posse  comi- 


tatus, or  "  power  of  the  county."— £^ac^-- 
stone. 

Possession.  To  take  possession,  is  the 
act  of  occupying  any  post,  camp,  fortress, 
etc.,  which  might  facilitate  the  operations  of 
an  army,  or  which  previously  belonged  to 
the  enemy. 

Post.  Any  sort  of  ground,  fortified  or 
not,  where  a  body  of  men  can  be  in  a  con- 
dition of  resisting  the  enemy. 

Advance  post,  a  spot  of  ground  seized  by 
a  party  to  secure  their  front,  and  the  post 
behind  them. 

Post  is  also  the  walk  or  position  of  a  sen- 
tinel. 

Post.  In  the  British  service,  a  bugle- 
sound.  The  first  post  is  the  bugling  which 
precedes  the  tattoo  ;  the  last  post  that  which 
follows  it.  Also,  the  piece  of  ground  to 
which  a  sentinel's  Avalk  is  limited;  any 
place  or  office  assigned  to  a  soldier  or  body 
of  soldiers  on  duty. 

Post,  Abandoning  a.  See  Appendix, 
Akticlks  of  "War,  42. 

Post,  Advantageous.  Every  situation  is 
so  called  which  an  enemy  occupies  in  such 
a  manner  that  not  only  mere  force  of  arms, 
but  great  military  skill,  and  many  strata- 
gems, are  required  to  dislodge  him. 

Post  of  Honor.  The  advanced  guard  is 
a  post  of  honor  ;  the  right  of  the  two  lines 
is  the  post  of  honor,  and  is  generally  given 
to  the  eldest  corps  ;  the  left  is  the  next  post, 
and  given  to  the  next  eldest,  and  so  on. 
But  the  laws  of  military  discipline  forbid 
an  inconvenient  accordance  with  this  prac- 
tice, as  the  circumstances  of  the  case  may 
require  a  very  difli"erent  arrangement,  which 
it  would  be  wanton  to  oppose. 

Post,  Sleeping  Upon.  See  Appendix, 
Articles  or  War,  39. 

Post,  To.  In  a  military  sense,  means  to 
station  ;  as,  to  post  a  sentinel.  To  be  posted, 
in  military  tactics  signifies  to  be  formed 
ready  for  action.  Thus,  when  troops  are 
brought  up  in  column,  and  ordered  to  de- 
ploy, it  frequently  happens  that  some  part 
of  the  line  is  refused,  in  order  to  flank  an 
enemy,  or  to  cover  a  weak  position ;  tho 
part  that  is  aligned  is  said  to  be  posted.  To 
be  posted  also  means,  in  a  familiar  sense,  to 
be  publicly  announced  as  an  infamous  or 
degraded  character.  Hence,  to  post  a  man 
as  a  coward  is  to  stick  his  name  up  in  a  con- 
spicuous place,  and  to  accuse  him  of  want 
of  spirit,  etc. 

Postern,  or  Sally-port.  Is  a  passage 
usually  vaulted,  and  constructed  under  the 
rampart,  to  afford  a  communication  from  the 
interior  into  the  ditch.  The  passages  from 
the  covered  way  into  the  country  are  like- 
wise called  sally-ports,  as  they  afford  free 
egress  and  ingress  to  troops  engaged  in 
making  a  sally  or  sortie. 

Post-traders.  Traders  are  allowed  in  the 
American  army  at  the  rate  of  one  to  each 
military  camp  or  post,  who  have  the  exclu- 
sive privilege  to  trade  upon  the  military  re- 
serve to  which  they  are  appointed,  and  no 


POT 


449 


POWER 


other  person  will  be  allowed  to  trade  or  sell 
poods  by  sample  or  otherwise,  within  the 
limits  of  the  reserve,  except  producers  of 
fresh  fruit  and  vcirctablcs,  by  permission  of 
the  post  commander.  Post-traders  are  se- 
lected for  the  appointment  by  u  council  of 
administration,  consisting  of  the  three  senior 
officers,  next  to  the  commandinij  officer,  on 
diity  at  the  post,  and  upon  the  recommenda- 
tion of  tliese  otficers,  approved  by  the  post 
commander,  are  appointed  by  the  Secretary 
of  War.  The  trader  is  authorized  to  keep  on 
hand  for  sales  to  the  troops,  articles  of  whule- 
somc  food,  such  clothing  as  soldiers  may  be 
permitted  to  purchase,  tobacco,  blacking, 
etc.,  the  prices  to  be  regulated  by  the  coun- 
cil of  administration.  At  remote  military 
posts  in  the  United  States,  traders  are  au- 
thorized to  keep  on  hand  the  necessary  sup- 
plies for  sales  to  miners,  settlers,  and  emi- 
grants.    vSce  Cantkkn,  and  Sutler. 

Pot.  The  papercylinder  forming  the  head 
of  a  signal-rocket  and  containing  the  deco- 
rations. To  diminish  the  resistance  of  the 
air  the  pot  is  surmounted  by  a  paper  cone. 

Pot,  Stink-.    See  Stink-pot. 

Potence  iFr.).  Troops  are  ranged  en 
poteurr  by  breaking  a  straight  line,  and 
throwing  a  certain  proportion  of  it,  either 
forward  or  backward,  from  the  riglit  or  left, 
according  to  circumstances,  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  that  line.  An  army  may  be 
posted  en  potence  by  means  of  a  village,  a 
river,  or  a  wood. 

Potent  Counter-potent.  In  lieraldry, 
one  of  the  heraldic  furs,  in  which  the  field 
is  filled  with  crutch-shaped  figures  alter- 
nately of  metal  and  color,  those  of  opposite 
tinctures  being  placed  base  against  base,  and 
point  against  point.  The  metal  and  colors 
are  understood  to  be  argent  and  azure,  un- 
less they  be  specifically  blazoned  otherwise. 
Potent  counter-potent  is  sometimes  blazoned 
Vairycuppy. 

Potent,  Cross.  In  heraldry,  a  cross 
crutch-shaped  at  each  extremity.  It  is  also 
called  a  Jerusalem  cross,  from  its  occurrence 
in  the  insignia  of  the  Christian  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem,  which  are,  argent  a  cross  potent 
between  four  crosslets  or.  This  coat  is  re- 
markable as  being  a  departure  from  the 
usual  heraldic  rule  which  prohibits  the 
placing  of  metal  upon  metal. 

Potentee.  A  heraldic  line  of  division 
which  takes  the  form  of  the  outline  of  a  suc- 
cession of  crutch-shaped  figures. 

Potgun.  Formerly  a  short,  wide  cannon, 
formed  like  a  pot. 

Potidsea.  A  town  in  Macedonia,  on  the 
narrow  isthmus  of  the  peninsula  Palleno, 
was  a  strongly  fortified  place,  and  one  of 
considerable  importance.  It  was  a  colony 
of  the  Corinthians,  and  was  founded  before 
the  Persian  wars.  It  afterwards  became 
tributary  to  Athens,  and  its  revolt  from  the 
latter  city  in  4;5'J  u.c.  was  one  of  the  imme- 
diate causes  i>f  the  Peloponnesian  war.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Athenians  in  4'JO,  after  a 
siege  of  more  than  two  years,  its  iuhabitanta 


expelled,  and  their  place  supplied  by  Athe- 
nian colonists.  In  356  it  was  taken  by 
Philip  of  Macedon,  who  destroyed  the  city, 
and  sold  the  inhabitants  into  slavery.  Cas- 
sander,  however,  built  a  new  city  on  the 
same  site,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
Cassandria,  and  which  he  peopled  with  the 
remains  of  the  old  po[iulation,  and  the  in- 
habitants of  the  surrounding  town*.  It  was 
taken  and  plundered  by  the  Huns,  but  was 
restored  by  Justinian. 

Potomac.     A  river  of  the  United  States, 
formed  by  two  branches,  which  rise  in  the 
Alleghany  Mountains,  and  unite  20  miles 
southeast  of  Cumberland,  Md.,  from  which 
point  the  river  flows  in  a  generally  .south- 
easterly course,   400    miles,    and    falls    into 
Chesapeake  Bay,  where  it  is  0  to  8  miles 
I  broad,  75  miles  from   the  ocean.     Line-of- 
battle  ships  ascend  to  Washington,  120  miles 
I  from  its  mouth.     Tlie  Potomac   forms  the 
greater  pnrt  of  the  boundary  between  Vir- 
:  giiiia  and  Maryland.     During  the  civil  war, 
both  Federal  and  Confederate  armies  crossed 
'•  several  times  the  fords  of  the  Upper  Poto- 
i  mac,  and  severe  actions  were  fouglit  upon  its 
]  banks.     The  largest  army  of  the  Union  was 

nanicd  after  it. 
I       Pottawatomies.     A   tribe   of  Indians  of 
I  Algonkin  stock,   who  formerly  occupied  a 
I  great  part  of  ^lichigan,   where  a  few  still 
,  remain.     They  fought  against  the  settlers  in 
I  the  Pontiac  war,  and  against  the  Americans 
in  the  war  of  tlie  Revolution  ;  and  were  al- 
lies of  the  British  in  the  war  of  1812,  soon 
after  which  they  removed  to  Kansas,  where 
they  now  reside  in  a  partial  state  of  civiliza- 
tion, only  about  500  of  what  is  known  as 
I  the  Prairie  band  being  located  on  a  reserva- 
tion. 
j       Pouch.     A  case  of  strong  leather,  lined 
with  tin  divisions,  for  the  purpose  of  carry- 
ing a  soldier's  ammunition.     It  is  covered 
by  a  flap  to  preserve  the  cartridges  from  wet. 
The  leather  cases  containing  primers,  lan- 
yard, etc.,  in  field  and  heavy  artillery,  and 
those    containing   a  gunner's    level,   vent- 
punch,  gimlet,  etc.,  in  heavy  artillery,  are 
also  called  pouches. 

Pounder.     The  term  used   in  describing 
the  force  of  a  cannon   em(iloyed   in   firing 
solid  shot ;  as,  a  O-poundor  field-gun,  a  300- 
poundcr  .Vrmstrong,  etc. 
Powder.     See  Gunpowder. 
Powder-cart.      A    two-wheeled    carriage 
covered  with  an  angular  roof  of  boards.    To 
prevent  the  powder  from  getting  damp,  a 
!  tarred  canvas  is  put  over  the  roof;  and  on 
1  each  side  are  lockers  to  hold  shot,  in  propor- 
j  tion  to  the  quantity  of  powder. 
I       Powdered,     or     Semee.      In    heraldry, 
j  strewn  with  an  indefinite  number  of  small 
!  charges. 

'       Powder-magazine.     See  Magazine. 
j       Powder-measure.     See  Implements. 
i       Powder-mill.     Sec  Mill,  Gunpowder-. 
!       Power.     In  military  atl'airs  as  well  as  in 
,  all  others,  is  knowledge — of  luunan  passions 
I  —of   arms — of  distance— of  the  skill  and 


POWERFUL 


450 


PREFECT 


numbers  of  an  enemy.  To  be  in  the  power 
of  an  enemy,  is  to  have  taken  up,  injudi- 
ciously, such  a  position  as  to  expose  you  to 
a  defeat  whenever  the  enemy  may  think 
proper  to  attack  you. 

Powerful.  Full  of  power;  capable  of 
producing  great  effects  of  any  kind;  as,  a 
powerful  army  or  navy. 

Powldi'on.  In  heraldrj',  that  part  of 
armor  which  covers  the  shoulders. 

Powwow.  A  priest  or  conjurer  among 
the  North  American  Indians.  Also  conju- 
rations performed  for  the  cure  of  diseases 
and  other  purposes,  attended  with  great 
noise  and  confusion,  and  often  with  dancing. 

Poynado.  A  poniard  was  formerly  so 
called. 

Pozzuoli.  A  city  of  Southern  Italy,  at 
the  east  of  the  Bay  of  Naples.  It  is  iirst 
mentioned  in  history  during  the  second 
Punic  war,  when  it  was  surrounded  by 
strong  walls.  In  214  B.C.  it  repulsed  Han- 
nibal, and  subsequently  became  a  place  of 
importance.  It  was  destroyed  by  Alaric, 
Genseric,  and  Totila.  It  was  afterwards  re- 
built by  the  Byzantine  Greeks,  but  being 
exposed  to  new  devastations,  to  earthquakes, 
and  volcanic  eruptions,  it  sank  into  decay. 

Practicable.  A  word  frequently  used  in 
military  matters  to  express  the  possible  ac- 
complishment of  any  object.  Hence,  a  prac- 
ticable breach. 

Practice,  To.  In  a  military  sense,  to  go 
through  the  manual  and  platoon  exercises, 
or  through  the  various  manoeuvres,  etc.,  for 
the  purpose  of  becoming  thoroughly  master 
of  military  movements.  Practice  is  likewise 
used  to  signify  the  act  of  effecting  or  exe- 
cuting any  military  operation. 

Prseliares.  Among  the  Romans,  fighting 
days,  on  which  thej^  thought  it  lawful  to 
engage  in  acts  of  hostility  ;  for  during  the 
time  of  some  particular  feasts,  they  reckoned 
it  a  piece  of  impiety  to  raise,  march,  or  ex- 
ercise men  for  war,  or  to  encounter  the 
enemy,  unless  first  attacked. 

Praetorians.  Was,  during  the  Roman 
republic,  a  select  cohort  that  attended  the 
praetor  or  commander  of  an  army.  They 
frequently  decided  the  fate  of  battles.  After 
the  overthrow  of  the  republic,  Augustus 
formed  them  into  nine  cohorts,  and  fixed 
their  station  in  the  capital  as  body-guards. 
They  became,  in  short,  under  the  emperors, 
what  "the  guards"  are  to  the  monarchies  of 
Europe.  They,  in  addition  to  their  military 
duties,  frequently  had  the  charge  of  state 
prisoners,  and  often  acted  the  part  of  execu- 
tioners. They  were  all  picked  men,  chosen 
for  the  most  part  from  Italy.  Their  power 
increased  greatly  under  the  empire  until 
they  frequently  determined  the  fate  of  an 
emperor.  Diocletian  reduced  their  number, 
and  Constantine  disbanded  them. 

Praetorium.     See  Pretobium. 

Praga.  A  town  of  Poland,  on  the  Vis- 
tula, opposite  to  Warsaw,  with  which  it 
communicates  by  a  bridge  of  boats.  In 
1794  the  Polish  insurgents  took  refuge  here, 


and  it  was  stormed  by  Suwarrow,  and  given 
up  to  pillage  and  massacre,  when  about 
20,000  were 'slain.  In  1830  the  Grand  Duke 
Constantine  of  Russia  was  forced  to  retreat 
from  this  town  with  his  troops,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Polish  revolution  in  that  year, 
which  unfortunately  proved  unsuccessful. 

Prague.  A  city  of  Austria,  the  capital 
of  Bohemia,  situated  on  the  Moldau.  Prague 
was  conquered  and  almost  destroyed  by  the 
Hussites  in  1424;  but  after  the  subsequent 
defeat  and  submission  of  the  Hussites,  the 
city  was  rebuilt.  In  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
it  sufierod  severely,  and  in  1620  the  battle 
was  fought  at  the  White  Mountain,  near 
the  city,  in  which  Frederick  V.  (the  "  Win- 
ter King"),  son-in-law  of  James  I.  of  Eng- 
land, was  completely  defeated,  and  compelled 
to  renounce  his  assumed  crown,  and  to  give 
up  the  town  into  the  power  of  the  emperor  of 
Austria.  Swedes  and  Imperialists  success- 
ively gained  possession  of  it  during  the  war  ; 
and  a  century  later,  during  the  Seven  Years' 
War,  it  again  fell  into  the  hands  of  different 
victors,  being  compelled,  in  1744,  to  capitu- 
late to  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia;  but 
he  was  obliged  to  abandon  it  the  same  year. 
In  1757  the  king  of  Prussia  again  besieged 
it,  but  his  efforts  to  reduce  it  proved  inef- 
fectual. In  1848  it  was  bombarded,  the  in- 
habitants having  risen  against  the  Austrian 
government,  when  great  cruelties  were  per- 
petrated by  the  Austrian  troops.  A  treaty 
of  peace  between  Austria  and  Prussia  was 
signed  at  Prague,  August  2-3,  1866. 

Praguerie,  War  of  (so  named  from 
Prague,  then  celebrated  for  its  civil  disor- 
ders). Was  the  name  given  to  the  revolt  of 
the  dauphin,  afterwards  Louis  XL,  against 
his  father,  Charles  VII.,  aided  by  Alexan- 
der, the  bastard,  of  Bourbon,  and  other  no- 
bles. It  was  soon  quelled;  Louis  was  ex- 
iled, and  Alexander  put  to  death  by  drown- 
ing, July,  1440. 

Prairie  Raft.     See  Pontoxs. 

Prairie-carriage.  See  Ordnance,  Car- 
riages FOR. 

Prance.  To  spring  or  bound,  as  a  horse 
in  high  mettle.  To  walk  or  strut  about  in 
a  showy  manner,  or  with  warlike  parade. 

Precedence.  Priority  in  rank  or  pre- 
cedence in  military  life,  is  regulated  by  the 
date  of  an  officer's  commission,  or  the  stand- 
ing in  the  corps  to  which  he  may  belong. 

Precedent.  Any  act  which  can  be  inter- 
preted into  an  example  for  future  times,  is 
called  a  precedent.  Persons  in  high  office 
are  extremely  scrupulous  with  respect  to 
precedents,  especially  in  military  matters. 

Precision.  Exact  limitation,  scrupulous 
observance  of  certain  given  rules. 

Predal,  or  Predatory  War.  A  war  car- 
ried on  by  plunder  and  rapine. 

Prefect  {hat.  p7-cefertus).  A  Roman  offi- 
cer who  was  over,  or  who  superintended, 
a  particular  command,  charge,  department, 
and  the  like.  Of  this  class  there  were  several, 
as  the  prefect  of  a  camp,  of  a  fleet,  of  the 
city  guards,  etc. 


PREFECT 


451 


PRESSURE-GAUGE 


Prefect  Pretorian.  In  Roman  antiquity, 
was  tlio  (.oniinaiKlorof  tho  pretorian  guard.*. 

Preferment.  Thcstatc  of  being  advanced 
to  a  hiu,liiT  post. 

Prejudice.  An  opinion  or  decision  of 
mind  formed  without  due  examination  ; 
prejudc;mcnt ;  a  bias  or  leaning  toward 
one  side  or  the  otiier  of  a  question  from 
other  considerations  than  tliose  belonging 
toil;  an  unreasonable  predilection  or  pre- 
possession for  or  against  anything;  espc- 
cially,  an  opinion  or  leaning  adverse  to  any- 
thing formed  without  proper  grounds,  or 
before  suitable  knowledge. 

Prejudicial  to  Military  Discipline,  Con- 
duct. See  Appendix,  Articlks  ok  War, 
02. 

Prenzlow.  A  town  of  Prussia,  in  the 
proviiu'e  of  Brandenburg,  71  miles  north- 
northeast  from  Berlin.  Here,  in  October, 
180(;,  a  body  of  Pru,«sians,  1G,()00  strong, 
under  the  Prince  of  Hohenlohe,  surrendered, 
after  the  defeat  of  Jena,  to  the  French  under 
Murat. 

Prepare  for  Action.  A  word  of  command 
used  in  the  artillery. 

Preponderance.  In  gunnery,  is  the  ex- 
cess of  weight  of  the  part  in  rear  of  the 
trunnions  over  that  in  front;  it  is  measured 
by  the  lifting  force  in  pounds,  which  must 
be  applied  at  the  rear  of  the  base-ring,  at 
the  base-line,  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  ratchet, 
to  balance  the  piece  when  suspended  freely 
on  the  axis  of  the  trunnions.  Preponder- 
ance was  given  to  prevent  the  sudden  dip- 
j)ing  of  the  muzzle,  in  tiring,  and  violent 
concussion  on  the  carriage  at  the  breech. 
Most  of  the  heavy  pieces  of  the  late  models 
have  no  preponderance,  the  axis  of  the 
trunnions  intersecting  the  axis  of  the  piece, 
at  the  centre  of  gravity. 

Presburg.  A  town  of  Hungary,  situated 
on  the  Danube,  StJ  miles  east  from  Vienna. 
This  town  was  once  the  capital  of  Hungary, 
and  the  emperors  t>f  Austria  are  still  crowned 
here  as  kings  of  Hungary.  It  is  noted  for 
the  treaty  concluded  there  between  France 
and  Austria  in  1805,  when  the  Tyrol  was 
given  to  Bavaria,  and  Venice  to  the  French. 

Prescott  (Upper  Canada).  On  Novem- 
ber 17,  1S:]S,  tli(>  Canadian  rebels  were  at- 
tacked by  the  British  under  Maj.  Young, 
and  (on  the  IHth)  by  Lieut. -Col.  Dundas, 
who  dispersed  the  insurgents,  several  of 
whom  were  killed,  and  many  taken  prisoners, 
the  remainder  surrendering.  The  troops 
also  sutfered  considerably. 

Presence  of  Mind.  Ready  conceptions 
of  expedient,  producing  prom|>titude  of  ac- 
tion under  ditlicult  and  alarming  cireum- 
staiues.  A  quality  indispensable  in  a  gen- 
oral. 

Present.  In  the  British  service,  means 
to  level;  to  aim;  to  bring  the  musket  to  a 
horizontal  position,  the  butt  resting  against 
the  right  shoulder  A)r  the  purpose  of  dis- 
charLrimr  its  contents  at  a  given  ttbject. 

Present.  To  ofler  openly  ;  to  exhibit;  to 
give  in  ceremony  ;  as,  to  present  the  colors. 


Present  Arms,  To.  In  tactics  i.s  to  bring 
the  musket  to  u  certain  prescribed  position, 
for  the  purpose  of  paying  a  military  com- 
j)liment. 

Preservation  of  Cannon  and  Ammuni- 
tion.     See  i^ACKKK. 

President.  The  President  of  the  United 
States  is  commander-in-chief  of  the  army, 
navy,  and  militia,  called  itito  service.  His 
functions  as  such  are  assigned  by  Congress, 
but  embrace  of  course  whatever  authority 
may  be  assigned  to  any  military  commander, 
on  the  principle  that  the  authority  of  the 
greater  includes  that  of  the  less.  For  the 
command,  government,  and  regulation  of 
the  army,  however,  Congress  has  created  a 
military  hierarchy  or  range  of  subordiiuition 
in  the  army  with  rights  and  duties  regulated 
by  Congress,  and  the  commander-in-chief 
cannot  make  use  of  any  other  agents  in  ex- 
ercising his  command  ;  and  all  orders  i.ssued 
by  him  must  be  according  to  the  rules  and 
articles  made  by  Congress  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  army.  In  his  capacity  of  chief 
magistrate  of  the  Union,  Congress  has  also 
invested  the  President  with  many  adminis- 
trative functions  relating  to  military  affairs  ; 
and  for  the  performance  of  the  latter  duties 
the  secretary  of  the  department  of  war  has 
been  made  his  minister,  upon  matters  con- 
nected with  7nafcrie(,  accounts,  returns,  the 
support  of  troops,  and  the  raising  of  troops. 

President.  The  president  of  a  court- 
martial  is  the  senior  member.  He  j>reserve3 
order  in  court;  administers  the  oath  taken 
by  the  judge-advocate,  and  the  proceeilings 
of  the  court  are  authenticated  by  his  signa- 
ture and  that  of  the  judge-advocate. 

Presidio  [Sp.).  A  place  of  defense;  a 
garrison  or  guard-house. 

Pressure-gauge.  Called  also  pi-r.tsiirr- 
pliiq.  An  apparatus  invented  by  Gen.  Rod- 
man for  measuring  the  pressure  exerted  by 
the  gases  of  exploded  powder.  It  consist"? 
essentially  of  a  steel  plunger,  on  the  head  of 
which  the  pressure  is  exerted.  The  other 
end  of  the  plunger  is  widened  out  into  two 
cutting  edges  which  meet  at  an  obtuse  angle. 
This  point  rests  on  a  disk  of  copper,  into 
which  the  cutter  is  driven  by  the  jiressure. 
The  pressure  is  deduced  from  the  length  of 
the  cut.  Two  forms  of  the  instrument  are 
used, — one  is  placed  in  a  hole  bored  throutrh 
the  side  of  the  gun.  The  other  is  complete 
in  itself  and  is  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  car- 
tridge-bag. Lieut.  :Metcalfo's  (U.  S.  Ord- 
nance Corps)  modification  of  the  pressure- 
gauge  has  a  cutter  with  a  helicoidal  edge.  To 
measure  the  cut  he  uses  a  circular  scale  with 
a  hole  in  the  centre  (in  which  the  inducted 
copper  is  placed),  and  a  radial  arm  to  show 
the  extent  of  the  spiral  cut.  The  English 
modification  of  Rodman's  instrument  is 
called  the  crn.iher-f>n ".'?'' <—''^  short  cylinder 
of  copper  is  substituted  for  the  disk,— tbo 
reduction  in  its  length  gives  a  measure  of 
the  pressure.  The  crusher-gauge  is  fre- 
quently  attached  to  the  base  of  the  shot.  A 
similar  moditicaiion  is  used  to  tost  the  power 


PRESTON 


452 


PRINCETON 


of  the  liigh  explosives,  such  as  dynamite, 
dualin,  etc.  A  lead  cylinder  is  crushed  in 
this  case.  A  very  small  charge  is  used.  The 
reaction  is  obtained  by  placing  a  heavy  cyl- 
indrical shot  over  the  charge,  which  rests  di- 
rectly in  a  cavity  on  the  top  of  the  plunger. 

Preston.  A  town  of  England,  in  Lan- 
cashire, on  the  north  bank  of  the  Kibble. 
This  town  was  partially  destroyed  by  Bruce 
in  1322;  and  after  declaring  for  the  king,  it 
was  taken  by  the  forces  of  the  Parliament 
under  Gen.  Fairfax.  Here  also  ended  the 
ill-fated  Jacobite  rising  of  1715,  when,  after 
a  brave  resistance,  the  insurgents  were  com- 
pelled to  surrender. 

Prestonpans.  A  village  of  Haddington- 
shire, 8  miles  east  of  Edinburgh.  In  the 
vicinity,  on  September  21,  1745,  was  fought 
the  famous  battle  of  Prestonpans,  between 
the  royal  troops  under  Sir  John  Cope  and 
the  Jacobites  under  Prince  Charles,  in  which 
the  latter,  with  a  loss  of  only  about  10  offi- 
cers and  120  men  in  killed  and  wounded, 
routed  the  royal  forces  with  great  slaughter, 
and  captured  their  cannon,  bgiggage,  and 
militar}^  chest. 

Pretence,  Escutcheon  of,  or  Escutcheon 
Surtout.  In  heraldry,  a  small  shield  placed 
in  the  centre  of  the  field  of  luiother  shield. 
The  husband  of  an  heiress  may  bear  the 
arms  of  his  wife  in  an  escutcheon  of  pretence, 
instead  of  impaling  them.  Feudal  arms  are 
also  sometimes  placed  on  an  escutcheon  of 
pretence,  particularly  in  the  insignia  of  elec- 
tive sovereigns,  who  have  been  in  use  of 
bearing  their  own  proper  arms  in  surtout 
over  those  of  the  dominions  to  wliich  they 
are  entitled. 

Pretorian.  Appertaining  to  pretor;  also 
the  general's  guard  among  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans. 

Pretorium.  The  hall  or  court  where  the 
pretor  lived  and  administered  justice.  It 
also  denoted  the  tent  of  the  Roman  general, 
in  which  councils  of  war  were  held.  The 
place  where  the  pretorian  guards  were  quar- 
tered or  lodged,  was  likewise  called  preto- 
rium. 

Prevesa.  A  fortified  town  of  European 
Turkey,  in  Albania,  on  the  north  shore  of 
the  Gulf  of  Arta,  58  miles  south-southwest 
of  Yanina.  Prevesa  belonged  to  the  Vene- 
tians from  1684  until  the  fall  of  that  repub- 
lic in  1797.  It  was  thou  held  by  the  French 
for  a  time,  but  was  afterwards  taken  by  the 
Turks. 

Prey,  Anything,  as  goods,  etc.,  taken  by 
force  from  an  enemy  in  war  ;  spoil ;  booty  ; 
plunder. 

Pricker,  A  light  horseman  was  formerly 
so  called. 

Pricker.     A  priuiing-wiro  (which  see). 

Pride.  In  heraldry,  a  peacock  or  other 
bird,  when  the  tail  is  spread  out  in  a  circu- 
lar form,  and  the  wings  drooped,  is  said  to 
be  "  in  his  pride." 

Priest-cap.  In  fortification,  a  work  so 
named  from  its  shape ;  culled  also  sioalloio^ 
tail.    See  Hedan. 


Prime.  To  charge  with  the  powder,  per- 
cussion-cap, or  other  device  for  communi- 
cating fire  to  the  charge,  as  a  fire-arm. 

Primer.  A  wafer,  cap,  tube,  or  other  de- 
vice for  communicating  fire  to  the  charge  of 
powder  in  a  cannon.  The  cap  or  tube  usu- 
ally contains  a  friction-  or  percussion-pow- 
der. The  friction-primer  is  generally  used 
in  the  land'service.  (See  Friction-primer.) 
For  service  on  shipboard,  a  quill  filled  with 
rifle-powder,  having  on  the  top  a  capsule  of 
fulminate  of  mercury,  is  generally  employed. 
The  capsule  is  exploded  by  ft  blow  from  the 
lock-hammer.  The  tape-primer^  used  some- 
times in  blasting,  is  formed  of  long,  flexible 
strips  of  paper  or  fabric  containing  fulmi- 
nate or  other  quick-burning  substance.  The 
electric  primer  is  used  to  fire  simultaneous 
discharges,  both  in  ordnance  and  blasting. 
In  firing  wet  gun-cotton,  the  small  charge 
of  dry  gun-cotton  used  in  conjunction  with 
the  detonating  exploder  is  called  a  primer. 
In  S7nall-arms  the  term  is  specially  applied, 
at  the  present  time,  to  the  percussion-caps 
used  in  reloading  metallic  cartridge-cases. 
The  cap  is  set  in  a  recess  in  the  head  of  the 
shell.  When  the  firing-pin  strikes  the  out- 
side end  of  the  cap,  the  fulminate  is  exploded 
by  being  driven  against  a  perforated  cone 
call-ed  the  nnvil.  This  anvil  is  usually  a  part 
of  the  shell.  In  the  Winchester  pi'imer,  re- 
cently invented,  the  anvil  is  a  part  of  the 
primer  itself,  being  inserted  upon  the  fulmi- 
nate. A  shoulder  in  the  recess  holds  the 
anvil  when  the  cap  is  struck. 

Priming.  The  powder,  percussion-cap, 
or  other  device  used  to  communicate  fire  to 
the  charge  in  a  fire-arm. 

Priming-tubes.  See  Laboratory  Stores. 

Priming-wire.  A  pointed  wire,  used  to 
penetrate  the  vent  of  a  piece,  for  examining 
the  powder  of  the  charge,  or  for  piercing  the 
cartridge. 

Prirnipilarii,  Primopilarii,  or  Primipila- 
res.  Among  the  Romans,  were  such  as  had 
formerly  borne  the  office  of  primipulus  of 
a  legion.  The  banner  was  intrusted  to  his 
care.  Among  other  privileges  which  the 
primipilarii  enjoyed,  they  became  heirs  to 
what  little  property  was  left  by  the  soldiers 
who  died  in  the  campaign. 

Primipilus.  The  centurion  belonging  to 
the  first  cohort  of  a  legion.  He  had  charge 
of  tlio  Roman  eagle, 

Princeton,  A  town  of  Mercer  Co.,  N.  J., 
about  40  miles  northeast  of  Philadelphia. 
This  place  was  the  scene  of  an  important  en- 
gagenient  during  the  Revolutionary  strug- 
gle, although  the  numbers  engaged  were 
comparatively  small.  On  hearing  of  the 
English  reverse  at  Trenton  (which  see),  Gen. 
Howe  immediately  ordered  Cornwallis,  who 
was  in  New  York,  to  proceed  with  his  forces 
to  Princeton.  Leaving  a  part  cf  his  troops 
at  this  place,  he  proceeded  towards  Trenton 
with  the  intention  of  giving  battle  to  the 
Americans,  and  arrived  with  his  vanguard 
on  January  1,  1777.  Washington,  learning 
that    only    three    regiments  "were    left    at 


PRINCIPES 


453 


PRIZE-MONEY 


Princeton,  by  a  circuitous  night  march  ar- 
rived thoro  by  duybrcaii  of  Januiiry  3,  sur- 
prised and  c()inj)lct(;ly  routed  the  enemy 
with  a  loss  of  200  killed  and  wounded,  and 
as  many  prisoners.  The  American  loss  did 
not  exceed  30.  This  event  greatly  aroused 
the  drooping  spirits  of  the  colonists,  who 
had  been  previously  disheartened  by  a  series 
of  reverses. 

Principes.  Tn  the  Roman  armies,  were 
the  iiiluntry,  who  formed  the  second  line  in 
the  order  df  l)attle.  They  were  armed  like 
the  hasfaii,  with  this  difterence,  that  the 
former  had  half-pikes  instead  of  whole  ones. 

Principles,  Military.  The  basis  orground- 
work  upon  which  every  military  movement 
is  made,  and  by  which  every  operation  is 
conducted. 

Prismatic  Compass.  A  surveying  instru- 
ment, nnich  used  on  account  of  its  conve- 
nient size  and  form  in  military  sketching, 
and  for  tilling  up  the  details  of  a  map  where 
great  accuracy  is  not  required. 

Prismatic  Powder.     See  Gunpowder. 

Prisoners.  Are  persons  under  arrest  or 
in  custody,  whether  in  prison  or  not.  When- 
over  any  otficer  is  charged  with  a  crime,  ho 
is  to  be  arrested  and  deprived  of  his  sword 
by  the  commanding  otficer;  and  soldiers 
charged  with  crimes  are  to  be  confined  until 
tried  by  a  court-martial,  or  released  by 
proper  authority.  (See  Appendix,  Arti- 
(U,Ks  OK  AVar,  Go  and  G6.)  When  brought 
into  court,  a  prisoirer  should  be  without 
irons,  or  any  numner  of  shackles  or  bands, 
unless  there  is  danger  of  an  escape,  and  then 
he  may  be  secured  with  irons. — lildckstone. 

Prisoners  of  War.  Are  soldiers  captured 
during  ai\  engagement,  siege,  or  continu- 
ance of  hostilities,  who  are  deprived  of  their 
liberty  until  regularly  e.'cchanged. 

Prisons,  Military.  Are  buildings  con- 
structed for  the  retention  of  prisoners  of 
war,  or  for  the  safe-keeping  and  punishment 
of  olfenders  against  military  law.  Some- 
times during  war  forts  and  other  strong 
buildings  are  utilized  for  these  purposes. 
The  following  were  noted  prisons  during  the 
civil  war,  IStil-Go,  for  the  retention  of  Fed- 
eral prisoners  of  war: 

AnderHonviUe  (which  see). 

Ihllr  Jsle. — An  island  in  the  James  River 
near  the  city  of  Richmond,  Va.  The  un- 
fortunate prisoners  taken  were  placed  on 
tiiis  island  without  shelter  of  any  kind  to 
protect  tiioin  from  the  scorching  rays  of  the 
sun  during  the  day  or  the  chilly  cold  mists 
of  the  night,  until  death  or  exchange  re- 
leased tlie?u  from  their  sulVerings. 

Castle  Thnndcr. — A  fort  in  Charleston 
harbor,  S.  C,  which  was  used  for  the  same 
purpose. 

Lihby. — An  old  tobacco  warehouse'  in 
Richmond,  Va.,  which  was  temporarily  con- 
verted into  a  military  prison  ;  and  for  cruelty 
and  torture  to  the  Union  prisoners  this  place 
was  second  only  to  Andersonville.  . 

Snlishiirjf. — A  town  in  North  Carolina, 
which  had  another  depot  for  prisoners. 


There  were  also  prisons  established  for  the 
retention  of  Confederate  prisoners  at  Camp 
Douglas,  Chicago,  Camp  Chase,  Ohio,  El- 
mira,  N.  Y.,  Point  Lookout,  Md.,  and  Rock 
Island.  III. 

At  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kansas,  a  perma- 
nent military  prison  was  established  in  ac- 
cordance with  an  act  of  Congress  passed 
March  3,  1873,  in  which  soldiers  of  the  U.  S. 
army  are  confined  for  serious  offenses  against 
military  law. 

At  Dartmoor,  a  desolate  region  in  Eng- 
land, a  prison  was  constructed  in  1809  for 
the  confinement  of  French  prisoners  of  war 
which  deserves  a  passing  notice,  inasmuch 
as  Americans  were  confined  there  during 
the  war  of  1812.  It  comprised  30  acres,  in- 
closed with  double  walls,  with  seven  distinct 
prison-houses  with  inclosures.  In  1812 
there  were  (JOOO  American  prisoners  of  war 
within  its  walls  who  were  treated  with  much 
cruelty,  and,  in  consequence  of  the  appear- 
ance of  mutinous  intentions  of  some  of  the 
prisoners  on  account  of  the  tardiness  of  the 
English  officials  in  releasing  them  after  the 
treaty  of  peace  was  ratified,  they  were  fired 
upon  by  the  English  soldiers,  which  resulted 
in  the  killing  of  5  and  wounding  of  33  pris- 
oners. This  act  was  regarded  in  America 
as  a  wanton  massacre. 

Privas.  A  town  of  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Ardoche,  26  miles  southwest 
from  Valence.  In  the  civil  wars  of  the  IGth 
and  17th  centuries  in  France,  Privas,  which 
was  then  a  strongly-fortified  town,  played  a 
conspicuous  part,  being  always  favoradle  to 
the  Protestant  party.  In  1G2'.)  it  was  bravely 
defended  by  a  small  garrison  under  St.  Andre 
de  Montbrun  against  Louis  XIIL,  but  after 
a  siege  of  two  months  had  to  be  abandoned. 
Montbrun  being  soon  afterwards  taken  was 
lianged,  and  the  fortifications  of  Privas  were 
leveled  to  the  ground. 

Private.  The  title  applied  in  the  British 
army  to  a  common  soldier  of  the  cavalry 
and  infantry  ;  the  corresponding  rank  in  the 
artillery  being  gunner  or  driver,  and  in  the 
engineers,  the  sapper.  A  private  in  the 
cavalry  is  sometimes  called  a  trooper.  In 
the  U.  S.  army  all  the  soldiers  who  are  below 
^he  grade  of  non-commissioned  officers  are 
called  privates. 

Privy-coat.  A  light  coat  or  defense  of 
mail,  concealed  under  the  ordinary  dress. 

Prize.  That  which  is  taken  from  another ; 
a  thing  seized  by  force,  stratagem,  orsuperior 
power.  Hence,  specifically,  anything  cap- 
tured by  a  belligerent  using  the  right  of 
war. 

Prize.  The  application  of  a  lever  to  move 
any  weighty  body,  as  a  cask,  cannon,  or  the 
like. 

Prize  Agent.  In  the  British  service,  a 
person  appointed  for  the  distribution  of  such 
shares  of  money  as  may  become  due  to  oflS- 
cersand  soldiers  after  battle,  siege,  or  capture. 

Prize-bolt.  A  mana;uvring-boU  of  a 
mortar-bed. 

Prize-money.     The  proportion  which  is 


PRIZING 


454 


PROJECTILE 


paid  to  the  troops  who  are  present  at  the 
capture  or  surrender  of  a  place,  etc.,  which 
yields  booty. 

Prizing.     The  same  as  prize^  which  see. 

Proclamation.  The  act  of  publishing 
abroad  ;  conspicuous  announcements  ;  ofKcial 
or  general  notice  ;  publication  ;  that  which 
is  put  forth  by  way  of  public  notice ;  an  of- 
ticial  public  announcement  or  declaration  ;  a 
published  ordinance  ;  as,  the  proclamation  of 
a  king.  A  proclamation  may  be  issued  to 
declare  the  intention  of  the  head  of  a  gov- 
ernment to  exercise  some  prerogative  or  en- 
force some  law  which  has  for  a  long  time 
been  dormant  or  suspended.  In  time  of  war, 
the  head  of  the  government  by  a  proclama- 
tion may  lay  an  embargo  on  shipping,  and 
order  the  ports  to  be  shut.  But  the  most 
usual  class  of  proclamations  are  admonitory 
notices  for  the  prevention  of  offenses,  con- 
sisting of  formal  declarations  of  existing 
laws  and  penalties,  and  of  the  intention  to 
enforce  them.  Proclamations  are  only  bind- 
ing when  they  do  not  contradict  existing 
laws,  or  tend  to  establish  new  ones,  but  only 
enforce  the  execution  of  those  which  are  al- 
ready in  being,  in  such  manner  as  the  liead 
of  the  government  judges  necessary. 

Proconsul.  In  Roman  antiquity,  an  offi- 
cer who  discharged  the  duties  of  a  consul 
without  being  himself  consul ;  a  governor  of 
a  province,  or  a  military  commander  under 
a  governor.  He  was  usual I3'  one  who  had 
previously  been  consul,  and  his  power  was 
nearly  equal  to  that  of  a  regular  consul. 

Prodd.  A  cross-bow,  used  for  throwing 
bullets  in  ancient  times. 

Profile.  A  section  of  a  parapet  or  other 
work  in  fortification. 

Projectile.  A  body  projected  or  impelled 
forward  by  force,  especially  through  the  air. 
In  a  limited  military  sense  the  term  is  ap- 
plied to  a  body  intended  to  be  projected  from 
a  cannon  by  the  force  of  gunpowder,  or 
other  explosive  agent,  to  reach,  strike,  pass 
through,  or  destroy  a  distant  object.  The 
materials  of  which  projectiles  are  usually 
composed  are  lead,  wrought  or  cast  iron, 
each  possessing  advantages  according  to  the 
circumstances  under  which  they  are  fired. 
But  the  material  which  combines  in  a  greater 
degree  than  any  other  the  essential  qualities 
of  hardness,  strength,  densit.y,  and  cheap- 
ness, is  cast  iron,  which  is  exclusively  used 
in  the  U.  S.  service  for  large  projectiles. 
Compound  projectiles  are  sometimes  made, 
so  as  to  combine  the  good  and  correct  the 
bad  qualities  of  different  metals.  To  obviate 
the  serious  results  that  may  arise  from  the 
wedging  of  the  flanges  of  a  cast-iron  projec- 
tile in  the  grooves  of  a  rifle-cannon,  it  is  fre- 
quently covered  with  a  coating  of  lead  or 
other  soft  metal.  Cast  and  wrought  iron 
have  also  been  combined  with  success,  and 
also  cast  iron  and  soft  metal  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  attain  the  strength  of  one  metal 
and  the  softness  and  expansibility  of  the 
other.  Other  metals,  such  as  brass,  are  also 
used  in  projectiles  of  special  construction. 


Projectiles  are  generally  classified,  according 
to  their  form,  into  spherical,  or  smooth-bore, 
and  oblong,  or  rifle  projectiles. 

Spherical  Projectiles  are  tired  mainly  from 
smooth-bore  guns.  They  are  solid  shot, 
shells,  spherical  case  or  shrapnel,  grape, 
canister,  carcasses,  grenades,  light-  and  fire- 
balls. The  advantages  which  they  possess 
over  the  oblong  are  their  uniformity  of  re- 
sistance to  the  air,  presenting  the  least  ex- 
tent of  surface  for  a  given  weight,  the  coin- 
cidence of  their  centres  of  form  and  inertia  ; 
they  are  less  liable  to  wedge  in  the  bore,  as 
they  touch  the  surface  at  only  one  point; 
and  they  are  best  adapted  for  rolling  and 
ricochet  tire  on  account  of  the  regularity  of 
their  rebounds.  Solid  shot  are  usually  made 
of  cast  iron,  and  are  designated  by  the  di- 
ameter of  the  bore  of  the  piece  in  which  they 
are  to  be  used,  or  by  their  weight.  Shells 
are  cast  with  a  core  of  sand  (greater  or  less 
according  to  the  thickness  required),  which 
is  afterwards  removed.  The  mortar-shell 
has  the  thinnest  walls,  and  contains  the 
greatest  bursting  charge  for  the  same  cali- 
ber;  the  gun-shell  is  thicker,  and  the  batter- 
ing-shell is  nearly  as  strong  as  the  solid  shot. 
Shells  are  usually  designated  by  the  weight 
of  the  solid  shot  of  the  same  diameter. 

Oblong  Projectiles  are  fired  principally 
from  rifled  pieces,  and  have  been  adopted  on 
account  of  the  increase  of  range  and  accu- 
racy which  can  be  obtained  with  them.  For 
this  purpose  it  is  necessary  that  tlie  projectile 
should  move  through  the  air  in  the  direction 
of  its  length.  Though  experience  would 
seem  to  show  that  the  only  sure  method  of 
effecting  this  is  to  give  it  a  rapid  rotary  mo- 
tion round  its  axis  by  the  grooves  of  the 
rifle,  numerous  trials  have  been  and  are  now 
being  made  to  produce  the  same  effect  with 
smooth-bored  guns.  One  of  the  simplest 
plans  for  this  purpose  is  to  place  the  centre 
of  gravity  or  inertia  in  advance  of  the  centre 
of  figure.  Another  is  to  make  the  projectile 
very  long,  with  its  rear  portion  of  wood, 
and  its  point  of  lead  or  iron,  somewhat  after 
the  manner  of  an  arrow  ;  but  these  plans  do 
not  seem  to  be  of  much  practical  utility. 
The  system  by  which  the  desired  result  is 
obtained  with  the  greatest  certainty  is  the 
rifle  system. 

Rifle  Si/stem. — Spiral  grooves  are  cut  into 
the  bore  of  the  y)iece,  or  it  is  ribbed  with 
spiral  bands,  and  the  projectile  is  so  formed 
or  prepared  as  to  follow  them  as  it  passes 
along  the  bore  of  the  piece.  The  principal 
question  which  now  occupies  the  attention 
of  those  engaged  in  improving  this  species 
of  cannon  is  to  obtain  the  safest  and  surest 
means  of  eflTecting  this  object.  A^'arious  plans 
have  been  tried  to  obtain  the  proposed  ob- 
ject ;  nearly  all  may  be  ranged  under  the  fol- 
lowing heads : 

1.  The  Flanged  System. — This  comprises 
all  projectiles  which  have  certain  flanges  or 
projections  to  tit  into  the  grooves  of  the  gun 
in  loading.  These  are  usually  deep  and  few 
in  number,  rounded  at  their  bottom  edges 


PROJECTILE 


455 


PROJECTILE 


so  as  to  cause  the  flanges  or  studs  to  pass  up 
the  inclined  side  when  rotation  is  imparled. 
This  is  the  system  at  present  adopted  in 
England.  Tliou<!;h  this  plan  affords  a  cer- 
tain means  of  comnuinieating  the  rifle  mo- 
tion, it  has  not  always  heen  found  a  safe 
one,  [)rohahly  from  tlie  wedging  of  the 
flanges  in  the  grooves.  Besides,  the  dirt 
from  the  hurning  of  the  powder  collects  in 
tiie  grooves;  and  as  it  is  difficult  to  clean 
them  hy  the  usual  means,  the  projectile  is 
liable  to  meet  with  obstruction  in  loading. 
To  obviate  these  difficulties,  ihe  flanges  are 
sometimes  made  of  softer  metal  than  the 
body  of  the  projectile.  Guns  for  flanged  or 
studded  projectiles  usually  have  from  3  to  9 
grooves,  0.15  to  0.25  inch  deep. 

2.  The  Compressive  System. — By  this  sys- 
tem the  projectile  is  forced  by  the  action  of 
the  powder  through  the  bore  of  a  piece 
whose  diameter  without  the  grooves  is  le.ss 
than  the  diameter  of  the  projectile.  Such 
are  the  projectiles  for  the  breech-loading 
Knipp  and  Broadwcll  guns.  These  usually 
consist  of  cast  iron  or  steel,  and  are  covered 
with  a  coating  of  lead  or  other  soft  metal 
having  horixontal  ribs  or  corrugations, 
which  is  secured  by  a  chemical  solder,  or 
cast  into  undercuts  in  the  body  of  the  shot. 
As  the  projectile  is  forced  through  the  bore, 
au  impression  of  the  rifling  is  cut  out  of  the 
libs,  the  lead  thus  displaced  finding  room  in 
the  grooves  between.  This  system  has  been 
ft>und  to  work  satisfactorily  in  breech-load- 
ing guns.  The  rifling  should  be  shallow  and 
consist  of  numerous  grooves,  slightly  nar- 
rowing towards  the  muzzle.  Large  guns 
usually  have  from  20  to  7U,  from  .05  to  .08 
inch  deep.  Experiments  are  now  being 
made,  with  prospects  of  success,  to  substitute 
bands  of  soft  copper  encircling  the  projec- 
tile for  the  load  coating. 

3.  The  Expansive  System. — This  system 
has  been  so  exclusively  used  in  the  United 
States  that  it  has  frequently  been  called  the 
American  system.  It  embraces  all  projec- 
tiles which  are  loaded  without  regard  to  the 
rifling,  but  which  are  fitted  with  an  expand- 
ing portion  of  some  softer  metal,  as  pew- 
ter, copper,  wrought  iron,  or  papier-mache, 
which  is  forced  into  the  grooves  by  the  dis- 
charge. This  system  requires  for  its  rifling 
fewer  grooves  than  the  c<impressive,  but  a 
somewhat  greater  number  than  the  flanged 
system.  Among  the  projectiles  of  this  class 
used  during  the  civil  war  were  the  Blakely, 
iJyer,  llotchkiss,  .lames,  Parrott,  Kceil, 
Schenkle,  and  Staflord.  The  principal  ob- 
jections to  an  expanding  or  compound  pro- 
jectile are  its  want  of  strength  to  resist  a 
charge  of  powder  proportionately  as  large  as 
that  employcil  for  a  simple  projectile,  and 
the  danger  of  its  breaking  and  wedging  in 
the  bore  of  the  piece.  Of  late  years,  how- 
ever, marked  im|)rovements  have  been 
nuide,  and  projcctih-s  of  this  claims  can  now 
be  safely  fired  with  double  their  former 
charges.  The  large  projei-tiU>s  of  this  de- 
scription now  used  in  the  L'niled  Slates  con- 


sist of  the  usual  cast-iron  body  having  a 
sab()t,  or  ring  of  brass  or  cop[ier  either  cast 
or  screwed  to  its  base.  This  ring  is  divided 
into  an  upper  and  lower  flange  or  lip  by  an 
annular  gro(»ve.  When  the  gun  is  fired, 
the  gases  enter  this  groove,  forcing  the  lower 
flange  down  ujion  the  projectile  and  the  up- 
per or  outer  into  the  rilling  of  the  gun,  where 
it  is  kept  during  its  passage  through  the  bore. 

ArmstrdtHf  Prajeriile. — But  one  kind  of 
projectile  is  used  in  the  Armstrong  breech- 
loading  guns  for  the  field  service,  and  this 
is  so  constructed  as  to  act  as  a  shot,  shell,  or 
case-shot  at  pleasure.  It  consists  of  a  very 
thin  cast-iron  shell,  inclosing  42  segment- 
shaped  pieces  of  cast  iron  built  up  so  as  to 
form  a  cylindrical  cavity  in  the  centre, 
which  contains  the  bursting  charge  and  the 
concussion-fuze.  The  exterior  of  the  shell 
is  thinly  coated  with  lead,  which  is  applied 
by  placing  the  shell  in  a  mold  and  pouring 
it  in  a  melted  state.  The  lead  is  also  allowed 
to  percolate  among  the  segments,  so  as  to 
fill  up  the  interstices,  the  central  cavity 
being  kept  open  by  the  insertion  of  a  steel 
core.  In  this  state  the  projectile  is  so  com- 
pact that  it  may  be  fired  without  injury, 
while  its  resistance  to  a  bursting  charge  R  so 
small  that  less  than  one  ounce  of  powder  is 
required  to  burst  it.  When  the  projectile  is 
to  be  fired  as  a  shot,  it  requires  no  prepara- 
tion ;  but  the  expediency  of  using  it  other- 
wise than  as  a  shell  is  doubted.  To  make  it 
available  as  a  shell,  the  bursting  tube,  the 
concussion-  and  time-fuzes,  are  all  t()  be  in- 
serted;  the  bursting  tube  entering  first  and 
the  time-fuze  being  screwed  in  at  the  apex. 
If  the  time-fuze  be  correctly  adjusted,  the 
shell  will  burst  when  it  reaches  within  a  few 
yards  of  the  object ;  or  failing  in  this,  it  will 
burst  by  the  ci>ncussion-fuze  when  it  strikes 
the  object,  or  grazes  the  ground  near  it.  If 
it  be  required  to  act  as  a  canister-shot  upon 
an  enemy  close  to  the  gun,  the  regulation  of 
the  time-fuze  must  be  turned  to  the  zero  of 
the  scale,  and  then  the  shell  will  burst  on 
leaving  the  gun.  The  Armstrong  projectiles 
for  the  nuizzle-loading  guns  have  rows  of 
brass  or  copjier  studs  projecting  from  their 
sides  to  fit  into  the  grooves  of  the  gun, 
which  are  constructed  on  the  shunt  princi- 
ple. The  projectile  is  made  of  wrought 
iron,  or  low  steel,  with  very  thick  sides. 
There  is  no  fuze,  the  explosion  resulting 
from  the  heat  generated  by  the  impact,  and 
the  crushing  in  of  the  thin  cap  which  closes 
the  mouth  of  the  powder-chamber.  The 
sides  and  bottom  of  the  shell  being  thick 
enough  to  resist  crushing  by  the  impact,  and 
also  to  resist  the  explosive  force  of  the  burst- 
ing charge,  iU  effect  will,  after  penetration, 
be  expended  on  the  backing  of  the  armor, 
or  the  decks  which  the  armor  is  intended  to 
screen.  Such  pn>Jcctilcs  are  called  "  blind 
shells.' 

lilakf.ly  Projrciile. — Capt.  Blakely 's  pro- 
jectile has  an  expanding  cap  attached  to  its 
base  by  means  of  a  single  tap-boll  in  the 
centre.     It  is    prevented    from   turning    by 


PROJECTILE 


456 


PEOJECTILE 


radial  grooves  cast  on  the  surfoce  of  the  bot- 
tom of  the  projectile,  into  which  the  cup  is 
jiressed  by  the  charge.  The  angle  between 
the  curved  sides  of  the  cup  and  the  bottom 
of  the  projectile  is  filled  with  a  lubricating 
material.  On  the  forward  part  of  the  body 
are  soft  metal  studs,  more  numerous  than 
the  grooves  of  the  bore  of  the  piece,  that 
some  of  them  may  always  form  a  bearing 
.surface  for  the  projectile  against  the  lands. 
The  driving  sides  of  the  grooves  ai-e  deeper 
than  the  others. 

Dyei-  Projectile. — The  Dyer  projectile  is 
composed  of  a  cast-iron  body,  and  a  soft 
metal  expanding  cup,  attached  to  its  base. 
The  adhesion  of  the  cup  is  effected  by  tin- 
ning the  bottom  of  the  projectile,  and  then 
casting  the  cup  on  to  it.  The  cup  is  com- 
posed of  an  alloy  of  lead,  tin,  and  copper, 
in  certain  proportions.  This  projectile,  as 
improved  by  Mr.  Taylor  at  the  Washington 
Arsenal,  gives  good  results  for  even  as  large 
a  caliber  as  12  inches. 

French  Projectile. — The  projectile  used  in 
the  French  field  service  is  made  of  cast  iron, 
and  has  12  zinc  studs  on  its  sides,  arranged 
in  pairs,  so  as  to  tit  the  6  grooves  of  the  gun. 
For  the  larger  cannon  projectiles,  but  3  studs 
are  used,  and  these  are  cast  on  the  projectile, 
nearly  opposite  to  its  centre  of  gravity ;  the 
bearing  sides  of  the  studs  are  faced  with 
white  metal  to  diminish  friction  against  the 
grooves  of  the  bore.  The  shape  of  the 
grooves  is  such  as  to  centre  the  projectile. 
The  latter  projectile  is  used  with  increasing, 
the  former  with  grooves  of  uniform  twist. 
Russian,  Austrian,  and  Spanish  artillery 
projectiles  belong  to  the  studded,  or  button 
class,  but  differ  from  each  other  in  the  de- 
tails of  their  construction. 

Hotchkiss  Projectile. — The  Hotchkiss  pro- 
jectile is  composed  of  three  parts:  the  body, 
the  expanding  ring  of  lead,  and  the  cast-iron 
cup.  The  action  of  the  charge  is  to  crowd 
the  cup  against  the  soft  metal  ring,  thereby 
expanding  it  into  the  rifling  of  the  gun. 
The  time-fuze  projectile  has  deep  longitud- 
inal grooves  cut  on  its  sides  to  allow  the 
tlame  to  pass  over  and  ignite  the  fuze.  The 
last  rifle  projectile  submitted  by  Mr.  Hotch- 
kiss has  an  expanding  cup  of  brass  attached 
to  its  base  in  a  peculiar  manner.  The  cup 
is  divided  into  four  parts  by  thin  projections 
on  the  base  of  the  projectile.  This  arrange- 
ment is  intended  to  facilitate  the  expansion 
of  the  cup  and  to  allow  the  flame  to  pass 
over  to  ignite  the  fuze. 

James  Projectile. — The  expanding  part  of 
the  James  projectile  consists  of  a  hollow 
formed  in  the  base  of  the  projectile,  and 
eight  radial  openings,  which  extend  from 
this  hollow  to  the  surface  for  the  passage  of 
the  flame  of  the  charge,  which  presses  against 
and  expands  into  the  grooves  of  the  bore, 
an  envelope  or  patch,  composed  of  paper, 
canvas,  and  lead.  In  a  later  pattern  of  this 
projectile,  the  internal  cavity  and  radial 
openings  are  omitted,  and  the  outside  is  fur- 
rowed with  longitudinal  grooves  which  in- 


crease in  depth  towards  the  base  of  the  pro- 
jectile, forming  inclined  planes,  up  which  the 
outer  covering  of  lead  and  canvas  is  moved 
by  the  force  of  the  charge  and  expanded  into 
the  rifling  of  the  piece. 

Tlie  first  projectile  used  in  Parrott  guns 
was  invented  by  Dr.  Reed  of  Alabama,  in 
1856  or  1857,  and  was  made  at  Parrott's 
foundry.  It  consisted  of  a  soft  wrought- 
iron  cup,  slightly  swedged  to  fit  the  grooves, 
upon  which  was  cast  the  body  of  the  shot. 

Palliser  Projectile. — This  is  the  most  for- 
midable armor-piercing  projectile  in  use. 
It  owes  its  eificiency  to  the  material  used, — 
chilled  cast  iron.  In  the  later  forms  the 
head  only  is  chilled,  the  body  being  cast  in 
sand.  Both  shot  and  shell  are  cast  with  a 
core.  The  shell  is  "blind."  The  curve  of 
the  ogival  head  is  struck  with  a  radius  of 
one  and  one-half  times  the  diameter  of  the 
projectile. 

Parrott  Projectile. — Capt.  Parrott's  pro- 
jectile, as  now  made,  is  composed  of  a  cast- 
iron  body  with  a  brass  ring  cast  into  a  rab- 
bet formed  around  its  base.  The  flame 
presses  against  the  bottom  of  the  ring  and 
underneath  it  so  as  to  expand  it  into  the 
grooves  of  the  gun.  To  prevent  the  ring 
from  turning  in  the  rabbet,  the  latter  is 
recessed  at  several  points  of  its  circumfer- 
ence. ParrotVs  incendiary  shell  has  two 
compartments  formed  by  a  partition  at  right 
angles  to  its  length.  The  lower  and  larger 
space  is  filled  with  a  burning  composition, 
the  upper  one  is  filled  with  a  bursting 
charge  of  powder,  which  is  fired  by  a  time- 
or  concussion-fuze.  The  burning  compo- 
sition is  introduced  through  a  hole  in  the 
bottom  of  the  shell,  which  is  stopped  up 
with  a  screw-plug. 

Sawyer  Projectile. — The  Sawyer  projectile 
has  upon  its  sides  six  rectangular  flanges  or 
ribs  to  fit  into  corresponding  grooves  of  the 
bore.  To  soften  the  contact  with  the  sur- 
face of  the  bore,  the  entire  surface  of  the 
projectile  is  covered  with  a  coating  of  lead 
and  brass-foil.  The  soft  metal  at  the  corner 
of  the  base  is  made  thicker  than  at  the  sides 
to  admit  of  being  expanded  into  the  grooves, 
and  thereby  closing  the  windage.  In  the 
latest  pattern  of  Sawyer  pi-ojectiles,  the 
flanges  are  omitted,  and  the  projectiles  are 
made  to  take  the  grooves  by  the  expansion 
of  the  soft  metal  at  the  base,  which  is  pecu- 
liarly shaped  for  this  purpose. 

Schenkle  Projectile. — Schenkle's  projectile 
is  composed  of  a  cast-iron  body,  the  poste- 
rior portion  of  which  is  a  cone.  The  ex- 
panding portion  is  a  papier-mache  sabot  or 
ring,  which  is  expanded  into  the  rifling  of 
the  bore  by  being  forced  on  to  the  cone  by 
the  action  of  the  charge.  On  issuing  from 
the  bore  the  wad  is  blown  to  pieces,  leaving 
the  projectile  unencumbered  in  its  flight. 
A  great  difliculty  has  been  found  in  prac- 
tice in  always  getting  a  proper  quality  of 
material  for  the  sabot,  and  in  consequence, 
these  projectiles  have  not  been  found  to  be 
reliable. 


PROJECTILE 


457 


PROJECTILE 


Scott  Projectile. — The  shell  devised  b}' 
Commander  Scott  of  the  British  navy,  for 
firing  niolten  iron,  has  three  ribs  cast  upon 
it,  which  fit  grooves  so  constructed  as  to 
centre  it  in  the  bore  of  the  gun  when  fired. 
The  interior  of  this  shell  is  lined  with  loam 
to  prevent  the  heat  of  the  charge  from  pen- 
etrating through  to  the  bursting  charge.  It 
is  supposed  to  be  broken  and  its  contents 
diffused  on  striiting  the  object. 

Whit  worth  Projectile. — The  cross-section 
of  the  bore  of  the  Whitworth  gun  is  a  hex- 
agon with  the  corners  slightly  rounded. 
The  projectile  is  first  formed  so  that  its 
cross-section  is  a  circle,  and  its  sides  taper 
towards  both  ends.  The  middle  portion  is 
then  carefully  planed  off  to  fit  the  bore  of 
the  gun.  The  AVhitworth  blind  shell  for 
firing  against  armor-plates,  is  made  of  tem- 
pered steel,  and  each  end  is  closed  with  a 
screw.  To  prevent  the  heat  of  impact  from 
acting  too  soon  on  the  bursting  charge,  it  is 
surrounded  by  one  or  more  thicknesses  of 
fiannel.  A  7-inch  shell  of  this  kind  has 
been  found  to  have  sufficient  strength  and 
etiftncss  to  penetrate  5  inches  of  wrought 
iron  before  bursting. 

Confederate  Projectiles — The  rifle  projec- 
tiles used  by  the  Confederates  in  the  late 
war  belonged,  with  a  few  exceptions,  to  the 
expanding  class.  Besides  the  above  there 
are  three  kinds  of  projectiles  much  used 
in  the  U.  S.  service,  viz. : 

Absterdnm  Projectile. — The  best  form  is 
cast  in  a  single  piece,  and  has  an  expanding 
ring  of  brass  which  projects  three-eighths 
of  an  inch  beyond  the  base  of  the  projectile. 

Eureka  Projectile. — Consists  of  a  cast-iron 
body  in  one  piece,  with  a  brass  sabot ;  the 
eabot  is  an  annular  disk  intended  to  move 
on  the  frustum  of  a  cone  with  an  expanding 
cup  in  rear  to  take  the  grooves. 

Ordnance  Projectile. — Consists  of  a  cast- 
iron  body,  with  a  sabot  composed  of  an 
alloy  of  lead  and  tin,  which  is  cast  on  the 
base  of  the  projectile,  and  is  held  in  position 
by  undercuts  and  dovetails,  the  action  of 
the  charge  being  to  force  tiie  sabot  on  the 
cast-iron  body  and  to  make  it  take  the 
grooves. 

Projectiles  of  special  construction  were 
formerly  much  used  for  particular  purposes, 
as: 

Bar-shot,  which  consisted  of  two  hemi- 
spheres or  spheres  connected  by  a  bar  of  iron 
either  rigidly  or  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
traverse  its  length  ;  these  were  useful  in 
cutting  the  masts  and  rigging  of  ships. 

Chain-shot. — This  difi'ered  from  bar-shot 
only  in  the  mode  of  connection,  which  was 
a  chain  instead  of  a  bar. 

Chain-ball. — To  arrest  the  motion  of  rota- 
tion of  an  oblong  projectile  thrown  under 
high  angles,  and  with  a  moderate  velocity, 
it  has  been  proposed  to  attach  a  light  body 
to  its  posterior  portion  by  means  of  a  cord, 
or  chain,  which  will  offer  a  resistance  to  the 
flight  of  the  projectile,  and  cause  it  to  move 
with  its  point  foremost. 
80 


Nnil-hall. — A  round  projectile,  having  a 
projecting  pin  to  prevent  it  from  turning  in 
the  bore  of  the  piece.  . 

Grooved  linll. — An  oblong  projectile,  hav- 
ing spiral  grooves  cut  along  its  base,  by 
means  of  which  the  action  of  the  charge  pro- 
duces rotation  about  the  longer  axis  of  the 
projectile.  Sometimes  these  grooves  are  cut 
in  the  forward  part  of  the  projectile  for  the 
action  of  the  air.  Neither  of  these  plans  has 
succeeded  in  practice. 

Bullets. — A  bullet  is  a  leaden  projectile 
discharged  from  a  musket,  fowling-piece, 
pistol,  or  similar  weapon. 

Spherical  Bullets. — When  smooth-bore 
muskets  alone  were  used  the  bullets  were 
chiefly  spherical  in  form  and  made  by  cast- 
ing; at  present,  however,  spherical  bullets 
are  manufactured  by  a  compressing  machine 
invented  by  Mr.  George  Napier.  They  are 
denominated  by  the  number  contained  in  a 
pound.  In  consequence  of  the  great  im- 
provements that  have  been  made  of  late  in 
small-arms,  the  spherical  bullet  is  now  very 
little  employed  for  military  purposes,  its  use 
being  chiefly  confined  to  case-shot. 

Oblonci  Bullets. — Are  denominated  by  their 
diameter  and  weight.  About  IGOO,  when 
rifles  began  to  be  used  as  a  military  weapon, 
spherical  bullets  were  fired  ;  in  the  early  part 
of  the  18th  century,  however,  it  was  found 
that  good  results  could  be  obtained  by  the 
use  of  oblong  projectiles  of  elliptical  form. 
The  great  difficulty,  however,  of  loading  the 
rifle,  which  was  ordinarily  accomplished  by 
the  blows  of  a  mallet  on  a  stout  iron  ramrod, 
prevented  it  from  being  generally  used  in 
regular  warfare.  The  foregoing  plan  was 
afterwards  improved  by  making  the  projec- 
tile a  little  smaller  than  the  bore,  and  wraf>- 
ping  it  with  a  patch  of  cloth  greased  to 
diminish  the  friction  in  loading.  The  im- 
provements which  have  been  made  in  the 
last  thirty  years  have  entirely  overcome  this 
difficulty,  and  rifles  are  now  almost  univer- 
sally employed,  although  until  185o  the  mass 
of  the  American  infantry  was  armed  with 
smooth-bored  muskets.  The  first  person  to 
overcome  the  ditfioilty  of  loading  rifles  was 
M.  Delavigne,  an  oflicer  of  the  French  in- 
fantry. His  plan,  proposed  in  1827,  was  to 
make  the  projectile  small  enough  to  enter 
the  bore  easily  and  to  attach  it  to  a  sabot, 
which,  when  in  position,  rested  upon  th's 
shoulder  of  a  cylindrical  chamber  formed  ai 
the  bottom  of  the  bore  to  contain  the  pow- 
der. In  this  position  the  projectile  wsis 
struck  two  or  three  times  with  the  ramrod, 
which  expanded  the  lead  into  the  grooves  of 
the  barrel.  The  method  of  Delavigne  was 
afterwards  improved  by  Thouvenin  and 
Minio,  both  officers  of  the  French  service. 
The  projectiles  suggested  by  them  were 
elongated  in  form  and  the  metal  of  the  pri>- 
jectile  was  forced  into  the  grooves  of  the 
rifling  by  means  of  a  plug  or  cup  driven 
into  the  base  of  the  projectile,  which  was  cast 
hollow  for  that  purpose.  The  cup  used  in 
the   Minio  bullet  was   made  of   sheet-iron. 


PROJECTILES 


458 


PROJECTILES 


Mr.  Greener  of  England  appears  to  have 
been  the  first  person  to  utilize  this  expanding 
or  dilating  action.  Various  other  bullets 
have  been  invented,  of  greater  or  less  use- 
fulness, as  the  Whitworth,  Pritchett  or  En- 
field, and  those  used  in  the  French,  Austrian, 
and  Swiss  services.  In  the  British  service, 
the  Enfield  bullet  is  employed  ;  this  has  a 
perfectly  smooth  exterior,  and  a  conical  box- 
wood plug  inserted  into  a  cavity  at  the  base  ; 
they  are  made  by  machinery  which  draws  in 
a  coil  of  leaden  rod,  unwmds  it,  cuts  it  to 
the  required  length,  stamps  out  the  bullets 
with  steel  dies,  drops  them  into  boxes,  and 
conveys  them  away. 

United  States  Bullets. — The  bullets  used  in 
the  U.  S.  service  are  of  two  kinds,  one  for 
the  rifle  and  carbine  ball-cartridge  weighing 
405  grains,  the  other  for  the  revolver  car- 
tridge weighing  230  grains.  The  metal  used 
is  an  alloy  of  16  parts  of  lead  and  1  part  of 
tin.  The  bullet  in  shape  is  a  cylinder  sur- 
mounted by  a  conical  frustum  tCTminating 
in  a  spherical  segment.  It  has  three  rec- 
tangular cannelures  which  contain  the  lubri- 
cant. This  latter  is  protected  by  the  case 
which  covers  more  than  half  the  length  of 
the  bullet.  A  dished  cavity  is  made  in  the 
base  of  the  bullet  to  bring  it  to  the  proper 
weight. 

Projectiles,  Theory  of.  Is  the  investiga- 
tion of  the  path,  or  tr-ajectory  as  it  is  called, 
of  a  body  which  is  projected  into  space.  A 
body  thus  projected  is  acted  upon  by  two 
forces,  the  force  of  2^)'ojection,  which,  if  act- 
ing alone,  would  carry  the  body  onwards 
forever  in  the  same  direction  and  at  the  same 
rate  ;  and  the  force  of  gravity,  which  tends 
to  draw  the  body  downwards  towards  the 
earth.  The  force  of  projection  acts  only  at 
the  commencement  of  the  body's  motion; 
the  force  of  gravity,  on  the  contrary,  con- 
tinues to  act  effectively  during  the  whole 
time  of  the  body's  motion,  drawing  it  far- 
ther and  farther  from  its  original  direction, 
and  causing  it  to  describe  a  curved  path, 
which,  if  the  body  moved  in  a  vacuum, 
would  be  accurately  a  parabola. 

Trajectory  in  Vacuo. — This  general  theory 
is  not  the  object  of  the  present  discussion, 
but  simply  the  theory  of  projectiles  as  far  as 
it  relates  to  fire-arms.  The  path  that  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  a  projectile  would  de- 
scribe in  vacuo  would  be  a  parabola,  and  the 
greatest  range  given  by  an  angle  of  fire  of 
45°.  Under  the  same  angles  of  fire  the  range 
would  be  proportional  to  the  squares  of  the 
velocities,  the  velocity  least  at  the  summit 
of  the  trajectory,  and  the  velocities  at  the 
two  points  in  which  the  trajectory  cuts  the 
horizontal  plane  equal.  The  time  of  flight 
would  be  given  for  an  angle  of  45°  by  the 
formula : 

In  which  T  represents  the  time  of  flight, 
and  X  the  range  expressed  in  feet.  These 
results  are  found  to  answer  in  practice  for 
projectiles   which   exjoerience  slight   resist- 


ance from  the  air,  or  for  heavy  projectiles 
moving  with  low  velocities,  as  is  usually  the 
case  with  those  of  mortars  and  howitzers, 
for  which,  within  certain  limits,  the  above 
results  are  sufficiently  accurate  in  practice. 

Trajectory  in  Air. — A  body  moving  in  air 
experiences  a  resistance  which  diminishes 
the  velocity  with  which  it  is  animated. 
Thus  it  has  been  shown  that  certain  cannon- 
balls  do  not  range  one-eighth  as  far  in  the 
air,  as  they  would  if  they  did  not  meet  with 
this  resistance  to  their  motion,  and  small- 
arm  projectiles  which  have  but  little  mass 
are  still  more  affected  by  it.  This  resistance 
is  expressed  by  the  formula  : 

in  which  P  represents  the  resistance  in  the 
terms  of  the  unit  of  weight,  v  the  velocity, 
and  ]iR'^  the  area  of  a  cross-section  of  the 
projectile,  A  the  resistance  in  pounds  on  a 
square  foot  of  the  cross-section  of  a  projec- 
tile moving  with  a  velocity  of  one  foot,  r  is 
a  linear  quantity  depending  on  the  velocity 
of  the  projectile.  For  all  service  spherical 
projectiles  A  is  .000514,  and  for  all  service 
velocities  r  is  1.427  feet ;  the  value  of  A  for 
the  rifle-musket  bullet  is  .000358  ;  hence, 
the  resistance  of  the  air  is  about  one-third 
less  on  the  ogival  than  on  the  spherical 
form  of  projectile.  A  being  a  function  of 
the  density  of  air,  its  value  depends  on  the 
temperature,  pressure,  and  hygrometric  con- 
dition. It  has  been  demonstrated  that  the 
final  velocity  of  a  projectile  falling  in  the 
air  is  directly  proportional  to  the  product  of 
its  diameter  and  density,  and  inversely  pro- 
portional to  the  density  of  the  air  ;  the  re- 
tarding eflfect  of  the  air  is  less  on  the  larger 
and  denser  projectiles,  and  for  the  same  cali- 
ber an  oblong  projectile  will  be  less  retarded 
by  the  air  than  one  of  spherical  form  and 
consequently  with  an  equal,  perhaps  less, 
initial  velocity,  its  range  will  be  greater. 
It  has  also  been  shown  that  great  advantage 
in  point  of  range  is  obtained  by  using  large 
projectiles  instead  of  small  ones,  solid  pro- 
jectiles instead  of  hollow  ones,  leaden  pro- 
jectiles instead  of  iron  ones,  and  oblong 
projectiles  instead  of  round  ones.  The  ogi- 
val form,  or  the  form  of  the  present  rifle- 
musket  bullet,  experiences  less  resistance  in 
passing  through  the  air  than  any  other 
known.  In  consequence  of  the  variable 
nature  of  the  resistance  of  the  air,  it  has 
been  found  impossible  to  find  an  accurate 
expression  for  the  trajector3^  Capt.  Didion, 
of  Metz,  has,  however,  found  an  approxi- 
mate solution  ;  he  states  that  all  cases  of  the 
movement  of  a  projectile  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes  :  1st.  When  the  angle  of 
projection  is  slight  or  does  not  exceed  3°,  as 
in  the  ordinary  fire  of  guns,  howitzers,  and 
small-arms, — for  slight  variations  of  the 
angle  of  projection  above  or  below  the  hori- 
zontal, the  form  of  the  trajectory  may  be 
considered  constant,  and  when  the  object  is 
but  slightly  raised  above  or  depressed  below 


PROJECTILES 


459 


PROJECTILES 


the  horizontal  plane,  it  may  be  considered 
as  in  this  plane.  2d.  When  antfles  of  pro- 
jection do  not  exceed  10°  or  lo°,  as  in  the 
ricochet  lire  of  guns,  howitzers,  and  mor- 
tars. 3d.  When  the  an^le  of  projection  ex- 
ceeds 15°,  as  is  the  case  in  mortar  fire.  For 
each  of  these  cases  he  has  deduced  formula}, 
by  means  of  which  tlie  range,  time  of  fiight, 
etc.,  can  be  determined.  As  a  projectile 
rises  in  the  ascending  branch  of  its  trajec- 
tory, its  velocity  is  diminishcid  by  the  re- 
tarding effect  of  the  air,  and  the  force  of 
gravity,  in  consequence  of  the  resistance  of 
the  air  alone,  the  velocity  continues  to  di- 
minish to  a  point  a  little  beyond  the  sum- 
mit of  the  trajectory,  wiiereit  is  a  minimum, 
and  from  this  point  it  increases,  as  it  de- 
scends, under  the  influence  of  the  force  of 
gravity,  until  it  becomes  uniform,  which 
event  depends  on  the  diameter  and  weight 
of  the  projectile,  and  the  density  of  the  air. 
The  inclination  of  the  trajectory  decreases 
from  the  origin  to  the  summit,  where  it  is 
nothing,  it  increases  in  the  descending  branch 
from  the  summit  to  its  termination,  and  if 
the  ground  did  not  interpose  an  obstacle,  it 
would  become  vertical  at  an  infinite  dis- 
tance. An  element  of  the  trajectory  in  the 
descending  branch  has  a  greater  inclinatii)n 
than  the  corresponding  element  of  the  as- 
cending branch.  Strictly  speaixing,  there- 
fore, the  trajectory  of  a  projectile  in  air  is 
not  a  parabola,  but  is  an  exponential  curve 
with  two  asymptotes,  the  first  the  axis  of 
the  piece,  which  is  tangent  to  the  trajectory 
when  the  initial  velocity  is  infinite,  the  sec- 
ond a  vertical  line  toward  which  the  tra- 
jectory approaches,  as  the  horizontal  com- 
ponent of  the  velocity  diminishes  and  the 
eflect  of  the  force  of  gravity  increases. 
Tlie  curvature  of  the  trajectory  increases  in 
the  ascending  branch  to  a  point  a  little  be- 
yond the  summit.  The  point  of  greatest 
curvature  is  situated  nearer  the  summit  than 
the  point  of  minimum  velocity.  In  the  fire 
of  mt)rtar-shells,  under  great  angles  of  pro- 
jection, the  trajectory  may  be  considered  as 
an  arc,  in  which  the  angle  of  fall  is  slightly 
greater  than  the  angle  of  projection.  In 
the  fornuiUu  deduced  by  Uidion,  in  conse- 
quence of  considering  the  inclination  of  the 
trajectory  as  constant,  the  resistance  of  the 
air  is  slightly  underestimated  in  the  more 
inclined  portions  of  the  trajectory  or  at  the 
beginning  and  end,  and  slightly  overesti- 
mated in  the  less  inclined  portions  or  about 
the  summit.  It  follows  tluit  the  calculated 
trajectory  will  at  first  rise  above  tlie  true 
one,  then  pass  below  it  and  again  ])ass  above 
it;  the  calculated  ranges  are  therefore 
slightly  in  exce.ss  of  the  true  ones. 

Trnjectori/  of  Oblung  Projectiles. — From 
the  law  of  inertia,  a  rifle  projectile  moves 
through  the  air  with  its  axis  of  rotation 
parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  bore.  Hence  it 
follows  that  an  oblong  projectile,  fired  under 
alow  angle  of  projection,  presents  a  greater 
surface  toward  the  earth,  and  les.s  parallel 
to  it,  than  a  round  projectile  of  the  same 


weight,  consequently  the  vertical  component 
of  the  resistance  of  the  air  is  greater,  and 
the  horizontal  component  less,  in  the  first 
case  than  in  the  second.  The  effect  of  this 
will  be  to  give  an  oblong  projectile  a  flatter 
trajectory  and  longer  range  than  a  round 
one. 

Decintion  of  Projectiles. — The  path  de- 
scribed by  the  ttntre  of  inertia  of  a  projectile, 
moving  under  the  influences  of  gravity  and 
the  tangential  resistance  of  the  air,  is  called 
the  nornud  tnijectory.  In  practice,  various 
causes  are  constantly  at  work  to  deflect  a 
projectile  from  its  normal  path.  All  devia- 
ting causas  may  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
— those  which  act  while  the  projectile  is 
in  the  bore  of  the  piece,  and  those  which 
act  after  the  projectile  has  left  it.  The  first 
class  includes  all  the  causes  which  alTect 
the  initial  velocity,  and  give  rotation  to  the 
projectile;  the  second  includes  the  action  of 
the  air. 

Causes  which  affect  Initial  Velocity. — The 
principal  causeg  which  affect  initial  velocity 
are  variations  in  the  weights  of  the  powder 
and  projectile,  the  manner  of  loading,  the 
temperature  of  the  piece,  and  the  balloting 
of  the  projectile  along  the  bore.  Rotation. 
The  principal  cause  of  the  deviation  of  a 
projectile  is  its  rotation  combined  with  the 
resistance  of  the  air.  By  balloting.  If  the 
projectile  be  spherical  and  homogeneous, 
rotation  is  produced  by  the  bounding  or 
balloting  of  the  ball  in  the  bore,  arising 
from  the  windage.  In  this  case  the  axis  of 
rotation  is  horizontal,  and  passes  through 
the  centre  of  the  ball  ;  the  direction  of  rota- 
tion depends  on  the  side  of  the  projectile 
which  strikes  the  surface  of  the  bore  last. 
The  velocity  of  rotation  from  this  cause  de- 
pends on  the  windage,  or  depth  of  the  in- 
dentations in  the  bore,  the  charge  being  the 
same.  By  ecccntriciti/.  If,  from  the  struc- 
ture of  the  ball,  or  from  some  defect  of  manu- 
facture, the  centre  of  gravity  does  not  coin- 
cide with  the  centre  of  figure,  rotation  gen- 
erally takes  place  around  the  centre  of 
gravity.  This  arises  from  the  fact  that  the 
resultant  of  the  charge  acts  at  the  centre  of 
figure,  while  inertia,  or  resistance  to  motii>n, 
acts  at  the  centre  of  gravity.  For  the  same 
charge  the  velocity  of  rotation  passes 
through  the  centre  of  gravity,  and  is  per- 
pendicular to  a  plane  containing  the  result- 
ant of  the  charge  and  the  centres  of  figure 
and  gravity.  For  the  same  charge,  the 
velocity  of  rotation  is  proportional  to  the 
lever  arm,  or  the  per|>endicular,  let  fall 
from  the  centre  of  gravity  to  the  resultant 
of  the  charge.  Knowing  the  position  of  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  ball  in  the  Ixire,  it 
is  easy  to  foretell  the  direction  and  velocity 
of  rotation.  In  general  terms  the  front  sur- 
face of  the  projectile  moves  toward  the  side 
of  the  bore  on  which  the  centre  of  gravity 
is  situated,  and  the  velocity  of  rotation  is 
greatest  when  the  line  joining  the  centres  of 
gravity  and  figure  is  perpendicular  to  the 
axis  ot' the  bore. 


PROJECTILES 


460 


PROJECTILES 


The  Effect  of  Rotation.— Tho  effect  of  ro- 
tation in  producing  deviation  may  be  dis- 
cussed under  three  heads :  1st.  When  the 
projectile  is  spherical  and  concentric;  2d. 
When  it  is  spherical  and  eccentric ;  and, 
3d.  When  it  is  oblong.  If  a  projectile  be 
spherical  and  concentric,  rotation  takes  place 
from  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  bore 
around  a  horizontal  axis,  and  the  effect  will 
be  to  shorten  or  lengthen  the  range,  as  the 
motion  of  the  front  surface  is  downward  or 
upward.  If  the  projectile  be  eccentric,  the 
motion  of  the  front  surface  is  generally  to- 
ward the  side  on  which  the  centre  of  gravity 
is  situated,  and  the  deviation  takes  place  in 
this  direction.  The  extent  of  the  deviation 
for  the  same  charge  depends  on  the  position 
of  the  centre  of  gravity  ;  the  horizontal  de- 
viation being  the  greatest  when  the  centres 
of  gravity  and  figure  are  in  a  horizontal 
plane,  and  the  line  which  joins  them  is  at 
right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  piece ;  the 
vertical  deviation  will  be  the  greatest  when 
these  centres  are  in  a  vertical  plane,  and  the 
line  which  joins  them  is  at  right  angles  to 
the  axis  of  the  piece.  If  the  axis  of  rotation 
coincide  with  the  tangent  to  the  trajectory 
throughout  the  flight,  all  points  of  the  sur- 
face have  the  same  velocity  in  the  direction 
of  the  motion  of  translation,  and  there  will 
be  no  deviation.  This  explains  why  it  is 
that  a  rifle  projectile  moves  through  the  air 
more  accurately  than  a  projectile  from  a 
emooth-bored  gun.  In  accurate  firing,  there- 
fore, it  is  important  to  know  the  true  posi- 
tion of  the  centre  of  gravity.  In  ricochet 
firing  over  smooth  water,  the  number  of 
grazes  may  be  increased  or  diminished  by 
placing,  in  loading,  the  centre  of  gravity 
above  or  below  the  centre  of  figure. 

Deviatio?i  of  Oblong  Projectiles. — The  cause 
of  the  deviation  of  an  oblong  rifle  projectile 
is  quite  difterent  from  one  of  spherical  form. 
An  oblong  projectile  moving  in  the  air  is 
acted  upon  by  two  rotary  forces,  viz. :  one 
which  gives  it  its  normal  rotary  motion 
around  its  axis  of  progression,  and  another 
the  resistance  of  the  air,  which,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  deflection  of  the  axis  of  pro- 
gression from  the  tangent  to  the  trajectory 
by  the  action  of  gravity,  does  not  pass 
through  the  centre  of  inertia,  but  above  or 
below  it ;  depending  on  the  shape  of  the  pro- 
jectile. From  a  law  of  mechanics,  a  body 
thus  circumstanced  will  not  yield  full}^  to 
cither  of  the  forces  that  thus  act  upon  it,  but 
its  apex  will  move  off  with  a  slow  uniform 
motion  to  the  right  or  left  of  the  vertical 
plane,  depending  on  the  relative  direction  of 
the  two  rotary  forces.  If  the  action  of  these 
forces  be  continued  sufBciently  long,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  axis  of  the  projectile  before 
referred  to  describes  a  cone  around  a  line 
passing  through  the  centre  of  inertia  and 
■parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  resistance  of 
the  air.  Owing  to  the  short  duration  of  the 
flight  of  an  ordinary  projectile,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  consider  the  first  part  of  this 
conical  motion.     If  the  projectile  rotates  in 


the  direction  of  the  hands  of  a  watch  to  the 
eye  of  the  marksman,  and  the  resultant  of  the 
resistance  of  the  air  pass  above  the  centre  of 
inertia,  as  it  does  in  the  service  bullet  with 
a  conoidal  point,  then  the  point  of  the  pro- 
jectile will  move  to  the  right,  which  brings 
the  left  side  of  the  projectile  obliquely  in 
contact  with  the  current  of  the  air.  The 
eftect  of  this  position  with  reference  to  the 
air  will  be  to  generate  a  component  force 
that  will  urge  the  projectile  to  the  right  of 
the  plane  of  fire.  This  peculiar  deviation 
was  called  by  the  French  officers  that  first 
observed  it,  ^' de7-ivation,"  or  "(/?-i/7. " 

Sionmary  of  Deviating  Causes. — The  fol- 
lowing summary  may  be  considered  as  em- 
bracing nearly  all  the  causes  of  deviation 
of  cannon  and  small-arm  projectiles :  1st. 
Froin  the  con.struction  of  the  piece.  These 
causes  are,  wrong  position  of  the  sight ;  bore 
not  of  the  true  size  ;  windage,  etc.  2d.  From 
the  charge  of  powder.  Improper  weight; 
form  of  grain  and  variable  quality  of  the 
powder,  etc.  3d.  From  the  projectile.  Not 
of  the  exact  size,  shape,  or  weight;  disfigur- 
ation in  loading,  or  on  leaving  the  bore; 
eccentricity.  4th.  From  the  atmosphere,  etc. 
The  effect  of  wind ;  variations  in  the  tem- 
perature, moisture,  and  density  of  the  air; 
position  of  the  sun  as  regards  the  effect  on 
the  aim  ;  diflerence  of  level  between  the  ob- 
ject and  the  piece  ;  and  rotation  of  the  earth. 
It  is  found  that  a  projectile  will  deviate  to 
the  right  of  the  object  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere whatever  may  be  the  direction  of  the 
line  of  fire,  and  at  a  distance  from  it,  de- 
pending on  the  latitude  of  the  place,  and  on 
the  time  of  flight  and  the  range  of  the  pro- 
jectile. 

Projectiles,  Effects  of.  The  effects  of 
projectiles,  and  particularly  that  of  penetra- 
tion, depend  on  the  nature  of  the  projectile, 
its  initial  velocitj'^,  and  the  distance  of  the 
object.  The  effects  of  the  various  kinds  of 
projectiles  upon  iron  and  steel  plates  are  not 
yet  thoroughly  understood,  and  experiments 
are  still  being  made,  particularly  in  Eng- 
land, to  determine  the  best  combinations  of 
wrought  and  cast  iron,  and  steel,  to  resist 
the  penetration  of  the  enormous  projectiles 
of  the  present  day.  Their  effects  upon  wood, 
earth,  etc.,  are,  however,  better  understood. 

Effect  on  Wood. — The  effect  of  a  projectile 
fired  against  wood  varies  with  the  nature  of 
the  wood  and  the  direction  of  the  penetra- 
tion. If  the  projectile  strikes  perpendicular 
to  the  fibres,  and  the  fibres  be  tough  and 
elastic,  as  in  the  case  of  oak,  a  portion  of 
them  are  crushed,  and  others  are  bent  under 
the  pressure  of  the  projectile,  but  regain 
their  form  as  soon  as  it  has  passed  by  them. 
In  consequence  of  the  softness  of  white  pine, 
nearly  all  the  fibres  struck  are  broken,  and 
the  orifice  is  nearly  the  size  of  the  projectile ; 
for  the  same  reason  the  effects  of  the  pro- 
jectile do  not  extend  much  beyond  the  ori- 
fice ;  pine  is  therefore  to  be  preferred  to  oak 
for  structures  that  are  not  intended  to  resist 
cannon  projectiles,  as  block-houses,  etc. 


PROJECTILES 


461 


PROMOTION 


Effect  on  Earth. — Earth  possesses  advan- 
tages over  all  other  materials  as  a  covering 
against  projectiles;  it  is  cheap  and  easily 
obtained,  it  offers  considerable  resistance  to 
penetration,  and  to  a  certain  extent  regains 
its  position  after  displacement.  It  is  found 
by  experience  that  a  projectile  has  very  little 
effect  on  an  earthen  fiarapet  unless  it  passes 
completely  through  it.  Wherever  masonry 
is  liable  to  be  breached,  it  should  be  masked 
by  earthworks  with  natural  slopes.  Gen. 
Gillmore  states  that  the  powers  of  resistance 
of  pure,  compact,  quartz  sand  to  the  pene- 
tration of  projectiles  very  much  exceed  that 
of  ordinary  earth,  or  mixture  of  several 
earths.  The  size  of  the  openings  formed  by 
the  passage  of  a  projectile  into  the  earth  is 
about  one-third  larger  than  the  projectile,  in- 
creasing, however,  towards  the  outer  orifice. 
Rifle  projectiles  especially  are  easily  deflected 
from  their  course  in  earth,  hence  their  pene- 
tration is  variable.  Unless  a  shell  be  very 
large  in  proportion  to  the  mass  of  earth 
penetrated,  its  explosion  will  produce  but 
little  displacement, — generally,  a  small  open- 
ing is  formed  around  an  exploded  shell  by  I 
the  action  of  the  gas  in  pressing  back  the  \ 
earth.  Time-fuzes,  being  liable  to  be  extin- 
guished by  the  pressure  of  the  earth,  are  in- 
ferior to  percussion-fuzes,  which  produce 
explosion  when  the  projectile  has  made  about 
three-fourths  of  its  proper  penetration.  The 
penetration  in  earth  of  oblong,  compared  to 
round  projectiles,  when  lired  with  service 
charges,  and  at  a  distance  of  about  400  yards, 
is  at  least  one-fourth  greater.  This  ditler- 
ence,  however,  is  less  at  short  and  greater 
at  long  distances.  The  penetrations  of  simi- 
lar projectiles  into  a  given  substance,  are 
proportional  to  the  squares  of  the  velocities 
of  impact  and  to  the  diameters  and  densities 
of  the  projectiles. 

Penetration  in  Water. — The  penetration 
of  a  rifle  projectile  in  water  depends  much 
on  the  direction  of  its  axis  with  respect  to 
penetration  ;  for  instance,  penetration  rapidly 
diminishes  at  long  distances,  as  the  axis  of 
the  projectile  strikes  the  surface  of  the  water 
under  a  diminished  angle. 

Effect  on  Ma.ionn/. — The  effect  of  a  pro- 
jectile against  mjisonry  is  to  form  a  trun- 
cated conical  hole,  terminated  by  another  of 
a  cylindrical  form.  The  nuiter'ial  in  front 
of  and  around  the  projectile  is  broken  and 
shattered,  and  the  end  of  the  cylindrical 
hole  even  reduced  to  powder.  The  exterior  | 
opening  varies  from  four  to  five  times  the 
diameter  of  the  projectile,  and  the  depth  I 
varies  with  the  size  and  density  of  the  pro- 
jectile, and  its  velocity.  When  a  projectile 
Btrikes  against  a  surface  of  oak,  as  the  side 
of  a  ship,  it  will  not  stick  if  the  angle  of  in- 
cidence be  less  than  15°,  and  if  it  do  not 
penetrate  to  a  depth  nearly  equal  to  its  di- 
ameter. Solid  cast-iron  shot  break  against 
granite,  hut  not  against  freestone  or  brick. 
Shells  are  broken  into  small  fragments 
against  ei^ch  of  those  materials. 

Breaching.  —  Formerly    stone    projectiles 


were  much  used  for  breaching,  but  from  the 
want  of  sufficient  hardness  in  these  projec- 
tiles, the  besiegers  were  forced  to  commence 
battering  at  the  top  of  the  wall  where  the 
least  resistance  was  offered,  and  gradually 
to  lower  the  shot  until  the  breach  reached 
the  wrecks  already  formed  at  the  base  of  the 
wall.  Iron  projectiles  superseded  stone,  and 
then  more  rapid  modes  of  effecting  a  prac- 
ticable breach  were  suggested.  The  easiest 
nutnner  of  making  the  cut  is  to  direct  the 
shots  upon  the  same  line,  and  form  a  serie* 
of  holes  a  little  greater  than  a  diameter 
ajiart,  and  then  to  fire  a  second  series  of 
shots,  directed  at  the  intervals  between  the 
first,  and  so  on,  until  an  opening  is  made 
completely  through  the  wall.  If  the  portion 
of  the  wail  between  the  vertical  cuts  should 
not  be  overthrown  by  the  pressure  of  the 
earth  behind,  it  must  be  deUtched  by  a  few 
volleys  of  solid  shot,  fired  at  its  centre. 

Breaching  with  Rijle-cannon. — The  fore- 
going has  reference  particularly  to  breach- 
ing masonry  with  smooth-bored  guns.  The 
same  principle  is  applicable  to  rifled  guns, 
the  only  difference  being  that,  from  their 
suj)erior  penetration  and  accuracy,  the  latter 
are  effective  at  much  longer  distances.  The 
most  destructive  projectile  against  masonry 
is  the  elongated  percussion  shell. 

Effect  of  Bnlletf. — From  experiments 
made  in  Denmark,  the  following  relations 
were  found  between  the  penetration  of  a  bul- 
let in  pine  and  its  eftects  on  the  body  of  a 
living  horse,  viz.  :  1st.  When  the  force  of 
the  bullet  is  sufficient  to  penetrate  0.81  inch 
into  pine,  it  is  only  sufficient  to  produce  a 
slight  contusion  of  the  skin.  2d.  When  the 
force  of  penetration  is  equal  to  0.63  inch,  the 
wound  begins  to  be  dangerous,  but  does  not 
disable.  3d.  AVIicn  the  force  of  penetration 
is  equal  to  1.2  inch,  the  wound  is  very  dan- 
gerous. A  plate  of  wrought  iron  three-six- 
teenths of  an  inch  thick,  is  sufficient  to  re.«ist 
a  rifle-musket  bullet  at  distances  varying 
from  20  to  200  yards.  Iron  of  thickiiess, 
however,  will  not  resist  bullets  of  the  pres- 
ent day.  That  a  rope  mantlet  may  give  full 
protection  against  rifle-musket  bullets,  it 
should  be  composed  of  five  layers  (three 
vertical  and  two  horizontal)  of  4^-inch  rope. 
Projection.  In  mathematics,  the  action 
of  giving  a  projectile  its  motion.  It  is  also 
used  to  signify  a  scheme,  plan,  or  delinea- 
tion. 

Proking-spit.     A  large  Spanish  rapier. 
Prolongation.     An  extension  of  leave  of 
absence,  or  a  continuation  of  service. 

Prolongation  of  the  Line.  Is  effected  by 
parallel  movements  at  the  right  or  left  of  any 
given  number  of  men  on  a  front  division. 
Prolonge.  Sie  Imi-lkmknts. 
Prolonge-hooks.  See  Ordnanck,  Car- 
RiAQK-s  FOR,  NoMKNCLATURK  OF  Artillery 
Carriaqk. 

Promotion.*  This  word  signifies,  in  mili- 
tary matters,  the  elevation  of  an  individual 
to  some  appointment  of  greater  rank  and 
trust  to  the  one  he  holds. 


PROMULGATION 


4G2 


PRUSSIA 


.  Promulgation.  The  act  of  promulgating ; 
publication;  open  declaration;  as,  the  pro- 
mulgation of  the  sentence  of  a  court-mar- 
tial. 

Proof.  A  term  applied  to  the  testing  of 
powder,  and  also  of  ordnance,  which  are  al- 
ways fired  with  a  regulated  charge  of  pow- 
der and  shot,  to  test  their  strength  and 
soundness. 

Proof.     Conclusive  evidence. 
Proof.      Capable    of    withstanding ;    as, 
bomb-proof,  shot-proof. 

Propel.  To  drive  forward  ;  to  urge  or 
press  onward  by  force  ;  to  move  or  cause  to 
move  ;  balls  are  propelled  by  the  force  of 
gunpowder. 

Proper.  A  term  which  serves  to  mark 
out  a  thing  more  especially  and  formally. 
Thus,  the  proper  form  of  a  battalion  is  the 
visual  continuity  of  line  given  to  the  forma- 
tion of  a  battalion,  and  which  remains  unal- 
tered by  the  wheelings  of  its  divisions  ;  or  if 
altered,  is  restored  by  the  same  operation. 
Proper  right,  is  the  right  of  a  battalion, 
company,  or  subdivision,  when  it  is  drawn 
up  according  to  its  natural  formation. 
Proper  pivot  jiank,  in  column,  is  that  which, 
when  wheeled  up  to,  preserves  the  division 
of  the  line  in  the  natural  order,  and  to  their 
proper  front.  The  other  may  be  called  the 
reverse  flank. 

Proper.  In  heraldry,  a  charge  borne  of 
its  natural  color,  is  said  to  be  proper.  An 
object  whose  color  varies  at  diflerent  times 
and  in  different  examples,  as  a  rose  which 
may  be  white  or  red  cannot  be  borne  proper. 
Prosecute.  To  carry  on  ;  to  continue ; 
as,  to  prosecute  the  war.  Also,  to  accuse  of 
some  crime  or  breach  of  law,  or  to  pursue 
for  punishment  before  a  legal  tribunal ;  to 
proceed  against  judicially. 

Prosecutor.  In  courts-martial  the  judge- 
advocate  is  usually  the  prosecutor;  but  if 
an  officer  prefers  a  charge,  he  sometimes  ap- 
pears to  sustain  the  prosecution.  No  person 
can  appear  as  prosecutor  not  subject  to  the 
articles  of  war,  except  the  judge-advocate. — 
Hough. 

Proveditor.  One  employed  to  procure 
supplies  for  an  army  ;  a  purveyor. 

Proving-ground.  Ground  used  for  test- 
ing powder  or  ordnance. 

Provision.  Properly  to  victual ;  to  fur- 
nish with  provisions. 

Provost.  The  temporary  prison  in  which 
the  military  police  confine  prisoners  till  thej'^ 
are  disposed  of. 

Provost  Cells.  Also  called  regimental 
or  garrison  cells,  in  the  British  service  are 
those  certified  cells  under  a  provost  or  acting 
provost-sergeant,  in  which  court-martial 
prisoners  may  be  imprisoned  up  to  forty-two 
days. 

Provost-Marshal.  In  the  army,  is  an 
officer  appointed  to  superintend  the  preser- 
vation of  order,  and  to  be,  as  it  were,  the 
head  of  the  police  of  any  particular  camp, 
town,  or  district.  He  has  cognizance  of  all 
camp-followers,  as  well  as  members  of  the 


army.  His  power  is  summary,  and  he  can 
punish  an  offender,  taken  flagrante  delicto, 
on  the  spot,  according  to  the  articles  of  war. 

Provost-Sergeant.  Is  a  sergeant  who  is 
charged  with  the  military  police  of  a  corps. 
He  is  generally  given  one  or  two  non-com- 
missioned officers  as  assistants.  In  the  Brit- 
ish service  he  also  is  charged  with  the  cus- 
tody of  all  prisoners  in  the  cells. 

Prowess.  Valor;  bravery  in  the  field-; 
military  gallantry. 

Prowlers.  Are  persons  who  steal  within 
the  lines  of  a  hostile  army  for  the  purpose 
of  robbing,  killing;  or  destroying  bridges, 
roads,  mails,  or  other  means  of  communica- 
tion. Such  persons  are  not  entitled  to  the 
privileges  usually  accorded  to  prisoners  of 
war. 

Prussia.  A  kingdom  of  the  new  German 
empire.  The  people  of  Prussia  first  appear 
in  history  in  the  10th  century,  under  the 
name  of  Borussi ;  from  these  the  country 
derives  its  name.  Some  historians,  however, 
derive  the  name  from  Po,  signifying  near, 
and  Russia.  The  Prussians  were  subjected 
by  Boleslaus  of  Poland  in  1018  ;  they  made 
a  successful  stand  against  Boleslaus  IV.  of 
Poland  in  1161,  and  for  a  time  maintained 
a  rude  and  savage  kind  of  independence. 
The  Teutonic  Knights  were  engaged  in  war 
for  half  a  century  with  the  people, — win- 
ning lands  and  souls  by  hard  fighting, — 
until  at  length,  in  1283,  they  found  them- 
selves undisputed  masters  of  the  country, 
having  almost  exterminated  the  pagan  pop- 
ulation. During  this  period  the  knights 
founded  many  cities  and  repeopled  tlie  coun- 
try with  German  colonists.  In  1454  the 
municipal  and  noble  classes,  with  the  co- 
operation of  Poland,  rose  in  open  rebellion 
against  the  knights,  who  were  forced  to  cede 
West  Prussia  and  Ermland  to  Poland. 
Albert  (or  Albrecht)  of  Brandenburg  was 
acknowledged  duke  of  East  Prussia  in  1525; 
his  son-in-law,  John  Sigismund,  created 
elector  of  Brandenburg  and  duke  of  Prussia 
in  1608.  The  reign  of  John  Sigismund's 
successor,  Georg-Wilhelm  (1619-1640),  was 
distracted  by  fhe  miseries  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  and  the  country  was  alternately 
the  prey  of  Swedish  and  imperial  armies. 
The  electorate  was  raised  by  the  genius  of 
Frederick  William,  the  great  elector,  to 
the  rank  of  a  great  European  power.  His 
successor,  Frederick  III.  (1688-1713),  was 
proclaimed  king  of  Prussia  by  the  title 
of  Frederick  I.  m  1701.  During  the  reign 
of  Frederick  William  IV.,  Prussia  co- 
operated powerfully  in  putting  down  the 
insurrections  in  Poland  and  Baden.  In  the 
war  of  the  Schleswig-Holstein  duchies,  the 
Prussians  acted  in  concert  with  the  disaf- 
fected against  their  sovereign,  the  king  of 
Denmark,  occupying  the  ducal  provinces  in 
the  name  and  on  behalf  of  the  diet.  A  treaty 
of  peace  was  concluded  between  Prussia  and 
Denmark,  on  July  2,  1850.  In  1863  the 
allied  Prussian  and  Austrian  armies  entered 
the  duchies  of  Schleswig-Holstein  and  de- 


PKUTII 


463 


PUNISHMENT 


feated  the  Danes ;  the  duchies  were  separated 
from  Denmark.  Warm  disputes  with  Aus- 
tria respecting  Schlr;swig-Hr)lstein  arose  in 
the  beginning  of  ISOfi.  The  vote  of  the 
majority  of  the  diet  of  the  Germanic  Con- 
federation supported  Austria;  Prussia  an- 
nounced her  witlulrawal  from  the  confeder- 
ation, and  its  dissolution  ;  the  diet  dechired 
itself  indissoluble,  and  continued  its  func- 
tions, June  14,  1860.  War  was  declared  by 
Prussia,  June  18,  1806,  which  ended  in  the 
total  defeat  of  Austria  and  her  allies.  A 
treaty  of  peace  between  Austria  and  Prussia 
was  signed  at  Prague  on  August  23,  1866. 
IJy  its  articles  Austria  consented  to  the 
breaking  up  of  the  Germanic  Confederation, 
and  to  Prussia's  annexing  Hanover,  Hesse- 
Cassel,  Nassau,  and  Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
and  gave  up  Holstein  and  her  political  in- 
fluence in  North  Germany.  For  further 
history,  see  Fkanco-Prus.s'ian  AVar. 

Pruth.  A  river  of  Europe,  which  rises 
in  the  Carpathian  Mountains.  It  forms  a 
portion  of  the  boundary-line  between  Rus- 
sia and  Turkey,  and  by  crossing  it,  in  1853, 
the  Russians  gave  rise  to  the  war  with  Tur- 
key and  the  subsequent  Crimean  war. 

Psiloi.  Among  the  Greeks,  were  light- 
armed  men  who  fought  with  arrows  and 
darts,  or  stones  and  slings,  but  were  unfit  for 
close  fight.  Tliey  were  in  honor  and  dig- 
nity inferior  to  the  heavy-armed  soldiers. 

Publish.  To  make  known.  In  a  garri- 
son orders  are  published  by  being  read  at 
parade.  Orders  are  also  published  by  circu- 
lating written  copies. 

Piiebla,  or  La  Puebla  de  los  Angeles. 
Capital  of  the  department  of  Puebla,  in 
Mexico,  80  miles  southeast  from  the  city  of 
Mexico.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  on 
May  17,  1863,  after  a  siege  of  several  weeks' 
duration,  the  Mexican  general  Ortega,  with 
18,000  men,  surrendering  to  Gen.  Forey. 
This  event  threw  open  the  road  to  Mexico, 
and  was  the  immediate  precursor  of  the 
overthrow  of  the  government  of  Juarez. 

Pueblo  Indians  (Sp.  pitrblo,  "village"). 
An  inttTosiing  class  of  semi-civilized  In- 
dians in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  so  called 
from  their  remarkable  residences,  a  descrip- 
tion of  some  of  which  may  be  found  under 
Moqi:is  Indians.  They  are  divided  into 
several  tribes  speaking  ditforent  languages. 
Their  internal  administration  is  patriarchal, 
each  pueblo  or  village  being  ruled  by  its 
governor  and  council  of  three  elders. 

Pulk.  A  tribe;  a  particular  body  of  men. 
This  word  is  chiefly  used  in  Russia ;  as,  a 
pulk  of  Cossacks. 

Pultowa.  See  Poltava. 
Pultusk.  A  town  of  Poland  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Plock,  situated  on  the  Narew.  35 
miles  north-northeast  from  Warsaw.  Here 
on  December  26, 1806,  was  fought  one  of  the 
battles  of  the  campaign  of  Eylau,  between 
the  Russians  and  the  French.  The  field  was 
most  obstinately  ctmtested,  but  the  victory, 
which,  however,  was  claimed  by  both  ar- 
mies, inclined  in  favor  of  the  French. 


Pummel.     The  hilt  of  a  sword,  the  end 

of  a  tcun,  etc. 

Puncto.     The  point  in  fencing. 

Punic  Wars.  The  name  of  three  cele- 
brated contests,  in  which  the  Romans  and 
Carthaginians  were  eni;iiged  from  the  year 
264  to  146  B.C.,  and  which  finally  terminated 
with  the  destruction  of  Carthage.  It  was  in 
the  second  war,  which  began  in  218,  that  the 
Carthaginian  commander  Hannil>al  ren- 
dered himself  so  distinguished  by  his  victo- 
ries over  the  Romans.  The  illustrious  Scipio 
was  eventually  tlie  conqueror  of  Hannibal 
and  the  victor  of  Carthage.  Punic  faith  is 
a  reproachful  term  in  frequent  use,  derived 
from  Punici,  or  Carthaginians,  because  they 
were  considered  by  the  Romans  a  perfidious 
race. 

Punishment,  Military.  In  a  military 
sense,  is  the  execution  of  a  sentence  pro- 
nounced by  a  court-martial  upon  any  delin- 
quent. The  Romans  famished  crimes  com- 
mitted by  the  soldiery  with  the  utmost  rigor. 
On  the  occurrence  of  a  mutiny,  every  tenth, 
twentieth,  or  hundredth  man  was  sometimes 
chosen  by  lot,  but  generally  only  the  ring- 
leaders were  selected  for  punishment.  De- 
serters and  seditious  persons  were  frequently, 
after  being  scourged,  sold  for  slaves  ;  and 
occasionally  the  otfender  was  made  to  lose 
his  right  hand,  or  was  bled  nearly  to  death. 
Among  the  nations  of  Western  Europe,  the 
punishments  for  military  offenses  were,  till 
lately,  no  less  severe  than  they  were  among 
the  Romans.  Resides  the  infliction  of  a  cer- 
tain number  of  lashes  with  cords,  soldiers 
convicted  of  theft,  marauding,  or  any  other 
breach  of  discipline  which  was  not  punish- 
able with  death,  were  sentenced  to  run  the 
gantlope.  (See  Gantlope.)  In  Russia  the 
knout  was  extensively  used.  (See  Knout.) 
It  is  often  necessary  to  punish  to  maintain 
discipline,  and  the  rules  and  articles  of  war 
provide  ample  means  of  punishment,  but 
not  sufllicient  rewards  and  guards  against  er- 
rors of  judgment.  In  the  French  army  de- 
grading punishments  are  illegal,  but  soldiers 
may  be  confined  to  quarters  or  deprived  of 
the  liberty  of  leaving  the  garrison  ;  confined 
in  the  guard-room,  in  prison,  or  in  dungeon  ; 
required  to  walk  or  to  perform  hard  labor; 
and  officers  may  be  subjected  to  simple  or 
rigorous  arrests.  Every  officer  who  inflicts 
a  punishment,  must  account  for  it  to  his  su- 
perior, who  approves  or  disapproves,  con- 
firms, augments,  or  diminishes  it.  If  an 
inferior  is  confined  to  the  guard-room,  he 
cannot  be  liberated  except  upon  application 
to  a  superior.  Any  officer  who  has  been 
subjected  to  punishment,  must,  when  re- 
lieved, make  a  visit  to  him  who  ordered  it. 
The  French  code  has,  in  a  word,  been  care- 
ful to  provide  for  both  the  security  of  its 
citizens  and  thestrencth  of  authority.  The 
punishments  established  by  law  or  custom 
for  U.  S.  soldiers  by  sentence  of  court-mar- 
tial, are  embodied  "in  the  Articles  of  War. 
(See  Appkndix.  Articles  ok  War.)  It 
is  regarded  as  inhuman  to  punish  by  soli- 


PUNITZ 


464 


PYRENEES 


tary  confinement,  or  confinement  on  bread 
and  water  exceeding  fourteen  days  at  a  time, 
or  for  more  than  eighty-four  days  in  a  year, 
at  intervals  of  fourteen  days. 

Punitz.  A  town  of  Prussia  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Posen.  A  battle  was  fought  here  in 
1706,  between  the  Saxons  and  the  Swedes,  in 
which  the  latter  were  victorious. 

Punjab,  or  Five  Rivers.  An  extensive 
river  of  Hindostan,  situated  chiefly  in  the 
province  of  Lahore,  but  including  Moultan, 
and  comprising  the  country  traversed  bj'  the 
"  five  great  waters,"  or  rivers,  of  which  the 
Indus  is  the  most  westerly,  and  the  Sutlej 
the  most  easterly.  This  region  was  traversed 
by  Alexander  the  Great  in  327  B.C.  ;  and 
again  by  Tamerlane  in  1398.  The  wars 
with  the  Sikhs  began  here  on  March  29, 
1849,  when  the  Punjab  was  annexed  to  the 
British  possessions  in  India. 

Punkah.  A  swinging  fan  used  in  the  hot 
districts  of  India. 

Purchasing.  Anj'^  person  purchasing 
from  any  soldier  his  arms,  uniform,  cloth- 
ing, or  any  part  thereof,  may  be  punished 
by  any  civil  court  having  cognizance  of  the 
same,  by  fine  in  any  sum  not  exceeding  $300, 
or  by  imprisonment  not  exceeding  one  j^ear. 
—Act  of  March  16,  1802. 

Purpure.  In  heraldry,  the  color  purple, 
expressed  in  engravings  by  lines  in  bend 
sinister.  It  is  of  unfrequent  occurrence  in 
British  heraldry. 

Pursuit.  The  act  of  following  or  going 
after ;  a  following  with  haste,  either  for 
sport  or  hostility ;  as,  the  pursuit  of  an 
enemy. 

Pursuivant,  The  third  and  lowest  order 
of  heraldic  otHcers.  The  office  was  insti- 
tuted as  a  novitiate,  or  state  of  probation, 
through  which  the  ofl5ces  of  herald  and 
king-at-arms  were  ordinarily  to  be  attained, 
though  it  has  been  held  that  a  herald  or 
king-at-arms  may  be  made^jer  saltum.  For 
the  present  titles  of  the  several  British  pur- 
suivants, see  Herald.  In  ancient  times  any 
great  noljleman  might  institute  his  own  pur- 
suivant with  his  own  hands  and  by  his  single 
authority.  The  dukes  of  Norfolk  had  a  pur- 
suivant called  Blanch-lyon,  from  the  white 
lion  in  their  arms ;  the  pursuivant  of  the 
dukes  of  Northumberland  was  styled  Es- 
perance  from  the  Percy  motto,  and  liichard 
Nevil,  earl  of  Salisbury,  had  a  pursuivant 
called  Egle  ve>'t. 

Purveyor.  A  person  employed  to  make 
purchases,  or  to  provide  food,  medicines,  and 
necessaries  for  the  sick. 

Push.  To  press  against  with  force ;  to 
drive  or  impel  by  pressure  ;  as,  to  push  back 
an  enemy. 

Push.  An  assault  or  attack  ;  a  forcible 
onset ;  a  vigorous  effort. 

Put  to  the  Sword,  To.  To  kill  with  the 
Bword ;  to  slay. 

Puteoli  (the  modern  Puzzuoli).  A  cele- 
brated seaport  town  of  Campania,  was  situ- 
ated on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of 
Baiae.    A  colony  from  the  neighboring  Greek 


city  of  Cuma3  founded  it  in  521  B.C.,  under 
the  name  of  Dicsearchia.  In  the  second 
Punic  war  the  Romans  fortified  it,  and 
changed  its  name  into  that  of  Puteoli.  It 
was  destroyed  by  Alaric  in  410,  by  Genseric 
in  455,  and  also  by  Totila  in  545,  but  was  on 
each  occasion  speedily  rebuilt.  In  the  9th 
century  the  Lombard  dukes  of  Benevento 
reduced  it. 

Putteeala.  A  town  of  British  India, 
capital  of  a  dependent  native  state  of  the 
same  name,  in  Sirhind,  on  the  Kosilla,  1028 
miles  northwest  of  Calcutta.  It  was  taken 
possession  of  by  the  British  in  1809,  but  the 
rajah  retains  the  sovereignty,  on  condition 
of  furnishing  a  certain  number  of  troops  in 
case  of  war  to  the  British  government. 

Puzzuoli,  or  Pozzuoli.  "See  Putkoli. 

Pydna  (now  Kitron).  A  town  of  Mace- 
donia, in  the  district  Pieria,  was  situated  at 
a  small  distance  west  of  the  Thermaic  Gulf, 
on  which  it  had  a  harbor.  It  was  originally 
a  Greek  colony,  but  was  subdued  by  the 
Macedonian  kings,  from  whom,  however,  it 
frequently  revolted.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
Peloponnesian  war  it  was  taken  after  a  long 
siege  by  Archelaus.  It  again  revolted  from 
the  Macedonians,  and  was  subdued  by  Philip, 
who  enlarged  and  fortified  the  place.  It  was 
here  that  Olympias  sustained  a  long  siege 
against  Cassander,  317-16  B.C.  It  is  es- 
pecially memorable  on  account  of  the  vic- 
tory gained  under  its  walls  by  ^Emilius 
Paulus  over  Perseus,  the  last  king  of  Mace- 
donia, 168  B.C. 

Pylos,  or  Pilus.  In  the  southwest  of 
Messenia,  was  situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
^galeos  on  a  promontory  at  the  northern 
entrance  of  the  basin,  now  called  the  Bay  of 
Navarino,  the  largest  and  safest  harbor  of 
Greece.  In  the  second  Messenian  war  the 
inhabitants  of  Pylos  otiered  a  long  and  brave 
resistance  to  the  Spartans  ;  but  after  the  cap- 
ture of  Ira,  they  were  obliged  to  quit  their 
native  country  with  the  rest  of  the  Mes- 
senians.  It  again  became  memorable  in  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  when  the  Athenians 
under  Demosthenes  built  a  fort  on  the  pro- 
montory Coryphasium,  a  little  south  of  the 
ancient  city,  and  just  within  the  northern 
entrance  of  the  harbor  (425  B.C.).  The  at- 
tempts of  the  Spartans  to  dislodge  the  Athe- 
nians proved  unavailing;  and  the  capture 
by  Cleon  of  the  Spartans,  who  had  landed  in 
the  island  of  Sphacteria,  was  one  of  the  most 
important  events  in  the  whole  war. 

Pyramids,  Battle  of  the.  So  called  from 
having  taken  place  close  to  the  large  pyra- 
mids in  the  plain  of  Mummies,  at  Waar- 
dam,  within  a  few  miles  of  Grand  Cairo.  A 
previous  engagement  had  been  fought  on 
July  15, 1799,  between  the  Mamelukes  under 
Murad  Bey  and  the  French  army,  com- 
manded by  Bonaparte  in  person.  On  July 
21,  1799,  the  second  battle,  called  the  "  battle 
of  the  Pyramids,"  was  fought,  when  Bona- 
parte defeated  the  Mamelukes  under  Murad 
Bey  and  thus  subdued  Lower  Egypt. 

Pyrenees,  Battle  of  the.     The  Pyrenees 


PYRGI 


465 


PYROTECHNT 


are  a  chain  of  mountains  which  separate 
Spain  from  France,  and  arc  nearly  75  miles 
broad.  Towards  the  close  of  the  Peninsular 
war,  in  1813,  thcs-e  mountains  were  the  scene 
of  many  severe  conflicts  between  the  IJritish 
troops  under  the  Duke  of  Wellington  and 
the  French  forces  under  Marshal  Soult. 
After  the  defeat  of  Joseph  Bonaparte  at  Vit- 
toria,  Soult  tot)k  the  command  of  the  French 
armies  as  lieutenant  de  I'etnpereur ;  and  after 
addressini;;  the  beaten  soldiery  in  language 
that  proved  fatally  unprophetic,  he  hastened 
to  relieve  the  beleaguered  fortresses,  and  the 
result  was  "the  battles  of  the  Pyrenees." 
Pampeluna,  Koncesvalles,  Maya,  Orthez, 
etc.,  were  the  seats  of  the  princii)al  struggles. 
For  nine  days  the  armies  had  been  in  each 
other's  presence;  and  in  severe  operations 
and  desperate  lighting  these  days  were  un- 
exampled. The  allied  casualties  exceeded 
7000  men, — and  those  of  the  French  might 
be  safely  set  down  at  15,000. 

Pyrgi.  Movable  towers,  used  by  the 
(ireeks  in  scaling  the  walls  of  besieged  towns. 
They  were  driven  forward  upon  wheels,  and 
were  divided  into  difterent  stories,  capable  of 
carrying  a  great  number  of  soldiers  and 
military  engines. 

Pyroboli.  Fireballs,  used  both  by  the 
Greeks  and  Komans.  They  seem  to  have 
been  the  very  same  as  the  malleoli. 

Pyrometer.  An  instrument  for  deter- 
mining the  pressure  of  lired  gunpowder  by 
the  registered  compression  of  oil, — invented 
by  Dr.  W.  E.  Woodbridge,  and  used  by  him 
and  Maj.  Mordecai  (U.  S.  Ordnance  Depart- 
ment) in  experiments  at  Washington  Arse- 
nal, 1854-55.  It  consists  of  a  small  hollow 
steel  cylinder  tilled  with  oil  and  a  piston 
wliich  is  pressed  inwards  upon  the  oil  by  the 
powder  gases.  The  piston  has  a  small  stem 
projecting  inwards,  which  is  guided  by  a  tube 
in  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder.  A  steel  point 
presses  against  the  stem  and  scratches  a  line 
upon  it,  when  the  piston  is  moved.  The 
pyrometer  is  received  by  a  hollow  screw- 
plug  placed  in  the  side  of  the  gun  at  the 
point  where  the  pressure  is  to  bo  taken. 
This  instrument  is  probably  the  most  accu- 
rate and  delicate  one  ever  invented  for  the 
purpose.  In  the  experiments  it  recorded 
certain  vibrations  in  the  column  of  gases, 
which  have  been  generally  neglected  by 
theorists  on  the  subject,  but  which  are  (if 
great  importance  to  the  life  of  the  gun.  It 
seems  unfortunate  that  an  instrument  which 
promised  so  much  should  have  been  allowed  l 
to  fall  into  disuse,  if  not  almost  oblivion.        I 

Pyrotechny.      Is    the   art    of    preparing  I 
ammunition  and  fireworks  for  military  and  | 
ornamental  purposes.     (See  Ammunition.)  j 
Military    tireworks    comprise    preparations 
for  the  service  of  cannon  ammunition,  and 
for    siffnal,  lip/tt,  incendiary,  and    defensive 
and  offensive  purposes.     The  term  composi-  I 
tion  is  applied  to  all   mechanical  mixtures 
which,  by  combustion,  produce  the  effects  , 
Bought  to  be  attained  in  pyrotechny.     The  ' 
preparations  for  the  service  of  ammunition  i 


are  slow-match,  quick-match,  port-fifes,  fric- 
tion-tubes,  aud  fuzes. 

Sloic-7natch  is  used  to  preserve  fire.  It  may 
be  made  of  hemp  or  cotton  rope  ;  if  made  of 
hemp,  the  rope  is  saturated  with  acetate  of 
lead,  or  the  lye  of  wood-ashes  ;  if  made  of 
cotton,  it  is  only  necessary  that  tiie  strands 
be  well  twisted.  Slow-match  burns  from 
4  to  5  inches  in  an  hour. 

Qitick-nuitch  is  made  of  cotton-yarn  (can- 
dle-wick) saturated  with  a  composition  of 
mealed  powder  and  gummed  spirits  ;  after 
saturation,  the  yarn  is  wound  on  a  reel, 
sprinkled  (dredged)  with  mealed  powder  and 
left  to  dry.  It  is  used  to  communicate  fire, 
and  burns  at  the  rate  of  one  yard  in  thirteen 
seconds.  The  rate  of  burning  may  be  much 
increased  by  inclosing  it  in  a  thin  paper  tube 
called  a  lender. 

Purt-fire  is  a  paper  case  containing  a  com- 
position, the  flame  of  which  is  capable  of 
quickly  igniting  primers,  quick-match,  etc. 
A  port-fire  is  about  22  inches  long,  and  burns 
with  an  intense  flame  for  ten  minutes. 

Friction-tube  is  at  present  the  principal 
preparation  for  firing  cannon  ;  it  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  portability  and  certainty  of  fire. 
It  is  composed  of  two  brass  tubes  soldered 
at  right  angles.  The  upper,  or  short  tube 
contains  a  charge  of  friction-powder,  and  the 
roughed  extremity  of  a  wire  loop,  the  long 
tube  is  filled  with  rifle-powder,  and  is  in- 
serted in  the  vent  of  the  piece.  When  the 
extremity  of  the  loop  is  violently  pulled  by 
means  of  a  lanyard,  through  its  hole  in  the 
long  tube,  sufficient  heat  is  generated  to  ig- 
nite the  friction-powder  which  surrounds  it, 
and  this  communicates  with  the  grained 
powder  in  the  long  tube.  The  charge  of 
grained  powder  has  sutficient  force  to  pass 
through  the  longest  vent,  and  penetrate  sev- 
eral thicknesses  of  cartridge-cloth. 

Fuzes. — See  Fi'ZK. 

Fireworks  for  Signals. — The  preparations 
for  signals  are  rockets  and  blue-lights. 

Signal- Rockets. — The  principal  parts  of  a 
signal-rocket  are  the  case,  the  composition, 
the;)o^,  the  decorations,  and  the  stick.  The 
case  is  made  by  rolling  stout  paper  around  a 
former.  The  vent  is  formed  by  choking  one 
end  of  the  case. 

Composition. — A  variety  of  compositions 
are  employed  for  signal-rockets;  a  mixture 
of  nitre  12  parts,  sulphur  2  parts,  charcoal 
2  parts,  is  frequently  used.  The  pot  is 
formed  of  a  paper  cylinder,  slipped  over  and 
pasted  to  the  top  of  the  case  ;  it  is  surmounted 
with  a  pajier  cone,  filled  with  tow.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  pot  is  to  contain  the  decorations 
which  are  scattered  through  the  air  by  tiio 
explosion  which  takes  place  when  the  rocket 
reaches  the  summit  of  its  trajectory  ;  the 
explosion  is  produced  by  a  small  charge  of 
mealed  powder.  The  decoratmna  of  rockets 
are  stars,  serpents,  tnan-otis,  gold  rain,  rain 
of  fire,  etc. 

Stars. — The  composflions  for  stars  are,  for 
white:  nitre  7  parts,  sulphur  3  parts,  mealed 
powder  2  parts  ;  for  rai:  cblorule  of  potassa 


PTKOTECHNY 


4G6 


PYPvOTECHNT 


7  parts,  sulphur  4  parts,  lampblack  1  part, 
nitrate  of  strontia  12  parts;  blue:  chlorate 
of  potassa  3  parts,  sulphur  1  part,  ammonia- 
cal  sulphate  of  copper  1  part ;  yellow  :  chlo- 
rate of  potassa  4  parts,  sulphur  2  parts,  sul- 
phate of  strontia  1  part,  bicarbonate  of  soda 
1  part. 

Serpents. — The  case  of  a  serpent  is  similar 
to  that  of  a  rocket ;  the  composition  is  driven 
in,  and  the  top  is  closed  with  moist  plaster 
of  Paris.  The  composition  is  nitre  3  parts, 
sulphur  3  parts,  mealed  powder  16  parts, 
charcoal  \  part. 

Marrons. — Marrons  are  small  paper  shells, 
or  cubes,  filled  with  grained  powder,  and 
primed  with  a  short  piece  of  quick-match. 

Stick. — The  stick  is  a  tapering  piece  of 
pine,  about  nine  times  the  length  of  the  case. 

Blue  Ligli.t. — A  very  brilliant  bluish  light 
may  be  made  of  the  following  ingredients, 
viz.:  nitre  14  parts,  sulphur  8.7  parts,  real- 
gar 1  part,  mealed  powder  1  part ;  the  bril- 
liancy depends  on  the  purity  and  thorough 
incorporation  of  the  ingredients. 

Incendiary  Fireworks. — Incendiary  prep- 
arations &V&  fire-stone,  carcasses,  incendiary- 
match,  and  hot  shot.  < 

Fire-stone  is  a  composition  that  burns 
slowly,  but  intensely  ;  it  is  placed  in  a  shell, 
along  with  the  bursting  charge,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  setting  fire  to  ships,  buildings,  etc. 
It  is  composed  of  nitre  10  parts,  sulphur  4 
parts,  antimony  1  part,  rosin  3  parts. 

Carcass. — A  common  shell  may  be  loaded 
as  a  carcass  by  placing  the  bursting  charge 
at  the  bottom  of  the  cavity,  and  covering  it 
with  carcass  composition,  driven  in  until 
the  shell  is  nearly  full,  and  then  inserting 
four  or  five  strands  of  quick-match.  This 
projectile,  after  burning  as  a  carcass,  ex- 
plodes as  a  shell.     See  Carcass. 

lyicendiary-match. — Is  made  by  boiling 
slow-match  in  a  saturated  solution  of  nitre, 
drying  it,  cutting  it  into  pieces,  and  plung- 
ing it  into  melted  fire-stone.  It  is  princi- 
pally used  in  loaded  shells. 

Hot  Shot. — See  Hot  Shot. 

Fireworks  for  Light. — The  preparations 
for  producing  light  are  fire-halls,  light-balls, 
tarred-links,  pitched-fascines,  and  torches. 

Fire-ball. — A  fire-ball  is  an  oval-shaped 
canvas  sack  filled  with  combustible  compo- 
sition. It  is  intended  to  be  thrown  from  a 
mortar  to  light  up  the  works  of  an  enemy, 
and  is  loaded  with  a  shell  to  prevent  it  from 
being  approached  and  extinguished.  The 
composition  for  a  fire-ball  consists  of  nitre 

8  parts,  sulphur  2  parts,  antimony  1  part. 
The  bottom  of  the  sack  is  protected  from  the 
force  of  the  charge  by  an  iron  cup  called  a 
culob,  and  the  whole  is  covered  and  strength- 
ened with  a  net-work  of  spun-yarn  or  wire, 
and  then  overlaid  with  a  composition  of 
pitch,  rosin,  etc. 

Light-ball. — These  are  made  in  the  same 
manner  as  fire-balls,  the  shell  being  omitted. 

Tarred-links. — Tarred  links  are  used  for 
lighting  up  a  rampart,  defile,  etc.,  or  for  in- 
cendiary purposes.     They  consist  of  coils  of 


soft  rope  placed  on  top  of  each  other,  and 
loosely  tied  together;  they  are  immersed  in 
a  composition  of  20  parts  of  pitch,  and  one 
of  tallow  ;  when  dry,  they  are  plunged  into 
a  composition  of  equal  parts  of  pitch  and 
rosin,  and  rolled  in  tow  or  sawdust. 

Pitched-fascines. — Fagots  of  vine  twigs 
or  other  very  combustible  wood,  about  20 
inches  long  and  4  inches  in  diameter,  tied  in 
three  places  with  iron  wire.  They  may  be 
treated  in  the  same  manner  and  used  for 
the  same  purposes  as  tarred-links. 

Torches. — A  torch  is  a  ball  of  rope  im- 
pregnated with  an  inflammable  composition, 
and  is  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  stick,  which 
is  carried  in  the  hand. 

Offensive  and  Defensive  Fireworks. — The 
princiyjal  preparations  of  this  class,  em- 
ployed in  modern  warfare,  are  bags  of  pow- 
der and  light-bai-rels. 

Bags  of  Powder. — Bags  or  cases  of  powder 
may  be  used  to  blow  down  gates,  stockades, 
or  form  breaches  in  thin  walls.  The  petard 
was  formerly  employed  for  these  purposes, 
but  it  is  now  generally  thrown  aside.  The 
effect  of  the  explosion  may  be  much  in- 
creased by  making  three  sides  of  the  bag  of 
leather,  and  the  fourth  of  canvas,  which 
should  rest  against  the  object. 

Light-barrel. — A  light  barrel  is  a  common 
powder  barrel  pierced  with  numerous  holes, 
and  filled  with  shavings  that  have  been 
soaked  in  a  composition  of  pitch  and  rosin ; 
it  serves  to  light  up  a  breach,  or  the  bottom 
of  a  ditch. 

Fireworks. — Ornamental  fireworks  are  di- 
vided into  fixed  pieces,  movable  pieces, 
decorative  pieces,  and  preparations  for  com- 
municating fire  from  one  part  of  a  piece  to 
another.  The  different  effects  are  produced 
by  modifying  the  proportions  of  the  ingre- 
dients of  the  burning  composition,  so  as  to 
quicken  or  retard  combustion,  or  by  intro- 
ducing substances  that  give  color  and  bril- 
liancy to  the  flame.  The  fixed  pieces  are 
lances,  petards,  gerbes,  flames,  etc. 

Lances. — These  are  small  paper  tubes 
filled  with  a  composition  which  emits  a  bril- 
liant light  in  burning.      See  Lance  a  Feu. 

Petard. — Petards  are  small  paper  car- 
tridges filled  with  powder. 

Gerbe. — Gerbes  are  strong  paper  tubes  or 
cases  filled  with  a  burning  composition. 
The  ends  are  tamped  with  moist  plaster  of 
Paris  or  clay.  The  movable  pieces  are  sky- 
rockets, tourbillions,  Saxons,  jets,  Roman 
candles,  paper  shells,  etc. 

Sky-rocket. — Skj'-roekets  are  the  same  as 
the  signal-rockets  before  described,  except 
that  the  composition  is  arranged  to  give  out 
a  more  brilliant  train  of  fire.  Composition  : 
122  parts  mealed  powder,  80  parts  nitre,  40 
parts  sulphur,  and  40  parts  cast-iron  filings. 

Tourbillion. — The  tourbillion  is  a  case 
filled  with  sky-rocket  composition,  and 
which  moves  with  an  upward  spiral  motion. 

Saxo7i. — The  Saxon  is  similar  to  the  tour- 
billion ;  it  has  the  appearance  of  a  revolving 
sun. 


PYROTECUNY 


467 


QUADRUPLE 


Jets. — Jets  are  rocket-cases  filled  with  a 
burning  composition;  tliey  are  attached  to 
the  circumference  of  a  wheel,  or  the  end  of 
a  movable  arm,  to  set  it  in  motion. 

Roman  candles. — A  Roman  catidle  is  a 
strong  paper  tube  containing  stars,  which 
are  successively  thrown  out  by  a  small 
charge  of  powder  placed  under  each  star. 
A  slow-burning  composition  is  placed  over 
each  star  to  prevent  its  taking  fire  at  once. 

Paper  S/iell. — This  piece  is  a  paper  shell 
filled  with  decorative  pieces,  and  fired  from 
a  common  mortar.  It  contains  a  small 
bursting  charge  of  powder,  and  has  a  fuze 
regulated  to  ignite  it  when  the  shell  reaches 
the  summit  of  its  trajectory. 

Decortiiive  Pieces. — Decorative  pieces  are 
stars,  serpenis,  marroiis,  etc.,  described  un- 
der the  head  of  Rockets. 

Prepctruiions  for  coinmunicatinfi  fire  from 
one  piece  to  another  are  quick-match,  leaders, 


port-fires,  and  mortar-fuzes.  The  leader  is 
a  thin  paper  tube  contiiining  a  strand  of 
quick-match.     Sci.'  (^in  k-match,  etc. 

Pyroxyline,  or  Pyroxyle,  Gun-cotton 
(which  see). 

Pyrrhic  Dance.  The  most  famous  of  all 
the  war-dances  of  antiquity  ;  is  said  to  have 
received  its  name  from  Pyrrhus,  or  Neoptol- 
emus,  the  son  of  Achillc.--,  and  was  a  Doric 
invention.  According  to  Plato,  it  aimed  to 
represent  the  nimble  motions  of  a  warrior 
either  avoiding  missiles  and  blows,  orassault- 
ing  the  enemy  ;  and  in  the  Doric  states  it 
was  as  much  a  piece  of  military  training  as 
an  amusement.  Elsewhere  in  Greece,  it 
was  purely  a  mimetic  dance,  in  which  the 
parts  were  sometimes  represented  by  women. 
It  formed  part  of  the  public  entertainments 
at  the  Panathenaic  festivals.  Julius  Ca'sur 
introduced  it  at  Rome,  where  it  became  a 
great  favorite. 


■*r«^ 


Q. 


Quadi.  A  powerful  and  warlike  German 
tribe,  belonging  to  the  Suevic  race,  whose 
territories  were  situated  between  the  Danube, 
the  Bohemian  mountains,  and  the  river  Ma- 
rus.  They  make  their  first  appearance  in 
history  in  the  1st  century  as  formidable  foes 
of  the  Romans.  Their  bodies  were  covered 
with  mail,  consisting  of  plates  of  horn  ;  their 
weapons  were  long  spears ;  and  each  man  had 
three  swift  horses  for  his  use  in  battle.  Thus 
equipped,  they  commenced  the  jiractice  of 
making  rapid  and  sweeping  raids  into  Pan- 
nonia,  Nicosia,  and  other  neighboring  prov- 
inces. Sometimes  they  routed  the  imperial 
forces  which  tried  to  check  their  inroads. 
At  all  times  they  returned  home  with  their 
predatory  spirit  unbroken.  Mo  reverses  in 
fact,  however  frequent,  could  daunt  those 
wild  border  troopers  of  the  Danube.  The 
emperor  Marcus  Aurelius,  Probus,  Carus, 
and  Valontiiiian  I.,  defeated  them  without 
subduing  or  crushing  them.  The  last 
glimpse  that  we  get  of  them  in  history  shows 
them  in  company  with  other  barbaric  hordes, 
in  407,  overrunning  Gaul,  and  reveling  in 
boundless  havoc  and  slaughter. 

Quadrant.  An  instrument  for  measuring 
altitudes,  variously  constructed  and  mounted 
for  ditl'erent  specific  uses  in  astront)my,  sur- 
veying, gunnery,  etc.,  consisting  commonly 
of  a  graduated  arc  of  00°,  with  an  inde.x  or 
vernier,  and  either  plain  or  telescopic  sights, 
together  with  a  plumb-line  or  snirit-level  for 
fixing  the  vortical  or  horizontal  direction. 

Quadrant,  Gunner's.  See  Gunner's 
Quadrant. 


I       Quadrat.     Or  to  quadrat  a  gun,  is  to  see 
I  it  duly  placed  on  its  carriage,  and  that  the 
wheels  be  of  an  equal  height. 

Quadriga.  In  antiquity,  a  car  or  chariot, 
drawn  by  four  horses  harnessed  abreast. 
This  chariot  was  used  in  battle  and  in  tri- 
umphal processions. 

Quadrilateral.     In  military  language,  an 
expression  designating  a  combination  of  four 
fortresses,  not  necessarily  connected  together, 
but  mutually  supporting  each  other;    and 
from  the  fact  that  if  one  be  attacked,  the 
garrisons  of  the  others,  unless  carefully  ob- 
served, will  harass  the  besiegers,  rendering 
I  it  nece-ssary  that  a  very  large  army  should 
,  be  employed  to  turn  the  combined  position. 
As  a  remarkable  instance,  and  a  very  power- 
1   ful  one,  may  be  cited  the  celebrated  quadri- 
j  lateral  in  Venetia,  c(miprising  the  four  strong 
i  posts   of  Mantua,  A'erona,    Pesohiera,    and 
i   Legnago.     These  form  a  sort  of  outwork  to 
I  the  bastion  which  the  southern   mountains 
I  of  the  Tyrol  constitute,  and  divide  the  north 
i  plain  of  the  Po  into  two  sections  by  a  most 
•  powerful  barrier.     Napoleon   III.,  in  1850, 
even    after   the  victories    of    Magenta   and 
I  Solferino,  hesitated    to  attack    this  quadri- 
'  lateral. 

Quadrille  {Fr.).     Small  parties  of-  horse 

i  richly  caparisoned,  etc.,  in  tournaments  and 

at  public  festivals.    The  quadrilles  were  dis- 

I  tinguished  from  one  anotlier  by  the  shape  or 

color  of  the  coats  whiih  the  riders  wore. 

Quadruple  Alliance.  Hetween  Groat 
Britain,  Fr.ince,  and  the  emperor  of  Ger- 
many (signed  at  London,  July  22,  1718; ;  it 


QUADRUPLE 


468 


QUARTERS 


obtained  its  name  on  the  accession  of  the 
states  of  Holland,  February  8,  1719.  It 
guaranteed  the  succession  of  the  reigning 
families  of  Great  Britain  and  France,  set- 
tled the  partition  of  the  Spanish  monarchy, 
and  led  to  war. 

Quadruple  Treaty.  Concluded  in  Lon- 
don, April  22,  1834,  by  the  representatives 
of  Great  Britain,  France,  Spain,  and  Portu- 
gal, which  guaranteed  the  possession  of  her 
throne  to  Isabella  II.,  the  young  queen  of 
Spain. 

Quaker-guns  (Fr.  passe-volans).  Were 
wooden  pieces  of  ordnance  which  were  made 
to  resemble  real  artillery.  They  subse- 
quently were  used  in  other  countries,  and 
placed  in  the  embrasures  of  forts,  in  order  to 
deceive  an  enemy. 

Quarrel,  or  Quarry.  An  arrow  with  a 
square  head,  for  a  cross-bow,  was  so  called. 

Quarrels.  See  Appendix,  Articles  of 
War,  24. 

Quarte.  In  tactics,  a  word  of  command 
given  in  the  bayonet  exercise;  as,  quarte 
parry,  to  thrust  in  quarte. 

Quarter.     A  fourth  part  of  anything. 

Quarter.  To  furnish  with  shelter  or  en- 
tertainment ;  to  supply  with  the  means  of 
living  for  a  time  ;  especially  to  furnish  shel- 
ter to  ;  as,  to  quarter  soldiers. 

Quarter.  In  heraldry,  one  of  the  divis- 
ions of  a  shield,  when  it  is  divided  into  four 
portions  by  horizontal  and  perpendicular 
lines  meeting  in  the  fesse  point;  especially 
either  of  the  two  divisions  thus  made.  Also, 
to  bear  as  an  appendage  to  the  hereditary 
arms.  "The  coatof  Beauchanip  .  .  .  quar- 
tered by  the  Earl  of  Hertford." 

Quarter.  In  war,  signifies  the  sparing  of 
the  life  of  a  vanquished  enemy,  which  by 
the  laws  of  war  is  forfeit  to  the  victor.  The 
expression^  seems  to  be  derived  from  the  use 
of  the  word  "quarter"  to  designate  the 
lodging  of  the  particular  warrior;  to  give 
quarter  to  a  prisoner  being  to  send  him  to 
his  captor's  quarter  for  liberation,  ransom, 
or  slavery.  The  refusal  of  quarter  is  a  ter- 
rible aggravation  of  the  horrors  of  war,  and 
is  only  at  all  justifiable  towards  an  enemy 
who  has  been  guilty  of  atrocious  cruelty 
himself,  or  of  some  flagrant  breach  of  faith. 

Quarter  Arms,  To.  In  heraldi-y,  to  place 
the  arms  of  other  families  in  the  compart- 
ments of  a  shield,  which  is  divided  into  four 
quarters,  the  family  arms  being  placed  in 
the  first  quarter.  When  more  than  three 
other  arms  are  to  be  quartered  with  the 
family  arms,  it  is  usual  to  divide  the  shield 
into  a  suitable  number  of  compartments; 
and  still  the  arms  are  said  to  be  quartered. 

Quarter  Guard.  The  guard  which  is 
stationed  in  front  of  the  centre  of  the  camp 
of  each  corps,  at  about  80  paces  from  it. 

Quarter  of  Assembly.  The  place  where 
the  troops  meet  to  march  from  in  a  body, 
and  is  the  same  as  the  place  of  rendezvous. 

Quarter  Upon,  To.  Is  to  oblige  persons 
to  receive  soldiers,  etc.,  into  their  dwelling- 
houses,  and  to  provide  for  them.      In  the 


United  States  no  soldier  shall,  in  time  of 
peace,  be  quartered  in  any  house  without 
the  consent  of  the  owner;  nor  in  time  of 
war,  but  in  a  manner  to  be  prescribed  by 
law. 

Quarter-block.     See  Implements. 

Quartering.  In  heraldry,  the  division  of 
a  shield  containing  many  coats.  See  Quar- 
ter. 

Quarterly.  In  heraldry,  in  quarters  or 
quarter! ngs  ;  as,  to  bear  arms  quarterly. 

Quartermaster.  A  regimental  statf-oiB- 
cer,  of  the  relative  rank  of  lieutenant,  whose 
duty  is  to  look  after  the  assignment  of  quar- 
ters, the  provision  of  clothing,  forage,  fuel, 
and  all  other  quartermaster's  supplies;  and 
when  on  the  march  he  sees  to  the  marking 
out  of  the  camp.  He  is  appointed  by  the 
colonel  of  the  regiment,  subject  to  the  ap- 
proval of  the  Secretary  of  War.  He  vacates 
his  staff  position  when  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  captain,  or  at  the  discretion  of  the  colo- 
nel. In  the  British  service  the  regimental 
quartermaster  rises,  with  scarcely  any  ex- 
ception, from  the  ranks.  He  has  no  further 
promotion  to  look  forward  to ;  but  after 
thirty  years'  service  in  all — including  ten  as 
an  officer — he  may  retire  with  the  honorary 
rank  of  captain. 

Quartermaster-General.  A  staff-oflScer 
in  the  U.  S.  armj',  who  has  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general,  and  is  at  the  head  of  the 
quartermaster's  department. 

Quartermaster's  Department.  This  de- 
partment provides  the  quarters  and  trans- 
portation of  the  army,  except  that,  when 
practicable,  wagons  and  their  equipment 
are  provided  by  the  ordnance  department; 
storage  and  transportation  for  all  army  sup- 
plies ;  army  clotlaing  :  camp  and  garrison 
equipage  ;  cavalry  and  artillery  horses ;  fuel, 
forage,  straw,  and  stationery.  The  inci- 
dental expenses  of  the  array  (also  paid 
through  the  quartermaster's  department) 
include  per  diem  to  extra-duty  men  ;  of  the 
pursuit  and  apprehension  of  deserters ;  of 
the  burials  of  officers  and  soldiers  ;  of  hired 
escorts  ;  of  expresses,  interpreters,  spies,  and 
guides ;  medicines  for  horses ;  and  of  sup- 
plying posts  with  water ;  and,  generally,  the 
proper  and  authorized  expenses  for  the 
movements  and  operations  of  an  army  not 
expressly  assigned  to  any  other  department. 
The  present  organization  of  the  quarter- 
master's department  consists  of  1  quarter- 
master-general, with  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general  ;  3  assistant  quartermaster-generals, 
with  the  rank  of  colonels  ;  8  deputy  quarter- 
master-generals, with  the  rank  of  lieuten- 
ant-colonels ;  14  quartermasters,  with  the 
rank  of  majors  ;  and  30  assistant  quarter- 
masters, with  the  rank  of  captains. 

Quartermaster-Sergeant.  A  non-com- 
missioned officer  who  assists  the  quarter- 
master. He  ranks  among  the  regimental 
non-commissioned  staff,  and  is  appointed  by 
the  colonel  of  a  regiment  upon  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  quartermaster. 

Quarters.     In  military  affairs,  are,  gen- 


I 


QUARTERS 


469 


QUEUE 


erally,  the  positions  assigned  to  persons  or 
bodies  of  men.  In  a  more  special  sense, 
the  quarters  in  the  army  are  the  places  of 
lodjjing  assigned  to  officers  or  men  when 
not  actually  on  duty. 

Quarters.  The  encampment  on  one  of 
the  principal  passages  round  a  place  be- 
sieged, to  prevent  relief  and  intercept  con- 
voys. 

Quarters,  Choice  of.  In  the  U.  S.  ser- 
vice, when  officers  arrive  in  a  garrison  they 
shall  have  choice  of  quarters  according  to 
rank  ;  but  the  commanding  officer  may  di- 
rect the  officers  to  be  stationed  near  their 
troops.  The  commanding  officer  of  a  post 
cannot  be  displaced  by  his  senior  who  does 
not  command,  though  assigned  to  the  same 
post.  An  officer  who  has  made  his  choice 
of  quarters  cannot  again  displace  a  junior, 
unless  himself  displaced  by  a  senior. 

Quarters,  Intrenched.  A  place  fortified 
with  a  ditch  and  parapet  to  secure  a  body 
of  troops. 

Quarters  of  Refreshment.  The  place 
where  the  troops  that  have  been  much 
harassed  are  put  to  recover  themselves, 
during  some  part  of  the  campaign. 

Quarters,  Out  of.  Beyond  the  prescribed 
limits.  For  punishment  of  soldiers  sleeping 
out  of  quarters,  see  Appendix,  Articlks 
OK  Wak,  'M. 

Quarter-sights.  In  gunnery,  are  divis- 
ions marked  on  the  upper  quarters  of  the 
base-ring,  commencing  where  it  would  be 
intersected  by  a  plane  parallel  to  the  axis  of 
the  piece,  and  tangent  to  the  upper  surface 
of  the  trunnions.  These  sights  are  used  for 
giving  elevations  up  to  three  degrees  ;  but 
especially  for  pointing  a  piece  at  a  less  ele- 
vation than  the  natural  angle  of  sight. 
Quarter-sights  are  not  used  in  the  U.  S. 
service. 

Quarter-staff.  Formerly  a  favorite 
weapon  with  the  English  for  hand-to- 
hand  encounters  ;  was  a  stout  pole  of  heavj' 
wood,  about  (U  feet  long,  shod  with  iron  on 
both  ends.  It  was  <rras|>ed  in  the  middle  by 
one  hand,  and  the  attack  was  made  by  giv- 
ing it  a  rapid  circular  motion,  which  brought 
the  loaded  ends  on  the  adversary  at  unex- 
pected |)oints. 

Quasi  Officers.  Sec  Surqeons,  Acting- 
Assistant. 

Quatre  Bras.     See  Waterloo. 

Quatrefoil.  A  heraldic  bearing  meant  to 
represent  a  llower  with  four  leaves.  It  is 
not  represent<'d  with  a  stalk  unless  blazoned 
as  slipped,  in  which  case  the  stalk  joins  the 
lower  leaf. 

Quebec.  The  capital  of  the  province  of 
Quebec,  formerly  Canada  East,  is  situated 
on  a  steep  promontory  at  the  junction  of 
the  rivers  St.  Lawrence  and  St.  Charles, 
and  its  citadel  is  the  m(»st  impregnable  for- 
tre.ss  on  the  continent  of  America.  The  site 
of  Quebec,  originally  occupied  by  an  Indian 
village  named  Stadacona,  was  discovered  by 
Jacques  Carlier  in  15;}.3;  but  the  city  was 
founded   by   Champlain   in    1GU8.      It   was 


taken  from  the  French  by  the  English  in 
1(520,  restored  in  1G32,  and  fortified  in  1G90. 
It  renuiinetl  in  the  possession  of  the  French 
till  1759,  when  in  consecpience  of  the  victory 
of  Wolfe,  it  was  surrendered  to  the  British, 
and  finally  confirmed  to  them  by  the  treaty 
of  Paris  in  17<i.3.  Quebec  was  attacked  by  the 
American  republicans  in  1775,  but  the  siege 
was  raised  in  the  following  year.  Since  then 
its  capture  has  not  been  attempted. 

Queen  Anne's  Pocket-piece.  An  ancient 
18-pounder  cannon  at  Dover,  England.  See 
Ordnance,  History  ok. 

Queen's  Color.  In  the  British  service, 
the  one  which  is  carried  on  the  right  of  the 
two  colors  of  a  battalion  of  infantry.  It  is, 
in  the  line,  the  great  union  or  union-jack, 
with  the  imperial  crown  in  the  centre  and 
the  number  of  the  regiment  in  gold  Roman 
characters  below  the  crown.  In  the  (iuards 
the  queen's  color  is  crimson,  with  various 
devices  on  it. 

Queen's  County.  An  inland  county  of 
the  province  of  Leinster,  Ireland.  Queen's 
County  anciently  formed  part  t)f  the  dis- 
tricts of  Leix  and  Ossory  ;  and  after  the 
English  invasion,  on  the  submission  of  the 
chief  O'More,  the  territory  retained  a  quali- 
fied independence.  Under  Edward  II.,  the 
O'Morcs  became  so  powerful,  that  for  a  long 
series  of  years  an  unceasing  contest  was 
maintained  by  them  with  the  English,  with 
various  alte'rnations  of  success.  In  the 
reign  of  Edward  VI.,  Bellingham,  the  lord- 
deputy,  succeedeil  in  re-aniiexing  the  terri- 
tory of  the  O'.Mores  to  the  Pale;  and  in 
Mary's  reign  it  was  reduced  to  a  shire. 

Queenstown.  A  town  of  Upper  Canada. 
It  was  taken  by  the  U.  S.  troops  October  13, 
1812;  but  was  retaken  by  the  British  forces, 
who  defeated  the  Americans  with  consider- 
able loss  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners, 
on  the  same  day.  Queenstown  suflered 
severely  in  this  war. 

Queil.  To  crush  ;  to  subdue;  to  put  down; 
to  reduce;  as,  the  military  were  called  out 
to  quell  the  riot. 

Quentin,  Saint-.     See  Saint-Quentin. 

Queretaro.  An  important  town  of  Mex- 
ico, capital  of  a  state  of  the  same  name,  situ- 
ated on  a  hilly  plateau,  110  miles  northwest 
of  the  city  of  \Iexico.  The  peace  between 
Mexico  and  the  United  States  was  ratified 
here  by  the  ilexican  congress  in  1848.  The 
town  was  besieged  and  taken  (through  the 
treachery  of  Lopez)  by  the  Liberal  general 
fcscobedo.  May  15,  18(17.  The  emperor  Max- 
imilian, and  his  generals  Miramon  and  Me- 
jia,  were  taken  prisoners,  and  after  trial, 
were  shot  on  June  19  following. 

Quesnoy.  A  fortified  town  of  France,  in 
j  the  department  of  Nord.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Austrians,  September  11,  1793,  but  was 
recovered  by  the  French,  August  lf>,  1794. 
It  surrendered  to  Prince  Frederick  of  the 
Netherlands,  June  29,  1815,  after  the  battle 
of  Waterloo. 

Queue.  A  tail-like  twist  of  hair  formerly 
worn  at  the  back  of  the  head  by  soldiers. 


QUEUES 


470 


EAFT 


Queues  d'Hironde  {Fr.).  In  fortification, 
lines  composed  of  projecting  tenailles,  or 
works,  which,  from  the  facility  with  which 
an  enemy  can  enfihide  their  long  branches, 
are  considered  extremely  defective,  and  con- 
sequently are  seldom  employed. 

Quiberon.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Morbihan,  situated  on  a  long 
and  narrow  peninsula  of  the  same  name, 
which,  with  some  islands,  forms  one  of  the 
largest  bays  in  Europe,  20  miles  southwest 
from  Vannes.  A  body  of  French  emigrant 
royalists,  under  D'Hervilly  and  Puisaye, 
landed  here  from  an  English  fleet,  on  June 
27,  1795,  and  endeavored  to  rouse  the  people 
of  Brittany  and  La  Vendee  against  the  Con- 
vention, but  were  defeated,  in  July,  and 
driven  into  the  sea  by  Gen.  Hoche.  A  large 
number  of  prisoners  taken  were  shot,  by 
order  of  the  Convention.  During  the  war 
of  the  Austrian  Succession,  an  English  force 
attempted  a  landing  here  (1746),  but  was 
repulsed. 

Qui  Vive  ?  Qui  va  La  ?  Qui  est  La  ?  {Fr. ) 
Literally  means.  Who  is  alive?  Who  goes 
there?  and  Who  is  there  ?  These  terms  are 
used  by  the  French  sentinels  when  they 
challenge,  and  are  equivalent  to  the  English 
challenge,  Who  comes  there? 

Quick  Time.  In  tactics,  the  length  of 
the  direct  step  in  quick  time  is  28  inches, 
measured  from  heel  to  heel ;  the  cadence  is 
at  the  rate  of  110  steps  per  minute,  or  2  miles 
1613  yards  in  an  hour. 

Quick-match.   See  Laboratory  Stores. 

Quickstep.  A  lively,  spirited  march  gen- 
erally played  by  military  bands. 


Quiloa,  or  Keelwa.  A  seaport  town  of 
Zanguebar,  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  225 
miles  north  of  Mozambique.  It  was  taken 
and  burned  by  the  Portuguese,  in  1505,  but 
abandoned  by  them  soon  after. 

Quincunx.  Forming  a  body  of  men 
checkerwise. 

Quintain,  or  Quintin.  An  instrument 
used  in  the  ancient  practice  of  tilting.  It 
consisted  of  an  upright  post,  on  the  top  of 
which  a  cross  post  turned  upon  a  pivot;  at 
one  end  of  the  cross  post  was  a  broad  board, 
and  at  the  other  a  bag  of  sand.  The  prac- 
tice was  to  ride  against  the  board  with  a 
lance,  at  such  speed  as  to  pass  by  before  the 
sand-bag  could  strike  the  tilter  on  the  back. 

Quinte.     The  fifth  guard  in  fencing. 

Quirites.  In  ancient  Eome  the  citizens 
were  so  called  as  distinguished  from  the 
soldiery. 

Quischens.  The  old  term  for  cuisses,  the 
pieces  of  armor  which  protected  the  thighs. 

Quit.  To  leave ;  to  abandon.  To  quit 
your  post  or  ranks,  is  to  retire,  without  hav- 
ing received  any  previous  order  for  that  pur- 
pose, from  a  station  intrusted  to  your  care, 
or  a  position  in  which  you  may  be.  For 
punishment  inflicted  upon  persons  quitting 
their  posts,  see  Appendix,  Articles  of 
War,  40. 

Quiver.     A  case  or  sheath  for  arrows. 

Quoin.  In  gunnery,  is  a  wedge  used  to 
lay  under  the  breech  of  a  gun  to  elevate  or 
depress  it. 

Quota.  A  proportional  part  or  share  ;  or 
the  share,  part,  or  proportion  assigned  to 
each.     "  Quota  of  troops  and  money." 


R 


Raab,  or  Nagy-Gyor.  A  town  of  Hun- 
gary, 67  miles  west-northwest  of  Buda.  A 
battle  was  fought  under  its  walls  in  June, 
1809,  in  which  Napoleon  totally  defeated  the 
disorderly  force  of  the  Hungarian  nobles. 

Rabinet.  A  small  piece  of  ordnance  for- 
merly in  use.  It  weighed  but  300  pounds, 
and  fired  a  small  ball  of  If  inch  diameter; 
with  a  very  limited  range. 

Rachat  des  Cloches  [Fr.).  Redemption 
of  bells.  Formerly  in  France  when  a  forti- 
fied place  was  taken,  the  bells  became  the 
])roperty  of  the  master-general  of  artillery, 
which  were  usually  redeemed  by  the  inhab- 
itants at  a  certain  price;  it  was  necessary 
that  the  place  should  be  attacked  by  artil- 
lery in  order  to  secure  this  right  over  the 
bells. 

Rack,  Forage.  See  Ordnance,  Car- 
riages FOR,  BaTTKRY-WAQON. 


Rack-stick  and  Lashing.  Consist  of  a 
piece  of  two-inch  rope,  about  6  feet  long, 
fastened  to  a  picket  about  15  inches  long, 
having  a  ifole  in  its  head  to  receive  the  rope. 
Rack  lashings  are  used  for  securing  the  planks 
of  a  gun  or  mortar  platform,  between  the 
ribbons  and  the  sleepers. 

Radius.  In  fortification,  a  term  applied 
to  a  line  drawn  from  the  centre  of  the  poly- 
gon to  the  extremity  of  the  exterior  side. 
There  are  the  exterior.,  the  interior.,  and  the 
right  radii. 

Radstadt.     See  Rastadt. 

Raft.  A  species  of  floating  bridge  for  the 
passage  of  rivers,  on  which  the  soldiers  and 
light  artillery  may  be  safely  conveyed. 

"Raft  of  Casks.  This  raft  may  be  con- 
structed by  forming  a  frame  of  timber  to 
contain  the  casks. 

The  frame  consists  of  four  longitudinal 


RAFT 


471 


RAISE 


pieces  halved  into  four  transoms.  The  lonej 
pieces  must  be  tit  least  20  feet  long,  and 
their  distance  apart  be  a  little  less  thun  the 
head  diameter  of  the  casks.  The  under 
edges  are  beveled  so  as  to  give  them  a 
good  bearing  on  the  casks. 

In  default  of  square  timber,  poles  may  bo 
used  in  the  construction  of  the  frame.  The 
string-pieces  and  transoms  may  be  spiked  or 
lashed  at  their  points  of  junction. 

The  four  exterior  casks  in  the  raft  should 
be  lashed  to  the  frame,  otherwise  they  may 
be  carried  oft'  by  the  current  when  the  raft 
lurches.  For  other  kinds  of  rafts,  see  Pon- 
tons. 

Raft,  Prairie.     See  Pontons. 

Rafts,  Timber.  Employ  the  largest  and 
longest  timber,  giving  at  least  85  feet  length 
to  the  raft.  Sliorter  than  this  it  will  not 
have  sufficient  stability,  but  will  be  subject 
to  dangerous  oscillatii>ns,  especially  in  a 
rapid  stream.  Squaring  the  timber  will  be 
worse  than  useless.  Any  irregularities, 
such  as  branches  and  knots,  should  be 
trimmed  oft".  The  raft  must  be  built  in  the 
water.  Select  a  place  where  there  is  little 
current,  and  where  the  bank  slopes  gently 
to  the  water. 

The  timber  is  then  arranged  in  the  posi- 
tion it  is  to  have  in  the  raft, — the  butts  al- 
ternately up  and  down  the  stream, — the  up- 
stream ends  forming  a  right  angle,  salient 
up-stream. 

Suppose  the  case  of  a  raft  to  be  composed 
of  20  logs,  47  feet  long,  and  averaging  12 
inches  in  diameter. 

The  first  log  is  brought  alongside  the 
shore,  and  the  end  of  a  plank  or  small  trunk 
of  a  tree  is  spiked  to  it,  about  3  feet  from 
each  end  ;  it  is  pushed  oft'  a  little,  and  a 
second  log  is  brought  up,  under  the  tran- 
soms and  in  close  contact  with  the  first. 

The  second  log  is  spiked  like  the  first,  and 
so  on  for  each  of  the  renuiining  logs;  care 
being  taken  to  alternate  the  butts,  placing 
the  whistle  ends  up-stream  with  the  bevel 
underneath,  and  to  spike  the  transoms  per- 
pendicular to  the  logs.  When  the  current 
of  the  river  in  which  the  raft  is  to  be  used  is 
very  gentle,  the  up-stream  ends  may  be  on 
a  line  parallel  to  the  transom  ;  but  if  rapid, 
they  should  form  a  right-angle  salient  up- 
stream, the  vertex  being  in  the  middle  log. 

When  the  bank  is  too  steep  to  admit  of 
this  construction,  the  trees  niaj'  be  floated 
into  their  proper  positions,  lashed  together, 
and  the  transoms  spiked  on  ;  if  the  logs  are 
nearly  of  the  same  size,  the  centre  of  gravity 
will  be  near  the  centre  of  the  raft. 

Tw^)  additional  transoms  are  spiked  at 
equal  distances  from  the  centre  of  gravity  of 
the  raft,  and  at  a  distance  apart  equal  to  the 
■width  of  the  roadway  or  nlatform. 

The  transoms  should  be  about  8  inches 
wide  by  6  inches  thick,  and  should  have  a 
bearing  on  all  the  logs  forming  the  raft. 
When  a  platform  is  to  be  constructed  on 
the  raft,  ititormediate  transoms  are  laid,  and 
at  a  distance  apart  depending  on  the  strength 


of  the  planking.  The  size  of  the  platform 
must  be  regulated  by  the  buoyant  power  of 
the  raft.  A  single  course  of  logs  will  not 
have  sufficient  power  to  sustai  n  troops  enough 
to  cover  its  whole  surface.  When  the  raft  is 
to  be  used  in  a  bridge  the  two  intermediate 
transoms  are  separated  by  a  distance  a  little 
less  than  the  length  of  the  chess,  and  placed 
at  equal  distances  from  a  point  somewhat 
astern  of  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  raft, 
in  order  to  correct  the  downward  action  of 
the  cable  on  the  bow. 

For  use  in  a  bridge,  a  raft  should  be  able 
to  sustain  at  least  15,(X)0  pounds.  The  same 
expedients  are  employed  for  the  anchorage 
of  rafts  as  boats. 

Rafts  are  sometimes  constructed  for  flying- 
bridges  in  the  form  of  a  lozenge,  the  acute 
angles  being  about  55°, — so  that  when  two 
of  the  sides  are  parallel  to  the  action  of  the 
current,  the    up-stream  side,  which  in  this 
form  is  the  only  one  acted  on  by  the  current, 
;  is  in  the  most  favorable  position. 
I       Raguled,orRagguld.  In  heraldry, jagged 
;  or  notched  in  an  irregular  manner. 

Raguled,  Cross.  One  made  of  two  trunks 
of  trees  without  their  branches,  of  which 
only  the  stumps  appear. 

Raguly.  In  heraldry,  a  term  applied  to 
an  ordinary  whose  bounding  lines  are  fur- 
nished with  serrated  projections. 

Ragusa.  A  town  of  Austria,  formerly 
the  capital  of  an  independent  republic  which 
now  forms  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Dalmatia, 
on  a  peninsula  on  the  east  side  of  the  Adri- 
atic, and  built  in  terraces  on  the  side  of 
Mount  Sergio,  the  upper  streets  communi- 
cating with  the  lower  by  a  flight  of  steps. 
It  is  strongly  fortified  with  citadels,  forts, 
and  walls.  It  was  taken  by  the  Venetians 
in  1171,  but  became  an  independent  repub- 
lic, 1358 ;  was  taken  by  the  French  in  180t), 
and  given  up  to  Austria  in  1814. 

Rahmanieh.  A  town  of  Lower  Egypt, 
situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Nile  with  the 
canal  of  Alexandria,  25  miles  southeast  from 
Rosetta.  The  French,  during  their  occupa- 
tion of  Egyjit,  made  it  a  fortified  station. 
It  was  taken  from  them  bv  the  British  in 
1801. 

Raid.  A  hostile  or  predatory  incursion, 
especially  an  inroad  or  incursion  of  mounted 
men ;  a  sudden  and  rajiid  invasion  by  a 
cavalry  force. 

Raiilon  (/'>.).  A  quarrel ;  a  short  ar- 
row. 

Rail-platform.    See  Platform. 

Rails.  See  Orpnanck,  Carriages  for, 
Sea-coast  Cakriacjes. 

Rain,  or  Rhain.  A  town  of  Bavaria,  22 
miles  north  from  Augsburg,  where  the  Aus- 
trian general  Tilly  received  his  mortal  wound 
in  1(532. 

Raise.  Armies  are  rahed  in  two  ways: 
cither  by  voluntary  engagements,  or  by  lot 
or  conscription.  The  Greek  and  Roman 
levies  were  the  result  of  a  rigid  system  of 
conscription.  The  Visigoths  practiced  a 
general  conscription  ;  poverty,  old  age,  and 


KAISE 


472 


RAMNUGGUR 


sickness,  were  the  only  reasons  admitted  for 
exemption.  "Subsequently"  (says  Hallam), 
"  the  feudal  military  tenures  had  superseded 
that  earlier  system  of  public  defense,  which 
called  upon  every  man,  and  especially  upon 
every  land-holder,  to  protect  his  country. 
The  relations  of  a  vassal  came  in  place  of 
those  of  a  subject  and  a  citizen.  This  was 
the  revolution  of  the  9th  century.  In  the 
12th  and  13th  another  innovation  rather 
more  gradually  prevailed,  and  marks  the 
third  period  in  the  military  history  of  Eu- 
rope. Mercenary  troops  were  substituted 
for  the  feudal  militia  These  military  ad- 
venturers played  a  more  remarkable  part  in 
Italy  than  in  France,  though  not  a  little 
troublesome  to  the  latter  country."  A 
necessary  effect  of  the  formation  of  merce- 
naries was  the  centralization  of  authority. 
Money  became  the  sinews  of  war.  The  in- 
vention of  tire-arms  caused  it  to  be  acknowl- 
edged that  skill  was  no  less  essential  for 
warlike  operations  than  strength  and  valor. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the 
power  (jf  princes  was  calculated  by  the  num- 
ber and  quality  of  paid  troops  they  could 
support.  France  first  set  the  example  of 
keeping  troops  in  peace.  Charles  VII.,  for- 
seeing  the  danger  of  invasion,  authorized 
the  assemblage  of  armed  mercenaries  called 
compagnies  (Vordonnance.  Louis  XI.  dis- 
missed these  troops  but  enrolled  new  ones, 
composed  of  French,  Swiss,  and  Scotch. 
Under  Charles  VIII.,  Germans  were  ad- 
mitted in  the  French  army,  and  the  highest 
and  most  illustrious  nobles  of  France  re- 
garded it  as  an  honor  to  serve  in  the  gens 
d'armes.  Moral  qualifications  not  being 
exacted  for  admission  to  the  ranks,  the  re- 
straints of  a  barbarous  discipline  became 
necessary,  and  this  discipline  divided  widely 
the  soldier  from  the  people.  The  French 
revolution  overturned  this  system.  "Now'" 
(says  Decker)  "  mercenary  troops  have  com- 
pletely disappeared  from  continental  Europe. 
England  only  now  raises  armies  by  the  sys- 
tem of  recruiters.  The  last  wars  of  Europe 
have  been  wars  of  the  people,  and  have  been 
fought  by  nationalities.  After  peace  armies 
remain  national,  for  their  elements  are  taken 
from  the  people  by  legal  liberations.  The 
institution  of  conscription  is  evidently  the 
most  important  of  modern  times.  Among 
other  advantages,  it  has  bridged  the  other- 
wise impassable  gulf  between  the  citizen 
and  soldier,  who,  children  of  the  same  fam- 
ily, are  now  united  in  defense  of  their 
country.  Permanent  armies  have  ceased  to 
be  the  personal  guard  of  kings,  but  their 
sympathies  are  always  with  the  people,  and 
their  just  title  is  tliat  of  skillful  warriors 
maintained  as  a  nucleus  for  the  instruction 
of  their  countrymen  in  the  highest  school  of 
art." 

Raise  a  Blockade,  To.  To  remove  or 
break  up  a  blockade,  either  by  withdrawing 
the  ships  or  forces  employed  in  enforcing 
it,  or  by  driving  them  away  or  dispersing 
them. 


Raise  a  Purchase,  To.  To  dispose  in- 
struments or  machines  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  exert  any  mechanical  force  required. 

Raise  a  Siege,  To.  To  relinquish  an  at- 
tempt to  take  a  place  by  besieging  it,  or  to 
cause  the  attempt  to  be  relinquished. 

Rajah,  or  Raja.  A  hereditary  prince 
among  the  Hindus  belonging  to  the  warrior 
caste,  or  the  Kshattriya.  In  later  times  it 
became  a  title  given  by  the  British  govern- 
ment to  Hindus  of  rank,  and  is  now  not 
uncommonly  assumed  by  the  zemindars,  or 
land-holders  ;  the  title  of  Maharajah,  or 
"great  Rajah,"  being  in  these  days  gen- 
erally reserved  to  the  more  or  less  inde- 
pendent native  princes. 

Rajpoots,  or  Rajputs.  Is  the  name  of 
various  tribes  in  India  which  are  of  Aryan 
origin,  and  either  descended  from  the  old 
royal  races  of  the  Hindus,  or  from  their 
Kshattriya,  or  warrior  caste.  They  attained 
a  high  degree  of  power  and  renown  just  be- 
fore the  Mohammedan  conquests  in  the  12th 
century.  In  1193  and  1194  the  Rajpoot 
chiefs  sustained  more  than  one  defeat  at  the 
hands  of  the  Mohammedans,  and  were  de- 
prived of  all  their  possessions  except  the 
regions  they  now  occupy.  They  came  under 
the  protection  of  the  English,  from  about 
the  beginning  of  this  century,  when  the 
Rajpoots  proved  unable  to  defend  their 
country  against  the  Mahrattas. 

Rake.  To  enfilade;  to  fire  in  a  direction 
with  the  length  of;  as,  to  rake  the  enemy's 
ranks. 

Rally.  To  bring  back  to  order  troops  that 
may  have  been  dispersed,  or  have  retreated 
in  a  panic. 

Rally.  To  come  into  orderly  arrange- 
ment ;  to  renew  order,  as  troops  scattered  or 
put  to  flight;  to  assemble;  to  unite. 

Ram.  To  push  home  the  charge  of  a 
gun  ;  also,  the  corresponding  word  of  com- 
mand. 

Ram,  Battering-.     See  Battering-ram. 

Ram  Home,  To.  To  drive  home  the  am- 
munition in  a  gun. 

Ramillies.  A  village  of  Brabant,  Bel- 
gium, 28  miles  southeast  of  Brussels,  is 
memorable  as  the  place  near  which  one  of 
the  most  important  battles  of  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession  was  fought.  May  23, 
1706.  In  this  conflict  the  French  forces 
were  under  the  command  of  Marshal  de  Vil- 
leroy  and  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  while  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough  led  the  troops  of  the 
allies.  Villeroy,  after  a  battle  of  three  hours 
and  a  half,  was  defeated,  with  the  loss  of  all 
his  cannon,  the  whole  of  his  baggage,  and 
13,000  men  in  killed  and  wounded.  The 
great  result  of  this  victory  was  that  the 
French  were  compelled  to  give  up  the  whole 
of  the  Spanish  Netherlands.  About  4000  of  _ 
the  allies  were  slain  in  the  engagement. 

Rammer.  See  Implements,  and  In- 
spection OF  Cannon. 

Rammer-head.  See  Implements,  and 
Inspection  of  Cannon. 

Ramnuggur.     A  walled  town  of  the  Pun- 


RAMP 


473 


RANGE-FINDER 


jab,  on  the  Chenaub,  02  miles  northwest  of 
Lahoro.  Here  the  Sikh  army  was  defeated 
by  tiio  British,  October,  1848. 

Ramp.  An  oblique  or  sloping  interior 
road  to  iiMiiiiit  the  t('rre-})lein  of  llie  rampart. 

Rampant  (/•'/•.,  literally,  "  raj^ing'').  In 
heraldry,  an  epithet  applied  to  a  lion  or 
other  beast  of  prey  when  placed  erect  on  the 
two  hind-legs,  with  only  one  of  the  fore-legs 
elevated,  tiie  head  being  seen  in  profile. 
When  the  face  is  turned  toward  the  specta- 
tor, the  attitude  is  called  rampant  (/arilant, 
and  when  the  head  is  turned  backwards, 
rampant  rrt/ardant.  A  Vitm  counter-rampant 
is  one  rami)ant  towards  the  sinister,  instead 
of  towards  the  dexter,  the  usual  attitude. 
Two  lions  rampant  contrariwise  in  saltire, 
are  sometimes  also  said  to  be  counicr-ram- 
jm/if. 

Rampart.     To  fortify  with  ramparts. 

Rampart-grenades.  Grenades  used  to 
defend  a  rampart.  Shells  of  large  size  may 
be  used,  being  rolled  down  the  parapet.  Sec 
Grknadk. 

Rampart-gun.  A  large  gun  fitted  for 
rampnf  t  use,  and  not  used  for  lield  purposes. 

Ramparts.  In  fortification,  are  broad 
embankments  or  masses  of  earth  which  sur- 
round fortified  places.  A  rampart  forms  the 
enreinfe,  or  body  of  the  place,  and  on  its  ex- 
terior edge  tlie  parapet  is  placed,  while  to- 
wards the  place  it  is  terminated  by  the  in- 
terior slope  of  the  ramjmrt,  on  which  ramps 
are  made  for  the  easy  sv^cent  of  the  troops 
and  material.     See  Bulwark. 

Rampier.     The  same  as  rampart. 

Rampire.  The  same  as  ramj)art, — seldt)m 
used  except  in  poetry. 

Ramps.  Are  inclined  planes  of  earth 
serving  as  a  means  of  communication  be- 
tween two  levels.  A  ramp  for  a  field-gun  is 
8  feet  wide,  and  for  short  distances  it  has  a 
slope  of  one- fourth  to  one-sixth.  When  the 
distance  is  long  the  slope  is  increased  to  as 
much  as  one-twelfth. 

Ramrod.  The  rod  of  iron  formerly  used 
in  loading  a  ])iece  to  drive  homo  a  charge; 
but  now  used  to  clean  the  rifle. 

Ram's  Horns.  In  fortification,  a  kind  of 
low  works  made  in  the  ditch  of  a  circular 
arc,  which  serves  instead  of  tenailles. 

Rancheros  (from  the  Spanish  rancho, 
"comradeship").  Is  the  name  given  in 
Mexico  to  a  mixed  breed  of  Spanish  and 
Indian  blood,  who  inhabit  the  country,  and 
may  almost  be  said  to  live  in  the  saddle  from 
their  youth  ;  are  splendid  riders  and  hunters, 
and  form  the  bravest  part  of  the  Mexican 
army, — its  irregular  cavalrj'.  The  impor- 
tance of  their  services  was  seen  in  the  wars 
between  Mexico  and  the  United  States.  The 
rancheros  are  lank  in  frame,  with  brown, 
weather-stained  faces  and  muscular  limbs, 
hardy,  temperate,  and  always  ready  for  the 
boldest  enterprises. 

Rancon  (/•'/•.).  The  name  of  an  old  wea- 
pon, consisting  of  a  long  stake  with  a  sharp 
iron  point  at  one  end,  and  two  blades  or 
wings  bent  backwards,  and  extremely  keen. 
31 


Random.  Distance  to  which  a  missile  is 
thrown  or  projected  ;  range;  reach;  as,  the 
farthest  random  of  a  missile  weapon. 

Random  Shot.  A  shot  not  directed  or 
aimed  towards  any  particular  object,  or 
when  the  piece  is  elevated  at  an  angle  of 
4o°  upon  a  level  plane. 

Range.  In  artillery,  is  tl>e  horizontal 
distance  from  the  muzzle  of  the  piece  to  the 
first  graze  of  the  projectile.  The  extreme 
range  is  the  distance  from  the  muzzle  to 
where  the  projectile  finally  rests.  The  range 
of  a  projectile  may  be  extended  without  in- 
creasing the  charge  of  powder,  in  the  modes, 
viz. :  1st,  by  raising  the  piece  to  a  higher 
level;  2d,  by  giving  its  axis  greater  eleva- 
tion ;  3d,  by  eccentric  projectiles.  Experi- 
ments haveshown  that  if  the  centre  of gravity 
be  placed  directly  above  the  centre  of  figure, 
the  range  is  greatly  increased.  The  range  in- 
creases with  the  angle  of  fire  up  to  a  certain 
limit,  beyond  which  it  diminishes.  The 
greatest  range  in  vacuo  is  at  an  angle  of  45^. 
A  mortar  is  usually  fired  at  an  angle  of  45°, 
and  the  charge  is  varied  according  to  the 
range  required.  Mortars  are  sometimes  fired 
at  an  angle  of  60°,  when  the  battery  is  situ- 
ated very  near  the  object  assailed,  and  it  is 
desired  that  the  shells  may  fall  upon  the 
magazines  of  the  besieged.  It  is  evident 
that  the  higher  projectiles  are  thrown,  the 
greater  the  velocity  they  acquire  in  falling; 
besides,  they  strike  the  object  more  directly 
and  with  increased  violence.  Stone-mortars 
were  sometimes  fired  at  an  angle  of  75°,  that, 
in  falling  from  a  great  height,  the  stone 
might  have  the  maximum  force  of  percus- 
sion. Grenades  should  be  thrown  from  mor- 
tars at  an  angle  of  33°  ;  otherwise  they  will 
be  buried  in  the  earth,  and  their  fragments 
will  not  be  suflBciently  destructive.  For 
tables  of  ranges,  see  Roberts's  "  Hand-book 
of  Artillery." 

Range,  Point-blank.    See  Poikt-blaxk 

RANCiE. 

Range-finder.  An  instrument  for  deter- 
mining ranges.  There  are  several  difterent 
principles  which  may  be  used.  The  distance 
may  be  measured,  1st,  by  the  visual  angle 
subtended  by  objects  of  known  height ;  2d, 
by  the  velocity  of  sound  ;  3d,  the  instrument 
may  furnish  a  base-line  in  itself  and  solve  a 
triangle  in  which  the  base  and  two  adjacent 
angles  are  given.  The  term  is  also  aiiplied 
to  instruments  used  to  solve  a  triangle,  the 
base  of  which  is  obtained  by  outside  means. 
Range-finders  constructed  on  the  visual  angle 
princijile  have  been  known  for  many  years. 
Jioulatif/cr's  instrument  uses  the  2d  princi- 

file.  It  consists  of  a  glass  tube  closed  at 
)oth  ends  filled  with  a  liquid  in  which  a 
small  umbrella-shaped  piece  of  metal  is  sul  - 
merged.  The  tube  is  held  verticallv  in  the 
hand,  the  metal  slowly  sinks  to  the  lM)ttom. 
When  the  flash  of  the  enemy's  gun  is  seen, 
the  tube  is  inverted  and  the  metal  moves 
towards  the  other  end.  When  the  sound  is 
heard,  the  tube  is  brought  to  the  horizontal. 
The   distance   through'  which   the  piece  of 


EANGE-FINDEK 


474 


RANK 


metal  has  moved  gives  the  range  by  means 
of  a  scale  on  the  side  of  the  tube.  Berdon^s 
range-finder  is  an  expensive  instrument  using 
the  3d  principle.  It  is  mounted  on  a  wagon, 
and  intended  to  accompany  either  foot-troops 
or  artillery.  It  has  found  great  favor  in 
Germany.  Nolmi's  range-finder  consists  of 
an  instrument  for  automatically  solving  tri- 
angles. A  similar  thing  was  devised  about 
1870  by  two  American  officers,  Maj.  Morgan 
of  the  4th  Artillery,  and  Capt.  Lorain  of 
the  3d  Artillery.  The  most  ingenious,  com- 
plete range-finder  has  been  proposed  by 
Lieut.  Gordon  of  the  4th  Artillery.  He 
uses  two  fixed  angles  and  a  variable  base- 
line supplied  by  the  instrument  itself.  The 
principal  parts  of  Nolan's  range-finder  are: 
Two  instruments  for  measuring  angles,  one 
tape-line,  and  one  reckoning  cylinder.  Each 
of  the  two  instruments  consist  of  two  tele- 
scopes, which  lie  crosswise  one  above  the 
other  under  an  angle  of  about  90° ;  the 
smaller  of  the  two  has  a  long  arm,  with  a 
vernier  at  one  end  ;  to  the  other  a  sector  is 
fastened,  which  is  divided  up  into  degrees. 
By  means  of  a  screw,  an  angle  of  about  20° 
can  be  described  by  the  upper  or  smaller 
telescope.  The  reckoning  cylinder  consists 
of  a  solid  body  and  two  rotating  rings.  The 
lower  ring  and  the  lower  edge  of  the  body 
are  divided  into  100  equal  parts.  On  the 
upper  ring  are  the  logarithms  of  the  figures, 
and  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  body  are  the 
logarithms  of  the  signs,  from  6^^  up  to  2° 
15^ 

To  find  the  range,  the  instruments  on  their 
tripods  are  arranged  at  the  end  of  the  as- 
sumed base-line,  which  is  perpendicular  to  the 
range;  or  the  instruments  may  be  attached 
to  the  right  and  left  guns  of  a  battery.  The 
long  telescopes  are  turned  toward  the  object 
whose  distance  is  to  be  found  ;  the  smaller 
ones  upon  each  other,  and  the  cross-threads 
of  each  made  to  cover  the  cross-lines  on  the 
leather  disk  through  which  each  small  tele- 
scope points.  The  coincidence  obtained  by 
directing  the  longer  telescope  on  the  object, 
the  two  angles  at  the  base  are  determined  ; 
the  base-line  being  measured,  one  side  and 
two  angles  of  the  triangle  are  obtained.  With 
this  data  recourse  is  then  had  to  the  reckon- 
ing cylinder.  The  arrow  marked  "band" 
is  set  on  the  figure  that  corresponds  with  the 
distance  between  the  instruments  or  base- 
line,— say  34  yards ;  then  set  the  arrow  on 
the  lower  ring  on  the  figure  corresponding 
with  the  angle  found  through  the  instru- 
ment,— say  18°  ;  then  find  the  figure  for  the 
number  of  degrees  of  the  other  angle, — say 
42°  on  the  lower  ring.  Just  above  that  is 
the  figure  60  on  the  other  division  of  the 
lower  ring ;  coinciding  with  this  on  the 
lower  edge  of  the  upper  ring  is  the  distance, 
1320  yai-ds.  The  bases  used  are  from  30 
to  40  yards  for  a  range  of  2000  yards  and 
over. 

Wafkins's  range-finder  and  Gautier's  tele- 
meter are  instruments  which  require  a  meas- 
ured base-line.     See  Telemeter. 


Ranger.  One  of  a  body  of  mounted 
troops,  who  were  formerly  armed  with  short 
muskets,  and  who  ranged  over  the  country 
around,  and  often  fought  on  foot. 

Ranging.  The  disposal  of  troops  in  proper 
order  for  an  engagement,  manoeuvres,  or 
march,  etc. 

Rank.  Range  of  subordination,  degree  of 
authority.  The  relative  situations  which 
oflicers  hold  with  respect  to  each  other,  or  to 
military  things  in  general.  Questions  as  to 
the  positive  or  relative  rank  of  officers  may 
often  be  of  the  greatest  importance  at  law,  in 
consequence  of  the  rule,  that  every  person 
who  justifies  his  own  acts  on  the  ground  of 
obedience  to  superior  authority  must  estab- 
lish, by  clear  evidence,  the  sufficiency  of  the 
authority  on  which  he  so  relies.  There  may 
also  be  many  occasions  on  which  the  pro- 
priety of  an  officer's  assumption  of  com- 
mand, or  his  exercise  of  particular  functions, 
or  his  right  to  share  with  a  particular  class 
of  officers  in  prize-money,  bounties,  grants, 
and  other  allowances,  may  depend  on  the 
correctness  of  the  view  taken  by  himself  or 
others  of  his  rights  to  a  specific  rank  or  com- 
mand ;  and  an  error  in  this  respect  may  ex- 
pose him  to  personal  loss  and  damage  in  suits 
before  the  civil  tribunals.  The  regulation 
of  military  rank  is  vested  absolutely  in  Con- 
gress, which  confers  or  varies  it  at  pleasure. 
The  will  of  Congress  in  this  respect  is  signi- 
fied by  the  creation  of  different  grades  of 
rank ;  by  making  rules  of  appointment  and 
promotion  ;  by  other  rules  of  government 
and  regulation  ;  or  is  by  fair  deduction  to  be 
inferred  from  the  nature  of  the  functions 
assigned  to  each  officer  ;  for  every  man  who 
is  intrusted  with  an  employment  is  presumed 
to  be  invested  with  all  the  powers  necessary 
for  the  efiective  discharge  of  the  duties  an- 
nexed to  his  office.  Rank  and  grade  are 
synonymous,  and  in  their  military  accepta- 
tion indicate  rights,  powers,  and  duties,  de- 
termined by  laws,  creating  the  difi'erent 
degrees  of  rank,  and  specifying  fixed  forms 
for  passing  from  grade  to  grade  and  when 
rank  in  one  body  shall  give  command  in 
another  body ;  and  also  when  rank  in  the 
army  at  large  shall  not  be  exercised.  Rank 
is  a  right  of  which  an  officer  cannot  be  de- 
prived, except  through  forms  prescribed  by 
law.  When  an  officer  is  on  duty,  the  rank 
itself  indicates  his  relative  position  to  other 
officers  of  the  body  in  which  it  is  created. 
It  is  not,  however,  a  perpetual  right  to  exer- 
cise command,  because  the  President  may, 
under  the  62d  article  of  war,  at  any  time 
relieve  an  officer  from  duty  ;  or  an  officer 
may  be  so  relieved  by  arrest  duly  made 
according  to  law  ;  or  by  inability  to  perform 
duty  from  sickness,  or  by  being  placed  by 
competent  authority  on  some  other  duty. 
But  whenever  an  officer  is  on  duty  his  rank 
indicates  his  command. 

Rank.  A  line  of  soldiers  ;  a  row  of  troops 
reckoned  from  side  to  side,  or  in  breadth ; — 
opposed  to  file.  The  ranks,  the  order  of  com- 
mon soldiers:  as,  to  reduce  a  non-commis- 


BANK 


475 


RASSOVA 


sinned  officer  to  the  ranks.  Tu  fill  the  ranks, 
to  supplj'  the  whole  number,  or  a  competent 
number.  Tu  take  rank  of,  to  enjoy  prece- 
dence over,  or  to  have  the  right  of  taking  a 
liiirli.T  place  than. 

Rank  and  File.  The  body  of  soldiers 
c()nstituting  the  mjiss  of  the  army,  and  in- 
cluding corporals  and  privates.  In  a  more 
e.xtended  sense,  it  includes  sergeants  also, 
e.vccptiiii:;  the  non-coniniissioned  stall". 

Rank,  Brevet.     See  Hkkvkt. 

Rank,  Double.  A  rank  composed  of  front 
and  rear  lilcs. 

Rank,  Honorary.  That  which  merely 
gives  a  title  and  |)recedence,  without  any 
command  iKMiig  attached  to  that  rank. 

Rank,  Insignia  of.  Are  badges  or  dis- 
tinguishing marks  of  office  of  honor.  In 
the  army  of  the  United  States  the  rank  of 
officers  is  determined  by  the  insignia  on  the 
epaulettes  and  shoulder-straps,  and  is  as  fol- 
lows: 

"For  the  general  commanding  the  army, 
two  gold-embroidered  stars  of  five  rays, 
one  on  each  side  equidistant  between  the 
centre  and  the  outer  edge  of  the  strap,  and 
a  gold-embroidered  shield  in  the  centre. 
For  the  lieutenant-general,  three  silver-em- 
broidered stars  of  five  rays,  one  star  on  the 
centre  of  the  strap,  and  one  on  each  side 
equidistant  between  the  centre  and  outer 
edge  of  the  strap ;  the  centre  star  to  be  the 
largest.  For  the  major-generals,  two  silver- 
embroidered  stars,  the  centre  of  each  star  to 
be  one  inch  from  the  outer  edge  of  the  gold 
embroidery  on  the  outer  ends  of  the  straps, 
both  stars  of  the  same  size.  For  a  brigadier- 
general,  the  same  as  for  a  major-general,  ex- 
cept that  there  will  be  but  one  star  instead  of 
two.  For  a  colonel,  the  same  as  for  a  major- 
general,  omitting  the  stars  and  introducing 
a  silver-embroidered  eagle  ;  cloth  of  the  strap 
as  follows:  for  the  general  staff  and  staff 
corps — dark  blue  ;  artillery — scarlet  ;  in- 
fantr}' — light  or  sky-blue;  cavalry — yellow. 
For  a  lieutenant-colonel,  the  same  as  for  a 
colonel,  according  to  corps,  omitting  the 
eagle,  and  introducing  a  silver-embroidered 
leaf  at  each  end.  For  a  major,  the  same  as 
for  a  colonel,  according  to  corps,  omitting 
the  eagle,  and  introducing  a  gold-embroidered 
leaf  at  each  end.  For  a  captain,  the  same  as 
for  a  colonel,  according  to  corps,  omitting 
the  eagle,  and  introducing  at  each  end  two 
gold-embroidered  bars.  For  a  first  lieuten- 
ant, the  -same  as  for  a  colonel,  according  to 
corps,  omitting  the  eagle,  and  introducing 
at  each  end  one  gold-embroidered  bar.  For 
a  second  lieutenant,  the  same  as  for  a  colo- 
nel, according  to  corps,  omitting  the  eagle. 
For  a  brevet  second  lieutenant,  the  same  as 
for  a  second  lieutenant.' 

Rank,  Local.     See  Local  Rank. 

Rank,  Relative.     See  Kklativk  Raxk. 

Rank,  Single.     A  rank  of  single  files. 

Rank,  Substantive.  Is  genuine  rank, 
with  all  the  command  and  authority,  as  well 
as  precedence,  attaching  to  the  title.  For 
instance,  a  regimental   major  possesses  the 


substantive  rank  of  major,  while  a  captain 
and  brevet  major  i«  only  a  substantive  cap- 
tain. It  may  be  briefly  described  as  being 
the  reverse  of  brevet  rank. 

Ranker.  One  who  ranks,  or  disposes  in 
ranks  ;  and  one  who  arranges. 

Ransack.  To  plunder;  to  pillage  com- 
pletely; to  ravage;  as,  to  ransack  a  city. 

Ransom  of  Prisoners.  A  prisoner  of 
war,  being  a  public  enemy,  is  the  prisoner 
of  the  government,  and  not  of  the  captor. 
No  ransom  can  be  paid  by  a  prisoner  of  war 
to  his  individual  cajitor,  or  to  any  officer  in 
command.  The  government  alone  releases 
captives,  according  to  rules  prescribed  by 
itself. 

Rapier.  Is  said  to  have  had  distinct  mean- 
ings at  different  times,  and  in  ancient  fencing 
to  have  been  a  long  cutting  broadsword;  but 
for  the  last  century,  at  least,  the  rapier  has 
been  a  light,  highl)'-tempercd,  edgeless, 
thrusting  weapon,  finely  pointed  and  about 
3  feet  in  length.  At  present,  it  is  worn 
only  on  occasions  of  court  ceremonial,  and 
answers  no  other  purpose  than  to  incommode 
the  wearer.  In  war  a  rapier  could  never  have 
been  of  any  service. 

Rapine.  The  act  of  plundering ;  the  seiz- 
ing and  carrying  away  of  things  by  force; 
spoliation;  pillage;  plunder.  Violence; 
force;  also,  to'])lunder. 

Rappahannock.  A  river  of  Virginia, 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  North  Fork  and 
the  Kapidan,  40  miles  above  Fredericksburg. 
On  the  Rappahannock  and  the  Kapidan  oc- 
curred some  of  the  most  sanguinary  battles 
of  the  war  of  Secession,  at  Fredericksburg, 
Chancellorsville,  and  the  Wilderness. 

Rapparee.  A  wild  Irish  plunderer,  so 
called  from  his  being  generally  armed  with 
a  rapary,  or  half-pike.  The  term  was  in 
common  use  in  the  17th  century. 

Rappel.  The  beat  of  the  drum  to  call 
soldiers  to  arms. 

Rarefaction.  The  extension  of  the  parts 
of  a  gas,  by  which  it  is  made  to  take  up  more 
room  than  it  did  before. 

Rasaldar.  In  the  East  Indies,  the  name 
applied  to  the  commander  of  rasallah,  which 
is  10,000  armed  horsemen. 

Rasante.  A  French  term,  applied  to  a 
style  of  fortification  in  which  the  command 
of  the  works  over  each  other,  and  over  the 
country,  is  kept  very  low,  in  order  that  the 
shot  may  more  eft'ectually  sweep  or  graze  the 
ground  before  them. 

Ras-el-Kyma.  A  fortress  in  the  Persian 
Gulf,  and  formerly  the  principal  strongh(dd 
of  the  Joasmee  pirates.  This  fortress  was 
destroyed  and  the  pirates  thoroughly  sub- 
dued bvan  P^nglish  force  under  Sir  W.  Kier 
Gmnt  in  1817.^ 

Rasgrad,  or  Hesarorad.  A  town  of  Tur- 
key in  Eurt)pe,  in  Bulgaria,  and  al>)ut  215 
miles  northwest  from  Constantinople.  The 
Turks  were  defeated  here  bv  the  Russians  in 
1810. 

Rassova.  A  fortified  town  of  Turkey  in 
Europe,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube, 


RASTADT 


476 


EATION 


38  miles  east  by  north  of  Silistria.  Rassova 
was  occupied  by  the  Kussians  for  a  short 
time  in  1854. 

Rastadt,  Radstadt,  or  Rastall.  A  forti- 
fied town  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  on 
the  Murg,  not  far  from  its  confluence  with 
the  Khine.  The  peace  of  1714,  which  put 
an  end  to  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succes- 
sion, was  signed  in  the  palace  by  Prince  Eu- 
gene and  Marshal  Villars.  A  congress  was 
held  here  in  1797-99,  to  negotiate  a  peace 
between  France  and  the  empire,  after  which 
the  French  ambassadors,  Roberjot  and  Bon- 
nier, were  murdered  on  their  return,  only  a 
short  distance  from  the  town.  At  Rastadt 
the  insurrection  in  Baden  in  1849  first  broke 
out ;  and  the  insurgents,  after  a  three  weeks' 
siege,  were  obliged  to  surrender  at  discretion 
to  the  Prussians. 

Ratchet-post.  A  cast-iron  post  at  the 
head  of  large  Rodman  guns  to  serve  as  a 
fulcrum  for"  the  bar  used  in  elevating  the 
gun.     See  Fulcrum. 

Ratchet-wheel.  A  wheel  with  pointed 
and  angular  teeth,  against  which  a  ratchet 
abuts,  used  either  for  converting  a  recipro- 
cating into  a  rotatory  motion  on  the  shaft  to 
which  it  is  fixed,  or  for  admitting  of  its  mo- 
tion in  one  direction  only. 

Rate  of  March.  See  Horses,  Pack  and 
Draught  Horses,  and  Quick  Time. 

Rathenow,  or  Rathenau.  A  town  of 
Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Brandenburg, 
45  miles  west  of  Berlin.  A  victory  was 
gained  here  in  1675  by  the  troops  of  Bran- 
denburg under  the  elector  Frederick  Wil- 
liam, over  the  Swedes. 

Rathlin,  Island  of.  An  island  off  the 
north  coast  of  Ireland,  3  miles  northwest  of 
Fairhead.  It  was  the  scene  of  more  than 
one  struggle  in  the  Danish  wars,  and  it  af- 
forded shelter,  after  his  defeat  in  Scotland, 
to  Robert  Bruce.  In  1558,  the  Scottish 
colony  which  then  inhabited  the  island  was 
attacked  by  the  lord-deputy  Sussex,  and  ex- 
pelled from  it  with  much  slaughter. 

Rathmines.  A  suburb  of  Dublin,  on  its 
south  side,  H  miles  south  of  Dublin  Castle. 
It  is  the  site  of  a  battle-field,  where  Col. 
Jones,  governor  of  Dublin  Castle,  making  a 
sally  out,  routed  the  Marquis  of  Ormond, 
killed  4000  men,  and  took  2517  prisoners, 
with  their  cannon,  baggage,  and  ammuni- 
tion, August  2,  1649. 

Ration.  A  portion  or  fixed  allowance  of 
provisions,  drink,  and  forage,  assigned  to  a 
soldier  in  the  army,  or  a  sailor  in  the  navy, 
for  his  daily  subsistence,  and  for  the  subsist- 
ence of  horses,  etc. 

The  soldier's  ration  in  Europe  is  as  fol- 
lows : 

AUSTRIA. 

Peace  Ration. 

Bread 31.     ounces. 

Meat  without  bone 6.6  " 

Suet 62  ounce. 

Vegetables 2.48  ounces. 

Bait 6    ounce. 

22.37  ounces  anhydrous  food. 


War  Ration. 

Fresh  pork 6.5    ounces. 

Or  salt  pork 6.  " 

Or  fresh  beef 6.  " 

Or  bacon 6.  " 

Butter 14  ounce. 

Biscuit 3.5 

Flour 25.2 

Fresh  vegetables 2.1 

Beans 1.5    ounce. 

Beer  and  wine variable. 

38.6  ounces  anhydrous  food. 

ENGLAND. 

In  the  home  service  the  soldier  receives 
from  the  government : 

Bread 1  pound. 

Meat y^,      " 

The  soldier  buys 

Potatoes 16.     ounces. 

Other  vegetables 8.          " 

Milk 3.25      " 

Sugar 1.33  ounce. 

Salt 25      " 

Coffee 33      " 

The  whole  being  equivalent  to  23.4  ounces  of  anhy- 
drous food. 

In  time  of  war  the  ration  is  varied  accord- 
ing to  location,  climate,  and  kind  of  service. 

FRANCE. 

During  peace  the  soldier  buys  from  the 
government  his  ration,  paying  43  out  of  the 
48  centimes  which  he  receives  per  day,  ex- 
cept in  Paris,  where  he  pays  51  out  of  58 
centimes.  Meat  is  furnished  35  per  cent. 
below  market  rates. 

Munition  bread 26.5  ounces. 

White  bread 8.8 

Meat 106        " 

Vegetables,  green 3.5        " 

Beans 1.1    ounce. 

Siilt  and  pepper 43      " 

If  meat  is  salt  beef 8.8    ounces. 

Tf  meat  is  salt  pork 7.          " 

Biscuit  in  lieu  of  bread 19.4        " 

Being  equal  to  24  ounces  of  anhydrous  food. 

War  Ration. 

Meat  without  bone 8.4    ounces. 

Bread 35  3 

Or  biscuit 26.5        " 

Beans '2.12      " 

Salt 5    ounce. 

Sugar 7        " 

Coffee 6        " 

Or  in  lieu  of  coffee,  wine ; 9. 

Or  brandy 2.i 

Being  21.56  ounces  of  anhydrous  food. 

PRUSSIA. 

About  one-half  the  daily  pay  is  retained 
by  the  government  for  the  soldier's  food. 

Peace  Ration. 
Garrison.  Marching  or  Fatigue. 

Bread 26.5     ounces...  26.5     ounces. 

Meat 6.  "       ...     8.2 

Kice 3.2          «      ...    4.22         " 

Or  groats 4.21        «       ...     6.28  " 

Or  peas  or  beans..    8  22        "      ...  10.6  " 

Or  potatoes 53.8  "       ...  70.5  " 

Salt 87    ounce 87    ounce. 

Coffee 468      "       ...      .468 

26.57  oz.  of  anhydrous  food.    28.26  oz.  of  anhydrous  food. 


RATISBON 


477 


REAR-LINE 


War  Ration. 

Brea'l 26.5    ounces. 

Orl.Ucuit 17.  " 

One    (Fresh  beef. 13.  " 

of    -{salt  beef. 0. 

these.  (Uacon 6.75        " 

Kice 4.4 

One    (Oroata 4.4  " 

of    -^BeunH 8.8  " 

thew.  (.Flour 8.8 

Potatoes 60.  " 

Suit 8.7 

Oiftee,  pure 7    ounce. 

Coffee,  roasted 1. 

40.2  ounces  anhydrous  food. 

Rrs.SIA. 

lf)9  Fast  Days, 
inr,  Moat  Pays  117  days  62  days 

uiili   8chUohi        scht sell!  and      peas  and 
and  gruel.  gruel.  gruel. 

Meat 7.     or 

Itread „ 42.      oz 42.      oz 42.    oz. 

S.ur-krout 14.5    fl.  oz 14.5    fl.  oz 

Chervil 1.1    oz 

I'eaB 2.3.3  oz. 

Buckwheat 1.87fl.oz 1.87  fl.  oz 1  87  fl.  oz. 

Oats „      .5    fl.  oz 7    fl.  oz .28  fl.  oz. 

Flour 7    fl.  oz 7    fl.  oz 

Onions 2    fl.  oz 3    fl.  oz 6    fl.  oz. 

VeKelal.le  oil 25  fl.  oz 

Butter 6    OZ. 

Lard # 5    oz 5   oz. 

Salt 1.86  oz _    I.8C0Z I.8G0Z. 

Pepper 07  oz 07  oz 07  oz. 

Bav  leaves. 07  oz. 07  oz 07  oz. 

Vater 70.      fl.  oz 70.      fl.  oz 70.      fl.  oz. 

(Buckwheat  cooked  into  gniel.) 

Sepoy  Ration. 

Flour 16.     ounces. 

Rice 16. 

Butter  or  vegetable  oil 2.  " 

Peas 4.25 

Salt 1.33  ounce. 

34.9  ouncee  of  anhydrous  food. 

Ratisbon,  or  Regensburg.  A  town  of 
Biivaria,  on  the  riglit  bank  of  the  DanuLe, 
G7  miles  nortli-nortlica.^t  of  Munitli.  In 
1524  the  Roman  Catholic  powers  of  Ger- 
many assembled  here,  and  formed  a  league 
against  the  Protestants;  and  near  it,  in 
1809,  Napoleon  I.  was  wounded  in  a  battle 
in  which  he  forced  the  Austrians  to  retreat. 

Raucoux  (Belgium).  Here  Marshal  Saxe 
and  the  French  armv  totally  defeated  the 
allies,  October  11,  174<]. 

Ravage.  Desolation  by  violence  ;  violent 
ruin  or  destruction;  devastation;  havoc; 
waste;  ruin;  as,  the  ravages  of  an  army. 
Also,  to  lay  waste  by  force;  to  desolate  vio- 
lently ;  to  commit  havoc  or  devastation 
upon  ;  to  plunder. 

Ravelin.  In  fortification,  is  the  work 
constriuted  beyond  the  main  ditch,  opposite 
the  curtain,  composed  of  two  faces,  forming 
K  salient  angle,  and  two  demi-gorges,  formed 
by  the  counterscarp.  It  is  separated  from 
the  covered  way  by  a  ditch  which  runs  into 
the  main  ditch.     See  Demi-LI'NK. 

Ravenna  (anc.  Rarrmin).  An  important 
city  of  Central  Italy,  43  miles  east-southeast 
from  Bologna,  A\  miles  from  the  Adriatic. 
Augustus  made  it  a  lirst-chiss  seap<irt  and 
naval  station.  It  was  taken  by  Odoacer, 
then  by  Theodoric,  and  by  Totila  ;  was  sub- 
dued by  the  Lombards   iu    752,   and  their 


king,  Astolphus,  in  754,  surrendered  it  to 
Pepin,  king  of  France.  In  1275,  Guido  da 
Polenta  conquered  it.  Ravenna  was  after- 
wards taken  by  the  Venetians,  who  kept  it 
till  150'J.  Under  the  walls  of  Ravenna  a 
battle  was  fought  between  the  French  under 
Gaston  de  Foix  (duke  of  Nemours  and 
nephew  of  Louis  XII.)  and  the  Spanish  and 
Papal  armies.  The  confederate  army  was 
cut  to  i)ieces.  De  Foix  perished  in  the  mo- 
ment of  his  victory,  and  tiis  death  closed  the 
good  fortune  of  the  French  in  Italy.  Ra- 
venna became  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy 
in  18(;0. 

Ravine.  In  field  fortification,  a  deep 
hollow,  usually  formed  by  a  great  flood,  or 
long-continued  running  of  water ;  frequently 
turned  to  advantage  in  the  field. 

Rav/.  Unseasoned,  unripe  in  skill,  want- 
ing knowledge  in  tactics. 

Raw  Troops.  Are  inexperienced  sol- 
diers, or  men  who  have  been  little  accus- 
tomed to  the  use  of  arms. 

Razant.     See  Rasante. 

Razed.  Works  or  fortifications  are  said 
to  be  razed  when  they  are  totall}'  demol- 
ished. 

Razzia.  A  plundering  and  destructive 
incur^iiMi. 

Readiness.  A  state  of  alertness  or  prep- 
aration ;  thus,  to  hold  a  corps  in  readiness, 
is  to  have  it  prepared  in  consequence  of  some 
previous  order  to  march  at  a  moment's  no- 
tice. 

Reading.  A  town  of  England,  in  Berk- 
shire, on  the  Kennet,  30  miles  west  by  south 
from  London.  In  871  it  was  in  possession 
of  the  Danes,  who,  after  resisting  an  assault 
of  the  "West  Saxons,  were  in  the  following 
year  obliged  to  evacuate  it.  In  lOOtJ  they 
again  made  their  appearance,  and  burned 
tiie  town.  In  the  civil  war  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury Reading  was  at  different  times  in  the 
possession  of  both  parties,  and  suffered  much 
during  the  contest. 

Ready.  In  tactics,  a  word  of  command 
in  firing,  being  a  contraction  of  make  ready. 

Reamer.  See  Ordxanck,  Constbuc- 
TiON  OF,  Boring. 

Rear.  In  general  acceptation,  anything 
situated  or  placed  behind  another. 

Rear.  The  direction  opposite  the  enemy. 
The  opposite  of  front. 

Rear  Assembling-bar.     See  Ordxaxce, 

CARKIA<iK.>*    KOU.  TlIK    CaISSON. 

Rear  Foot-board.     See  Ord.vavce,  Car- 

RIAtiKS    FOR.   TlIK    CaISSOK. 

Rear  Open  Order.     An  open  order  taken 
by  moving  the  rear  rank  backwards. 
"  Rear-chest.    See  Ordnance,  Carriages 
FOR,  The  CAI.S.SON. 

Rear-front.  The  rear  rank  of  a  body  of 
troops  when  faced  about  and  standing  in 
that  position. 

Rear-guard.  A  detachment  of  troops 
whose  duty  it  is  to  protect  the  rear  of  an 
armv. 

Rear-line.  The  line  in  the  rear  of  an 
army. 


EEARWARD 


478 


RECONNOISSANCE 


Rearward.  The  last  troop ;  the  rear- 
guaid. 

Rebel.  One  who  rebels  ;  one  who  revolts 
from  the  government  to  which  he  owes  alle- 
giance, either  by  openly  renouncing  the  au- 
thority of  that  government,  or  by  taking 
arms  and  openly  opposing  it ;  one  who  defies 
and  seeks  to  overthrow  the  authority  to 
which  he  is  rightfully  subject;  a  revolter; 
an  insurgent. 

Rebel.  Acting  in  revolt;  rebellious;  as, 
reb(!l  troops. 

Rebel.  To  revolt ;  to  take  up  arms  trai- 
torously against  the  state  or  government ;  to 
renounce  the  authority  of  the  laws  and  gov- 
ernment to  which  one  owes  allegiance. 

Rebellion.  The  act  of  rebelling ;  open 
and  avowed  renunciation  of  the  authority  of 
the  government  to  which  one  owes  allegi- 
ance; the  taking  of  arms  traitorously  to  re- 
sist the  authority  of  lawful  government ; 
revolt;  insurrection. 

Rebellious.  Engaged  in  or  marked  by 
rebellion  ;  traitorously  renouncing  the  au- 
thority and  dominion  of  the  government  to 
which  allegiance  is  due  ;  violently  resisting 
government  or  lawful  authority ;  as,  rebel- 
lious troops. 

Rebounding-lock.  A  gun-lock  in  which 
the  hammer  rebounds  to  half-cock  after 
striking  the  cap;  specially  used  in  sporting 
arms. 

Rebuffo  (F/:).  A  bastard  cannon,  or 
three-fourth  carthoum  (or  karthaune),  a  36- 
pounder  of  15  calibers  long;  according  to 
Ufano  a  45-pounder. 

Recall.  A  call  on  the  trumpet,  bugle,  or 
drum,  by  which  the  soldiers  are  recalled 
from  duty,  labor,  etc. 

Recaptor.  One  who  retakes  ;  one  who 
takes  a  prize  which  had  been  previously 
taken. 

Recapture.  The  act  of  retaking  ;  especi- 
ally the  retaking  of  a  prize  or  goods  from  a 
captor.  That  which  is  captured  back;  a 
prize  retaken. 

Recast.  To  mold  anew ;  to  cast  anew ; 
to  throw  into  a  new  form  or  shape;  to  re- 
construct ;  as,  to  recast  cannon. 

Receipt.  A  voucher  or  acknowledgment, 
which  should  always  bo  given  when  official 
papers  are  received.  When  flags  of  truce 
are  the  bearers  of  a  parcel  or  a  letter,  the 
officer  commanding  an  outpost  should  give 
a  receipt  for  it,  and  require  the  party  to  de- 
part forthwith. 

Receive.  In  a  military  sense,  to  await 
the  approach  of  a  friend  or  foe.  To  receive 
an  enem.y,  is  to  make  the  best  disposition 
possible  of  your  troops,  for  the  purpose  of 
meeting  the  attack  of  an  advancing  enemy. 

Recharge.  A  renewal  of  the  charge  or 
attack. 

Rechaud  [Fr.).  A  chafing-dish,  or  pan 
used  for  various  purposes,  particularly  dur- 
ing a  siege.  Rechauds  are  filled  with  burn- 
ing materials  and  hung  in  different  parts  of 
the  walls,  so  as  to  throw  light  into  the 
ditches,  and  to  prevent  surprises. 


Rechute  [Fr.].  Literally  means  a  second 
fall ;  but  in  fortification  it  signifies  a  greater 
elevation  of  the  rampart  in  those  parts  where 
it  is  likely  to  be  commanded. 

Recoil.  In  gunnery,  is  the  retrograde 
motion  impressed  upon  cannon  by  the  dis- 
charge. The  gas  produced  by  the  ignition 
of  the  charge  in  the  bore,  expanding  with 
equal  force  in  every  direction,  finds  only  two 
ways  of  escape  (the  muzzle  and  the  vent) ; 
the  pressure  upon  these  points  will  therefore 
cease  while  it  will  be  proportionally  increased 
upon  the  parts  directly  opposite,  that  is,  the 
bottom  of  the  bore  and  that  portion  directly 
opposite  the  vent,  producing  in  the  first  case 
the  recoil,  and  in  the  other,  indirectly,  the 
dipping  of  the  muzzle.  The  distance  of  the 
recoil  depends  entirely  upon  the  nature  and 
inclination  of  the  ground  upon  which  the 
carriage  stands,  the  situation  of  the  trun- 
nions, angle  of  elevation,  comparative  weight 
of  the  gun  and  carriage,  and  upon  Uie 
strength  of  the  charge.  The  recoil  has  no 
appreciable  effect  upon  the  flight  of  a  pro- 
jectile, the  latter  being  expelled  from  the  gun 
before  it  has  recoiled  a  fraction  of  an  inch. 

The  recoil  of  heavj'  guns  fired  with  large 
charges  is  a  serious  consideration  in  gun- 
nery. The  recoil  must  be  checked  in  a  com- 
paratively short  space,  and  yet  checked  too 
suddenly  the  shock  destroys  the  carriage  as 
well  as  platform.  Various  methods  have 
been  tried.  The  truck-wheels  upon  which 
the  top  carriage  runs  in  and  out  of  battery 
are  provided  with  eccentrics,  which  are 
thrown  out  of  gear  to  produce  sliding  fric- 
tion,— but  this  alone  is  not  sufficient  in  most 
cases.  Counter-mortars  are  sometimes 
clamped  on  the  chassis-rail  against  the  car- 
riage, but  this  is  objectionable,  as  it  tends  to 
destroy  the  chassis.  Eriction-plates,  with 
clamping  attachments  to  the  carriage  between 
them,  and  extending  full  length  of  the  chas- 
sis, have  also  been  tried,  but  the  buckling  of 
the  plates  soon  ruined  them.  This  plan  has 
been  recently  revived,  and  the  buckling  pre- 
vented by  interposing  india-rubber  between 
the  rear  ends  of  the  plates  and  the  transom 
of  the  chassis.  For  the  most  approved 
methods,  see  Air-cylinders  and  Hy- 
draulic Loading  Apparatus. 

Recommend.  To  commend  to  the  favor- 
able notice  of  another.  Non-commissioned 
officers  of  companies  are  appointed  by  the 
colonel  upon  the  recommendation  of  com- 
pany commanders.  Recommendation  of 
members  of  a  court-martial  in  favor  of  the 
person  being  tried,  is  introduced  after  the 
finding  and  sentence  are  closed  and  authen- 
ticated. The  recommendation  should  dis- 
tinctly set  forth  the  reasons  which  prompt 
it. — Hough. 

Reconnoissance.  The  reconnoitring  or 
examination  of  any  tract  of  country  pre- 
paratory to  the  march  of  an  army,  in  order 
either  to  take  up  quarters  for  the  season,  or 
comiuence  operations  against  an  opposing 
enemy. 

The  military  reconnoissance  of  a  country 


RECONNOITRE 


479 


RED 


is  generally  performed  under  the  protection 
of  an  armed  force.  It  is  considered  as  one 
of  the  most  essential  oponitions  connected 
with  the  tactics  of  the  tield,  and  serves  as 
the  basis  of  every  movement  or  combina- 
tion which  it  may  be  proposed  to  make 
Those  who  are  charged  with  this  duty  should 
be  habituated  to  the  performance  of  topo- 
graphical surveys;  in  the  first  place,  by  the 
most  accurate  methods,  and  with  the  best 
instruments  ;  and,  secondly,  by  such  meth- 
ods as  admit  of  being  practiced  rapidly,  on 
foot  or  on  horseback.  In  these  cases  a  com- 
pass held  in  the  hand  must  be  used  for  ob- 
serving the  angles,  and  the  distances  must 
be  obtained  by  pacing,  or  be  merely  esti- 
mated by  the  eye.  The  nature  of  the 
roads  should  be  described  with  indications 
denoting  that  they  are  passable  for  artillery, 
for  cavalry,  or  merely  for  infantry  ;  and  if 
defective,  estimates  should  be  made  of  the 
materials  and  time  requisite  for  repairing 
them.  In  contemplating  rivers  and  marshes 
as  means  of  retarding  an  advance  of  the 
enemy,  it  should  be  ascertained  and  reported 
whether  by  being  dry  in  summer,  or  frozen 
in  winter,  they  may  not  at  times  cease  to  be 
obstacles.  It  should  be  also  stated  how,  on 
a  retreat,  the  roads  may  be  blocked  uj),  the 
fords  rendered  impassable,  or  the  bridges 
destroyed. 

Reconnoitre.  To  make  oneself  acquainted 
by  personal  inspection,  as  far  as  may  be 
practicable,  with  the  enemy's  position  and 
movements  ;  also,  to  survey,  and  draw  in  a 
rapid  manner,  ground  of  importance  to 
operations  of  war,  not  represented  in  exist- 
ing maps,  with  sufficient  accuracy  or  mi- 
nuteness ;  and  likewise  to  particularize  the 
banks  of  rivers,  canals,  streams,  mountains, 
passes,  positions,  villages,  forts,  and  re- 
doubts. 

Record.  To  preserve  by  committing  to 
writing;  to  make  official  note  of;  as,  to  re- 
cord the  proceedings  of  a  court. 

Record.  An  authentic  copy ;  a  state- 
ment of  the  proceedings  of  a  court  or  board  ; 
a  written  history  ;  an  official  account  or 
register. 

Recorder.  One  who  keeps  a  record  ;  spe- 
cifically,  the  officer  who  registers  the  pro- 
ceedings of  a  board  or  niinor  court. 

Recover.  In  tactics,  a  word  of  command 
in  firing  whereby  the  piece  is  brought  from 
the  position  of  aim  to  that  of  ready. 

Recreant.  Crying  for  mercy,  as  a  com- 
batant in  the  trial  of  battle;  yielding; 
cowardly.  Also,  one  who  yields  in  combat, 
and  cries  craven  ;  one  who  begs  for  mercy  ; 
a  nican-spirited,  cowardly  wretch. 

Recruit.  To  supply  with  new  men,  as  an 
army  ;  to  fill  up  or  make  up  by  enlistment. 
Also,  a  person  enlisted  to  make  up  defi- 
ciency in  an  army  ;  a  newly-enlisted  sol- 
dier. 

Recruiting.  The  act  of  obtaining  men 
for  service.  The  people  of  the  United 
States  and  (ireat  Hritain  resemble  each 
other  in    their  jealousy   of   largo  standing 


armies  and  their  abhorrence  of  a  system  of 
universal  service,  as  well  as  in  their  warlike 
spirit  and  self-sacrificing  patriotism.  The 
organization  of  the  English  army,  based 
upon  voluntary  enlistment,  ha.^  been  pro- 
n(»unced  by  f'oreign  officers  of  thorough 
education  and  acute  observation  as  un- 
worthy of  scientific  study, — that  is,  for 
home  application,  although  the  United 
States  have  borrowed  a  great  deal  from  it, 
— in  the  writer's  opinitm,  to  their  detri- 
ment. In  Great  Britain  the  whole  recruit- 
ing has  been  placed  under  the  immediate 
direction  of  the  adjutant-general  since  1802. 
For  this  purpose,  the  country  has  been  di- 
vided into  recruiting  districts,  at  the  head 
of  which  is  placed  an  inspecting  field-officer 
with  the  duty  of  superintending  all  recruit- 
ing parties  in  his  district,  and  of  approving 
the  recruits  brought.  Statt'-officers  and  ser- 
geants of  the  Pensioner  Force  are  also  occa- 
sionally intrusted  with  the  obtaining  of  re- 
cruits. The  United  States  recruiting  service 
is  conducted  by  the  adjutant-general,  under 
the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  War.  Re- 
cruiting officers  consist  generally  of  captains 
and  lieutenants  of  the  line,  who  must  not 
permit  any  man  to  be  deceived  or  inveigled 
into  the  service  by  false  representations.  If 
the  recruit  is  a  minor,  his  parents  or  guar- 
dians must,  if  possible,  be  informed  of  the 
minor's  wish  to  enlist,  and  their  written 
consent  obtained  therefor.  Any  male  per- 
son above  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  under 
thirty-five  years,  Deing  effective,  able-bodied, 
Sober,  free  from  diseixse,  of  good  character 
and  habits,  with  a  competent  knowledge  of 
the  P^nglish  language,  may  be  enlisted.  No 
man  having  a  wife  or  child  can  be  enlisted 
in  time  of  peace  without  special  authority 
from  the  adjutant-general's  office.  The 
Prussian  system  is  based  upon  the  theory 
that  military  service  is  not  a  trade  or  craft, 
to  be  followed  by  a  portion  of  the  popula- 
tion, but  a  duty  owed  by  every  male  citi- 
zen to  his  country.  For  further  particulars 
of  this  system,  see  Laxdwkhr.  The  Prus- 
sian system  has  been  adopted  by  all  other 
states  of  the  German  empire,  and  also  by 
most  of  the  other  European  nations. 

Recruiting  Flag.     See  Flag,  Storm. 

Recruitment.  The  act  or  business  of 
recruiting  or  raising  new  supplies  of  men 
for  an  army. 

Recursant.  In  heraldry,  moving  or 
coursing  backward  ; — said  of  an  eagle  dis- 
plaved  with  the  back  towards  the  spectator's 
face. 

Red  Hand.  In  heraldry,  a  sinister  hand 
erect,  open,  and  couped,  or  the  wrist  gules, 
being  the  arms  of  the  province  of  Ulster, 
was  granted  to  the  baronets  of  England  and 
of  Ireland  as  their  distinguishing  badge,  on 
the  institution  of  that  order  in  Itill,  and  is 
borne  by  tln"  baronets  of  Great  Britain  and 
of  the  United  Kingdom.  It  is  assumed  into 
the  armorial  coat,  and  may  be  borne  upon  a 
canton,  or  on  an  escutcheon,  which  may  be 
phued  either  in  the  middle  chief  or  in  the 


EED 


480 


REDUCED 


fess  point,  so  as  least  to  interfere  with  the 
charges  composing  the  family  arms. 

Red  River  Settlement.  Is  in  British 
North  America,  between  Lakes  Superior  and 
Winnepeg.  AVhile  the  proposed  transfer  to 
the  crown  (18r39-70)  of  the  rights  of  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company  was  pending,  it  was 
the  scene  of  much  contention  and  violence. 
The  hasty  action  of  the  Canadian  authori- 
ties incensed  the  French-speaiting  popula- 
tion, who,  led  by  Louis  Kiel,  organized  a 
force,  imprisoned  their  opponents  (English 
and  Scotch),  seized  on  Fort  Garry,  estab- 
lished a  provisional  government,  robbed  the 
strong-box,  and  dictated  terms  to  the  gover- 
nor of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  who  was 
obliged  to  submit  to  them.  In  July,  1870, 
a  military  force  suddenly  appeared  in  the 
province,  and  Kiel  fearing  capture,  escaped, 
and  thus  closed  the  insurrection. 

Red  Tape.  The  tape  used  in  public  offices 
for  tying  up  documents,  etc. ;  hence,  official 
formality. 

Redan.  Is  the  simplest  work  in  field 
fortification.  It  consists  of  two  parapets 
whose  faces  join  in  forming  a  salient  angle 
toward  the  enemy,  like  a  letter  V,  in  which 
the  apex  is  to  the  front.  Regarded  by  itself, 
the  redan  is  a  work  of  very  little  strength, 
s-ince  there  is  no  flanking  fire  to  protect  its 
faces,  and  nothing  to  prevent  an  enemy 
from  forcing  an  entrance  at  the  gorge  :  but 
redans  are  useful  in  many  positions,  and  the 
rapidity  with  which  they  may  be  constructed 
renders  them  favorites  with  engineers  and 
generals.  A  row  of  redans  along  an  ex-' 
posed  front  of  an  army  adds  much  to  its 
strength,  the  troops  behind  protecting  the 
gorge,  and  the  redans  flanking  each  other. 
It  forms  an  excellent  defense  for  a  bridge- 
head, the  gorge  being  covered  by  the  river. 
Redans  figured  largely  in  Wellington's 
works  for  defending  Lisbon  in  1810.  The 
redan  of  Sebastopol  in  1855  was  the  prin- 
cipal point  of  the  English  attack,  and  the 
scene  of  two  bloody  repulses  by  the  Russians 
in  June  and  September. 

Redcoat.  A  soldier  who  wears  a  red  coat ; 
an  English  soldier. 

Red-hot  Shot.  Are  cannon-balls  heated 
to  redness,  and  fired  from  cannon  at  ship- 
ping, magazines,  wooden  buildings,  etc.,  to 
combine  destruction  by  fire  with  battering 
by  concussion.  In  modern  warfare,  shells 
containing  molten  iron  are  intended  to  be 
used  in  lieu  of  red-hot  shot ;  but  they  have 
not  yet  been  tested  in  actual  practice,  al- 
though a  similar"  device  was  attempted  un- 
successfully in  1863  by  the  U.  S.  forces 
when  besieging  Charleston. 

Redinha.  A  village  of  Portugal,  province 
of  Estremadura,  the  scene  of  an  affair  be- 
tween the  British  under  Lord  Wellington, 
and  the  French  retreating  army  under  Mar- 
shal Massena,  in  1811. 

Redoubt.  Is  a  small  fort  of  varying 
shape,  constructed  for  a  temporary  purpose, 
and  usually  without  flanking  defenses.  The 
term  is  vague  in  its  acceptation,  being  ap- 


plied equally  to  detached  posts  and  to  a 
strong  position  within  another  fortress.  Re- 
doubts are  made  square,  pentagonal,  and 
even  circular.  Each  redoubt  has  parapet, 
ditch,  scarps,  banquette,  etc.,  as  in  regular 
fortification;  but  it  is  commonly  rather 
roughly  constructed,  haste  and  unprofes- 
sional labor  precluding  mathematical  accu- 
racy. The  entrance  may  be  by  a  cutting 
through  the  parapet,  the  cutting  being  cov- 
ered within  by  a  traverse,  or,  preferably,  by 
an  excavated  gallery  leading  into  the  ditch, 
and  thence  by  a  ramp  through  the  counter- 
scarp. For  the  sake  of  flanking  the  ditch, 
and  preventing  an  assaulting  party  from 
forming  in  it,  caponnieres  of  timber,  loop- 
holed,  are  sometimes  formed;  or,  if  the  soil 
be  stiff  or  chalky,  a  gallery  may  be  cut  be- 
hind the  counterscarp,  and  loop-holed  to- 
wards the  ditch.  In  some  modern  redoubts, 
the  line  of  each  side  is  broken  to  afford 
flanking  defense.  Redoubts  have  the  weak 
feature  of  not  defending  their  own  ditches, 
and  of  being  approached  at  their  salient  an- 
gles with  comparative  impunity.  They  are 
therefore  not  adapted  to  a  protracted  defense, 
but  as  temporary  field-works,  or  in  war  of 
posts,  they  are  often  of  incalculable  impor- 
tance. Troops  whose  stability  in  open  field 
is  doubtful  are  especially  strengthened  by 
redoubts  in  their  line.  Redoubts  are  partic- 
ularly useful  in  fortifying  the  tops  of  hills, 
or  commanding  passes,  or  where  the  object 
is  to  occupy  a  hostile  territory,  or  to  feel  the 
way  gradually  through  a  wooded  country. 

Redoubtable.  Formidable  ;  to  be  dread- 
ed ;  terrible  to  foes ;  as,  a  redoubtable  hero  ; 
hence,  valiant ;  often  in  contempt  or  bur- 
lesque. 

Redout  Kale,  or  Redoot  Kale.  A  flour- 
ishing, fortified  seaport  of  Russia,  in  Trans- 
Caucasia,  stands  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Black  Sea,  about  15  miles  north  of  Poti. 
During  the  Crimean  war,  the  Russian  gar- 
rison at  Redout  Kale,  finding  the  fort  in- 
vested by  Sir  Edmund  Lyons,  with  several 
men-of-war,  set  fire  to  the  town.  May  19, 
1854. 

Redressing  Wrongs.  See  Appendix, 
Articlks  of  War,  29,  30. 

Reduce  a  Place.  Is  to  oblige  the  com- 
mander to  surrender  it  to  the  besiegers,  by 
capitulation.  To  reduce  the  square^  is  to  re- 
store or  bring  back  a  battalion  or  battalions, 
which  have  been  formed  in  a  hollow  or  ob- 
long square,  to  their  natural  situation  in  line 
or  column.  To  reduce  to  the  ranks,  is  to  de- 
grade, as  to  reduce  a  non-commissioned  offi- 
cer, for  misconduct,  to  the  station  of  a  pri- 
vate soldier. 

Reduce,  To.    To  degrade  to  a  lower  rank. 

Reduced.  In  a  military  sense,  is  to  be 
taken  off  the  establishment,  and  to  cease  to 
receive  pay  as  soldiers.  When  a  regiment 
is  reduced,  the  officers  are  generally  put 
upon  half-pay.  Sometimes  the  corps  are  re- 
duced, and  the  officers  remain  upon  full  pay. 
This  happens  at  the  close  of  a  war,  when 
the  standing  army  of  the  country  is  con- 


EEDUIT 


481 


REGIMENT 


fined  to  a  certain  number  of  battalions. 
Hence  is  derived  the  expression,  in  and  out 
of  tlie  break.  In  the  break,  is  the  liability  of 
beini^  reduced.  Out  of  the  break,  is  tlie  cer- 
tainty of  beinii;  l<i'i(t  U|)on  the  establishment. 

Reduit.  In  tnrtiticatinn,  is  a  central  or 
retired  work  within  any  other  work,  in- 
tended to  art\)rd  the  garrison  a  last  retreat, 
whence  they  nuiy  capitulate.  It  is  com- 
monly of  masonry,  loop-holed,  and  often 
circular.  Many  engineers  doubt  the  use  of 
reduits  altogether,  as  blocking  up  the  work- 
ing space,  being  themselves  inconvenient  for 
the  men,  and  incapable  of  protracted  de- 
fense, while  they  frequently  mask  the  fire  of 
otiier  works  more  to  the  rear. 

Re-embark.  To  embark  or  go  aboard  of 
a  ship  again. 

Re-embattle.  To  array  again  for  battle  ; 
to  arrange  again  in  the  order  of  battle. 

Re-engage.  To  engage  again;  to  enlist 
a  sccDiul  time. 

Re-enlist.  To  enlist  again.  In  the  U.  S. 
army  any  non-commissioned  officer,  musi- 
cian, or  private  soldier,  who  re-enlists  within 
one  month  after  the  date  of  discharge  from 
first  enlistment,  receives  $2  per  mi»nth  in 
addition  to  the  monthly  pay  he  was  receiv- 
ing prior  to  discharge ;  and  also  $1  per 
month  additional  after  each  subsequent  re- 
enli>tnu'nt  so  long  as  he  shall  remain  con- 
tinuously in  the  army. 

Re-enlistment.     A  renewed  enlistment. 

Re-entering  Angle.     Sec  Angi.k. 

Re-entering  Place  of  Arms.  In  fortifi- 
cation, is  an  enlargement  of  the  covered  way 
of  the  fortress,  between  a  bastion  and  a  rav- 
elin ;  its  rear  coinciding  with  the  counter- 
scarp of  the  ditch,  and  its  front  consisting 
usually  of  two  faces  of  the  glacis,  which  are 
disposed  at  angles  of  about  100°  with  the 
glacis  before  the  neighboring  bastion  and 
ravelin.  It  serves  as  a  place  for  assembling 
troops  previously  to  making  sorties ;  and  the 
fire  from  its  faces  serves  to  defend  the  a})- 
proaches  to  the  salient  parts  in  front  of  the 
ci>l lateral  works. 

Rees.  A  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  12 
miles  southeast  from  Clevcs.  This  town  was 
taken  by  the  Diltch  in  1614,  and  by  the 
French  in  KITS. 

Reflection,  Angle  of.  "Whether  the  in- 
stance be  a  ray  of  light  or  a  cannon-ball,  the 
angle  of  refiection  will  always  be  found  equal 
to  the  angle  of  incidence. 

Re-form,  To.  In  a  military  sense  is,  after 
some  mana>uvre  or  evolution,  to  bring  a  line 
to  its  natural  order  by  aligning  it  on  some 
given  point.  Also,  to  restore  order  among 
broken  troops. 

Reformado.  An  officer  was  formerlj'  so 
called,  who  for  some  disgrace  was  deprived 
of  his  command,  but  retained  his  rank,  and 
perhaps  his  pay. 

Reformed  Officer.  In  the  Rritish  army, 
one  whose  troop  or  company  being  broken 
up,  is  continued  on  full  or  half-pay.  He 
preserves  the  right  of  seniority,  and  con- 
tinues in  the  way  of  preferment  by  brevet. 


Re-fortification.     A  fortifying  anew,  or  a 

second  time. 

Re-fortify.     To  f.rtify  anew. 

Refusal  to  Receive  Prisoners.  See  Ap- 
rKNDix,  Aktk  LKs  OK  AVak,  «»7. 

Refuse,  To.  In  a  military  sense,  is  to  re- 
fuse ii  wing,  to  throw  it  back,  or  to  keep  it  out 
of  that  regular  alignment  which  is  formed 
when  troops  are  upon  the  i>oint  of  engaging 
an  enemy.  To  refuse  anu part  of  the  line  in 
battle,  as  the  centre  or  a  wing,  to  keep  that 
part  retired,  while  the  remainder  is  advanced 
to  fight. 

Regardant.  A  term  used  in  heraldry, 
with  reference  to  an  animal  whose  head  is 
turned  backwards.  See  Passant  and  Ram- 
pant. 

Regensburg.     See  Ratisbon. 

Reggio  (anc.  lihee/ium,  which  see).  A 
city  in  Southern  Italv  which  was  taken  by 
GaVibaldi,  August,  1800. 

Regillus  Lacus.  A  lake  in  Latium, 
memorable  for  the  victory  gained  on  its 
banks  by  the  Romans  over  the  Latins,  498 

B.C. 

Regiment.  In  all  modern  armies,  is  a 
colonel '^command,  and  the  largest  perma- 
nent association  of  soldiers.  Regiments  may 
be  combined  into  brigades,  brigades  into  di- 
visions, and  divisions  into  corps  and  armies  ; 
but  these  combinations  are  but  temporary, 
while  in  the  regiment  the  same  officers  servo 
continually,  and  in  command  of  the  same 
body  of  men.  The  strength  of  a  regiment 
may  vary  greatly  even  in  the  same  army,  as 
each  may  comprise  any  number  of  battal- 
ions. French  and  Austrian  regiments  have 
ordinarily  four  to  six  battalions.  Among 
British  infantry  the  smallest  regiments  arc 
those  numbered  from  the  2'jth  upwards  (ex- 
cept the  00th),  which,  unless  serving  in 
India,  have  lOCiO  men  each,  composing  one 
battalion.  Regiments  in  India  have  1200 
to  a  battalion.  The  largest  regiment  is  the 
Royal  Artillery,  comprising  34,713  officers 
and  men.  The  strength  of  a  regiment,  how- 
ever, is  changed  from  time  to  time  ;  usually 
by  the  addition  or  withdrawal  of  private 
soldiers.  In  the  U.  S.  service  the  strength 
of  cavalry  regiments  is  about  1200men  each, 
artillery  about  000,  and  infantry  about  500 
each.  The  regimental  system  could  only  ex- 
ist where  standing  armies  were  maintained. 
Accordingly  the  Macedonian  .syntagmata 
and  the  Roman  cohorts  were  evidently  regi- 
ments in  a  strict  sense.  During  the  Middle 
Ages,  feudal  organization  jirechuled  the  sys- 
.tem,  and  its  first  appearance  was  in  Franco. 
Francis  I.  formed  legions  of  0000  men  each, 
which  were  divided  into  independent  com- 
panies, the  latter  being,  in  fact,  battalions, 
and  each  legion  a  regiment.  The  word  regi- 
ment began  to  be  applied  to  bodies  of  Brit- 
ish troops  in  Elizabeth's  reign  ;  regiments 
are  spoken  of  at  the  time  of  the  Armada, 
1588,  and  as  composing  the  force  in  Ireland, 
1508.  From  that  time  fr)rward  the  army 
and  militia  of  Britain  have  been  organized 
in  regiments. 


REGIMENTAL 


482 


EEINFORCE 


Regimental.  Anything  belonging  to  a 
regiment. 

Regimental  Colors.     See  Colors. 

Regimental  Court-martial.  Is  a  legal 
tribunal  convened  for  the  punishmentof 
oft'enders  in  the  army.  It  is  composed  of 
three  members  and  a  judge-advocate.  See 
Court-martial,  Judge-Advocate,  and 
Trial. 

Regimental  Courts-martial.  See  Court- 
martial. 

Regimental  Inspection.  See  Inspec- 
tion. 

Regimental  Necessaries.  See  Neces- 
saries. 

Regimental  Orders.  See  Orders,  Regi- 
mental. 

Regimental  Schools.  In  Great  Britain, 
are  educational  establishments  maintained 
by  the  state  in  every  regiment,  for  the  in- 
struction of  soldiers  and  soldiers'  children. 
There  is  a  schoolmaster  for  the  soldiers  and 
elder  boys,  and  a  trained  schoolmistress — 
usually  the  schoolmaster's  wife — to  teach 
the  girls  and  infants  of  both  sexes.  Attend- 
ance at  the  schools  is  compulsory  for  the  sol- 
diers and  optional  for  the  children.  Religious 
instruction  takes  place  on  Monday  mornings, 
when  children  can  be  kept  from  school  if 
their  parents  object  to  the  instruction  im- 
parted. The  girls'  school  comprises  an  "in- 
dustrial" section  for  needle-work,  etc. 

In  France,  ccoles  primaires  or  regimen- 
taires,  "primary  or  regimental  schools,"  were 
founded  in  1818,  in  which  the  soldiers  were 
taught  writing,  reading,  and  arithmetic. 

In  Prussia,  there  are  established  garrison 
schools  (Garnlsons  Schnlen)  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  soldiers'  children ;  and  battalion 
schools  {Bataillons  Schiden),  in  which  non- 
commissioned otficers  and  privates  are  in- 
structed in  writing,  reading,  orthography, 
and  arithmetic;  also  in  making  out  reports 
and  other  official  papers. 

Regimentals.  The  uniform  worn  by  the 
troops  of  a  regiment. 

Register.  A  list  or  roll ;  as,  the  army 
register  ;  which  is  a  list  of  the  officers,  with 
rank  and  date  of  commission,  etc. 

Regulars.  Are  those  troops  whose  condi- 
tions of  enrollment  are  not  limited  to  time 
or  place,  in  contradistinction  to  militia  or 
volunteer  corps  ;  troops  permanently  in  ser- 
vice. 

Regulation  Sword.  A  sword  of  the  kind 
or  quality  prescribed  by  the  official  regula- 
tions.    Also  regulation  cap,  uniform,  etc. 

Regulations.  Under  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States,  rules  for  the  government 
and  regulation  of  the  army  must  be  made  by 
Congress.  Regulation  implies  regularity ; 
it  signifies  fixed  forms;  a  certain  order; 
method  ;  precise  determination  of  functions, 
rights,  and  duties.  (See  Military  Regu- 
lations.) A  "  regulation"  of  an  executive 
department  is  a  rule  by  the  head  of  such 
department  for  its  action,  under  a  statute 
conferring  such  power,  and  has  the  force  of 
law  ;  a  mere  order  of  the  President,  or  of  the 


Secretary  of  the  department,  is  not  a  regula- 
tion. The  power  of  the  Executive  to  estab- 
lish rules  and  regulations  for  the  government 
of  the  army  is  undoubted.  The  power  to 
establish  implies  necessarily  the  power  to 
modify  or  repeal,  or  to  create  anew.  The 
Secretary  of  War  is  the  regular  constitu- 
tional organ  of  the  President  for  the  admin- 
istration of  the  military  establishment  of 
the  nation ;  and  rules  and  orders  publicly 
promiilgated  through  him  must  be  received 
as  the  act  of  the  Executive,  and  as  such  be 
binding  upon  all  within  the  sphere  of  his 
legal  and  constitutional  authority.  Such 
regulations  cannot  be  questioned  or  defied, 
because  they  may  be  thought  unwise  or 
mistaken.  JBut  as  it  sometimes  occurs  that 
rights  of  rank,  command,  and  pay,  concern- 
ing-which  Congress  has  legislated,  are  sub- 
jects of  dispute,  and  variable  expositions  of 
laws  regulating  those  essentials  of  good  gov- 
ernment have  been  by  different  Executives, 
with  an  increasing  tendencj'  to  invalidate 
rank  created  by  Congress  ;  there  should  be  a 
law  passed  by  Congress  to  enable  cases  to  be 
brought  before  the  Federal  civil  courts,  in 
order  that  the  true  exposition  of  military 
statutes  and  authorities  in  dispute  may  be 
determined.  With  such  a  remedy,  laws, 
however  defective  they  may  be,  would  at 
least  be  known,  and  rights,  powers,  and 
duties,  established  by  law  would  be  well 
determined. 

Regulators.  The  popular  name  of  a  party 
in  North  Carolina,  which  arose  in  1768,  and 
had  for  its  object  the  forcible  redress  of  pub- 
lic grievances. 

Reigate.  A  town  of  England,  in  the 
county  of  Surrey.  Its  castle  was  destroyed 
in  1648.  Its  church  contains  the  tomb  of 
Lord  Howard,  who  commanded  the  English 
fleet  against  the  Armada. 

Reign  of  Terror.  A  term  applied  to  a 
period  of  anarchy,  bloodshed,  and  confisca- 
tion, in  the  history  of  the  French  revolution, 
during  which  the  country  was  under  the 
sway  of  the  actual  terror  inspired  by  the 
ferocious  measures  of  its  governors,  who 
had  established  it  avowedly  as  the  principle 
of  their  authority.  It  commenced  after  the 
fall  of  the  Girondists,  May  31,  1793,  and 
extended  to  the  overthrow  of  Robespierre 
and  his  accomplices,  July  27,  1794.  Thou- 
sands of  persons  were  put  to  death  during 
this  short  time. 

Reims.     See  Rheims. 

Rein.   A  crack  or  vein  in  a  musket-barrel. 

Reinforce.  In  gunnery,  is  the  thickest 
part  of  the  body  of  the  gun,  in  front  of  the 
base-ring  or  base-line  ;  if  there  be  more  than 
one  reinforce,  that  which  is  next  the  base- 
ring  or  base-line  is  called  the^?-s^  7-einforce  ; 
the  other  the  second  reinforce.  See  Ord- 
nance, Construction  of.  Molding. 

Reinforce.  To  strengthen  with  new 
force,  assistance,  or  support ;  especially,  to 
strengthen,  as  an  army  or  a  fort,  with  ad- 
ditional troops,  or  a  navy  with  additional 
ships. 


REINFORCE 


483 


REMOUNT 


Reinforce  Band.  Is  at  the  junction  of 
the  first  ami  .second  reinforces. 

Reinforcement.  Tiie  act  of  reinforcing. 
That  which  reinforces;  additional  force; 
especially  additional  troops  or  force  to  aug- 
ment the  strength  of  an  army,  or  ships  to 
strengthen  a  navy. 

Reitres  (/'V.).'  A  body  of  armed  horse- 
men, who  came  out  of  (Jermany  and  entered 
the  French  service  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  HI.  They  were  incorporated  with 
the  carabineers. 

Rejoin.  To  join  again;  to  return  ;  as,  the 
oftici'r  rejoined  his  regiment. 

Rejoinder.  In  military  law,  the  defend- 
ant's answer  to  the  i)laintirt''s  replication. 
The  weight  of  authority  is  against  permit- 
ting a  rejoinder  on  the  part  of  the  prisoner, 
unless  evidence  has  heen  adduced  in  the  reply 
of  the  prosecutor.  But  such  evidence  .should 
not  be  permitted  in  reply,  and  there  should 
bono  rejoinder. — HoiKjk'n  ^^  Military  Law 
Aut/ioriiir.'^." 

Relais  (/•>.).  A  term  used  in  fortifica- 
tion to  signify  a  space,  containing  some  feet 
in  breadth,  which  is  between  the  foot  of  the 
rampart  and  tlie  scarp  of  the  fosse.  It  serves 
as  a  convenient  receptacle  for  the  earth  that 
occasionally  crumbles  oft". 

Relative"  Rank.  Signifies  the  compara- 
tive rank,  as  regards  precedence,  etc.  The 
following  is  the  relative  rank  of  officers  in 
the  army  and  navy  of  the  United  States : 

Army.  Nnvy. 

General Admiral. 

Lieu  tenant-general...  Vice-admiral. 

Major-general Rear-admiral. 

Brigadier-general Commodore. 

Colonel Captain. 

Lieutenant-colonel... .Commander. 

Major Lieut. -commander. 

Captain Lieutenant. 

First  lieutenant Master. 

Second  lieutenant Ensign. 

The  officers  of  the  marine  corps  are  of 
rank  corresponding  to  that  of  those  of  the 
same  titles  in  the  army. 

Release  of  Prisoners.  See  Appendix, 
Aktui.ks  ok  War,  (19. 

Relief.  A  fresh  detachment  of  troops, 
ordered  to  replace  those  already  upon  duty. 
Also,  the  body  of  men  jiroceeding  to  take 
the  places  of,  or  rclirrc,  the  existing  senti- 
nels, (iuards  are  usually  divided  into  three 
7-rlir/s.     See  Guard,  Riinnino. 

Relief.  In  fortification,  is  the  height  to 
which  works  are  raised  above  the  bottom  of 
the  ditch.  If  the  works  are  high  and  com- 
manding, they  are  said  to  have  a  bold  rrlirf ; 
but  if  the  reverse,  they  are  said  to  have  a 
low  relief.  The  relirf  should  ])rovide  the 
requisite  elevations  for  the  musketry  and 
artillery,  to  insure  a  good  defense. 

Relieve.  To.  Is  to  take  a  man  or  a  body 
of  men  oil"  any  kind  of  duty  ;  as,  to  relieve 
a  sentinel  ;  to  relieve  the  guard,  etc.;  also 
to  succor,  to  deliver  ;  as,  to  relieve  a  besieged 
town. 


Reliever.  An  iron  ring  fixed  to  a  handle, 
by  means  of  a  socket,  so  as  to  be  at  right 
angles  to  it.  It  serves  to  disengage  the 
searcher  of  a  gun,  when  one  of  its  points  is 
retained  in  a  hole,  and  cannot  be  extracted 
otherwise. 

Relieving  the  Enemy.  See  Appendix, 
ARTiir,K.s  OF   War,  45. 

Reload.     To  load  anew,  as  a  gun,  etc. 

Reloading  Implements.  Are  imple- 
ments used  in  reloading  cartridge-shells, — 
to  perform  the  various  operations  of  meas- 
uring the  powder,  setting  home  the  bullet  or 
charge,  removing  exploded  primer,  recap- 
ping, etc. 

Remaining  Velocity.  In  gunnery,  is  the 
velocity  of  the  projectile  at  any  point  of  the 
flight. 

Remand.  To  send  back ;  as  when  a 
soldier  who  has  been  discharged  from  prison 
or  the  guard-house,  for  the  ])urpose  of  being 
e.vaiuined  or  tried,  is  sent  back  to  await  the 
final  decision  t>f  his  case. 

Remarks.  Army  returns,  regimental  re- 
turns, guard  reports,  etc.,  have  a  column 
allotted  for  observations  relative  to  extra- 
ordinary occurrences,  and  these  are  headed 
"remarks."  The  word  is  also  applied  with 
reference  to  a  reviewing  oflScers  observations 
on  the  verdict  of  a  court-martial. 

Remblai.  Is  the  quantity  of  earth  in  the 
mass  of  rampart,  jiarapet,  and  banquette. 

Remedy.  The  rules  and  articles  for  the 
government  of  the  army  are  defective  in  not 
providing  sufficient  remedies  for  wrongs. 
The  army  of  the  United  States  is  governed 
bylaw.  The  law  should  therefore  provide 
a  sufficient  remedy  for  cases  in  which  the 
rights  of  officers  are  wrested  from  them  by 
illegal  regulations,  purporting  to  interpret 
the  true  meaning  of  acts  of  Congress.  In 
cases  arising  in  the  land  and  naval  forces  of 
the  United  States,  where  the  true  construc- 
tion of  any  act  of  Congress  is  in  dispute, 
legislation  is  wanted  to  enable  an  officer  who 
thinks  himself  wronged  by  an  illegal  execu- 
tive decision,  to  bring  the  matter  before  the 
Federal  civil  courts  to  determine  the  true 
exposition  of  the  statute  or  authority  in  dis- 
pute. 

Remi,  or  Rhemi.  One  of  the  most  pow- 
erful people  in  Gallia  Belgica.  They  formed 
an  alliance  with  C;esar  when  the  rest  of  the 
Belgic  made  war  against  him,  -37  n.i". 

Remington  Rifle.     See  Small-arms. 

Remit,  To  lessen  ;  as,  to  remit  a  part  of  a 
soldier's  sentence. 

Remonstrate.  To  make  a  representation 
of  a  case  or  cases  wherein  one  or  more  nmy 
consider  themselves  to  be  aggrieved.  Mili- 
tary men  may  remonstrate  through  their 
superior  oflicers  ;  but  where  the  duty  of  the 
service  is  ccnicerned,  that  duty  must  be  first 
performed  with  cheerfulness  and  fidelity. 

Remount.  A  supply  of  good  and"  ser- 
viceable horses  for  the  cavalry.  To  remount 
ihe  cnvalnj,  is  to  furnish  them  with  horses 
in  the  room  of  those  which  have  been  either 
killed,  disabled,  or  cast. 


RENCHEN 


484 


EEQUISITIONS 


Renchen,  A  town  of  Baden,  on  the 
Eench,  8  miles  northeast  from  Otfenburgj. 
The  French  defeated  the  Austrians  here  in 
1796,  and  entered  Suabia. 

Rendezvous.  A  phice  appointed  for  a 
meeting;  especially,  the  appointed  place  for 
troops,  or  for  the  ships  of  a  fleet,  to  assemble ; 
sometimes  a  place  for  enlistment.  Also,  to 
assemble  or  meet  at  a  particular  place,  as 
troops,  ships,  etc. 

Rendsburg.  A  fortifled  town  of  Holstein, 
on  an  island  in  the  Eyder,  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Kiel  Canal.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Imperialists  in  1627;  by  the  Swedes  in 
1643;  and  by  the  Prussians  and  confederate 
troops  in  1848.  It  was  reoccupied  by  the 
Danes  in  1852,  and  taken  by  the  Prussians 
after  a  serious  conflict,  July  21,  1864. 

Renegade.  One  who  deserts  from  a  mili- 
tary or  naval  post ;  a  deserter. 

Rennes  (anc.  Condate).  A  town  of 
France,  capital  of  the  department  of  Ille- 
et-Vilaine,  60  miles  north  of  Nantes.  After 
the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Franks.  In  1357,  Rennes  was 
unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the  Duke  of  Lan- 
caster; and  at  the  time  of  the  revolution 
was  the  scene  of  some  conflicts,  being  always 
firmly  attached  to  the  popular  cause. 

Reorganize.  To  organize  anew ;  to  re- 
duce again  to  an  organized  condition;  to 
cause  to  assume  wonted  or  regular  functions ; 
as,  to  reorganize  an  army. 

Repair  of  Arms.  The  keeping  in  con- 
stant good  order  the  diflerent  fire-arms  be- 
longing to  a  troop  or  company,  such  as  rifles, 
etc.  In  the  British  army,  a  half-yearly 
allowance  is  made  to  captains  of  troops  and 
companies  for  this  purpose.  In  the  U.  S. 
service  the  cost  of  repairs  of  damage  done 
to  arms,  equipments,  etc.,  through  negligence 
of  an  officer  or  soldier,  is  deducted  from  the 
pay  of  said  officer  or  soldier. 

Repeater.  A  fire-arm  that  may  be  dis- 
charged many  times  in  quick  succession ; 
especially,  a  form  of  fire-arm  so  constructed 
that  the  charges  are  successively  introduced, 
by  an  action  of  the  lock,  from  a  chamber 
containing  them,  into  the  breech,  and  fired 
or  are  discharged  from  a  revolving  chamber 
at  the  breech.  See  Revolver  and  Maga- 
zine Gun. 

Repel.  To  drive  back  ;  to  force  to  return  ; 
to  check  the  advance  of ;  to  repulse;  as,  to 
repel  an  enemy  or  an  assailant. 

Reply.  It  is  the  duty  of  a  court  to  pre- 
vent new  matter  from  being  introduced  into 
the  prosecution  or  defense,  but  a  prisoner 
maj'  urge  in  his  defense  mitigating  circum- 
stances, or  examine  witnesses  as  to  character 
or  services,  and  produce  testimonials  of  such 
facts,  without  its  being  considered  new  mat- 
ter. If  any  point  of  law  be  raised,  or  any 
matter  requiring  explanation,  the  judge- 
ndvocate  may  explain.  No  other  reply  to 
be  admitted. — Hough. 

Report.  Sound  ;  loud  noise,  as  that  made 
by  the  discharge  of  a  rifle  or  a  cannon. 

Report.     A  specific  statement  of  any  par- 


ticular occurrences.  OflScers  making  writ- 
ten reports  are  required  to  sign  them,  speci- 
fying the  regiment  to  which  they  belong, 
and  their  ranlf. 

Reporting  Prisoners.  See  Appendix, 
Articles  of  War,  68. 

Repose,  In  (Fr.  en  repos).  This  term, 
which  is  manifestly  taken  from  the  French, 
applies  to  troops  that  are  allowed  to  be  sta- 
tionary for  any  given  period  during  an  ac- 
tive campaign,  either  through  sickness  or 
from  some  other  cause.  Thus,  the  5th  regi- 
ment being  in  repose,  the  24th  was  ordered 
to  the  front. 

Repository.  A  place,  or  repertory,  in 
which  anything  is  preserved.  Thus,  the 
British  repository  at  Woolwich  contains 
models  of  every  sort  of  warlike  stores,  wea- 
pons, and  fortifications ;  whether  invented 
by  officers  of  the  army  or  civilians,  as  well 
of  other  nations  as  of  Britain,  receipts  being 
given  to  preserve  the  title  to  the  inventor. 

Repress.  To  press  back  or  down  effect- 
ually ;  to  crush  down  or  out ;  to  quell ;  to 
subdue  ;    as,  to  repress  rebellion. 

Reprimand.  A  reproof  for  some  error  or 
misconduct.  A  reprimand  is  sometimes  pub- 
licly conveyed  to  officers,  either  in  orders  or 
at  the  head  of  a  regiment,  by  direction  of  the 
President  or  a  general  officer  in  command. 
Non-commissioned  officers  and  privates  are 
sometimes  reprimanded.  See  Appendix, 
Articles  of  War,  52. 

Reprisal.  Is  the  retaking,  from  an  enemy, 
goods  which  he  has  seized,  or  the  capture 
from  him  of  other  goods,  as  an  equivalent 
for  the  damage  he  has  wrought. 

Reproachful  or  Provoking  Speeches. 
See  Appendix,  Articles  of  War,  25. 

Repulse.  To  repel ;  to  beat  or  drive 
back.  The  condition  of  being  repelled  or 
driven  back.  Also,  the  act  of  repelling  or 
driving  back. 

Requisitions.  Are  forms  prescribed  for 
the  demand  of  certain  allowances,  as  forage, 
rations,  etc.  It  also  signifies  the  act  of  ex- 
acting either  men  or  things  for  the  public 
service.  Requisitions  are,  however,  an  un- 
certain and  unequal  means  of  suppl^^  and 
only  enable  an  army  to  live  from  hand  to 
mouth,  and  although  practicable  in  off"en- 
sive  wars,  are  only  justifiable  in  rapid  move- 
ments, where  time  does  not  admit  the  em- 
ployment of  more  certain  means  of  supply. 
The  system  is  less  odious  than  pillage.  Bona- 
parte skillfully  adopted  another  method,  in 
harmony  with  the  spirit  of  wars  of  invasion, 
and  also  more  reliable  as  a  means  of  support. 
He  substituted  himself  in  place  of  the  su- 
preme authorities  of  the  invaded  country, 
and  exacted  pecimia.ry  contributions,  paying, 
or  promising  to  pay,  for  all  provisions  and 
other  supplies  needed  for  his  army.  This 
sj'stem  was  well  executed  by  Marshal  Suchet 
in  Spain,  and  a  similar  system  was  also  ma- 
tured and  published  in  orders  by  Gen.  Scott 
while  in  Mexico.  A  treaty  of  peace,  how- 
ever, soon  after  was  made,  which  put  an  end 
to  military  operations,  and  the  system  was 


EEREWARD 


485 


RETIRED 


tlicicfiiro  only  partially  executed.  But  with 
a  sufficient  army  in  a  fertile  country,  the 
experience  of  the  world  has  shown  that  if 
the  inhabitants  are  protected  from  injuries, 
they  will  very  generally  sell  to  the  best  pay- 
masters. It  is  therefore  the  interest  of  an 
invading  army  not  to  interfere  with  the  or- 
dinary avocations  of  citizens,  and  such  is  the 
modern  usage. 

Rereward.  The  part  of  an  army  that 
marches  in  the  rear,  as  the  guard  ;  the  rear- 
guard. 

Resaca  de  la  Palma.  A  ravine  which 
cros.-^L's  tin-  -Matainuras  road  about  3  miles 
north  of  that  place;  the  position  taken  by  ' 
the  Mexican  general  Arista  to  resist  the 
further  advance  of  Gen.  Taylor's  army. 
Although  the  latter  was  outnumbered  three 
to  one,  the  Mexicans  were  routed  after  a 
short  conflict  (May  9, 184»j)and  driven  across 
the  Rio  Grande. 

Rescue.  The  retaking  by  a  party  cap- 
tured of  a  prize  made  by  the  enemy. 

Reservation,  Military.  Land  set  aside 
from  the  public  domain  by  the  President  of 
the  United  States  for  military  purposes. 

Reserve.  In  army  atiuirs,  is  a  body  of 
troops  held  somewhere  in  the  rear,  generally 
out  of  fire,  and  kept  fresh,  in  order  that  they 
may  interfere  with  decisive  force  at  any  point 
where  yielding  troops  require  support,  or  an 
advantage  gained  needs  powerful  following 
up.  The  reserve  of  ammunition  is  a  maga- 
zine of  warlike  stores,  situated  between  an 
army  and  its  base  of  operations,  sufficiently 
retired  from  the  front  to  be  safe  from  sudden 
raids  of  the  enemy,  and  at  the  same  time 
advanced  enough  to  allow  of  the  supply 
actually  in  the  field  being  speedily  replen- 
ished. 

Reserve,  Army.  In  Great  Britain,  is  di- 
vided into  first  and  second  class  reserves. 
The  first  class  consists  of  men  who  are  serv- 
ing or  have  served  in  the  regular  army,  and 
whose  past  service  has  not  exceeded  their  first 
term  of  enlistment.  These  men  are  liable  to 
be  called  out  for  training  for  a  period  not 
longer  than  twelve  days  in  a  year,  and  to  be 
permanently  embodied  for  general  service  in 
case  of  imminent  national  danger  or  great 
emergency.  The  second  class  consists  of  out- 
pensioners  of  Chelsea  Hospital,  and  persons 
enrolled  in  the  force  under  the  provisions  of 
the  6th,  7th,  9th,  and  10th  Victoria.  The 
members  of  this  force  may  be  called  out  for 
training  as  if  tiiey  were  in  the  first  class,  but 
can  only  be  permanently  embodied  in  case  of 
national  danger  or  gr(?at  emergency,  for  ser- 
vice in  the  United  Kingdom.  For  army 
reserve  in  Prussia,  see  Laxdwehr. 

Reserve  Equipage.  See  Pontons,  Bridge 
Eqimi-aok. 

Ressaldar.  In  the  East  Indies,  is  a  na- 
tive officer  in  a  native  cavalry  regiment.  He 
commands  the  right  trmip  of  a  sijuadron,  and 
on  parade  loads  the  squadron. 

Ressaldar  Major.     In  the  East  Indies,  is 
the  native  commandant  of  a  native  cavalry  i 
regiment.  j 


Rest.  In  tactics,  a  word  of  command 
whereby  the  men  are  brought  to  a  position 
of  rest ;  as,  piirade  rest,  in  place  rest. 

Rest  on  Arms.  A  word  of  command 
which  is  used  at  military  funerals. 

Retained  Pay.  In  the  U.  S.  army,  is  pay 
that  is  retained  from  the  soldier  until  the 
expiration  of  his  term  of  service. 

Retainers.  See  Ai'I'Endix,  Articles  of 
War,  03. 

Retaliation.  This  should  never  be  re- 
sorted to  as  a  measure  of  mere  revenge,  but 
only  as  a  means  of  protective  retribution, 
and,  moreover,  cautiously  and  unavoidably  ; 
that  is  to  say,  retaliation  is  only  to  be  re- 
sorted to  after  careful  inquiry  into  the  real 
occurrence  and  the  character  of  the  misdeeds 
that  may  demand  retribution. 

Retiarius.  A  kind  of  gladiator  who 
fought  in  the  amphitheatre  during  the  time 
of  the  Romans.  He  was  dressed  in  a  short 
coat,  having  afiiscina,  or  trident,  in  his  left 
hand,  and  a  net,  from  which  he  derived  his 
name,  in  his  right.  "With  this  he  endeavored 
to  entangle  his  adversary,  that  he  might 
then  with  his  trident  easily  dispatch  him. 
On  his  head  he  wore  only  a  hat  tied  under 
his  chin  with  a  broad  ribbon. 

Retinue.  Applied  strictly  to  the  admiral's 
suite  or  followers,  though  it  means  an  accom- 
panying train  in  general ;  whether  military, 
naval,  or  civil. 

Retirade.  In  fortification,  a  retrench- 
ment, which  is  generally  made  with  two 
faces,  forming  a  re-entrant  angle,  and  is 
thrown  up  in  the  body  of  a  work,  for  the 
purpose  of  receiving  troops,  who  may  dis- 
pute the  ground  inch  by  inch. 

Retire.  Signifies  to  fall  back  a  short  dis- 
tance. Also,  a  bugle-sound  intimating  to 
skirmishers  that  they  are  to  fall  back.  This 
bugle-sound  in  the  U.  S.  service  is  termed 
"  to  the  rear." 

Retired  Flank.  In  fortification,  a  flank 
having  an  arc  of  a  circle  with  its  convexity 
turned  toward  the  place. 

Retired  Full  Pay.  See  Full  Pat,  Re- 
tt ukd. 

Retired  List.  Is  a  list  of  officers  retired 
from  the  army  or  navy.  In  every  service, 
to  maintain  a  reasonably  low  age  among  the 
persons  actively  employed,  it  is  essential  that 
some  scale  should  be  fixed  for  retirement  of 
old  and  worn-out  officers.  In  the  British 
army,  medical  officers  are  allowed  to  retire 
after  twenty-five  years  full-pay  service ; 
other  officers  after  thirty  vears  on  full  pav, 
or  twenty-five  years  on  lialf-pay.  In  the 
navy,  officers  are  placed  on  the  retired  list 
at  sixty  years  of  age,  with  the  rank  they  then 
hold.  "  In  most  cases,  in  both  services,  the 
retiring  officer  is  allowed  a  step  of  honorary 
rank  ;  hut  this  higher  rank  carries  neither 
present  nor  prospective  advantage.  Officers 
of  the  U.  S.  army  nuiy  be  retired  on  their 
own  application  "after  thirty  years'  service. 
If  an  officer  has  been  borne  on  the  army 
register  for  forty-five  years,  or  if  he  has  at- 
tained the  age  of  sixtv-two  vears,  he  may  be 


KETREAT 


486 


EEVETMENT 


retired  at  the  discretion  of  the  President. 
Officers  retired  from  active  service  receive 
75  per  cent,  of  the  pay  of  the  rank  upon 
whieli  they  were  retired.  Retired  officers  of 
the  army  may  be  assigned  to  duty  as  profes- 
sors of  colleges  and  at  the  Soldier's  Home, 
and  shall  not  be  assignable  to  any  other  duty. 
Any  officer  may  be  retired  on  account  of 
disability  contracted  in  the  line  of  duty. 
"When  an  officer  has  served  forty  years  as  a 
commissioned  officer  he  shall,  if  he  makes 
application  therefor,  be  placed  on  the  retired 
list.  Officers  retired  shall  be  withdrawn 
from  command  and  promotion.  Officers 
may  be  wholly  retired  for  disability  not  in- 
cident to  the  service  and  dropped  from  the 
rolls  of  the  army  with  one  year's  pay.  Offi- 
cers of  the  marine  corps  shall  be  retired  in 
the  same  manner  and  with  the  same  relative 
conditions  as  are  provided  for  officers  of  the 
army. 

Retreat.  The  retrograde  movement  of 
any  army  or  body  of  men  who  retire  from 
the  enemy.  It  signifies  a  more  prolonged 
and  systematic  movement  to  the  rear  than 
retire.  Full  retreat  is  when  an  army  retires 
with  all  expedition  before  a  conquering 
enemy.  The  retreat  is  also  a  beat  of  the  in- 
fantry drums,  or  sounding  of  the  bugles  or 
trumpets,  which  takes  place  everj-^  day  at 
sunset,  and  at  which  troops  fiiU  in  and  the 
roll  is  called  ;  the  details  for  duty  the  follow- 
ing day,  and  orders,  are  published.  To  re- 
treat is  to  make  a  retrograde  movement. 
An  army  or  body  of  men  are  said  to  retreat 
when  they  turn  their  backs  upon  the  enemy, 
or  are  retiring  from  the  ground  they  occu- 
pied ;  hence,  every  march  in  withdrawing 
from  an  enemy  is  called  a  retreat. 

Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand  Greeks. 
The  10,000  Greeks  who  had  joined  the  army 
of  the  Younger  Cyrus  in  his  revolt  against 
his  brother,  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  were  vic- 
tors, but  Cyrus  was  defeated  and  slain  at 
Cunaxa,  401  B.C.  Artaxerxes  having  en- 
ticed the  Greek  leaders  into  his  power  and 
killed  them,  Xenophon  was  called  to  the 
command  of  his  countrymen.  Under  con- 
tinual alarms  from  sudden  attacks,  he  led 
them  across  rapid  rivers,  through  vast  des- 
erts, over  the  tops  of  mountains,  till  he 
reached  the  sea.  The  Greeks  returned  home 
after  a  march  of  1155  parasangs,  or  leagues 
(3465  miles),  which  was  performed  in  215 
days,  after  an  absence  of  fifteen  months. 

Retrench.  To  furnish  with  a  retrench- 
ment ;  as,  to  retrench  bastions. 

Retrenchment.  In  fortification,  is  a  de- 
fensive work,  comprising  at  least  ditch 
and  parapet,  within  some  other  work  of  a 
fortress,  and  intended  as  a  place  of  retreat 
for  the  defenders,  whence  they  may  prolong 
the  defense,  or  capitulate  after  the  faces  of 
the  work  itself  have  fallen  into  the  enemy's 
hands.  The  retrenchment  bears  a  consider- 
able resemblance  to  the  rcduit,  except  that 
it  is  almost  always  of  earth.  Retrenchments 
are  made  in  ravelins,  and  the  re-entering 
place  d'armes  at  the  time  of  constructing  the 


works.  A  retrenchment  is  thrown  across 
the  gorge  of  a  redan  or  bastion,  or  from 
shoulder  to  shoulder,  when  it  is  apprehended 
that  the  salient  angle  will  fall  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  besiegers  ;  these  retrenchments 
are  usually  made  when  wanted.  Such  a  re- 
trenchment across  the  interior  of  the  Redan 
at  Sebastopol  catised  the  sanguinary  repulse 
of  the  British  on  September  8,  1855. 

Return.  An  official  account,  report,  or 
statement,  rendered  to  the  commander  or 
other  superior ;  as,  the  return  of  men  fit  for 
duty  ;  the  return  of  the  number  of  the  sick ; 
the  return  of  provisions,  etc.  For  punish- 
ment of  officers  making  false  returns,  see 
Appendix,  Articles  of  War,  8. 

Returns  of  a  Mine.  Are  the  turnings 
and  windings  of  the  gallery  leading  to  the 
mine. 

Returns  of  a  Trench.  Are  the  various 
turnings  and  windings  which  form  the  lines 
of  the  trench,  and  are,  as  near  as  they  can 
be,  made  parallel  to  the  place  attacked,  to 
avoid  being  enfiladed. 

Reveille.  The  beat  of  the  drum  about 
break  of  day,  to  give  notice  that  it  is  time 
for  the  soldiers  to  rise,  and  for  the  sentinels 
to  forbear  challenging. 

Reveil-matin  [Fr.).  A  double  cannon; 
an  ancient  96-pounder. 

Revel,  or  Reval.  A  strongly  fortified 
seaport  town  of  Russia,  government  of  Es- 
thonia,  on  a  small  bay  on  the  south  side  of 
the  Gulf  of  Finland,  200  miles  west-south- 
west from  St.  Petersburg.  It  was  long  held 
by  the  Teutonic  Knights  ;  was  made  over 
to  Sweden  in  1562;  bombarded  by  the  Dan- 
ish and  Liibeck  fleets  in  1569  ;  besieged  by 
Peter  the  Great,  and  annexed  to  the  Russian 
empire  in  1710.  In  1713  a  naval  harbor,  in 
addition'  to  the  commercial  harbor,  was 
founded. 

Reverse.  A  change  for  the  worse,  or 
partial  defeat. 

Reverse  Fire.     See  Fire,  Reverse. 

Reverse  Flank.     See  Flank,  Outward. 

Reversed.  Upside  down ;  as,  arms  re- 
versed. Arms  are  said  to  be  reversed  when 
the  butts  of  the  pieces  are  slung,  or  held  up- 
wards. 

Reversed.  In  heraldry,  a  term  applied 
to  a  charge  turned  upside  down. 

Revet.  In  fortification,  to  face  with  ma- 
sonry, wood,  or  material,  as  an  embank- 
ment. 

Revetment.  In  permanent  fortification, 
is  a  retaining  wall  of  masonry  built  for  the 
purpose  of  holding  back  the  earth  of  which 
works'  are  composed.  The  most  ordinary 
position  of  revetments  is  for  the  escarp  and 
counterscarp  of  the  ditch.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  two  is  the  escarp,  which  has 
to  hold  back  the  great  mass  of  earth  repre- 
sented by  the  rampart,  parapet,  banquette, 
etc.  It  is  usually  of  solid  brick-work  or 
stone,  5  feet  thick  at  the  top,  and  sloping 
outwards  as  it  descends  (on  the  ditch  side 
only)  to  the  extent  of  1  in  6.  Prior  to  Vau- 
ban's  time,  the  escarp  revetment  was  com- 


< 


REVIEW 


487 


KEVOLUTIONARY 


monly  raised  to  the  top  of  the  parapet ;  but 
as  in  this  case  the  artillery  of  a  bosieirer 
played  on  the  top  of  the  wall,  and  ruined  it 
soon  after  t^e  siepe  conunenced,  that  eni^i- 
neer  adopted  the  principle — thenceforth  fol- 
lowed— of  raising  it  no  higher  than  the  crest 
of  the  glacis,  or  about  7  feet  above  the  natu- 
ral ground,  leaving  the  parapet  above  of 
sloped  earth  only.  When  the  main  ditch  is 
24  feet  deep,  the  scarp  revetment  will  be 
about  30  feet  high.  Additional  strength  is 
imparted  to  the  revetment  wall  by  massive 
buttresses  at  every  15  feet,  called  counter- 
forts, and  these  again  are  sometimes  con- 
nected and  strengthened  by  masonry  arches 
outside  the  revetment.  The  revetment  forms 
a  terrible  barrier  to  an  assaulting  party.  In 
field-works  temporary  revetments  maj'  be 
made  of  timber,  turf,  hurdles,  or  any  other 
materials  on  hand. 

Review.  An  examination  or  inspection 
of  troops  under  arms,  by  a  general  or  com- 
mander, for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the 
state  of  their  discipline,  equipments,  etc. 

Revision.  A  re-examination  for  correc- 
tion. AVhere  an  oflicer,  who  orders  a  court- 
martial,  does  not  approve  their  proceedings, 
he  may,  by  the  custom  of  war,  return  them 
to  the'court  for  revision,  and  no  additional 
evidence  can  be  taken  on  such  revision. — 

Revocable.  That  may  be  recalled.  Nom- 
inations for  appointments  in  the  army  are 
made  by  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
subject'  to  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate, 
who,  if  they  disagree,  revoke  the  appoint- 
ment. 

Revolt.  To  renounce  allegiance  or  sub- 
jection ;  to  rise  against  the  government  in 
declared  rebellion. 

Revolution.  In  politics,  any  extensive 
change  in  the  constitution  of  a  country  sud- 
denly brought  about.  The  most  important 
events  in  history  known  under  this  name 
are :  The  destruction  of  the  Assyrian  em- 
pire, and  the  foundation  of  that  of  the 
Medes  and  Persians  by  Cyrus  the  Great,  530 
B.C. ;  the  foundation  of  the  Macedonian  em- 
pire on  the  destruction  of  the  Persian,  by 
the  defeat  of  Darius  Codomanus,  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  331  b.c.  ;  the  establishment 
of  the  Roman  empire  on  the  ruins  of  the  re- 

fiublic  by  Julius  Caesar,  47  B.C.  ;  the  estab- 
ishmcnt  of  the  empire  of  the  Western 
Franks  under  Charlemagne,  800;  the  revo- 
lution in  Portugal,  by  which  the  Portuguese 
threw  otl"  the  Spanish  yoke  and  placed  John, 
duke  of  Braganza,  on  the  throne,  1040;  the 
English  revolution  of  the  17th  century, 
which  began  in  the  early  part  of  the  reign 
of  Charles  I.,  with  the  struggle  between 
that  king  and  his  Parliament.  In  1642,  the 
struggle  became  a  civil  war,  in  which  the 
Parliament  obtained  the  ascendency,  and 
brought  Charles  to  the  block  in  1«)40.  A 
republic  followed,  under  the  protectorate  of 
Oliver  Cromwell,  which  was  succeeded  in 
llJtiO  by  the  restoration  of  monarchy  in  the 
person   of  Charles   II.;    but   the   arbitrary 


rule  of  James  II.  brought  the  king  and 
people  again  into  antagonism,  and  James 
liaviiig  ticfd  the  country,  William  III.  was 
called  to  the  throne  under  such  conditions 
and  safeguards  as  secured  the  balance  of  the 
constitution.  The  revolutictns  in  Russia, 
1730  and  1702.  The  French  revolution  was 
a  violent  reaction  against  that  absolutism 
which  had  come  in  the  course  of  time  to 
supplant  the  old  feudal  institutions  of  the 
country.  It  began  with  an  outbreak  of  in- 
surrectionary movements  at  Paris  in  July, 
1789,  including  the  destruction  of  the  Bas- 
tile.  On  January  21,  1793,  King  Louis 
XVI.  was  beheaded.  A  disastrous  reign  of 
terror  followed  (see  Rkion  ok  Tkrror), 
which  was  brought  to  an  end  in  1704.  The 
revolution  in  Sweden,  1772  and  1809;  in 
Holland,  1795,  and  counter-revolution  in 
1813;  in  Poland,  1704,  1795,  and  1830.  The 
American  Revolution  of  1775,  by  which  the 
United  States  threw  oft"  their  dependence  on 
Great  Britain.  The  French  revolution  of 
1830,  which  drove  Charles  X.  into  exile,  and 
raised  Louis  Philippe,  duke  of  Orleans,  to 
the  throne  by  the  will  of  the  people;  as  also 
the  revolution  of  1848,  when  France  rose 
against  Louis  Philippe  and  adopted  for  a 
time  a  republican  form  of  government ; 
which  was  followed  by  the  revolution  of 
1851.  The  revolutions  in  the  Netherlands, 
and  in  Brunswick,  1830;  in  Brazil,  1831; 
in  Hungary,  1848  ;  in  Rome.  1798  and  1848  ; 
I  in  Italy,  1859-00,  when  the  various  minor 
sovereigns  were  driven  into  exile,  and  the 
whole  of  the  peninsula,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Roman  and  Venetian  territory,  be- 
came subject  to  the  constitutional  sway  of 
Victor  Emmanuel;  in  the  United  States, 
1800-65;  in  the  Danubian  principalities, 
1809  ;  and  the  Papal  States,  suppressed,  Oc- 
tober, 1807. 

Revolutionary.  Tending  or  pertaining 
to  a  revolution  in  government;  as,  a  revo- 
lutionary war. 

Revolutionary  Tribunal.    The  name  spe- 
cially given  to  the  infamous  court  of  judg- 
ment— the    most    extreme   republican    will 
scarcely  afiirm  that  it  was  a  court  of  justice 
— instituted   by  the   French  Convention  in 
March,  1793,  on  a  motion  made  by  Danton, 
who  considered  that  such  a  court  had  be- 
come necessary,  inasmuch  as  the  recent  dis- 
asters that  had  befallen  the  national  armies 
on  the  frontiers  had  led  to  dangerous  con- 
spiracies against  the  revolutionary  govern- 
ment.    Its  members  were  chosen  from  the 
various  departments,  and  their  appointment 
was  ratified  by  the  Convention.    Their  func- 
tion was  to  sit  in  judgment  on  all  persons 
accused  of  crimes  against  the  state,  and  from 
their    sentence,    delivered     with    appalling 
promptitude,  there  was  no  appeal.     JDuring 
I  the  "Reign  of  Terror"  (which  sec),  when 
j  Fouquicr-Tinville  was  "  public  accuser,"' it 
I  acquired    a    horrible    notoriety,    abolishing 
I  soon    almost   all    forms   of   justice,    neither 
hearing  witnesses  on  behalf  of  the  accused, 
I  nor  allowing  him  an  opportunity  of  defense, 


EE  VOL  VERS 


488 


EHODES 


but  blindly  executing  the  orders  of  the 
"Committee  of  Public  Safety,"  which  was 
merely  a  tool  in  the  hands  of  Robespierre. 
In  the  provinces,  similar  tribunals,  under 
the  name  of  "  Revolutionary  Committees," 
were  established,  the  commissaries-general 
of  which,  as,  for  instance,  Carrier,  shot  or 
drowned  suspects  in  crowds. 

Revolvers.      See   Small-arms,   Revol- 

VKR. 

Revolving  Light.  A  light  or  lamp  in  a 
light-house  so  arranged  as  to  appear  and 
disappear  at  fixed  intervals,  either  by  being 
turned  about  an  axis  so  as  to  show  light 
only  at  intervals,  or  by  having  its  light 
occasionally  intercepted  by  a  revolving 
screen. 

Reward.  A  recompense  given  for  the 
performance  of  a  meritorious  or  gallant  act; 
as,  the  soldiers  were  rewarded  with  medals 
for  their  gallantry.  In  the  U.  S.  service  a 
reward  of  )^30  is  paid  for  the  apprehension 
of  a  deserter. 

Rezonville.     See  Gravelotte. 

Rhagae  (ruins  at  Red,  southeast  of  Teh- 
7-an).  The  greatest  city  of  Media,  lay  in 
the  extreme  north  of  Great  Media,  at  the 
southern  foot  of  the  mountains  (Caspius 
Mons)  which  border  the  southern  shores  of 
the  Caspian  Sea.  It  was  destroyed  in  the 
Parthian  wars,  but  rebuilt  by  Arsaces  ;  it 
was  finally  destroyed  by  the  Tartars  in  the 
12th  century. 

Rhegium  (now  Reggio).  A  celebrated 
Greek  town  on  the  coast  of  Bruttium,  on 
the  south  of  Italy,  was  situated  on  the  straits 
which  separate  Italy  and  Sicily.  Rhegium 
was  founded  about  the  beginning  of  the  first 
Messenian  war,  743  B.C.,  by  ^olian  Chal- 
cidians  from  Eubcea,  and  by  Doric  Messe- 
nians,  who  had  quitted  their  native  country 
on  the  commencement  of  hostilities  between 
Sparta  and  Messenia.  Even  before  the  Per- 
sian war  Rhegium  was  sufficiently  powerful 
to  send  3000  of  its  citizens  to  the  assistance 
of  the  Tarentines.  Dionysius  carried  on 
war  against  the  city  for  a  long  time,  and 
after  two  or  three  unsuccessful  attempts  he 
at  length  took  the  place,  which  he  treated 
with  the  greatest  severity.  The  Rhegians 
having  applied  to  Rome  for  assistance  when 
Pyrrhus  was  in  the  south  of  Italy,  the  Ro- 
mans placed  in  the  town  a  garrison  of  4000 
soldiers,  who  had  been  levied  among  the 
Latin  colonies  in  Campania.  These  troops 
seized  the  town  in  279,  killed  or  expelled 
the  male  inhabitants,  and  took  possession  of 
their  wives  and  children.  When  Pyrrhus 
was  driven  out  of  Italy,  the  Romans  took 
signal  vengeance  upon  these  Campanians, 
and  restored  the  surviving  Rhegians  to  their 
city. 

Rheims,  or  Reims.  A  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  Marne,  82  miles  east- 
northeast  from  Paris.  The  town  was  taken 
by  the  Russians  in  1814,  but  before  they  had 
been  in  possession  many  hours  Napoleon 
came  down  upon  them,  and  gained  here  one 
of  his  last  successes  before  victory  deserted 


his  standards.  Gen.  MacMahon  was  at 
Rheims  with  his  army,  including  the  re- 
mains of  the  corps  of  Failly  and  Canrobert, 
and  marched  from  here  in  hopes  of  joining 
Bazaine  ;  the  crown-prince  of  Prussia  started 
in  pursuit,  August  23,  1870.  It  was  occu- 
pied by  the  Germans  and  the  king,  Septem- 
ber .5,  1870. 

Rhin,  Bas  and  Haut  (Lower  and  Upper 
Rhine).  Recently  departments  of  France, 
which  formed  the  former  French  province 
of  Alsace.     See  Elsass. 

Rhine  (anc.  Rhenus,  Ger.  Rhein).  An 
important  river  in  Germany,  and  one  of  the 
most  noted  in  Europe,  takes  its  rise  in  the 
Swiss  canton  of  Grisons,  and  after  a  north- 
northwest  course  of  about  800  miles,  falls  in 
the  German  Ocean.  Caesar  was  the  first 
Roman  general  who  crossed  the  Rhine;  he 
threw  a  bridge  of  boats  across  it.  It  was 
fortified  as  the  frontier  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire 298  and  3G9,  and  became  the  boundary 
of  the  French  republic  in  177G. 

Rhode  Island.  One  of  the  original  thir- 
teen United  States  of  America,  and  the 
smallest,  on  the  southern  coast  of  New  Eng- 
land, is  about  47  miles  from  north  to  south, 
and  37  miles  from  east  to  west.  It  is 
bounded  north  and  east  by  Massachusetts, 
south  by  the  Atlantic,  and  west  by  Connec- 
ticut. Rhode  Island  is  believed  to  have 
been  the  Vineland  of  the  Norsemen,  who 
are  supposed  by  some  antiquarians  to  have 
explored  this  coast  in  the  10th  century.  It 
was  settled  in  1036  by  Roger  Williams  and 
his  companions.  Baptists,  who  were  expelled 
for  their  religious  opinions  from  the  Puritan 
colony  of  Plymouth.  The  colony  suffered 
from  the  Indian  wars  until  the  defeat  and 
death  of  Philip,  king  of  the  W^ampanoags. 
Rhode  Island  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
Revolutionary  war,  and  in  the  late  civil 
war  (1861-65)  she  filled  her  quotas  cheer- 
fully for  the  cause  of  the  Union,  her  sol- 
diers winning  distinction  and  honor  in  the 
field, 

Rhodes  (Lat.  Rhodus,  Gr.  Rhodos.).  An 
island  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, ofl:'  the  southwest  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  long  an  important,  wealthy,  and 
independent  state  of  ancient'  Greece.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
Rhodes  was  one  of  those  maritime  states 
which  were  subject  to  Athens  ;  but  in  the 
twentieth  year  of  the  war  (412),  it  joined 
the  Spartan  alliance,  and  the  oligarchal 
party,  which  had  been  depressed,  and  their 
leaders,  the  Eratidte,  expelled,  recovered 
their  former  power  under  Dories.  In  408 
the  capital,  called  Rhodus,  was  built.  The 
history  of  the  island  now  presents  a  series  of 
conflicts  between  the  democratical  and  oli- 
garchal parties,  and  of  subjection  to  Athens 
and  Sparta  in  turn,  till  the  end  of  the  Social 
war,  35.5,  when  its  independence  was  ac- 
knowledged. Then  followed  a  conflict  with 
the  princes  of  Caria,  during  which  the  island 
was  for  a  time  subject  to  Artemisia.  At 
the  Macedonian  conquest,  they  submitted  to 


RHOXOLANI 


489 


RIDING-MASTER 


Alexander;  but  upon  his  death  they^ ex- 
pelled the  Macedonian  garrison.  In  the  en- 
suing wars  they  formed  an  alliance  with 
Ptolemy,  the  son  of  Lagus,  and  their  city, 
Rhodus,  endured  a  most  famous  siege  by  the 
forces  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  who  at 
length,  in  admiration  of  the  valor  of  the 
besieged,  presented  them  with  the  engines 
he  had  used  against  the  city,  from  the  sale 
of  which  Ihey  defrayed  the  cost  of  the  cele- 
brated Colossus.  The  state  now  for  a  long 
time  flourished  with  great  maritime  power. 
At  length  they  came  into  connection  with 
the  Romans,  whose  alliance  tiiey  joined  in 
the  war  against  Philip  HI.  of  Macedon.  In 
the  ensuing  war  with  Antiochus,  the  Ilho- 
dians  gave  the  Romans  great  aid  with  their 
fleet.  A  temporary  interruption  of  their 
alliance  with  Rome  was  caused  by  their  es- 
pousing the  cause  of  Perseus,  for  which  they 
were  severely  punished,  108;  but  they  re- 
covered the  favor  of  Rome  by  the  important 
naval  aid  they  rendered  in  the  Mithridatic 
war.  In  the  civil  wars  they  took  part  with 
Cassar,  and  sutt'ered  in  consequence  from 
Cassius,  42.  They  were  at  length  deprived 
of  their  independence  by  Claudius.  In  1309 
the  island  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
Knights  of  St.  John  (see  Saint  John  of 
Jerusalem),  who  baflled  every  effort  made 
by  Mahomet  II.,  the  conqueror  of  Constan- 
tinople, to  drive  them  from  the  island,  and 
held  it  until  they  were  compelled  to  evacu- 
ate it  by  Solyman  the  Great  in  1522,  after 
one  of  the  most  memorable  sieges  recorded 
in  history. 

Rhoxolani,  or  Roxolani.  A  warlike  peo- 
ple in  European  Sarmatia,  on  the  coast  of 
the  Palus  Micotis,  and  between  the  Borys- 
thenes  and  the  Tanais,  usually  supposed  to 
be  the  ancestors  of  the  modern  Russians. 
They  frequently  attacked  and  plundered 
the  Roman  provinces  south  of  the  Danube; 
and  Hadrian  was  even  obliged  to  pay  them 
tribute.  They  arc  mentioned  as  late  as  the 
11th  century.  They  fought  with  lances,  and 
with  long  swords  wielded  with  both  hands  ; 
and  their  armies  were  composed  chiefly  of 
cavalry. 

Ribadoquin.  An  ancient  1-or  IJ-pounder 
gun.  Also,  a  powerful  cross-bow  for  throw- 
ing long  darts. 

Ribaud  (/->.).  A  soldier  of  the  foot- 
guards  of  Philip  Augustus  ('f  France  ;  but 
afterwards  this  term  was  applied  only  to  the 
most  infamous  characters. 

Ribaudaille  (Fr.).  A  term  of  reproach 
formerly  applied  to  cowardly  soldiers. 
Philip  of  Valois  thus  called  his  (Jenoese 
mercenaries,  who  he  thought  had  betrayed 
him. 

Ribaudequin  (Fr.).  A  warlike  machine 
or  instrument  which  the  French  formerly 
used.  It  was  made  in  the  form  of  a  bow, 
containing  12  or  lo  feet  in  its  curve,  and  was 
lixcd  upon  the  wall  of  a  fortified  town,  for 
the  purpose  of  casting  out  a  prodigious  jave- 
lin, which  sometimes  killed  several  men  at 
once.  According  to  Monstrelct,  a  French 
32 


writer,  ribaudequin,  or  ribauderin,  signified 
a  sort  of  garment  which  wits  worn  by  the 
soldiers  when  they  took  the  field. 

Ribbon.  In  heraldry,  a  diminutive  of 
the  ordinary  called  the  bend,  of  which  it  is 
one-eighth  in  width. 

Ribbon  Cockades.  In  the  British  ser- 
vice, the  cockades  which  are  given  to  re- 
cruits, and  are  commonly  called  the  colors. 

Richmond.  The  capital  of  \'irginia,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  James  River,  at  the  head 
of  the  tide- water,  150  miles  from  its  mouth, 
and  100  miles  south  of  Washington.  In 
June,  1861,  it  was  selected  as  the  Confeder- 
ate capital,  and  from  that  pericxl  was  the 
objective-point  of  a  series  of  formidable  mili- 
tarv  expeditions  for  its  capture,  under  (iens. 
McDowell,  McClellan,  Burnside,  Hooker, 
Meade,  and  Grant,  and  defended  by  Gen. 
Lee  with  a  large  army  and  formidable  lines 
of  fortifications,  until  the  seizure  of  the  lines 
of  supply  by  Gens.  Grant  and  Sheridan  com- 
pelled its  evacuation  after  a  series  of  san- 
guinary battles,  April  .3,  1805.  A  consider- 
able portion  of  the  city  was  destroyed  by  the 
retreating  Confederates. 

Rickarees,  Arickarees,  or  Rees.  A  tribe 
of  Indians  of  the  Pawnee  stock  living  at 
Fort  Berthold  agency,  on  the  Upper  Mis- 
souri River;  they  warred  with  the  Dakota 
tribes  for  a  number  of  years,  and  were  hos- 
tile to  the  whites;  but  were  defeated  and 
dispersed  by  U.  S.  troops  in  1823  ;  made  a 
treaty  in  1825;  were  driven  up  the  Platte 
Valley,  1831 ;  returned  to  the  Missouri  some 
vears  later.  Thev  numbered  in  187G  about 
700  souls. 

Ricochet.  In  gunnery,  the  repeated  re- 
bounding of  round-shot.  By  firing  at  a 
slight  elevation,  with  small  charges,  in  a 
direction  enfilading  the  face  of  a  work,  shot 
are  pitched  over  the  parapet,  and  bound 
along  the  rampart  from  end  to  end,  with 
most  destructive  effect  on  the  guns  and  gun- 
ners occupying  it. 

Ricochet  Battery.    See  Battery. 

Ricochet  Firing.     See  Fire,  Ricochet. 

Rideau.  Is  a  rising  ground,  or  eminence, 
commanding  a  plain,  sometimes  almost  par- 
allel to  the  works  of  a  place.  It  is  a  great 
disadvantage  to  have  rideaus  near  a  fortifi- 
cation, which  terminate  on  the  counterscarp, 
especially  when  the  enemy  fire  from  afar ; 
they  not  only  command  the  place,  but  facili- 
tate the  enemy's  approaches. 

Rider.  In  artillery  carriages,  a  piece  of 
wood,  which  has  more  height  than  breadth  ; 
the  length  being  equal  to  that  of  the  XxxXy  of 
the  axle-tree,  upon  which  the  .«ide-pieces  rest 
in  a  four-wheel  carriage,  such  as  the  ammu- 
nition-wagon, block-carriage,  and  sling- 
wagon. 

Ridge.  In  fortification,  is  the  highest 
part  of  the  glacis  proceeding  from  the  salient 
angle  of  the  covered  way. 

Riding-Master.  In  'the  British  service, 
in  cavalry,  artillery,  and  the  army  service 
corps,  is  an  officer  whose  duty  it  is  to  in- 
struct the  officers  and  men  in  the  manage- 


RIFF 


490 


RIFLING 


ment  of  their  horses.  He  is  most  commonly 
selected  from  the  ranks.  The  riding-master 
has  the  relative  rank  of  lieutenant,  and,  after 
an  aggregate  service  of  thirty  years,  includ- 
ing at  least  fifteen  years  as  riding-master,  he 
has  the  right  to  retire  on  10  shillings  a  day, 
with  the  honorary  rank  of  captain.  He  is  as- 
sisted in  his  duties  by  rough  riders.  (See 
Rough  Rider.) 

Riff,  The.  A  portion  of  the  coast  of  Mo- 
rocco which  extends  from  Tangier  on  the 
west,  to  near  the  western  frontier  of  Algeria. 
The  name  in  the  Berber  language,  which  is 
that  of  the  inhabitants,  signifies  a  mountain- 
ous and  rugged  coast.  The  inhabitants  of 
the  Rift"  were  formerly  engaged  in  piracy. 
On  account  of  the  injuries  inflicted  by  them 
on  merchant  vessels,  most  of  the  maritime 
states  of  Europe  agreed  to  pay  an  annual 
sum  of  quit-money.  However,  in  1828, 
Austria  declined  further  payment  of  the  tax. 
A  Venetian  vessel  was  seized  by  the  pirates 
in  the  harbor  of  Rabat,  but  the  arrival  of  an 
Austrian  fleet  off  the  port  produced  restitu- 
tion of  the  ship  and  its  cargo,  as  well  as  the 
formal  renunciation  of  all  further  claims. 
France  followed  the  same  course  by  declar- 
ing war  against  the  sultan  of  Morocco,  and 
obtained  compensation  in  1844,  since  which 
period  piracy  has  much  diminished.  Its  ex- 
ample was  followed  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1859. 

Rifle.  A  fire-arm  having  a  number  of 
spiral  grooves  cut  into  the  surface  of  its 
bore,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  the  projectile 
a  motion  about  a  line  coinciding  with  the 
direction  of  its  flight.  See  Ordnance, 
Small-arms,  Magazine  Guns,  and  Ly- 
man's Multi-charge  Gun. 

Rifle  Projectile.     See  Projectile. 

Rifled  Cannon,  or  Rifle-cannon.  A  can- 
non of  which  the  bore  is  rifled. 

Rifled  Musket.  A  musket  of  which  the 
bore  is  rifled. 

Riflemen.  A  peculiar  kind  of  light  in- 
fantry, consisting  of  experienced  marksmen, 
armed  with  the  most  improved  rifles.  In 
the  British  army  there  are  two  battalions  of 
the  rifle  brigade  and  of  the  60th  Rifles,  the 
Ceylon  Rifles,  and  the  Cape  Mounted  Rifle- 
men. 

Rifle-pit.  A  pit  dug  for  the  shelter  of 
sharpshooters. 

Rifling.  The  yielding  nature  of  lead  ren- 
ders the  application  of  the  rifle  principle  of 
easy  accomplishment  in  the  case  of  rifle- 
muskets,  but  such  is  not  the  case  with 
rifle-cannon  where  the  projectiles  are  made 
of  iron.  The  object  of  the  most  recent  ex- 
periments is  to  determine  the  safest  and 
surest  means  of  causing  the  projectile  to  fol- 
low the  spiral  grooves  as  it  passes  along  the 
bore  of  a  rifled  piece.  For  description  of 
the  manner  of  doing  this,  see  Projectile. 

Form  of  Groove. — The  form  of  a  rifle 
groove  is  determined  by  the  angle  which  the 
tangent  at  any  point  makes  with  the  corre- 
sponding element  of  the  bore.  If  the  angles 
be  equal  at  all  points  the  groove  is  uniform. 


If  the  increase  from  the  breech  to  the  muz- 
zle, the  grooves  are  called  increasing  ;  if  the 
reverse,  decreasing.  The  inclination  of  a 
rifle  groove  at  any  point  is  measured,  accu- 
rately, by  the  tangent  of  the  angle  which  it 
makes  with  the  axis  of  thie  bore,  which  is 
always  equal  to  the  circumference  of  the 
bore  divided  by  the  length  of  a  single  revo- 
lution of  the  spiral,  measured  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  axis.  Grooves  are  of  two  kinds, 
— unifonn  and  variable. 

Uniform  Groove. — The  comparative  ad- 
vantages of  uniform  and  variable  grooves 
depend  on  the  means  used  to  connect  them 
with  the  projectiles.  If  the  bearing  of  the 
projectile  in  the  grooves  be  long,  and  the 
metal  of  which  it  is  made  be  unyielding,  it 
will  be  unsafe,  if  not  impracticable,  to  em- 
ploy variable  grooves,  and  if  the  metal  be 
partially  yielding,  a  portion  of  the  force  of 
the  charge  will  be  expended  in  changing  the 
form  of  that  part  of  the  projectile  which 
projects  into  the  grooves,  as  it  moves  along 
the  bore. 

Variable  Groove. — The  variable  groove 
may  be  used  to  advantage  when  the  portion 
of  the  projectile  in  the  grooves  is  so  short 
that  its  form  will  undergo  but  slight  altera- 
tion ;  the  variable  groove  diminishes  the 
friction  of  the  projectile  when  it  is  first  set 
in  motion,  and  thereby  relieves  the  breech  of 
the  piece  of  a  portion  of  the  enormous  strain 
which  is  thrown  upon  it.  If  the  twist  be 
too  rapid  towards  the  muzzle  there  will  be 
danger  of  bursting  the  piece  in  the  chase. 

Width  of  Groove. — The  width  of  a  groove 
depends  on  the  diameter  of  the  bore  and  the 
peculiar  manner  in  which  the  groove  re- 
ceives and  holds  the  projectile.  Wide  and 
shallow  grooves  are  more  easily  filled  by  the 
expanding  portion  of  the  projectile  than 
those  which  are  narrow  and  deep ;  and  the 
same  holds  true  of  circular-shaped  grooves 
when  compared  to  those  of  angular  form. 

Number  of  Grooves. — An  increase  in  the 
number  of  grooves  increases  the  firmness 
with  which  a  projectile  is  held,  by  adding  to 
the  number  of  points  which  bear  upon  it. 
A  large  number  of  grooves,  however,  in- 
crease the  difficulties  of  loading.  For  ex- 
panding projectiles  an  odd  numberof  grooves 
is  generall}'  employed,  for  as  this  places 
a  groove  opposite  to  a  land,  less  expansion 
will  be  required  to  fill  them. 

Inclinnfio7i  of  Grooves. — Experience  has 
shown  that,  as  the  velocity  of  rotation  de- 
pends upon  the  form  and  initial  velocity  of 
the  projectile,  the  causes  which  retard  it, 
and  the  time  of  flight,  there  is  a  particular 
inclination  of  grooves  which  is  best  suited  to 
each  caliber,  form  of  projectile,  charge  of 
powder,  and  angle  of  fire.  The  farther  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  a  projectile  is  in  rear  of 
the  centre  of  figure,  or  resistance  of  the  air, 
the  greater  must  be  the  inclination  of  the 
grooves  to  resist  deviation.  It  therefore 
follows  that  a  conical  projectile  of  the  same 
length  and  diameter,  requires  a  greater  in- 
clination of  grooves   than  a  cylindrical  pro- 


RIGA 


491 


ROANOKE 


jettile,  and  the  same  will  hold  true  for  other 
forms  as  they  approach  one  or  the  other  of 
these  extreme  cases.  The  friction  of  the 
projectile  as  it  passes  along  the  prooves,  in- 
creases with  their  inclination  ;  ils  cttect  will 
be  U>  diminish  the  rani^e  and  increase  the 
strain  on  the  piece,  and  the  inclination  may 
bo  carried  so  far  as  to  break  the  projectile, 
or  rupture  the  piece. 

Ceiitrinp. — In  consequence  of  the  windajjc 
necessary  in  all  muzzle-loading  guns,  the 
axis  of  the  projectile  does  not  always  coin- 
cide with  that  of  the  bore  in  firing.  This 
leads  to  inaccuracy  of  fire.  A  firojectile  is 
said  to  be  centred  when  the  grooves  of  the 
rifling  are  so  constructed  as  to  bring  the  axis 
of  the  projectile  on  a  line  with  that  of  the 
bore  when  the  piece  is  fired.  There  are  sev- 
eral ways  of  accomplishing  this,  among 
them  Armstrong's  method  called  "Shunt 
rifling."  See  Armstrong  Gun  under  Oku- 
NANCE,  Construction  of,  the  Krupp,  and 
others. 

Riga.  An  important  seaport  of  Russia, 
cajiitul  of  Livonia,  on  the  Diina,  312  miles 
southwest  frtim  St.  Petersburg.  Riga  was 
founded  in  the  beginning  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury. The  Teutonic  Knights  possessed  it  in 
the  10th  century.  In  1021  it  was  taken  by 
Gustavus  Adoiphus,  and  in  1710,  after  a 
vigorous  resistance,  by  I'eter  the  Groat.  On 
the  latter  occasion  more  than  half  of  the 
town  was  destroyed.  In  1812  a  French  force 
was  repulsed  from  the  town. 

Rigodon  ( Fr.).  Formerly  a  beat  of  drum 
while  men  who  were  shelled  (a  French  pun- 
ishment, the  severest  next  to  death)  were 
paraded  up  and  down  the  ranks  previous  to 
their  being  sent  to  their  destiiuition. 

Rimbases.  In  gunnery,  are  short  cylin- 
ders uniting  the  trunnions  with  the  body  of 
the  gun.  The  ends  of  the  ritn bases,  or  the 
shouiUers  of  the  trunnions,  are  planes  per- 
pendicular to  the  axis  of  the  trunnions. 
Rimbases  are  for  the  purpose  of  strengthen- 
ing the  trunnions  at  their  junction  with  the 
piece,  and  by  forming  shoulders,  to  prevent 
the  piece  from  moving  sideways  in  the  trun- 
nion-beds. 

Rimer.     A  palisade  in  fortification. 

Rimini  (anc.  Arim'mum).  A  city  of  Cen- 
tral Italy,  on  the*  Adriatic  Sea,  about  28 
miles  east-southeast  from  Forli.  It  was 
founded  by  the  Umbri ;  was  conquered  by  the 
Romans;  sacked  by  Sulla;  plundered  and 
destroyed  several  times  by  the  barbarians; 
then  given  by  Charlemagne  to  the  churcii. 

Rimnik.  A  towi^  of  Wallacliia,  on  the 
Rimnik,  tlo  miles  northeast  from  Bucharest. 
Here  the  Austrians  and  Kussians,  under 
Prince  Coburg  and  (ien.  Suwarrow,  gained 
a  great  victory  over  the  Turks,  September 
22.  1789. 

Ring-armor.  Armor  composed  of  rings 
of  metal. 

Ringleader.  The  leader  of  a  ring;  es- 
pecially, the  leader  of  an  assdoiation  of  men 
engaged  in  violation  «»f  law  or  an  illegal  en- 
terprise, as  rioters,  mutineers,  and  the  like. 


Ring-mail.     A  kind  of  mail  composed  of 

small  rings  of  steel  sewed  edgewise  up<jn  a 
strong  gHrment  of  leather  or  of  quilted  cloth. 

Ring-wads.     See  (iuoMMKT. 

Rio  Janeiro,  or  Rio  de  Janeiro,  often  called 
simply  Rio.  The  «apital  of  Brazil,  and  the 
largest  and  most  important  city  of  South 
America.  The  harbor,  which  is  strongly 
fortified,  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  world,  and 
large  enough  for  all  its  navies.  The  city  of 
Kio  was  founded  by  the  Pcjrtuguese  in  ir><J7. 
In  1831,  it  was  the  theatre  of  a  revolution, 
in  which  OOtX)  armed  citizens  were  joined  by 
the  troo()S  of  the  line  in  their  opj>ositi<jn  to 
the  government,  and  in  consequence  of  which 
Dom  Pedro  abdicated  the  throne  in  favor  of 
his  S(m  Pedro  II. 

Riot  and  Tumult.  Sedition,  civil  insur- 
rection, disturbance,  etc.  A  breach  of  the 
peace  committed  by  an  assembled  multitude. 
Some  degree  of  violence  is  incidental  to  a 
riot,  and  a  degree  of  intimidation  to  the 
neighborhood.  According  to  law  a  riot 
cannot  take  place  unless  three  persons  act  in 
concert.  When  a  riot  becomes  formidable, 
it  is  usual  for  the  authorities  to  take  active 
measures  to  disperse  it. 

Rioters.  Disturbers  of  the  public  peace; 
persons  acting  in  open  violation  of  good 
order  ;  raising  or  creating  sedition,  et*. 

Ripon.  An  ancient  town  of  England,  in 
Yorkshire,  23  miles  northwest  of  York.  It 
su tiered  much  by  the  ravages  of  the  Danes 
and  the  Normans  (1009),  and  the  Scots  (1319 
and  1323). 

Risban  {Fr.).  In  fortification,  a  flat  piece 
of  ground  upon  which  a  fort  is  constructed 
for  the  defense  and  security  of  a  port  or 
harbor.     It  likewise  means  the  fort  itself. 

Risberme  (Fr.).  A  work  composed  of 
fascines,  such  as  is  sometimes  constructed  at 
the  bottom  of  a  town-wall.  A  sort  of  glacis 
of  fascine-work  used  in  jetties,  the  sides  of 
which,  towards  the  sea,  are  so  formed  as  to 
withstand  its  violence. 

Rise.  In  a  miliUiry  sense,  is  to  make 
hostile  attack;  as,  the  soldiers  rose  against 
their  officers.  It  also  means  to  obtain  pro- 
motion. Tori'>e  froyn  the  raiifiS,  is  to  obtain 
a  commission  by  degrees,  after  having  been 
in  the  ranks  as  a  private  soldier. 

Rising.  In  heraldry,  a  term  applied  to  a 
bird  when  represented  opening  his  wings  as 
if  about  to  take  flight. 

Riveting-plates.  In  gun-carriages,  are 
small,  square,  thin  pieces  of  iron,  through 
which  the  ends  of  the  bolts  pass,  and  are 
riveted  upon  them. 

Rivoli.  A  town  of  Italy  on  the  right  of 
the  river  Dora,  and  8  miles  west  of  Turin. 
It  possesses  a  royal  castle,  which  was  sacked 
by  the  French  in  1090.  In  1797  a  battle  was 
fought  here  between  the  French  and  Austri- 
ans, in  which  the  former  were  victorious. 

Rizamedar.  In  the  Fast  Indies,  is  an 
officer  commanding  a  small  body  of  horse. 

Roanoke.  A  river  of  ^'irgini.H  and 
North  Carolina;  empties  into  Albemarle 
Sound.     In  1801,  Albemarle  Island,  at  its 


EOBINET 


492 


EOCKET 


mouth,  and  Plymouth  were  taken  by  the 
Federal  gunboats. 

Robinet.  An  ancient  military  machine  for 
throwing  darts  and  stones. 

Rochelle,  La.  A  fortified  seaport  of 
France,  capital  of  the  department  of  Cba- 
rente-Inforieure,  on  an  inlet  of  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  300  miles  southwest  of  Paris  by  rail- 
way. It  was  taken  from  the  English  "by  the 
troops  of  the  French  king  Louis  XIII.  in 
1224 ;  was  ceded  to  England  at  the  treaty  of 
Bretigny  in  1860;  in  the  subsequent  wars  it 
was  retaken  by  France,  under  whose  sway  it 
has  remained  since  1372.  As  a  stronghold  of 
the  Huguenot  party,  it  underwent  various 
attacks  and  sieges  during  the  religious  wars 
of  the  Henries,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  16th 
century  ;  and  on  its  final  and  unconditional 
surrender  to  the  royal  troops  in  the  time  of 
Louis  XIII.,  its  old  fortifications  were  de- 
stroyed, and  new  lines  of  defenses  subse- 
quently erected  by  the  great  Vauban. 

Rock  Island.  An  island  in  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  the  southern  extremity  of  which 
ii  nearly  opposite  the  town  of  Kock  Island, 
111.  This  island  is  about  3  miles  in  length, 
and  presents  a  perpendicular  front  of  lime- 
stone 20  or  30  feet  high.  During  the  Black- 
hawk  war  a  garrison  was  kept  on  Eock  Isl- 
and, and  a  part  of  it  was  used  during  the 
late  civil  war  (1861-65)  as  a  military  prison. 
The  U.  S.  government  has  a  splendid  arsenal 
and  armory  here. 

Rocket.  A  rocket  is  a  projectile  which 
is  set  in  motion  by  a  force  residing  within 
itself;  it  therefore  performs  the  twofold 
function  of  piece  and  projectile.     See  Pyro- 

TECHNY. 

History. — Eockets  were  used  in  India  and 
China  for  war  purposes  before  the  discovery 
of  gunpowder;  some  writers  fix  the  date  of 
their  invention  about  the  close  of  the  9th 
century.  Their  inferior  force  and  accuracy 
limited  the  sphere  of  their  operations  to  in- 
cendiary purposes,  until  the  year  1804,  when 
Sir  William  Congreve  turned  his  attention 
to  their  improvement.  This  oflicer  substi- 
tuted sheet-iron  cases  for  those  made  of 
paper,  which  enabled  him  to  use  a  more 
powerful  composition;  he  made  the  guide- 
stick  shorter  and  lighter,  and  removed  a 
source  of  inaccui-acy  of  flight  by  attaching 
the  stick  to  the  centre  of  the  base  instead  of 
the  side  of  the  case.  The  advantages  claimed 
•for  rockets  over  cannon  are,  unlimited  size 
of  projectile,  portability,  freedom  from  re- 
coil, rapidity  of  discharge,  and  the  terror 
which  their  noise  and  fiery  trail  produce  on 
mounted  troops. 

Structure. — A  rocket  is  essentially  com- 
posed of  a  strong  case  of  paper  or  wrought 
iron,  inclosing  a  composition  of  nitre,  char- 
coal, and  sulphur, — the  same  as  gunpowder, 
except  that  the  ingredients  are  proportioned 
for  a  slower  rate  of  combustion.  If  pene- 
tration and  range  be  required,  its  head  is 
surmounted  by  a  solid  shot;  if  explosion 
and  incendiary  eftect,  by  a  shell  or  spherical 
case-shot,  to  which  is  attached  a  fuze,  which 


is  set  on  fire  when  it  is  reached  by  the  flame 
of  the  burning  composition.  The  base  is 
perforated  by  one  or  more  vents  for  the  es- 
cajie  of  the  gas  generated  within,  and  some- 
times with  a  screw-hole  to  which  a  guide- 
stick  is  fastened. 

Motion. — A  rocket  is  set  in  motion  by  the 
reaction  of  a  rapid  stream  of  gas  escaping 
through  its  vents.  If  it  be  surrounded  by 
a  resisting  medium,  the  atmosphere,  for  in- 
stance, the  particles  of  gas  as  they  issue  from 
the  vent  will  impinge  against  and  set  in 
motion  certain  particles  of  air,  and  the  force 
expended  on  the  inertia  of  these  particles 
will  react  and  increase  the  propelling  force 
of  the  rocket.  It  follows,  therefore,  that, 
though  a  rocket  will  move  in  vacuo,  its  pro- 
pelling force  will  be  increased  by  the  pres- 
ence of  a  resisting  medium.  Whether  the 
efl'ect  will  be  to  accelerate  the  rocket  depends 
upon  the  relation  between  the  resistance 
which  the  medium  offers  to  the  motion  of 
the  gas  and  that  which  it  offers  to  the  motion 
of  the  rocket. 

Vent. — As  the  rate  of  combustion  of  the 
composition  is  independent  of  the  pressure 
of  the  gas  in  the  bore,  it  follows,  that  if  the 
size  of  the  vent  be  contracted,  the  flow  of 
gas  through  it  will  be  accelerated.  The 
strength  of  the  case,  and  the  friction  of  the 
gas,  which  increases  as  the  vent  diminishes, 
alone  limit  the  reduction  of  the  size  of  the 
vent.  For  vents  of  the  same  size,  but  of 
diflerent  shapes,  that  one  which  allows  the 
gas  to  escape  most  freely  will  be  most  favor- 
able to  the  flight  of  the  rocket.  A  conical 
form  of  vent,  with  the  larger  orifice  next  to 
the  bore,  will  allow  the  gas  to  escape  more 
rapidly  than  one  of  cylindrical  form. 

Bore. — As  the  composition  of  a  rocket 
burns  in  parallel  layers  of  uniform  thick- 
ness, the  amount  of  gas  generated  in  a  given 
time,  or  the  velocity  of  its  exit  from  the 
case,  depends  on  the  extent  of  the  inflamed 
surface.  Experience  shows  that  to  obtain 
the  required  surface  of  inflammation,  it  is 
necessary  to  form  a  long  cavity  in  the  mass 
of  the  composition.  This  cavity  is  called 
the  bore.  In  all  rockets  the  bore  should  be 
concentric  with  the  case ;  its  shape  should 
be  made  conical  to  diminish  the  strain  on 
the  case  near  its  head,  by  reducing  the 
amount  of  surface  where  the  pressure  on  the 
unit  of  surface  is  greatest. 

Nature  of  Muvemetit. — Suppose  the  rocket 
in  a  state  of  rest,  and  the  composition  ig- 
nited ;  the  flame  immediately  spreads  over 
the  surface  of  the  bore,  forming  gas  which 
issues  from  the  vent.  The  escape  is  slow  in 
the  first  moments,  as  the  density  of  the  gas 
is  slight;  but  as  the  surface  of  inflamma- 
tion is  large  compared  to  the  size  of  the 
vent,  the  gas  accumulates  rapidly,  and  its 
density  is  increased  until  the  velocity  of  the 
escape  is  suflicientto  overcome  the  resistance 
which  the  rocket  offers  to  motion.  These 
resistances  are,  inertia,  friction,  the  compo- 
nent of  weight  in  the  direction  of  motion, ' 
and,  after  motion  takes  place,  the  resistance 


KOCKET 


493 


ROCKET 


of  the  !iir.  The  constant  pressure  on  the 
head  of  the  hore  uccelerutes  the  motion  of 
the  rocket  until  the  resis-timce  of  the  air 
equals  the  propelling  force  ;  after  this,  it 
will  remain  constant  until  the  hurning  sur- 
face is  sensibly  diminished.  AV'hen  the  gas 
ceases  to  flow,  the  rocket  loses  its  distinctive 
character,  and  becomes,  so  far  as  its  move- 
ment is  concerned,  an  ordinary  projectile. 
The  increase  in  the  surface  of  combustion 
whereby  more  gas  is  developed  in  the  same 
time,  and  the  diminution  in  the  weight  of 
the  remaining  com|)osition,  cause  the  point 
of  maximum  velocity  to  be  reached  with 
increased  rapidity.  If  the  weight  of  the 
rocket  be  increased,  the  instant  of  maximum 
velocity  will  be  prolonged,  but  the  amount 
will  remain  the  same.  A  change  in  the  form 
of  the  rocket  which  increases  the  resistance 
of  the  air,  will  have  the  etlect  to  diminish 
the  maximum  velocity. 

Gtiidlng  Principle. — The  propelling  force 
of  a  rocket  changes  its  directit)n  with  the 
axis  along  which  it  acts;  it  follows,  there- 
fore, that  without  some  means  of  giving  sta- 
bility to  this  axis,  the  path  described  will  be 
very  irregular,  so  much  so,  at  times,  as  to 
fold  upon  itself;  and  instances  have  been 
known  where  these  projectiles  have  returned 
to  the  point  whence  they  started.  The  two 
means  now  used  to  give  steadiness  to  the 
flight  of  a  rocket  are,  rotation,  as  in  the  case 
of  a  rifle-ball,  and  the  resistance  of  the  air, 
as  in  an  arrow. 

Jlnlc's  Sj/.stem. — The  first  is  exemplified  in 
Half's  rocket,  where  rotation  is  produced 
around  the  long  axis  by  the  escape  of  the 
gas  through  five  small  vents  situated  ob- 
liquely to  it.  In  his  first  arrangement,  the 
inventor  placed  the  small  vents  in  the  base, 
surrounding  the  central  vent,  so  that  the 
resultant  of  the  tangential  forces  acted 
around  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  axis 
of  rotation.  In  1855,  this  arrangement  was 
changed  by  reducing  the  number  of  the 
small  vents  to  three,  and  placing  them  at 
the  base  of  the  head  of  the  rocket.  The 
rocket  thus  modified  is  the  one  now  used  by 
the  U.  S.  government  for  war  purposes.  A 
still  later  improvement  in  Hale's  rocket  con- 
sists in  screwing  a  cast-iron  piece  into  the 
bott(mi  of  the  case,  which  is  perforated  with 
three  vents.  A  corresponding  side  of  each 
vent  is  surrounded  with  a  fence,  the  oppo- 
site sides  being  open.  The  gas  in  its  ettbrts 
to  expand  after  issuing  from  the  vents, 
presses  against  the  fences  and  rotates  the 
rocket  around  its  long  axis. 

Coiiffrcvc's  Si/.stcm. — A  Congreve  rocket  is 
puideil  by  a  long  wooden  stick  attached  to 
its  base.  If  any  cause  act  to  turn  it  from  its 
proper  direction,  it  will  be  opposed  by  re- 
sistances equal  to  its  moment  of  inertia  and 
the  lateral  action  of  the  air  against  the  stick. 
The  etfect  of  these  resistances  will  bo  in- 
creased by  placing  the  centre  of  gravity  near 
the  head  of  the  rocket,  and  by  increasing 
the  surface  of  the  stick.  In  signal-rockets, 
where  the  case  is  made  of  paper,  the  stick  is 


attached  to  the  side,  and  there  is  but  one 
large  vent,  which  is  in  the  centre  of  the  case. 
In  war-rockets  the  stick  is  attached  to  the 
centre  of  the  base,  and  the  large  central 
vent  is  replaced  by  several  small  ones  near 
its  circumference.  The  former  arrangement 
is  not  so  favorable  to  accuracy  as  the  latter, 
inasmuch  as  rotation  will  be  produced  if  the 
force  of  propulsion  and  the  resistance  of  the 
air  do  not  act  in  the  same  line. 

Hoio  Fired. — Rockets  are  generally  fired 
from  tubes  or  gutters  ;  but  should  occasion 
require  it,  they  may  be  tired  directly  from 
the  ground,  care  being  taken  to  raise  the 
forward  end  by  propjting  it  u|>  with  a  stick 
or  stone.  As  the  motion  is  slow  in  the  first 
moments  of  its  flight,  it  is  more  liable  to  bo 
deviated  from  its  proper  direction  at  this 
time  than  any  other  ;  for  this  reason  the 
conducting-tube  should  be  as  long  as  practi- 
cable. 

Form  of  Trajectory. — Take  that  portion  of 
the  trajectory  where  the  velocity  is  uniform. 
The  weight  of  the  rocket  applied  at  its  cen- 
tre of  gravity,  and  acting  in  a  vertical  direc- 
tion, and  the  propelling  force  acting  in  the 
direction  of  its  length,  are  two  forces  the 
oblique  resultant  of  which  moves  the  rocket 
parallel  to  itself;  but  the  resistance  of  the 
air  is  oblique  to  this  direction,  and  acting  at 
the  centre  of  figure,  a  point  situated  be- 
tween the  centre  of  gravity  and  extremity 
of  the  guide-stick,  produces  a  rotation  which 
raises  the  stick,  and  thereby  changes  the  di- 
rection in  which  the  gas  acts.  As  these 
forces  are  constantly  acting,  it  follows  that 
each  element  of  the  trajectory  has  less  incli- 
nation to  the  horizon  than  the  element  of  an 
ordinary  trajectory  in  which  the  velocity  is 
equal.  "When  the  velocity  is  not  uniform, 
the  position  of  the  centre  of  gravity  has  a 
certain  influence  on  the  form  of  the  trajec- 
tory. To  understand  this,  it  is  necessary  to 
consider  that  the  component  of  the  resist- 
ance of  the  air  which  acts  on  the  head  of  the 
rocket  is  greater  than  that  which  acts  on  the 
side  of  the  stick.  It  is  also  necessary  to 
consider  that  the  pressure  of  the  inflamed 
gas  acts  in  a  direction  opposite  to  the  resist- 
ance of  the  air,  that  is  to  say,  from  the  rear 
to  the  front,  and  that  the  centre  of  gravity 
is  near  the  rear  extremity  of  the  case.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  trajectory,  when  the 
motion  of  the  rocket  is  accelerated,  its  in- 
ertia is  opposed  to  motion,  and  being  ap- 
plied at  the  centre  of  gravity,  which  is  in 
rear  of  the  vent,  the  point  of  application  of 
the  moving  force,  it  acts  to  prevent  the 
rocket  from  turning  over  in  its  flight.  But 
when  the  composition  is  consumed,  the  cen- 
tre of  gravity  is  thrown  farther  to  the  rear, 
I  and  the  velocity  of  the  rocket  is  retarded, 
j  the  inertia  acts  in  the  opposite  direction, 
and  the  eflect  will  be,  if  the  centre  of 
gravity  or  inertia  is  sufliciently  far  to  the 
I  rear,  to  cAUse  it  to  turn  over  in  the  direc- 
1  tion  of  its  length.  If  the  rocket  be  directed 
I  toward  the  earth,  this  turning  over  will  be 
1  counteracted  by  the  acceleration  of  velocity 


KOCEOY 


494 


EOLLING-HITCH 


due  to  the  weight,  and  the  form  of  the  tra- 
jectory will  be  preserved. 

Effect  of  Wind. — When  the  wind  acts 
obliqiiely  to  the  plane  of  lire,  its  component 
perpendicular  to  this  flame  acting  at  the 
centre  of  figure  Avill  cause  the  rocket  to 
rotate  around  its  centre  of  gravity.  As  the 
centre  of  figure  is  situated  in  rear  of  the 
centre  of  gravity,  the  point  will  be  thrown 
toward  the  wind,  and  the  propelling  force 
acting  always  in  the  direction  of  the  axis, 
the  rocket  will  be  urged  toward  the  direc- 
tion of  the  wind.  To  make  an  allowance 
for  the  wind  in  firing  rockets,  they  should 
be  pointed  toward  the  opposite  side  from 
■which  the  wind  comes,  or  with  the  wind 
instead  of  against  it.  If  the  wind  act  in  the 
plane  of  fire  from  front  to  rear,  it  will  have 
the  effect  to  depress  the  point,  and  with  it 
the  elements  of  the  trajectory  in  the  ascend- 
ing branch,  and  elevate  them  in  the  de- 
scending branch  ;  as  the  latter  is  shorter 
than  the  former,  the  effect  of  a  front  wind 
will  be  to  diminish  the  range.  The  converse 
■will  be  true  for  a  rear  -wind. 

Kind  Used. — The  two  sizes  of  Hale's  rock- 
ets in  use  in  the  American  service  are,  the 
2-inch  (interior  diameter  of  case),  weighing 
6  pounds,  and  3-inch  (interior  diameter  of 
case),  weighing  16  pounds.  Under  an  angle 
of  from  4°  to  5°  the  range  of  these  rockets 
is  from  500  to  600  yards.  Under  an  angle 
of  47°  the  ran<re  of  the  former  is  1760  yards, 
and  the  latter"2'200. 

Rocroy,  or  Rocroi.  A  small  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  Ardennes,  15 
miles  northwest  from  Mezieres.  It  is  mem- 
orable for  the  victory  gained  by  the  great 
Conde  (then  duke  of  Enghien)  over  the 
Spaniards,  May  19,  1643.  The  Spanish 
army  was  composed  of  veteran  bands  of 
Walloons,  Spaniards,  and  Italians,  and  their 
general,  Don  Francisco  de  Mellos,  was  a 
commander  worthy  of  his  army.  The 
French  (22,000)  were  also  good  troops,  but 
their  general,  Conde,  was  a  young  and  inex- 
perienced otiicer.  At  first  the  battle  was 
unfavorable  to  the  French,  but  at  last  the 
Spaniards  were  thrown  into  irretrievable 
rout.  The  Count  of  Fuentes,  the  com- 
mander of  the  redoubtable  infantry,  and 
10,000  of  his  men  were  among  the  slain  ;  and 
5000  men,  with  all  the  cannon,  many  stand- 
ards, and  the  baton  of  the  Count  de  Mellos, 
were  captured.  But,  far  beyond  all  material 
losses,  the  renown  of  invincibility,  first  ac- 
quired by  the  Spanish  infantry  on  the  field 
of  Pavia  (1525),  and  confirmed  at  St.  Quen- 
tin,  Gravelines,  and  Prague,  was  destroyed. 

Rodman  Gun.  See"  Ordnance,  Con- 
struction OF. 

Roermond.  An  old  town  in  the  Nether- 
lands, province  of  Limburg,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Roer  and  Mass.  It  has  often  endured 
the  horrors  of  being  besieged  and  taken. 

Rogue  River  Indians.  See  Indians  and 
THEIR  Agknciks  (Oregon). 

Rogue's  March.  Derisive  music  per- 
formed  in   driving    away   a    person   under 


popular  indignation,  or  when  a  soldier  is 
di'ummed  out  of  a  regiment. 

Rohilcund.  A  region  of  Northeast  In- 
dia; was  conquered  by  the  Rohillas,  an  Af- 
ghan tribe,  who  settled  here  abont  1747. 
After  aiding  the  sovereign  of  Oude  to  over- 
come the  Mahrattas,  they  were  treated  with 
much  treachery  by  him,  and  nearly  exter- 
minated. Kohilcund  -was  ceded  to  the  Brit- 
ish in  1801.  After  the  great  mutiny  Kohil- 
cund  was  tranquillized  in  July,  1858. 

Rohillas.  An  East  Indian  tribe  of  Af- 
ghans inhabiting  the  country  north  of  the 
Ganges,  as  far  to  the  north  as  Oude. 

Roi  d'Armes  [Fr.).  King-at-arms,  an 
ofllcer  formerly  of  great  authority  in  ar- 
mies ;  he  directed  the  heralds,  presided  at 
their  chapters,  and  had  the  jurisdiction  of 
armories. 

Roleia,  or  Rolica.  A  village  in  Portu- 
gal, where  on  August  17,  1808,  a  British 
force  under  Sir  Arthur  AVellesley  defeated  a 
French  army  under  Gen.  Laborde. 

Roll.  A  term  of  varied  signification  in 
reference  to  military  matters.  Thus,  to  roil 
is  to  continue  one  uniform  beat  of  the  drum, 
without  variations  for  a  certain  length  of 
time. 

Roll,  Long.  A  prolonged  roll  of  the 
drums,  as  a  signal  of  an  attack  by  the  enemy, 
and  for  the  troops  to  arrange  themselves  in 
line. 

Roll,  Muster-.     See  Mxjster-roll. 

Roll  of  Arms.  A  heraldic  record  of  arms, 
either  verbally  blazoned  or  illuminated,  or 
both,  on  a  long  strip  of  vellum,  rolled  up, 
instead  of  being  folded  into  leaves. 

Rolls  of  Arms  are  the  most  important  and 
most  authentic  materials  for  the  history  of 
early  heraldry.  In  England  they  go  back 
to  the  reign  of  Henry  III  ,  the  oldest  being 
a  copy  of  a  roll  of  that  reign,  containing  a 
list  of  the  arms  borne  by  the  sovereign,  the 
princes  of  the  blood,  and  the  principal 
barons  and  knights  between  1216  and  1272, 
verbally  blazoned  without  drawings. 

Roll,  Squad.  Is  a  list  containing  the 
names  of  each  particular  squad  in  a  company, 
etc. 

Roll,  Size.  In  the  British  service,  is  a 
list  containing  the  names  of  all  the  men  be- 
longing to  a  troop  or  company,  -with  the 
height  or  stature  of  each  specifically  marked. 

Roll-call.  The  act  or  time  of  calling  over 
a  list  of  names  ;  as,  tattoo  roll-call.  To  call 
the  roll.,  to  call  off  or  recite  a  list  or  roll  of 
names  of  soldiers  belonging  to  a  company  or 
troop,  in  order  to  ascertain,  from  the  re- 
sponses, who  are  present  and  who  are  absent. 

Rollers,  Friction.     See  Ordnance,  Car- 

RIAGKS  FOR,  SeA-COAST  CARRIAGES. 

Rolling  Barrels.     See  Caking. 

Rolling  Fire.  A  discharge  of  musketry 
by  soldiers  in  line,  in  quick  succession,  and 
in  the  order  in  which  they  stand.    See  Fire. 

Rolling-hitch.  Pass  "the  end  of  a  rope 
round  a  piece  of  timber;  take  it  round  a 
second  time,  riding  the  standing  part;  then 
carry  it  across  and  up  through  the  bight. 


KOMAGNA 


495 


ROME 


Romagna.  A  province  of  the  Papal 
States,  comprised  in  tlie  lejjjations  of  Forli 
and  Ravenna.  Tt  was  conquered  by  the 
Lombards;  but  taken  from  them  by  Pepin, 
and  given  to  the  pope,  753.  Ca.>sar  Borgia 
heldit  as  a  duchy  in  1501,  but  lost  it  in  1503. 
In  1859  the  Romagna  threw  oflT  the  temporal 
authority  of  the  pope,  and  declared  itself 
subject  to  the  king  of  Sardinia,  who  accej)ted 
it  in  March,  18fiO."  It  now  forms  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy. 

Romainville  and  Belleville.  Heights  near 
Paris,  where  Josej)h  Bonaparte,  Mortier,  and 
Marmont  were  defeated  by  the  allies  after  a 
vigorous  resistance,  March  30,  1814.  The 
next  dav  Paris  cajiitulated. 

Roman  Candles.  Sec  Pvrotechny. 
Roman  Walls.  One  was  erected  by  Ag- 
ricola  {7'J  to  85)  to  defend  Britain  from  the 
incursions  of  the  Picts  and  Scots;  the  first 
wall  extended  from  the  Tyne  to  the  Solway 
Frith  (SO  miles) ;  the  second  from  the  Frith 
of  Forth,  near  Edinburgh,  to  the  Frith  of 
Clyde,  near  Dumbarton  (30  miles).  The 
former  was  renewed  and  strengthened  by 
the  emperor  Adrian  (121)  and  by  Septimus 
Scverus  (208).  It  commenced  at  Bowness, 
near  Carlisle,  and  ended  at  Wallsend,  near 
Newcastle.  It  had  battlements  and  towers 
to  contain  soldiers.  The  more  northern  wall 
was  renewed  by  Lollius  Urbicus  in  the  reign 
of  Antoninus  Pius,  about  140.  Many  re- 
mains of  these  walls  still  exist,  particularly 
of  the  southern  one. 
Romans.  See  Rome. 
Rome  (anc.  Roma).  The  most  celebrated 
city  of  the  wt)rld,  either  in  ancient  or  mod- 
ern times,  the  capital  of  the  Pontifical 
States,  and  the  ecclesiastical  metropolis  of 
Catholic  Christendom,  is  situated  on  the 
Tiber,  17  miles  northeast  of  its  mouth  in  the 
Mediterranean.  Rome  is  said  to  have  been 
a  colony  from  Alba  Longa  and  to  have  been 
founded  by  Romulus  about  753  n.c. ;  it  grew 
rapidly  in  size  and  power.  Regal  Rome 
ruled  the  whole  Latin  coast,  and  the  treaties 
made  with  powerful  Carthage,  with  Massilia, 
and  with  the  Greeks  of  Southern  Italv  bear 
witness  to  the  respect  it  enjoyed  aliroad. 
Royalty  was  abolished,  and  an  aristocratical 
commonwealth  established  by  the  patricians, 
501)  H.c. ;  the  Latins  and  the  Tarquins  de- 
clared war  against  the  republic,  501  ;  were 
defeated  at  the  Lake  Regillus,  496  n.c.  Mil- 
itary tribunes  were  first  created  in  444  B.C. 
Rome  was  engaged  in  war  with  the  Tuscans, 
434  H.c. ;  the  ^Equi  and  Volsci  were  de- 
feated by  Tubertus,  431  u.c.  ;  Veil  was  taken 
by  Camillus  after  ten  years'  siege,  390  n.c. 
In  300  !».(;.  Rome  was  captured  and  burned 
by  the  Gauls  ;  the  vigilance  of  Marcus  Man- 
lius  saved  the  Capitol.  Again  and  again  in 
the  course  of  the  4th  century  u.c.  the  Gallic 
hordes  repeated  their  incursions,  but  never 
again  returned  victorious.  In  307  n.r.  Ca- 
millus defeated  them  at  Alba;  in  300  n.c. 
they  were  routed  at  the  Colline  Gate  ;  in  358 
B.C.  by  the  dictator  G.  Sul|)icius  Peticus ; 
and  in  350  B.C.  by  Lucius  Furius  Camillus. 


By  the  middle  of  the  4th  century  B.C.  the 
whole  of  Southern  Etruria  had  submitted  to 
the  supremacy  of  Rome,  and  wa.s  kept  in 
check  by  a  Roman  garrison  ;  as  was  also  the 
land  of  the  Volsci.  Becoming  alarmed  at 
the  increasing  power  of  Rome,  the  Latins 
and  Ilernicans  withdrew  from  their  league 
with  Rome,  and  a  severe  and  protracted 
struggle  took  place  between  them  and  their 
former  ally.  Nearly  thirty  years  elapsed 
before  the  Romans  succeeded  in  crushing  the 
malcontents,  and  restoring  the  league  of 
Spurius  Cassius.  In  the  course  of  this  war 
the  old  Latin  confederacy  of  the  "Thirty 
Cities"  was  broken  up,  384  B.C.  Rome  made 
a  treaty  with  Carthage  to  repress  Greek  pi- 
racy, 348  B.C.  Now  commenced  a  tremen- 
dous struggle  between  the  Samnites  and  the 
Romans  ;  the  former  fighting  heroically  for 
the  preservation  of  their  national  freedom, — 
the  latter  warring  with  superb  valor  for  do- 
minion. The  Samnite  wars,  of  which  three 
are  reckoned,  extended  over  53  years  (343- 
290).  The  victory  of  the  Romans  at  Senti- 
num  (295  B.C.)  virtually  ended  the  struggle. 
At  the  close  of  the  first  Samnite  war,  an  in- 
surrection burst  out  among  the  Latins  and 
Volscians,  but  the  defeat  inflicted  on  the  in- 
surgents at  Trifanum  (340  B.C.),  by  the  Ro- 
man consul  Titus  Manlius  Imperiosus  Tor- 
quatos,  almost  instantly  crushed  it,  and  in 
two  years  almost  the  last  spark  of  rebellion 
was  extinguished.  The  famous  Latin  League 
was  now  dissolved.  A  mighty  coalition  was 
formed  against  Rome,  consisting  of  Etrus- 
cans, Umbrians,  and  Gauls,  in  the  north, 
and  of  Lucanians,  Bruttians,  and  Samnites, 
in  the  south,  with  a  sort  of  tacit  understand- 
ing on  the  part  of  the  Tarentines  that  they 
would  render  assistance  by  and  by.  In  the 
course  of  a  single  year  the  whole  north  was 
in  arms,  and  once  more  the  power  and  even 
the  existence  of  Rome  were  in  deadly  peril. 
An  entire  Roman  army  of  13,000  men  was 
annihilated  at  Arrptium'(284  B.C.) ;  but  Pub- 
lius  Cornelius  Dolabella  marched  into  the 
country  of  theSenones  at  the  head  of  a  large 
force,  and  literally  extirpated  the  whole 
nation,  which  henceforth  disappears  from 
history.  Shortly  afterwards,  the  bloody 
overthrow  of  the  Etrusco-Boiun  horde  at 
Lake  Vadimo  (283  B.r.)  shattered  to 
pieces  the  northern  confederacy.  The  Lu- 
canians were  quickly  overpowered  (282  n.c); 
Samnium,  by  its  long  and  luckless  struggle, 
and  overawed  by  the  proximity  of  a  Roman 
army,  could  do  nothing.  The  Tarentines 
invited  Pyrrhus  over  from  Epirus,  and  ap- 
pointed him  commander  of  their  mercena- 
ries ;  he  arrived  in  Italy  with  a  small  army 
of  his  own,  280  n.c.  The  war  between  Pyr- 
rhus and  the  Romans,  which  lasted  only  six 
years,  ended  in  his  being  obliged  to  return 
to  Epirus  without  accomplishing  anything  ; 
this  war  led  to  the  complete  subjugation  of 
Peninsular  Italy  by  Rome.  In  204  B.C.  war 
was  formally  declared  between  Rome  and 
Carthage,  aiid  it  was  incomparably  the  most 
terrible  contest   in    which   Rome   was   ever 


EOME 


496 


EOME 


engaged.  For  details  of  the  Punic  wars, 
see  Carthage,  Numidia,  and  Punic 
Wars.  The  leading  feature  of  the  /?rs<  was 
the  creation  of  a  Roman  navy,  which,  after 
repeated  and  tremendous  misfortune,  finally 
wrested  from  Carthage  the  sovereignty  of 
the  seas.  A  lapse  of  twenty-three  years  oc- 
curred before  the  second  Punic  war,  during 
which  interval  the  Romans  bullied  their 
weak  and  exhausted  rival  into  surrendering 
Sardinia  and  Corsica.  In  addition  they  had 
carried  on  a  series  of  Gallic  wars  in  Northern 
Italy  (231-222  b.c),  the  result  of  which  was 
the  extension  of  Italy  to  the  Alps.  The 
Romans  vigorously  suppressed  Illyrian 
piracy,  219  B.C.  The  grand  events  of  the 
second  Punic  war  were  the  crossing  of  the 
Alps  by  Hannibal,  the  terrible  disasters  of 
the  Romans  at  Lake  Trasimene  (see  Trasi- 
MENUS  Lacus)  andCannffi  (which  see),  and 
the  final  overthrow  of  Hannibal  at  Zama 
(which  see),  202  B.C.,  by  Scipio.  The  second 
war  virtually  sealed  the  fate  of  Carthage, 
and  the  third  displayed  only  the  frantic 
heroism  of  despair.  The  imperial  supremacy 
of  Rome  was  now  as  unconditional  in  the 
western  Mediterranean  as  on  the  mainland 
of  Italy.  During  201-196  B.C.  the  Celts  in 
the  valley  of  the  Po  were  thoroughly  subju- 
gated. The  Boii  were  finally  extirpated 
about  193  B.C.;  the  Ligurians  were  subdued 
180-177  B.C.;  and  the  interior  of  Corsica  and 
Sardinia  about  the  same  time.  The  wars  in 
Spain  were  troublesome  and  of  longer  dura- 
tion, but  they  were  not  at  all  serious.  The 
Romans  suffered  frequent  defeats,  but  in 
the  end  the  superior  discipline  of  the  legions 
always  prevailed.  The  Romans  felt  it 
necessary  to  hold  Spain  by  military  occu- 
pation, and  hence  arose  the  first  Roman 
standing  armies.  The  most  distinguished 
successes  were  those  achieved  by  Scipio  him- 
self, by  Marcus  Cato,  by  Lucius  ^^milius 
Paulus,  by  Caius  Calpurnius,  by  Quintus 
Fulvius  Flaccus,  and  by  Tiberius  Gracchus. 
The  Macedonian  wars  were  owing  imme- 
diately to  the  alliance  formed  by  Plailip  V. 
of  Macedon  with  Hannibal  after  the  battle 
of  Cannae.  The  Macedonian  wars  were 
three  in  number.  The_^;-s!!  (214-205  B.C. )  was 
barren  in  results  ;  but  the  second  (200-197 
B.c.)taught  Philip  that  another,  not  he,  must 
rule  in  Greece.  The  battle  of  Cynoscephalse 
was  followed  by  a  treaty  which  compelled 
him  to  withdraw  his  garrisons  from  the 
Greek  cities,  to  surrender  his  fleet,  and  pay 
1000  talents  toward  the  expenses  of  the  war. 
A  similar  fate  befell  Antiochus  of  Syria. 
Next  the  ^tolians  were  crushed,  and  a 
little  later  the  quarrels  between  the  Achai- 
ans  and  Spartans  led  to  a  general  Roman 
protectorate  over  the  whole  of  Greece.  The 
third  and  last  Macedonian  war  began  172 
B.C.;  the  result  of  which,  after  four  years' 
fighting,  was  the  utter  destruction  of  the 
Macedonian  army  at  Pydna  (168  B.C.),  and 
the  dismemberment  of  the  Macedonian  em- 
pire. The  last  Greek  and  Punic  wars  came  to 
an  end  in  the  same  year  (146  B.C.).     The  for- 


mer was  virtually  closed  on  the  destruction 
of  Corinth  by  the  consul  Mummius.  For 
the  results  of  the  former,  see  Carthage. 
The  Celtiberian  and  Numantine  war  began 
1.53  B.C.,  and  ended  in  the  final  overthrow  of 
the  undisciplined  and  uncivilized  combat- 
ants, 133  B.C.  Toward  the  conclusion  of 
the  Numantine  war  occurred  the  first  of 
those  horrible  Social  outbreaks  known  as 
"servile"  or  "slave"  wars,  which  marked 
the  later  ages  of  the  republic.  The  first 
slave  insurrection  broke  out  in  Sicily,  134 
B.C.  The  slaves  overran  the  island,  like 
demoniacs  let  loose,  and  routed  one  Roman 
army  after  another.  In  132  B.C.,  the  consul 
Publius  Rupilius  restored  order.  After  a 
fierce  struggle,  the  Romans  obtained  the 
kingdom  of  Perganins,  and  formed  it  into 
the  province  of  Asia,  129  B.C.  In  Africa, 
the  overthrow  of  Jugurtha  by  the  consul 
Marius  added  further  to  the  renown  and 
strength  of  the  republic.  In  105  B.C.  a 
Roman  army  of  80,000  was  annihilated  at 
Arausio  on  the  Rhone,  by  the  Cimbri  (see 
Arausio  and  Cimbri).  Marius  nearly  ex- 
terminated the  Teutones  at  Aqua-Sextisa 
(Aix,  in  Dauphin),  102  B.C.,  and  in  101 
B.C.  the  Cimbri  at  the  Campi  Raudii  near 
Vercellffi.  (See  Cimbri  and  Teutonic.) 
In  the  same  year  a  second  insurrection 
of  the  slaves  in  Sicily  was  suppressed  by 
the  consul  Marius  Aquillius.  Now  followed 
the  Social  war,  90-88  B.C.  Then  followed  the 
fearful  years  of  the  "  civil  wars"  between  the 
two  chiefs,  Sulla  and  Marius.  In  87  B.C. 
Rome  was  besieged  by  four  armies  (viz.  : 
those  of  Marius,  Cinna,  Carbo,  and  Serto- 
rius)  and  taken.  In  88  B.C.  broke  out  the 
"  Mithridatic  wars,"  which  were  three  in 
number;  begun  by  Sulla  88  B.C.,  they  were 
brought  to  a  successful  close  by  Pompey,  65 
B.C.,  although  the  general  that  had  really 
broken  the  power  of  Mithridates  was  Lu- 
cullus.  (See  Mithridatic  War.)  The 
result  was  the  annexation  of  the  sultanate 
of  Pontus,  which  was  formed  into  a  Roman 
province.  Then  Pompej' conquered  Syria; 
reduced  to  a  state  of  dependence  Phoenicia, 
Cajle-Syria,  and  Palestine,  63  B.C.  In  the 
same  year  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline  was 
crushed  by  the  consul  Cicero.  Then  came 
the  campaigns  of  Cassar  in  Gaul  (58-50 
B.C.),  by  which  the  whole  of  the  country 
was  reduced  to  subjection  ;  his  rupture  with 
Pompey  ;  his  defiance  of  the  senate ;  the 
civil  wars ;  his  victory,  dictatorship,  and 
assassination  ;  the  second  triumvirate,  com- 
posed of  Antony,  Lepidus,  and  Octavian  ; 
the  overthrow  of  the  oligarchy  at  Philippi ; 
the  struggle  between  Antony  and  Octavian  ; 
the  triumph  of  the  latter,  and  his  invest- 
ment with  absolute  power  for  life  as  Au- 
gustus Cffisar,  which  put  an  end  at  least  to 
civil  dissensions  that  had  raged  so  long.  To 
keep  the  now  enormous  territory  quiet  which  . 
contained  so  many  diflPerent  races,  an  army 
of  forty-seven  legions  and  as  many  cohorts 
was  maintained.  The  most  notable  inci- 
dent during  the  reign  of  Tiberius  was  prob- 


ROME 


497 


ROMPU 


ably  the  concentration  of  the  Praetorian 
guards  in  the  vicinity  of  Rome,  who,  until 
their  dissolution  by  Diocletian,  were  the 
real  sovereigns  of  the  empire.  In  Nero's 
time  Armenia  was  wrested  from  the  Par- 
thians;  the  Koman  authority  in  Kngland 
was  likewise  extended  as  far  north  as  the 
Trent,  and  a  great  rebellion  in  Gau),  against 
Nero,  headed  by  Julius  V index,  was  crushed 
by  T.  Virginius  Kufus,  the  commander  of 
the  Germanic  legions.  The  chief  military 
events  from  the  days  of  Vespasian  to  those 
of  Marcus  Aurelius,  are  final  conquests  of- 
Britain  by  Agricola,  tlie  final  conquest  of 
the  Dacian  monarchy,  the  victorious  inva- 
sion of  Parthia  and  Northern  Arabia ;  and 
the  conquest  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  as  far 
south  as  Upper  Nubia,  by  Trajan;  the  chu.s- 
tisement  iA'  the  Marcomanni,  Quadi,  Chatti, 
etc.,  by  Marcus  Aurelius.  The  reign  of  Alex- 
ander iSeverus  is  marked  by  the  downfall 
of  the  Parthian  dynasty  of  Persian  kings, 
and  the  rise  of  the  native  Sassanidae  (which 
sfic),  which  proved  far  more  formidable  ene- 
mies than  the  Parthian  rulers.  After  the 
assassination  of  Severus  (23")  a.d.)  followed 
a  period  of  confusion,  bloodshed,  and  gen- 
eral mismanagement.  The  names  of  Max- 
imin,  Maximus,  Balbinus,  Gordianus,  and 
Philip  recall  nothing  but  wretched  quarrels, 
often  ending  in  assassination.  Tiien  fol- 
lowed the  "beginning  of  the  end."'  The 
whole  of  Europe  beyond  the  Pioman  fron- 
tier— the  mysterious  North — began  to  fer- 
ment. The  Franks  apjieared  on  the  Lower 
Phirte,  the  Siuibians  on  the  Maine;  while 
the  Goths  burst  through  Dacia,  routed  the 
forces  of  Decius,  slew  the  emperor  himself 
at  Mount  Hiemus,  crossed  the  Euxine,  and 
ravaged  the  whole  northern  coast  of  Asia 
Minor.  A  little  later — during  the  reigns  of 
Valerian,  Gallienus,  and  the  so-called  Thirty 
Tyrants — the  empire  was  nothing  but  a  wild 
distracted  chaos  ;  Franks,  Alemanni,  Goths, 
and  Persians  rushing  from  their  respective 
quarters  like  vultures  scenting  i)rey.  The 
Goths  swept  over  the  whole  of  Achaia, 
while  the  Asiatic  hordes  of  Sapor  com- 
mitted even  greater  havoc  in  Syria  and 
Asia  Jlinor.  By  Claudius  Gothicus  (2(38- 
270),  and  his  successors,  Aurelian,  Probus, 
and  Garus,  the  barbarians  of  the  north  and 
northwest,  as  well  as  the  Persians  in  the 
East,  were  severely  chastised.  The  division 
of  the  empire  into  East  and  AVcst  by  Dio- 
cletian led  to  those  labyrinthine  confusions 
and  civil  wars,  in  wliich  figure  the  names  of 
Maximian,  Constantius,  Galerius,  Maxen- 
tius,  Maximin,  Licinius,  and  Constantino, 
which  were  only  brought  to  a  close  by  the 
surpassing  genius  of  the  last  menti<mcd. 
Julian's  efforts  to  repel  the  incessant  incur- 
sions of  the  Franks  and  Alemanni  displayed 
a  fine  valor  and  generalship,  and  were 
crowned  with  success.  But  after  the  death 
of  Julian  the  signs  of  the  approaching  dis- 
solution of  the  empire  became  more  unmis- 
takable. Swarms  of  ferocitius  Huns  drove 
the  Goths  out  of  Dacia,  and  forced  them  to 


cross  the  Danube  into  the  Roman  territory, 
where  they  devastated  the  whole  East  from 
the  Adriatic  to  the  Euxine.  They  were 
subdued  and  disarmed  by  Theodosius. 
Hardly  was  Theodosius  dead  when  they 
rt)se  again,  under  their  chief  Alaric,  against 
Honorius,  emperor  of  the  West.  Three  years 
earlier,  hordes  of  Suevi,  Burgundians,  Ale- 
manni, Vandals,  and  Alans  burst  into  Gaul, 
which  led  to  the  invai-ion  of  Africa  by  Gen- 
seric.  In  the  East  the  Huns  had  reduced 
vast  regions  to  an  utter  desert;  for  nearly 
fifty  years,  indeed,  the  little  ferocious  de- 
mons had  rioted  in  destruction.  (See 
Huns.)  Eudoxia,  the  widow  of  Valentin- 
ian,  to  be  revenged  on  Valentinian's  mur- 
derer and  successor,  Petronius  Maximus, 
invited  Genseric,  the  "scourge  of  God," 
over  from  Africa,  and  exposed  Rome  to  the 
horrors  of  pillage  for  fourteen  days.  Later, 
Odoacer,  placing  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
barbarian  mercenaries  of  the  empire,  over- 
threw the  last,  and  the  most  ridiculous,  oc- 
cupant of  the  throne  of  the  Ciesars  (470), 
who,  by  a  curious  coincidence,  bore  the  same 
name  as  the  founder  of  the  city, — Romulus. 
Rome  was  recovered  for  Justinian  by  Bcli- 
sarius,  030  ;  retaken  by  Totila  the  Goth,  540 ; 
recovered  by  Belisarius,  547  ;  seized  by  To- 
tila, 549  ;  recovered  by  Narses  and  annexed 
to  the  Eastern  empire,  553.  Rome  became 
independent  under  the  popes  about  728  ;  was 
taken  by  Arnulf  and  the  Germans,  890; 
taken  by  the  emperor  Henry  IV.,  March, 
1084.  The  pope  removed  to  Avignon  (1309 
-1377).  Rome  was  then  virtually  left  with- 
out a  government,  the  Guelphs  and  the 
Ghibellines,  Neapolitan  and  German  armies, 
and  the  noble  families  of  the  Orsini  and  the 
Colonna  being  alternately  masters.  Cola  di 
Rienzi,  a  man  of  the  peojde,  made  him.self 
master  of  Rome, ,1347;  it  was  captured  and 
pillaged  by  the  Constable  of  Bourbon,  1527 ; 
it  was  harassed  by  the  French,  German,  and 
Spanish  factions  from  the  IGth  to  the  18th 
centuries;  the  French  proclaimed  a  Roman 
republic,  March  20,  1798;  was  recovered  for 
the  pope  by  the  Neapolitans,  1799;  retaken 
by  tlie  French,  1800;  was  restored  to  Pope 
Pius  VII.,  1801,  and  annexed  by  Napoleon 
to  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  1808.  "  It  was  re- 
stored to  the  pope,  January,  1814.  In  1848 
the  people  rose  in  rebellion,  drove  out  Pius 
IX.,  and  established  a  republic  under  the  tri- 
umvirate of  Mazzini,  Armellini,  and  Saffi. 
An  appeal  to  France  brought  once  more  a 
French  army  to  the  gates  of  the  city,  and 
the  siege  was  begun.  Rome  was  taken  after 
a  brave  resistance  in  July,  1849.  For 
twenty  years  French  troops  garrisoned  the 
EternalCity,  and  when  they  were  at  last 
withdrawn  "(1870)  Italy  hail  l>ecome  one 
great  nation.  After  a  brief  resistance  from 
the  foreign  papal  troops,  stopped  by  order  of 
the  pope^  the  Italian  troops  under  Cadorna 
made  a  breach,  and  entered  Rome  amid  en- 
thusiastic acclamation  of  the  people,  Sep- 
tember 20,  1870. 

Rompu.     In  heraldry,  a  term  applied  to 


KONCESVALLES 


498 


ROSTER 


!i  chevron  when  the  upper  part  is  taken  off, 
and  remains  above  it  in  the  lield. 

Roncesvalles  (Fr.  Eoncevcmx).  A  small 
Spanish  village,  province  of  Navarre,  in  a 
narrow  valley  inclosed  by  lofty  mountains, 
through  which  one  of  the  principal  roads 
leads  from  France  across  the  Pyrenees  into 
Spain.  Here  Charlemagne  was  attacked  in 
778  by  the  Basques,  and  his  whole  rear- 
guard destroyed.  In  honor  of  those  who 
had  fallen  he  built  a  chapel  on  the  spot 
where  the  battle  took  place,  and  among  the 
names  enumerated  in  the  inscription  was 
that  of  Roland.  In  the  modern  French- 
Spanish  wars,  several  bloody  encounters  (in 
1793,  1794,  and  1813)  occurred  in  the  same 
valley,  and  in  1833,  Don  Carlos  was  first 
proclaimed  king  here. 

Rondache  (Fr.).  In  ancient  armory,  a 
circular  shield  carried  by  foot-soldiers  to 
protect  the  upper  part  of  the  person,  having 
a  slit  in  the  upper  part  for  seeing  through, 
and  another  at  the  side  for  the  point  of  the 
sword  to  pass  through. 

Rondel.  In  fortification,  a  round  tower, 
sometimes  erected  at  the  foot  of  a  bastion. 

Rondelle  [Fr.).  A  small  round  shield 
which  was  formerly  used  by  light-armed 
infantry. 

Rondellier  (Fr.).  Archer  or  pikeman 
who  carried  the  rondelle. 

Rondells.  See  Ordnance,  Carriages 
FOR,  Nomenclature  of  Artillery  Car- 

KIAGE. 

Ronfleurs  {Fr.).  Frederick  the  Great 
applied  this  name  to  some  I'i-pounders  of  22 
calibers,  weighing  3200  pounds,  which,  be- 
fore the  battle  of  Leuthen,  he  had  drawn 
from  the  neighboring  fortress  of  Glogau. 
The  charge  for  this  gun  was  5  pounds. 

Rope.  A  large,  stout,  twisted  cord,  of 
not  less,  usually,  than  an  inch  in  circumfer- 
ence. It  differs  from  corcl^  line,  and  string 
only  in  its  size.  Ropes  are  ranked  under 
two  descriptions,  cahle-laid  and  hawser-laid ; 
the  former  composed  of  nine  strands,  or 
three  great  strands,  each  consisting  of  three 
small  ones ;  the  latter  made  with  three 
strands,  each  composed  of  a  certain  number 
of  rope-yarns. 

Rope,"  Drag-.     See  Drag- ROPE. 

Rope-ferries.     See  Pontons. 

Rose.  In  heraldry,  is  drawn  in  a  con- 
ventional form,  and  never  with  a  stalk,  ex- 
cept when  expressly  directed  by  the  words 
of  blazon.  Being  sometimes  argent  and 
sometimes  gules,  it  cannot  be  designated 
proper;  but  when  blazoned  "barbed  and 
seeded  proper,"  it  is  meant  that  the  barbs 
are  to  be  green,  and  the  seeds  gold  and  yel- 
low. The  rose  gules  was  the  badge  of  the 
Plantagenets  of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  and 
the  rose  argent  of  that  of  York.  The  York 
rose  was  sometimes  surrounded  with  rays  as 
of  the  sun,  and  termed  rose  en  soleil.  As  a 
mark  of  cadency,  the  rose  has  been  used  as 
the  difference  of  the  seventh  son. 

Roses,  Wars  of  the.  A  disastrous  civil 
contest  which    desolated    England    during 


thirty  years,  from  1455  to  1485,  sacrificing 
80  princes  of  the  blood,  and  the  larger  pro- 
portion of  the  ancient  nobility  of  the  coun- 
try. It  was  so  called  because  the  two  fac- 
tions into  which  the  country  was  divided 
upheld  the  two  several  claims  to  the  houses 
of  York  and  Lancaster,  whose  badges  were 
the  white  and  red  roses,  respectively.  After 
the  house  of  Lancaster  had  possessed  the 
throne  for  three  generations  (see  Planta- 
genet),  Richard,  duke  of  York,  whose  title 
was  superior  to  that  of  Henry  VI.,  began 
to  advance,  at  first  somewhat  covertly,  his 
claim  to  the  throne.  In  1454,  he  was  ap- 
pointed protectorof  the  realm  during  Henry's 
illness,  and  on  the  king's  recovery  he  de- 
clined to  give  up  his  power,  and  levied  an 
army  to  maintain  it.  The  accession  of 
Henry  VII.  may  be  said  to  have  terminated 
the  "  wars  of  the  roses,"  although  the  reign 
of  Henry  was  from  time  to  time  disturbed 
by  the  pretensions  of  Yorkist  impostors. 

Rosetta.  A  seaport  city  of  Egypt,  near 
the  mouth  of  a  branch  of  the  Nile.  It  was 
built  by  one  of  the  Saracen  caliphs  in  the 
9th  century.  In  1798  this  place  was  taken 
by  the  French,  and  in  1807  it  was  besieged 
by  the  British,  who  were  repulsed  by  the 
Turks.  The  battle  of  the  Nile  was  fought 
near  Rosetta,  August  1,  1798. 

Rosettes.  Two  small  bunches  of  ribbons, 
that  were  attached  to  the  loops  by  which  the 
gorget  of  an  officer  was  suspended  on  his 
chest. 

Roslin.  A  village  of  Scotland,  7  miles 
south  of  Edinburgh,  on  the  Esk.  In.  this 
neighborhood  the  Scots  gained  three  victories 
over  the  English  on  the  same  day  in  1302. 

Ross,  New.  A  town  of  Ireland,  situated 
partly  in  the  county  of  Wexford,  and  partly 
in  the  county  of  Kilkenny,  27  miles  north- 
west from  Wexford.  New  Ross  was  taken 
by  Cromwell  in  1649,  and  in  1798  a  severe 
battle  was  fought  here  between  the  king's 
troops  and  the  Irish  insurgents. 

Rossbach.  A  village  of  Prussian  Saxony, 
in  the  government  of  Merseburg,  celebrated 
for  the  victory  here  gained  by  the  Prussians 
under  Frederick  the  Great  over  the  allied 
French  and  Austrian  armies,  November  5, 
1757.  The  Prussians  lost  (according  to  a 
French  account)  only  300  men,  while  the 
loss  of  the  allies  was  more  than  1200  slain, 
6000  prisoners,  among  whom  were  11  gen- 
erals and  300  officers,  and  72  cannon,  with 
many  other  trophies. 

Roster,  or  Rollster.  List  of  oflScers  for 
duty.  The  principle  which  governs  details 
for  duty  is  from  the  eldest  down  ;  longest 
off  duty  first  on  duty.  If  an  officer's  tour 
of  duty  for  armed  service,  court-martial,  or 
fatigue,  happen  when  he  is  upon  either  duty, 
he  is  credited  therewith.  An  officer  return- 
ing from  duty  after  sickness,  takes  the  same 
place  he  had  on  the  post  roster  before  report- 
ing sick  ;  that  being  sick  on  the  day  of  detail 
he  gets  the  credit  of  the  tour  and  awaits  the 
return  of  his  day,  when,  if  well,  he  is  again 
detailed.     An  officer  returning  from  leave 


KOTTERDAM 


499 


ROUTE 


of  absence  is  at  once  subject  for  detail. 
Customarily,  an  officer  wlio  returns  from  de- 
tached service  is  placed  at  the  foot  of  tlie 
roster.  The  .same  rules  should  apply  to  non- 
commissioned officers  and  privates.  A  retji- 
ment  or  detachment  detailed  for  any  duty, 
receives  credit  for  the  duty  when  it  marches 
off  parade  to  perform  the  duty,  but  not  if  it 
is  dismissed  on  parade.     Officers  on  inlying 

Sickets  are  subject  to  all   details.      In   the 
Iritish  service,  regiments  proceed  on  foreign 
service  according  to  the  roster. 

Rotterdam.  An  important  commercial 
city  in  llollund,  in  the  province  of  Southern 
Holland.  Its  importance  dates  from  the 
13th  century;  taken  by  the  Spaniards  by 
stratagem  in  1572,  and  cruelly  treated.  It 
suffered  much  from  the  French  revolutionary 
wars. 

Rouen.  A  city  in  the  north  of  France, 
the  chief  town  of  the  department  of  the 
Lower  Seine,  and  formerly  the  capital  of 
Normandy,  68  miles  northwest  from  Paris. 
It  was  he'ld  by  the  English  till  1204;  and 
was  retaken  by  Henry  V.,  January  10,  1419. 
Joan  of  Arc  was  burnt  here,  May  30,  1431. 
It  was  taken  by  Charles  VII.  of  France  in 
1449;  and  by  the  Duke  of  Guise  from  the 
Huguenots,  (October,  1552,  and  in  1591. 

Rough  Rider.  A  non-commissioned  offi- 
cer in  tiie  British  cavalry  regiments,  whose 
business  it  is  to  break  in  refractory  horses, 
and  ixssist  the  riding-master  when  required. 
Rouleaux.  Are  round  bundles  of  fascines, 
which  are  tied  together.  They  serve  to  cover 
men  when  the  works  are  pushed  clo.se  to  a 
besieged  town,  or  to  mask  the  head  of  a 
work. 

Round.  A  general  discharge  of  fire-arms 
by  a  body  of  troops,  in  which  each  soldier 
fires  once.  Round  of  cartridf/es,  one  car- 
tridge to  each  man  ;  as,  to  supply  a  regiment 
with  a  single  round,  or  with  twelve  rounds. 
Round,  Gentleman  of  the.  A  gentleman 
soldier,  but  of  low  rank,  only  above  the 
lance-pesadc,  whose  office  it  was  to  visit  and 
inspect  the  sentinels  and  advanced  guards; 
also,  one  of  a  number  of  disbanded  soldiers 
who  had  betaken  themselves  to  the  trade  of 
begi^ing. 

Round  Robin.  This  term  is  a  corruption 
of  rutjiDt  ronil,  which  signifies  a  round  rib- 
bon. It  was  usual  among  French  officers, 
when  they  signed  a  remonstrance,  to  write 
their  names  in  a  circular  form,  so  that  it  was 
impossible  to  ascertain  who  signed  first. 
Hence  to  sign  a  round  robin  against  any 
person,  was  for  any  specific  number  of  men 
to  sign,  one  and  all,  a  remonstrance  against 
him. 

Round  Table,  Knights  of.  Known  in 
early  Knglish  liisiory  us  knights  belonging 
to  a  ccl.'Kr.itcd  order  instituted  by  King 
Arthur,  and  whose  exploits  and  adventures 
form  the  subjects  of  many  ballads,  and  much 
of  the  early  romantic  poetry  of  England. 
The  members  of  the  order  are  said  to  have 
been  40  in  nuniber,  and  to  have  derived 
their   name   from    their   custom  of    sitting 


about  a  large,  round,  marble  table,  in  order 
to  avoid  all  distinctiun  of  rank. 

Roundel,  or  Roundelle.  "Was  a  shield 
used  by  thi;  Norman  soldi(^s.  The  word  is 
also  ajiplied  to  the  semicircular  bastions  in 
early  fortification,  as  introduced  by  Albert 
Diirer.  This  bastion  consisted  of  a  semicircle 
of  masonry  about  300  feet  in  diameter,  con- 
taining roomy  ca.semates  for  the  troops,  and 
for  artillery  and  musketry,  with  which  the 
ditch  and  curtains  were  flanked. 

Roundheads,  The.  In  English  histori', 
a  nickname  given,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  1., 
to  the  Puritans,  or  Parliamentary  party,  who 
were  accustomed  to  wear  their  hair  cut  close 
to  the  head.  They  were  so  called  in  opp<isi- 
tion  to  the  Cavaliers,  or  Royalists,  who  wore 
their  hair  in  lon^  ringlets. 

Roundle,  or  Roundlet.  In  heraldry,  a 
general  name  given  to  charges  of  a  circular 
form,  which  in  Etjglish  heraldry  have  more 
special  names  indicative  of  their  tinctures. 
A  roundle  or  is  called  a  Bezant;  a  roundle 
argent,  a  Plate ;  a  roundle  gules,  a  Tortcaux ; 
a  roundle  azure,  a  Hurt;  a  roundle  sable, 
an  Ogi-e.fs,  or  Pellet ;  a  roundle  purpure.  a 
Golpe;  a  roundle  sanguine,  a  Guze  ;  a  roundle 
tenney,  an  Orange.  In  the  heraldry  of 
Scotland  and  of  the  continent,  it  is,  on  the 
other  hand,  usual  to  design  all  roundles  of 
metal  bezants,  and  those  of  color,  torteaux, 
adding  the  tincture.  Thus  the  coat  blazoned 
in  England  azure  three  plates,  would  be  in 
the  Scottish  mode  of  blazon,  azure  three 
bezants  argent. 

Rounds.  An  officer  or  non-commissioned 
officer  who,  attended  by  (me  or  more  men, 
visits  the  sentinels  in  barracks,  in  order  to 
ascertain  whether  they  are  vigilant.  There 
are  two  sorts  of  rounds,  grand  and  risiting. 
Grand  rounds  are  the  rounds  which  are  gone 
by  general  officers,  commandants,  or  field- 
oiScers.  When  there  are  no  officers  of  the 
day,  the  officer  of  the  main  guard  may  go 
the  grand  rounds.  The  grand  rounds  gen- 
erally go  at  midnight;  the  visiting  rounds 
at  intermediate  periods,  between  sunset  and 
reveille.  The  grand  rounds  receive  the  pa- 
role, and  all  other  rounds  give  it  to  the 
guards.  In  officers'  rounds  the  officer  guard- 
ing is  preceded  by  a  drummer  carrying  a 
lantern,  and  followed  by  a  .sergeant  and  a 
file  of  men.  Ordinary  rounds  consist  of  a 
sergeant  and  a  file  of'men.  Both  ordinary 
and  officers'  rounds  are  termed  visiting 
rounds.  The  design  of  rounds  is  not  only 
to  visit  the  guards,  and  keep  the  sentinels 
alert,  but  likewise  to  discover  what  passes 
in  the  outworks,  and  beyond  them. 

Rout.  The  confusion  created  in  an  army 
or  body  of  troops  when  dcfeat»Hl  or  dis- 
persed." To  put  to  the  rout,  is  to  defeat  and 
throw  into  confusion.  The  term  expresses 
more  than  a  defeat,  because  it  implies  a  dis- 
persion of  the  enemy's  forces  ;  for  a  defeated 
enemy  may  retreat  in  good  order;  but  when 
routed,  order  and  discipline  are  at  an  end. 

Route.  An  open  road;  the  course  of 
march  of  troops.     Instructions  for  the  march 


ROUTE 


500 


RUSSIA 


of  detachments,  specifying  daily  marches, 
means  of  supply,  etc.,  are  given  from  the 
headquarters  of  an  army  in  the  iield,  and  are 
called  marching  routes. 

Route  Step.  In  tactics,  is  a  style  of  march 
whereby  the  men  carry  their  arms  at  will, 
keeping  the  muzzles  elevated  ;  they  are  not 
required  to  preserve  silence,  or  to  keep  the 
step,  but  each  man  covers  the  file  in  his 
front.  The  ranks  preserve  the  distance  of 
32  inches  from  each  other.  The  route  step 
is  at  the  rate  of  from  2J  to  3  miles  per  hour. 

Routine".  This  word  has  been  adopted  by 
us  in  the  same  sense  that  it  is  familiarly 
used  by  the  French.  It  signifies  capacity, 
or  the  faculty  of  arranging ;  a  certain 
method  in  business,  civil  or  military,  which 
is  as  much  acquired  by  habit  and  practice  as 
by  regular  study  and  rule.  We  say  familiarly 
the  routine  of  business. 

Rowel.  The  pointed  part  of  a  riding 
spur,  which  is  made  in  a  circular  form,  with 
rays  or  points  like  a  star. 

Royal.  A  small  mortar  which  carries  a 
shell  whose  diameter  is  5.5  inches.  It  is 
mounted  on  a  bed  the  same  as  other  mortars. 

Royal.  In  England,  one  of  the  soldiers 
of  the  firstregimentof  foot,  called  the  Royals, 
and  supposed  to  be  the  oldest  regular  c6rps 
in  Europe. 

Rubicon.  A  small  stream  of  Central 
Italy,  falling  into  the  Adriatic,  has  obtained 
a  proverbial  celebrity  from  the  well-known 
story  of  its  passage  by  Caesar,  who  by  cross- 
ing this  river — which,  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
civil  war  between  him  and  Pompey,  formed 
the  southern  boundary  of  his  province — 
virtually  declared  war  against  the  republic. 
Hence  the  phrase  to  "cross  the  Rubicon"  has 
come  to  mean,  to  take  an  irrevocable  step. 

Rudiments.  The  first  principles,  the  ele- 
ments of  any  particular  science;  as,  the 
rudiments  of  war,  which  are  the  first  princi- 
ples or  elements  of  war;  as,  marching, 
facing,  wheeling;  the  drill,  manual,  and 
platoon  exercises,  manceuvres,  etc. 

Ruffle.  Is  a  low  vibrating  sound,  less 
loud  than  a  roll,  produced  by  drummers. 
It  is  used  as  a  compliment  to  general  officers 
and  at  military  funerals. 

Rugen.  The  largest  of  the  islands  of  Ger- 
many, belongs  to  Prussia,  and  lies  in  the 
Baltic,  otf  the  coast  of  Pomerania.  In  1169 
it  was  conquered  by  the  Danish  king  Wal- 
demar  I.  By  the  peace  of  Westphalia  it 
was  ceded  to  Sweden,  but  in  1815  it  was 
transferred  to  Prussia. 

Rules  and  Articles  of  War.  See  Ap- 
pendix, Articlks  of  War. 

Run.  The  greatest  degree  of  swiftness  in 
marching.  It  is  executed  upon  the  same 
principles  as  the  double-quick,  but  with 
greater  speed. 

Run  the  Gantlope.     See  Gantlope. 

Running  Fight.  A  battle  in  which  one 
party  flees  and  the  other  pursues,  but  the 
party  fleeing  keeps  up  the  contest. 

Running  Fire.  A  constant  fire  of  mus- 
ketry or  cannon. 


Rupture.  This  word  signifies  the  com- 
mencement of  hostilities  between  any  two 
or  more  powers. 

Rusellse  [Rusellanus ;  ruins  near  Gros- 
seto).  One  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of 
Etruria.  It  was  taken  by  the  Romans  in 
294  B.C.,  when  2000  of  its  inhabitants  were 
slain,  and  as  many  more  were  made  pris- 
oners. 

Rush.  To  move  or  drive  forward  with 
impetuosity,  violence,  and  tumultuous  ra- 
pidity ;  as,  armies  rush  to  battle.  Also,  a 
driving  forward  with  eagerness  and  haste; 
as,  a  rush  uf  troops. 

Russia.  The  largest  empire  of  the  world, 
occupying  about  one-sixth  of  the  firm  land 
of  our  globe,  bounded  north  by  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  east  by  the  Pacific,  south  by  China, 
Independent  Toorkistan,  Persia,  Asiatic 
Turkey,  the  Black  Sea,  and  Roumania,  and 
west  by  Austria,  Prussia,  the  Baltic,  and  the 
Scandinavian  peninsula.  When  the  Greeks 
founded  their  commercial  stations  along  the 
northern  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  in  the 
Crimea,  and  on  the  shores  of  the  Sea  of  Azof, 
they  found  the  interior  occupied  by  roving 
tribes  of  a  fierce  and  savage  character.  They 
called  them  Scythians  and  Sarmatians,  and 
for  about  eight  centuries  these  two  nations 
continued  to  be  mentioned  in  the  history  of 
Greece  and  Rome  as  inhabiting  the  same 
country,  pursuing  the  same  occupations,  etc. 
Then  came,  during  the  migration  of  nations 
beginning  in  the  4th  century,  the  Goths, 
Avars,  Huns,  Alans,  etc.,  rolling  over  them 
wave  after  wave.  In  the  6th  century  the 
name  of  the  Slaves  first  appears.  They 
founded  Kiev  and  Novgorod.  The  name  of 
Russians  is  first  met  with  in  the  9th  century. 
Rurik,  a  Varangian  chief,  came  to  Novgorod 
in  862,  not  as  a  conqueror,  but  invited,  and 
henceforth  his  family  reigned  in  the  country 
till  it  became  extinct,  and  the  people  received 
the  name  of  Russians.  His  successor,  Oleg 
(879-912),  conquered  Kief,  defeated  the 
Khazars,  and  even  attacked  the  emperor  of 
Constantinople.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
13th  century,  the  Mongols  under  Genghis 
Khan  broke  in  from  Asia ;  the  Russians 
were  unable  to  withstand  them.  Most  of  the 
princes  were  wholly  subdued.  The  brilliant 
victories  of  Demetrius  Donski,  prince  of 
Moscow,  in  1378  and  1380,  only  caused  the 
Mongols  to  return  in  larger  hordes  ;  in  1382, 
Moscow  was  burned  to  the  ground  and  24,000 
of  its  inhabitants  were  slain.  Ivan  III.  the 
Great  (1462-1505),  who  united  Novgorod, 
Perm,  and  Pskov  to  Moscow,  refused  to  pay 
the  tribute  to  the  Mongols,  defeated  them 
when  they  attempted  to  enforce  their  claim 
by  arms,  and  commenced  extending  the  Rus- 
sian power  to  the  east,  conquering  Kazan  in 
1469,  and  parts  of  Siberia  in  1499.  Ivan  IV., 
the  Terrible  (1533-84),  conquered  Astrakhan 
in  1554,  the  land  of  the  Don  Cossacks  in  1570, 
Siberia  in  1581,  opened  a  road  to  Archangel 
in  1553,  and  organized  in  1545  a  body-guard, 
the  famous  StrelfzL  With  his  son  Feodor  I. 
(1584-98)  the  house  of  Rurik  ceased  to  exist, 


RUSSIA 


501 


SABANDER 


and  after  a  protracted  and  severe  strugijle 
between  Boris  Goduiiofl',  Basil  V.,  and  the 
two  pseiido-Dcnu'triiiscs,  who  wore  supi)orted 
by  the  Polos,  Michael  Foodorovitch  Koma- 
noft",  the  founder  of  the  present  dynasty, 
ascended  the  throne  in  1012.  Some  progress 
was  made  under  each  of  his  successors, — 
Catharine  I.  (17*25-27),  Peter  II.  (1727-30), 
Anne  (1730-41),  Elizabeth  (1741-02).  Catha- 
rine II.  (1702-70)  carried  on  successful  wars 
with  Persia,  Sweden,  and  Turkey,  conquer- 
ing the  Crimea  ;  she  also  acquired  Courland 
and  half  of  Poland.  (For  history  regarding 
Poland,  see  Poland.)  Under  Alexander  I. 
(1801-25)  Russia  appears  not  only  as  one  of 
the  great  powers,  but  as  the  true  arbiter  in 
European  politics.  In  the  Napoleonic  wars 
he  sided  first  with  Austria,  and  was  beaten 
at  Austerlit/. ;  then  with  Prussia,  and  was 
beaten  at  Fricdiand.  By  the  jieace  of  Fred- 
erikshanin  (180'J)  he  obtained  Finland  from 
Sweden;  by  the  peace  of  Bucharest  (1812), 
Bessarabia  and  Moldavia  from  Turkey  ;  and 
the  war  with  Persia  was  successfully  pro- 
gressing when  his  friendsliip  with  Napf)leon 
suddenly  began  to  wane.  A  rupture  took 
place,  and  now  followed  with  fearful  rapidity 
the  invasion  of  Russia  by  Western  Europe, 
the  destruction  of  the  grand  army,  and  the 
overthrow  of  Napoleon.  By  the  peace  of 
Paris  (1850)  Russia  lost  its  supremacy  in  the 
Black  Sea.  (See  Ckimk.v.)  Itonly  bided  its 
time,  however,  and  October  31,  1870,  when 
neither  England,  France,  nor  Turkey  was 
able  to  resist.  Prince  Gortschakoff  informed 
the  various  cabinets  that  Ru.ssia  felt  com- 
pelled to  deviate  from  the  stipulations  of  the 
treaty  of  Paris,  and  keep  a  fleet  of  sutiicient 
capacity  in  the  Black  Sea. 


Russo-German  War.  The  name  given 
by  (ierman  historians  to  the  last  stage  of  the 
great  European  war  against  Napoleon,  be- 
ginning with  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812, 
and  terminating  on  the  field  of  Waterloo. 
For  important  battles,  etc.,  see  appropriate 
headings. 

Russo-Turkish  War.     The  name  applied 

to  the  war  which  took  place  between  Russia 

on  one  side,  and  Turkey,  France,  and  Great 

Britain  on  the  other;  it  c<^mrnencod  in  1853 

and   terminated    in     1850.     For    important 

events  of  this  war,  see  appropriate  headings. 

i       Rustre.     In  heraldry,  one  of  the  subordi- 

I  naries,  consisting  of  a  lozenr/e  with  a  circular 

opening  pierced  in  its  centre.    Ancient  armor 

was  sometimes  composed  of  rustres  sewed  on 

i  cloth. 

Rustschuk.  A  fortified  town  of  Turkey 
in  Europe,  in  Bulgaria,  situated  at  the  influ.x 
of  the  Kara  Lorn  into  the  Danube,  07  miles 
southwest  from  Silitria.  Giurgevo  (which 
see)  is  almost  immediately  opposite.  The 
Russians  took  these  towns  in  1711  and  1810, 
but  were  defeated  by  the  Turks,  bfefore  Giur- 
gevo, in  1854. 

Rutuli.  An  ancient  people  in  Italy,  in- 
habiting a  narrow  slip  of  country  on  the  east 
coast  of  Latiuin,  a  little  to  the  south  of  the 
Tiber.  They  were  subdued  at  an  early  pe- 
riod by  the  Romans,  and  disappeared  from 
history. 
1  Ryswick.  A  village  in  the  province  of 
I  South  Holland,  where  the  celebrated  treaty 
of  peace  was  concluded  between  England, 
France,  Spain,  and  Holland,  and  was  signed 
by  their  representatives,  September  20,  and 
bv  the  emperor  of  Germanv,  October  30, 
1097. 


II  I  lapci 


S. 


Saalfeld.  A  town  of  Germany,  in  the 
duchy  of  Saxe-Meiningen,  on  the  Saale,  23 
miles  south  from  Weimar.  Here  the  Prus- 
sians under  Prince  Louis  Frederick  of  Prus- 
sia were  defeated  and  their  leader  slain  by 
the  Frcn.b  under  Lannes,  October  10,  1800. 

Saarbriick  (anc.  Autjusti  Muri,  or  Snra:- 
;)o».n).     All  open  town  on  tlic  left  bank  of 
thcSaar,  in  llbenisli  Prussia.  It  was  founded 
in  the  lUth  century,  and  was  long  subject  to 
the  bishops  of  Metz  ;   it  was  afterwards  ruled 
by  counts  (about  1237),  and  by  the  house  of 
Na.xsau  about  1380.     It  was  ca|)lured  by  the 
French  and   retaken  by  the  Germans,  1070; 
reunited  to  France,  17'.t4-1814,  and  ceded  to  , 
Prussia,  1815.     On  August  2,   1870,  it  was  j 
bombarded  by  the  French  uiuler  Frossard,  j 
and  tlie  Prussians  in  small  force  were  dis-  | 
lodged,  and  the  town  occupied  by  the  French  I 


general  Bataille.  The  emperor  Napoleon 
and  his  son  were  present  during  this  bom- 
bardment. On  August  0,  the  Prussian  gen- 
erals Goeben  and  Von  Steinmetz,  with  the 
first  army,  recaptured  Saarbruck,  after  a 
sanguinary  conflict  at  the  village  of  Spich- 
eren.  The  heights  taken  by  the  French  on 
the  2d  are  in  Gernumy,  those  taken  by  the 
Germans  on  the  0th  are  in  France,  and  both 
battles  were  fought  between  Saarbruck  and 
the  town  of  Fi>rl)ach,  which  was  captured 
and  has  given  a  name  to  the  second  conflict. 
The  loss  was  great  on  both  sides.  The  French 
general  PVan(;ois  was  killed,  and  the  2d 
Corps  under  Frossard  nearly  destroyed.  Tlie 
French  retreated  to  Met/..  They  were  greatly 
superior  in  numbers  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fight,  but  were  badly  commanded. 

Sabander.     The  familiar  of  ahah-bander, 


SABANTINES 


502 


SACK 


an  Eastern  title  for  captain  or  governor  of 
a  post. 

Sabantines.  Steel  coverings  for  the  feet ; 
sometimes  slippers  or  clogs. 

Sabbatons.  A  round-toed  armed  cover- 
ing for  the  feet,  worn  during  a  part  of  the 
IGth  century. 

Sabini.  An  ancient  people  of  Central 
Italy,  were  generally  supposed  to  have  de- 
rived their  name  from  Sabus,  their  chief 
tutelary  deity.  Their  antiquity  was  very 
great.  They  were  the  parent-stock  of  many 
of  the  neighboring  tribes,  such  as  the  Sam- 
nites,  thePeligni,  and  the  Picentes.  The 
Sabini  inhabited  the  mountain  region  lying 
to  the  northeast  of  Rome.  They  were  a 
valiant  warlike  race,  and  at  an  early  age  of 
authentic  history  they  issued  from  their 
mountain  fastness  and  began  a  system  of 
warlike  aggression  upon  their  neighbors. 
Gradually  and  by  repeated  attacks,  their 
invadinghordes  subdued  the  aborigines,  and 
advanced  southward,  occupying  the  land.  At 
length,  pushing  their  outposts  to  the  very 
gates  of  Rome,"they  commenced  to  interfere 
with  the  afl'airs  3f  that  rising  city.  By  vic- 
tory or  by  compromise  they  gained  admit- 
tance into"  the  state  upon  very  advantageous 
terms.  They  were  not  satisfied,  but  per- 
sisted in  their  encroachments  upon  the  Ro- 
man territory,  until  defeated  by  TuUus  lios- 
tilius  and  by  Tarquinius  Prisons;  however, 
they  continued  their  raids  until  449  B.C., 
when  M.  Horatius  gave  them  a  defeat  which 
kept  them  quiet  for  more  than  a  century  and 
a  half.  They  recovered  in  290  B.C.,  only  to 
be  overthrown  by  Manlius  Curius  Dentatus 
with  greater  completeness  than  ever.  They 
finally  became  a  part  of  the  Roman  empire. 
Sable.  One  of  the  tinctures  in  heraldry, 
implying  black.  In  heraldic  engravings,  it 
is  represented  by  perpendicular  and  horizon- 
tal lines  crossing  each  other. 

Sabot.  Is  a  thick,  circular  disk  of  wood, 
to  which,  in  fixed  ammunition,  the  cartridge- 
bag  and  projectile  are  attached.  For  a 
spherical  projectile,  the  sabot  has  a  spherical 
cavit}',  and  circular  groove  to  which  the 
cartridge-bag  is  tied;  m  the  canister-sabot, 
the  spherical  cavity  is  omitted,  and  a  cir- 
cular oflset  is  added.  The  effects  of  a  sabot 
are:  (1)  To  prevent  the  formation  of  a 
lodgment  in  the  bore.  (2)  To  moderate  the 
action  of  the  powder  on  the  projectile  ;  and, 
(3)  To  prevent  the  projectile  from  moving 
from  its  place.  In  consequence  of  the  scat- 
tering of  the  fragments,  it  is  dangerous  to 
use  the  sabot  in  firing  over  the  heads  of  one's 
own  men.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the 
soft  metal  device  attached  to  the  base  of 
rifled  projectiles  to  take  the  grooves  of  the 
bore. 

Sabre.  A  long  curved  or  straight  cavalry 
sword,  with  a  broad  and  heavy  blade,  used 
for  cutting  and  thrusting. 

Sabre.  To  strike,  cut,  or  kill  with  a 
sabre. 

Sabretache  (Ger.  Sabeltasche,  "sword- 
pocket").     A  square  pocket  or  pouch  sus- 


pended from  the  sword-belt  on  the  left  side, 
by  three  slings  to  correspond  with  the  belt. 
It  is  usually  scolloped  at  the  bottom,  has  a 
device  in  the  centre,  and  a  broad  lace  round 
the  edge.  The  color  of  it  always  corresponds 
with  that  of  the  uniform.  The  sabretache  is 
an  appointment  or  part  of  accoutrement  of 
hussars  in  European  armies. 

Sabreur  (Ft-.).  A  blood-thirsty  soldier; 
brave  soldier. 

Sabugal.  A  town  of  Portugal,  on  the 
Spanish  frontier,  where  an  affair  took  place 
between  an  English  light  division  and  the 
French,  April  3,  1811,  in  which  the  latter 
were  defeated. 

Sac  and  Fox  Indians.  Two  Algonkin 
tribes,  who  have  always  associated.  They 
formerly  dwelt  in  Canada,  but  afterward 
occupied  a  large  tract  of  land  on  both  sides 
of  the  Mississippi.  The  Sacs  and  Foxes  often 
engaged  in  wars  with  the  English,  French, 
and  Indians.  They  were  gradually  removed 
southwestward  prior  to  1849.  The're  are  now 
in  the  Indian  Territory  about  400  Sacs  and 
Foxes.  There  are  also  about  200  Sacs  and 
Foxes  in  Kansas,  about  100  in  Nebraska, 
and  about  300  Sacs  and  Foxes  in  Iowa.  See 
Fox  Indians. 

Sacae.  One  of  the  most  numerous  and 
powerful  of  the  Scythian  nomad  tribes,  had 
their  abodes  in  the  steppes  of  Central  Asia, 
which  are  now  peopled  by  the  Kirghiz  Kha- 
saks.  They  were  very  warlike,  and  excelled 
especially  as  cavalry,  and  as  archers,  both  on 
horse  and  foot.  Their  women  shared  in  their 
military  spirit;  and  according  to  .zElian, 
they  had  the  custom  of  settling  before  mar- 
riage whether  the  man  or  woman  should  rule 
the  house,  by  the  result  of  a  combat  between 
them.  In  early  times  they  extended  their 
predatory  incursions  as  far  west  as  Armenia 
and  Cappadocia.  They  were  made  tributary 
to  the  Persian  empire,  to  the  army  of  which 
they  furnished  a  large  force  of  cavalry  and 
archers,  who  were  among  the  best  troops 
that  the  kings  of  Persia  had. 

Saccatoo,  or  Socoto.  A  kingdom  of 
Soodan,  in  Central  Africa.  Its  inhabitants, 
the  Fellatas,  first  made  their  appearance  as 
conquerors,  coming  from  the  west,  apparently 
from  the  Senegal ;  they  profess  the  Moham- 
medan religion.  Othman,  or  Danfodio,  one 
of  the  Fellata  chieftains,  marshaled  his 
countrymen  under  his  colors  for  a  crusade 
against  the  unbelievers.  Though  at  first  de- 
feated in  almost  every  encounter,  yet  the 
warlike  spirit  of  fanaticism  grew  so  high  that 
Othman  obtained  for  himself  an  extensive 
empire.  Under  Alin,  who  ascended  the 
throne  in  1887,  great  internal  disturbance 
took  place,  which  brought  the  country  into 
a  wretched  condition. 

Sachem.  A  chief  of  a  tribe  of  the  Ameri- 
can Indians  ;  a  sagamore.  See  Sagamore. 
Sack.  The  pillage  or  plunder,  as  of  a 
town  or  city  ;  the  storm  and  plunder  of  a 
town  ;  devastation  ;  ravage.  Also,  to  plun- 
der or  pillage,  as  a  tosvn  or  city  ;  to  devas- 
tate ;  to  ravage. 


SACKAGE 


503 


SAGITTARII 


Sackage.  The  act  of  taking  by  storm  and 
pillitpe ;  suck. 

Sacker.  One  who  sacks;  one  who  cap- 
tures and  plunders  a  town. 

Sackett's  Harbor.  A  town  in  Jefferson 
C(».,  N.  Y.,  on  the  south  shore  of  Hhick 
Kiver  Buy,  8  miles  east  of  Luke  Ontario  and 
170  miles  west-northwest  of  Albarn',  having 
a  navy-yard,  barracks,  etc.  In  the  war  of 
1812-15  it  was  an  important  jwrt,  where  the 
frigate  "Superior,"  of  (jd  guns,  was  built  in 
eighty'  days,  und  the  "  Madison"  in  forty- 
five  days,  from  timber  standing  in  the  forest. 
It  is  a  military  post  of  the  United  States 
named  Madison  Harnioks,  which  is  generally 
garrisoned  l)y  artillery. 

Sacramento,  St.  A  Portuguese  settle- 
ment in  South  America,  claimed  by  Spain 
in  1680;  but  relinquished  in  1713;  was  sev- 
eral times  seized;  ceded  in  1777;  acquired 
by  Brazil  in  18*2-). 

Sacramentum  Militare  (Lnt.).  The  oath 
formerly  taken  by  the  lloiiian  soldiers  when 
they  were  enrolled.  This  oath  was  pro- 
nounced at  the  head  of  the  legion,  in  an  au- 
dible voice,  by  a  soldier  who  was  chosen  by 
tlie  tribune  for  that  purpose.  He  thereby 
pledged  himself  before  the  gods  to  expose 
his  life  for  the  good  and  safety  of  the  repub- 
lic, to  obey  his  superior  olhcers,  and  never 
to  absent  himself  without  leave.  The  ag- 
gregate of  the  legion  assented  to  the  oath 
without  going  through  the  formal  declara- 
tion fif  it. 

Sacred  Battalion.  A  band  of  infantry 
composed  of  800  young  Thebans,  united  in 
strict  friendship  and  affection,  who  were  en- 
gaged, under  a  particular  oath,  never  to  lly, 
but  to  defend  each  other  to  the  last  drop  of 
their  blood.  At  the  famous  battle  of  Leuc- 
tra,  in  which  the  Spartans  were  signally  de- 
feated bj'  P^paminondas,  the  Sacred  Battal- 
ion was  commanded  by  Pelo]>idas,  and 
mainly  contributed  to  the  success  of  the 
day. 

Sacred  Wars.  (1)  Declared  by  the  Am- 
phictyons  against  Cirrha,  near  Delphi,  for 
robbery  and  outrage  to  the  visitors  to  the 
oracle,  595  n.c.  Cirrha  was  razed  to  the 
ground,  58(5  B.C.  (2)  JJetween  the  Phocians 
and  Delphians  for  the  possession  of  the  tem- 
ple at  Delphi,  448, 447  u.c.  (8)  The  Phocians, 
on  being  fined  for  cultivating  the  sacred 
lands,  seized  the  temple,  357.  They  were 
conquered  by  Philip  of  Macedon,  and  their 
citi<'s  depopulated,  34(j  n.r. 

Sacriportus.  A  small  place  in  Latium, 
of  uiieertain  site,  memorable  for  the  victory 
of  Sulla  over  the  younger  Marius,  82  n.c. 

Sacs  and  Foxes.     See  Sac  and  Fo.x  In- 

PtANS. 

Saddle.  The  sent  which  is  put  upon  a 
horse  for  the  accomnnxlation  of  the  rider. 
In  the  earlier  ages  the  Romans  used  neither 
saddles  nor  stirrups.  Saddles  were  in  use  in 
the  3d  century,  and  are  mentioned  as  made 
of  leather  in  804  ;  they  were  known  in  Kng- 
land  about  t')0(».  Hoofs  and  sntldlf.i,  is  a 
sound  on  the  trumpet  which  is  the  first  sig- 


nal for  mounted  drill,  and  for  all  other  for- 
mations mounted  ;  it  is  also  the  signal  for 
the  trumpeters  to  ussemble. 

Saddle-bags.  Bags,  usually  of  leather, 
united  by  straps,  for  transportation  on 
horseback,  one  bag  being  placed  on  each 
side.  In  the  U.  S.  service  saddle-bugs  are 
issued  to  the  cavalry  as  a  part  of  the  horse 
equipments. 

Saddle-cloth.  In  the  military  service  is 
a  cloth  under  a  saddle,  and  extending  out 
behind  ;    the  housing. 

Saddler.  One  whose  occupation  is  to 
mak(!  and  repair  saddles.  Each  company  of 
cavalry  in  tlu!  U.  S.  service  is  allowed  one 
saddler.  Saddlers  are  also  employed  in  the 
cavalry  service  of  Kuropean  countries. 

Saddler  Corporal.  In  the  British  service, 
is  a  non-commissioned  officer  who  lias  charge 
of  the  saddlers  in  the  Household  Cavalry. 

Saddler  Sergeant.  Is  a  sergeant  in  the 
cavalry  who  has  charge  of  the  saddlers.  In 
the  U.  S.  service,  saddler  sergeants  are  non- 
commissioned staff-officers,  and  one  is  al- 
lowed to  each  cavalry  regiment. 

Saddle-Tree  Maker.  An  artificer  in  the 
cavalry  who  makes  and  repairs  saddle-trees. 

Sadowa.  A  village  of  Bohemia,  about  8 
miles  from  Koniggratz.  Here,  on  the  morn- 
ing of  July  3,  18(j';,  the  Prussians  attacked 
the  Austrians,  and  after  a  desperate  struggle 
of  seven  hours,  the  latter  were  defeated  and 
driven  from  the  village  by  the  7th  division 
of  the  Prussian  infantry.  This  engagement 
formed  the  prelude  to  the  decisive  battle  of 
Koniggratz. 

Safe-conduct.  A  passport  granted,  on 
honor,  to  a  foe,  enabling  him  to  pass  where 
it  would  otherwise  be  impossible  for  him  to 
go  with  impunity.  Safe-conducts  are  granted 
in  war  for  tlie  purposes  of  conference,  etc.  ; 
and  to  violate  the  provisions  of  such  a  pass 
has  always  been  esteemed  a  disgraceful 
breach  of  the  laws  of  honor. 

Safeguard.  A  protection  granted  by  the 
general  of  an  army  for  the  safety  of  an 
enemy's  lands  or  persons,  to  preserve  them 
from  being  insulted  or  plundered.  For  pun- 
ishment of  persons  forcing  a  safeguard,  see 
Api'kndix,  Akthi.k.s  ok  War,  57. 

Sagaie,  or  Zagie.  A  dart  or  javelin  used 
by  the  inhabicants  of  Madagascar. 

Sagamore.  The  head  oi'  a  tribe  among 
the  American  Indians, — generally  used  as 
synonymous  with  sac/tfm,  but  S(Uiie  writers 
distinguished  between  them,  making  the  sa- 
chem a  chief  of  the  first  rank,  und  a  sagamore 
one  of  the  second  rank. 

Sagette  {Fr.).  An  arrow  ;  a  bolt  used  in 
ancient  times. 

Sagittarii.  In  the  Roman  army,  under  the 
emperors,  were  young  men  armed  with  bows 
and  arrows,  who,  together  with  the/i<M«fi7o- 
;•«.<»,  were  generally  sent  out  to  skirmish  be- 
fore the  main  body.  They  constituted  no 
part  of  the  vflifrs,  but  seem  to  have  suc- 
ceeded them  at  the  time  when  the  Socii  were 
admitted  into  the  Roman  legions;  for  at 
that  period  the  vflitcs  were  discontinued. 


SAGKA 


504 


SAINT 


Sagra.  A  small  river  in  Magna  Grascia, 
on  the  southeast  coast  of  Bruttium,  on  the 
banks  of  which  a  memorable  victory  was 
gained  by  10,000  Locrians  over  120,000  Cro- 
toniats.  This  victory  appeared  so  extraor- 
dinary that  it  gave  rise  to  the  proverbial 
expression,  "  It  is  truer  than  what  happened 
on  the  Sagra,"  when  a  person  wished  to 
make  any  strong  asseveration. 

Sagum.  An  ancient  military  garment  or 
cloak,  made  of  wool,  without  sleeves,  fast- 
ened by  a  girdle  around  tlie  waist,  and  a 
buckle.  It  was  worn  by  the  Greeks,  Ko- 
nians,  and  Gauls.  The  generals  alone  wore 
i\\Q  pahidmnentum^  and  all  the  Roman  sol- 
diers, even  the  centurions  and  tribunes,  used 
the  sagum. 

Saguntum  (now  3Iu7-vied?-o).  A  wealthy 
and  warlike  town  of  ancient  Spain,  in  His- 
pania  Tarraconensis.  It  was  besieged  and 
destroyed  by  the  Ciirthaginians  under  Han- 
nibal in  218  B.C.  Having  withstood  the 
siege  for  the  greater  part  of  a  year,  against 
an  army  of  about  150,000  men,  the  Sagun- 
tines,  now  most  severely  pressed  by  famine, 
concluded,  with  an  act  of  heroic  defiance  and 
self-sacrifice,  a  resistance  that  had '  been 
characterized  by  the  most  brilliant  valor. 
Heaping  their  valuable  effects  into  one  vast 
pile,  and  placing  their  women  and  children 
around  it,  the  men  issued  forth  for  the  last 
time  against  the  enemy ;  and  the  women, 
setting  fire  to  the  pile  they  had  prepared, 
cast  themselves  upon  it  with  their  children, 
and  found  in  flames  the  fate  their  husbands 
met  in  battle.  The  destruction  of  Saguntum 
directly  led  to  the  second  Punic  war. 

Saikyr.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  was  a  spe- 
cies of  cannon  smaller  than  a  demiculverin, 
much  employed  in  sieges.  Like  the  falcon, 
it  derived  its  name  from  a  species  of  hawk. 

Saint  Augustine.  A  city,  port  of  entry, 
and  capital  of  St.  John's  Co.,  Fia.,  IGO  miles 
south  of  Savannah.  It  has  the  distinction 
of  being  the  oldest  town  in  the  United 
States.  The  Spanish  abandoned  it  in  1763, 
upon  its  cession  to  the  English.  Sir  Francis 
Drake  destroyed  it  in  1.586  ;  and  it  was  be- 
sieged and  burned  by  the  governor  of  the 
Carolinas  in  1702.  Saint  Augustine  was  a 
British  depot  during  the  Eevolutionary  war. 
It  was  of  some  importance  as  a  military  sta- 
tion during  the  Florida  war,  1835-42. 

Saint  Bartholomew,  Massacre  of.  See 
Bartholomew,  St. 

St.  Bernard,  Mount.  See  Bernard,  St., 
The  Grkat. 

Saint-Cloud.  A  town  of  France,  depart- 
ment of  Seine-et-Oise,  5i  miles  west  from 
Paris.  Henry  IV.  was  assassinated  at  Saint- 
Cloud  by  Jacques  Clement  in  1589.  Bona- 
parte here  broke  up  the  assembly  of  500,  and 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  first  consul 
on  November  9,  1799  ;  and  here,  in  July, 
1830,  Charles  X.  signed  the  ordonnances 
which  cost  him  his  throne. 

Saint-Dizier.     See  Dizier,  St.-. 

Saint  Domingo.  See  Dominqo,  San,  and 
Hayti. 


St.  George,  Grand  Cross  of.  A  Russian 
military  honor,  conferred  on  officers  in  the 
army  and  navy  for  distinguished  bravery. 
It  was  conferred  on  the  officer  who  sunk  the 
Turkish  monitor  in  May,  1877. 

Saint-Germain-en-Laye.  A  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  the  Seine-et- 
Oise,  14  miles  west-northwest  from  Paris. 
The  town,  as  well  as  the  royal  chateau,  was 
sacked  by  the  English  in  1346,  in  1419,  and 
in  1438. 

Saint  Helena.     See  Helena,  Saint. 

Saint  John  of  Jerusalem,  Tlae  Order  of 
the  Knights  Hospitallers  of.  Also  called 
the  Knights  of  Rhodes,  and  afterwards  of 
Malta,  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the  mili- 
tary and  religious  orders  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
It  originated  in  1048  in  a  hospital  dedicated 
to  St.  John  the  Baptist,  which  was  built  for 
the  reception  of  the  pilgrims  from  Europe 
who  visited  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  The  nurses 
were  at  first  known  as  the  Hospitaller  Broth- 
ers of  St.  John  the  Baptist  of  Jerusalem. 
The  Seljuk  (Seljook)  Turks,  who  succeeded 
the  Egyptian  and  Arabian  Saracens  in  Pal- 
estine, plundered  the  hospice,  and  on  the 
conquest  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Crusaders  un- 
der Geoffroy  de  Bouillon  in  1099,  the  first 
superi(^r,  Gerard,  was  found  in  prison.  Re- 
leased from  durance,  he  resumed  his  duties 
in  the  hospice,  and  was  joined  by  several 
of  the  Crusaders,  who  devoted  themselves  to 
the  service  of  the  poor  pilgrims.  By  advice 
of  Gerard,  the  brethren  took  vows  of  pov- 
erty, chastity,  and  obedience  before  the  Pa- 
triarch of  Jerusalem.  Pope  Pascal  II.  gave 
his  sanction  to  the  institution  in  1113.  After 
Gerard's  death  in  1118,  Raymond  du  Pay 
succeeded  as  superior  of  the  order,  and  to 
the  former  obligations  of  the  order  he  added 
those  of  fighting  against  the  infidels  and  de- 
fending the  Holy  Sepulchre.  Various  Hos- 
pices, called  coimnanderies ,  were  established 
in  different  maritime  towns  of  Europe.  The 
order  having  become  military  as  well  as  re- 
ligious, was  recruited  by  persons  of  high 
rank  and  influence,  and  wealth  flowed  in  on 
it  from  all  quarters.  On  the  conquest  of 
Jerusalem  by  Saladin  in  1187,  the  Hospi- 
tallers retired  to  Margate,  Phoenicia,  whence 
the  progress  of  infidel  arms  drove  them  first, 
in  1285,  to  Acre,  and  afterwards,  in  1291,  to 
Limisso,  where  Henry  II.,  king  of  Cyprus, 
assigned  them  a  residence.  By  the  statutes 
of  Raymond,  the  brethren  consisted  of  three 
classes, — loi.ig/its,  chaplains,  and  serving 
brothers ;  these  last  being  fighting  squires, 
who  followed  the  knights  in  their  expedi- 
tions. The  order  was  subsequently  divided 
into  eight  languages, — Provence,  Auvergne, 
France,  Italy,  Aragon,  England,  Germany, 
and  Castile.  Each  nation  possessed  several 
Grand  Priories,  under  which  were  a  number 
of  commanderies.  The  chief  establishment 
in  England  was  the  Priory  of  Clerkenwell, 
whose  head  had  a  seat  in  the  upper  house  of 
Parliament,  and  was  styled  first  baron  of 
England.  In  1310,  the  knights,  under  their 
grand  master,  Foulkes  de  ViUaret,  in  con- 


SAINT 


505 


8ALASSI 


junction  with  n.  party  of  Crusaders  from 
italy,  captured  Rhodes  and  seven  adjacent 
inlands  from  tlie  Greek  and  Saracen  pirates, 
hy  whom  (hey  were  then  occupied,  and  car- 
ried on  from  thence  a  successful  war  against 
tlie  Saracens.  In  1523,  tliey  were  compelled 
t>  surrender  Rhodes  to  the  sultan  Solyman, 
and  retired  first  to  Candia,  and  afterward  to 
Viterho.  In  1530,  Charles  V.  assiij;ned  them 
the  island  of  Malta,  with  Tripolia  andGnzo. 
The  knii^hts  cotitinued  for  s<ime  time  to  be  a 
powerful  bulwark  against  the  Turks;  but 
after  the  Reformation  a  moral  degeneracy 
overspread  the  order,  and  it  rapidly  declined 
in  political  importance;  and  in  1708,  through 
the  treachery  of  some  French  knights  and 
the  cowardice  of  the  grand  master,  D'llom- 
ppsch,  Malta  was  surrendered  to  the  French. 
The  lands  still  belonging  to  the  order  were 
also  al)out  this  time  confiscated  in  almost  all 
the  European  states  ;  but  though  extinct  as 
a  sovereign  body,  the  order  has  continued 
during  the  present  century  to  drag  on  a 
lingering  existence  in  some  parts  of  Italy, 
ns  well  as  in  Russia  and  Spain.  Since  1801, 
the  otfice  of  grand  master  has  not  been  tilled 
up  ;  a  deputy  grand  master  has  instead  been 
appointed,  who  has  his  residence  in  Spain. 
The  order  at  first  wore  a  long  black  habit, 
with  a  pointed  hood  adorned  with  a  cross  of 
white  silk,  of  the  form  called  Maltese,  on 
the  left  breast,  as  also  a  golden  cross  in  the 
middle  of  the  breast.  In  their  military  ca- 
pacity, they  wore  red  surcoats  with  a  silver 
cross  before  and  behind.  The  badge  worn 
by  all  the  knights  is  a  Maltese  cross,  enam- 
eled white,  and  edged  with  gold  ;  it  is  sus- 
t)ended  by  a  black  ribbon,  and  the  embel- 
ishments  attached  to  it  differ  in  the  different 
countries  where  the  order  still  exists. 

Saint  Louis.  A  city  of  St.  Louis  Co., 
Mo.,  which  stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Mississippi,  18  miles  below  its  confluence 
with  the  Missouri,  and  174  miles  above  the 
mouth  of  the  Ohio.  In  1704,  Saint  Louis 
was  the  depot  of  the  Louisiana  Indian  trad- 
ing company;  in  1708  it  was  captured  by  a 
detachment  of  Spanish  troops  ;  and  in  1804 
was  ceded  with  the  whole  country  west  of 
the  Missi.ssipi)i  to  the  United  States.  Dur- 
ing the  civil  war  a  hostile  camp  of  State 
militia  was  captured  near  the  city,  which 
enabled  the  Federals  to  secure  the  arsenal 
and  a  great  store  of  arms,  and  eventual  pos- 
session of  the  State  of  Missouri. 

St.  Lucia.  An  island  in  the  West  Indies, 
taken  tVom  the  French  in  June,  1803,  by  the 
EML:li-h  tniops  under  Gen.  Greenfield. 

Saint-Malo.     See  Mai.o.  St. 

Saint  Petersburg.    See  I'ktkrsiu'RG,  St. 

Saint-Quentin.  A  thriving  town  in  the 
north  of  France,  department  of  Aisne,  is 
situated  on  the  Sonune,  about  80  miles 
northeast  of  Paris.  A  battle  was  fought 
here  August  10,  1557,  between  the  Span- 
iards, a.ssi>ted  by  a  body  of  English  troops,  and 
the  French,  in  which  the  latter  were  severely 
defeated.  A  battle  took  phue  here  between 
the  French  under  Faidherbe  aid  the  Ger- 
83 


mans  under  Von  Goeben  on  January  19, 
i  1871,  in  which  the  former  were  defeated, 
and  the  latter  occupied  Saint-Quentin. 

Saint  Regis.  Situated  partly  in  Bombay 
township,  Franklin  Co.,  N.  Y',  and  partly 
in  St.  Regis  township,  Huntingdon  Co., 
Quebec,  Canada,  on  the  St.  Lawrence  River, 
opposite  Cornwall,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  ferry.  It  is  inhabited  by  the  St. 
Regis  Indians,  an  Iroquois  tribe  "speaking 
the  Mohawk  dialect.  They  are  divided 
into  two  parties,  the  British  and  the  Ameri- 
can, and  owe  their  alh^giance  not  according 
to  residence,  but  according  to  descent  in  the 
female  line.  Their  reservation  in  the  United 
States  is  14,000  acres,  and  that  in  Canada 
rather  larger.  Their  ancestors  settled  here 
in  17G0.  The  American  party  number  about 
700  souls,  and  the  British  about  800. 

Saint   Vincent,  Cape.       See    Cape    St. 

ViNC'K.VT. 

Saintes.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Lower  Charente,  situated 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Charente.  The  Eng- 
lish were  defeated  here  in  1242,  by  the  French 
king  Louis  IX.,  afterwards  Saint  Louis. 

Saker  (Fr.  sncre,  sacret).  An  ancient  4- 
or  5-pounder  of  13  feet,  weighing  from  2500 
to  2800  fiounds.  According  to  Tartaglia, 
the  sacre,  in  1546,  was  a  12-pounder  of  9 
feet,  and  weighing  2150  pounds ;  it  was 
similar  to  the  «s;nc,  but  longer. 

Salade  (Fr.).  Helmet  or  kind  of  iron 
hat  with  a  grated,  movable  visor,  which 
was  worn  during  the  15th  century  by  foot- 
soldiers. 

Saladin.  At  first  the  coat  of  arms  was 
so  called,  because  the  Christians  who  con- 
quered Palestine  a.ssumed  it  in  imitation  of 
the  Turks,  whose  chief  was  at  that  time 
Saladin. 

Salahieh  (written  also  Sehi/iieh).  A  town 
of  Lower  Egypt,  37  miles  northeast  of  Bel- 
beys.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1798, 
and  again  in  1800. 

Salamanca  (anc.  Salmanfira).  A  famous 
town  of  Spain,  capital  of  the  modern  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Tormes,  50  miles  east-northeast  from 
Ciudad  Rodrigo.  It  was  taken  by  Hanni- 
bal. It  was  almost  totally  destroyed  by  the 
French  in  1812.  In  its  vicinity  was  won 
one  of  the  most  famous  victories  of  the 
Peninsular  war,  by  the  British  under  Wel- 
lington against  the  Frencli  under  Marmont, 
July  22,1812. 

Salapia  {Salapinus ;  now  Sfilpi).  An  an- 
cient town  of  Apulia,  was  situated  south  of 
Sipontum.  During  the  second  Punic  war  it 
revolted  to  Hannibal  after  the  battle  of  Can- 
nae, but  it  subsequently  surrendered  to  the 
Romans  and  delivered  to  the  latter  the  Car- 
thagini.m  garrison. 

Salassi.  A  brave  and  warlike  people  in 
Gallia  Transpadana,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Duria,  at  the  foot  of  the  Graian  a'nd  Pen- 
nine Alps.  They  defended  the  passes  of  the 
Alps  in  their  territory  with  such  obstinacy 
I  and  courage  that  it  was  long  before  the  Ro- 


SALENCKEMEN 


506 


SALUTE 


man?  were  able  to  subdue  tbem.  At  length 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  the  country  was 
permanently  occupied  by  Terrentius  Varro 
with  a  powerful  Roman  force;  most  of  the 
Salassi  were  destroyed  in  battle  and  the  rest, 
amounting  to  36,000,  were  sold  as  slaves. 

Salenckemen.  On  the  Danube ;  here  a 
victory  was  gained  by  the  Imperialists, 
under  Prince  Louis  of  Baden,  over  the 
Turks,  commanded  by  the  grand  vizier 
Mustapha  Kiuprigli,  August  19,  1G9L 

Salentini,  or  Sallentini.  A  people  in  the 
southern  part  of  Calabria,  who  dwelt  around 
the  promontory  of  lapygium.  They  were 
subdued  by  the  Komans  at  the  conclusion  of 
their  war  with  Pyrrhus,  and  haying  revolted 
in  the  second  Punic  war,  were  again  easily 
reduced  to  subjection. 

Salerno  (anc.  Salerniim).  A  town  of 
Naples,  capital  of  the  province  of  Princi- 
pato  Citra,  30  miles  southeast  from  Naples. 
It  was  captured  during  the  Social  war  by 
the  Samnite  general  Papius.  After  the  fall 
of  the  Western  empire  Salerno  rose  to  its 
height.  It  passed  first  into  the  hands  of  the 
Goths,  then  into  those  of  the  Lombards, 
from  whom  it  was  taken  by  the  Saracens  in 
905  ;  but  fifteen  years  after,  it  was  recovered 
by  the  Greek  emperor,  and  subsequently  re- 
verted to  the  Lombards.  In  1070  Salerno 
was  taken,  after  a  siege  of  eight  months,  by 
Ilobert  Guiscard  ;  and" thenceforward  became 
the  capital  of  the  Norman  possessions  south 
of  the  Apennines.  In  1193  the  town  was 
destroyed  by  the  emperor  Henry  VI. 

Salient.  In  heraldry,  an  attitude  of  a 
lion  or  other  beast,  differing  but  slightly 
from  rampant.  He  is  supposed  to  be  in  the 
act  of  springing  on  his  prey,  and  both  paws 
are  elevated.  Two  animals  counter-snlient 
are  represented  as  leaping  in  opposite  direc- 
tions. 

Salient  Places  of  Arms.  In  fortification, 
that  part  of  the  covered  way  which  is  oppo- 
site a  salient  of  a  bastion  or  demi-lune. 

Sallet.     The  same  as  salade  (which  see). 

Sally.  A  sudden  offensive  movement  by 
the  garrison  of  a  fortified  place,  directed 
against  the  troops  or  works  of  the  besiegers. 

Sally-port.  A  gate  or  passage,  by  which 
the  garrison  of  a  fortress  may  make  a  sally 
or  sudden  attack  on  the  besiegers.  The 
name  is  applied  to  the  postern  leading  froni 
under  the  rampart  into  the  ditch;  but  its 
more  modern  application  is  to  a  cutting 
through  the  glacis,  by  which  a  sally  may  be 
made  from  the  covert  way.  "When  not  in 
use,  sally-ports  are  closed  by  massive  gates 
of  timber  and  iron. 

Salsette.  An  island  on  the  west  coast  of 
Hindostan,  formerly  separated  from  Bombay 
by  a  narrow  channel  200  yards  wide,  across 
which  a  causeway  was  carried  in  1805.  Sal- 
sette formed  part  of  the  province  of  Aurun- 
gabad  under  the  Mogul  emperors',  but  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Portuguese  soon  after 
their  settlem,ent  in  India.  In  1739  it  was 
conquered  by  tbe  Mahrattas,  and  in  1774  it 
lyas  taken  by  the  Britisji. 


Saltant.  In  heraldry,  in  a  leaping  posi- 
tion, springing  forward  ; — applied  especially 
to  the  squirrel,  weasel,  rat,  and  also  to  the 
cat,  greyhound,  monkey,  etc. 

Saltillo.  A  city  of  Mexico,  capital  of  the 
state  of  Coahuila,  250  miles  west-southwest 
of  Matamoras.  Seven  miles  south  is  Buena 
Vista,  famous  for  the  battle  fought  there, 
February,  1847,  when  the  Mexican  forces 
were  repulsed  by  an  inferior  U.  S.  army. 

Salting-boxes.  Were  boxes  of  about  4 
inches  high,  and  2.V  inches  in  diameter,  for 
holding  mealed  powder,  to  sprinkle  the 
fuzes  of  shells,  that  they  might  take  fire 
from  the  blast  of  the  powder  in  the  cham- 
ber. 

Saltire.  One  of  the  ordinaries  in  her- 
aldry. Its  name  is  of  uncertain  etymology, 
representing  a  bend  sinister  conjoined  with 
a  bend  dexter,  or  a  cross  placed  transversely 
like  the  letter  X.  Like  the  other  ordinaries, 
it  probably  originated,  as  Planche  suggests, 
in  the  clamps  and  braces  of  the  shield.  The 
form  of  the  saltire  has  been  assigned  to  the 
cross  on  which  St.  Andrew  is  said  to  have 
been  crucified ;  hence  the  frequency  of  this 
ordinary  in  Scotch  heraldry.  A  saltire  is 
subject  to  the  variations  of  being  engrailed, 
invected,  etc.,  and  may  be  couped.  When 
two  or  more  saltires  are  borne  in  a  shield, 
they  are  couped,  not  at  right  angles,  but 
horizontally ;  and  as  they  are  always  so 
treated,  it  is  considered  superfluous  to  blazon 
them  as  couped.  Charges  disposed  in  the 
form  of  a  saltire  are  described  as  placed  sal- 
tireioays,  or  in  saltire.  The  former  term  is 
more  properly  applied  to  two  long  charges, 
as  swords  or  keys,  placed  across  one  another 
(in  which  case  the  rule  is,  that  the  sword  in 
bend  sinister  should  be  uppermost,  unless 
otherwise  blazoned) ;  and  the  latter  to  five 
charges  placed  two,  one,  and  two. 

Saltpetre.  Nitre,  or  nitrate  of  potassa, 
is  composed  of  54  parts  nitric  acid  and  48 
parts  of  potassa.  It  is  spontaneously  gener- 
ated in  the  soil,  and  is  a  necessary  ingredient 
of  powder.  It  has  occasionally  been  pro- 
duced artificially  in  nitre-beds,  formed  of  a 
mixture  of  calcareous  soil  with  animal  mat- 
ter ;  in  these,  nitrate  of  lime  is  slowly 
formed,  which  is  extracted  by  lixiviation 
and  carbonate  of  potash  added  to  the  solu- 
tion, which  gives  rise  to  the  formation  of 
nitrate  of  potassa  and  carbonate  of  lime; 
the  latter  is  precipitated ;  the  former  re- 
mains in  solution  and  is  obtained  in  crystals 
by  evaporation.  Its  great  use  is  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  gunpowder,  and  in  the  produc- 
tion of  nitric  acid.     See  Gunpowder. 

Sdlute.  A  discharge  of  artillery  in  com- 
pliment to  some  individual;  beating  of 
drums  and  dropping  of  colors  for  the  same 
purpose  ;  or  by  carrj'ing  or  presenting  arms 
according  to  the  rank  and  position  of  an 
officer.  A  salute  with  cannon  is  a  certain 
number  of  arms  fired  in  succession  with 
blank  cartridges,  in  honor  of  a  person,  to 
celebrate  an  event,  or  to  show  respect  to  the 
flag  of  a  country.     The  rapidity  with  which 


SALUTE 


607 


SAMARIA 


the  pieces  are  discharged  depends  upon  their 
caliber.  Field-guns  should  have  intervals 
of  five  seconds  between  discharges  ;  siege- 
guns,  eight;  and  guns  of  heavier  caliber, 
ten.  The  minimum  number  of  pieces  with 
which  salutes  can  be  tired  is  2  for  field,  4 
for  siege,  and  6  for  sea  coast  guns. 

Personages  entitled  to  salutes,  if  passing 
a  military  post,  as  also  foreign  ships  of  war, 
are  saluted  with  guns  of  heavy  caliber,  the 
most  suitable  being  the  10-inch  smooth-bore. 
The  United  States  national  salute  is  one  for 
each  State  composing  the  Union  ;  and  thei«- 
ternationul  salute,  or  salute  to  the  national 
flag,  is  21  guns.  The  President  of  the  United 
States  and  the  sovereign  or  chief  magistrate 
of  a  foreign  state  receive  a  salute  of  21  guns, 
both  upon  arrival  and  final  departure  from 
a  military  post.  Members  of  the  royal  fam- 
ily,— i.e.,  the  heir-apparent  and  consort  of 
the  reigning  sovereign  of  a  foreign  state, — 
21  guns.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States  receives  a  salute  of  19  guns.  The 
following  civil  and  diplomatic  authorities 
receive  salutes  as  follows  :  members  of  the 
Cabinet,  tlie  chief  justice,  the  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Kepresentatives,  the  governors 
within  their  respective  States  or  Territories, 
a  committee  of  Congress  officially  visiting 
a  military  post  or  station,  the  viceroy,  gov- 
ernor-general, or  governors  of  provinces  be- 
longing to  foreign  states,  ambassadors  ex- 
traordinary and  plenipotentiary,  17  guns; 
envoys  extraordinary  and  ministers  pleni- 
potentiary, 15  guns;  ministers  resident  ac- 
credited to  the  United  States,  18  guns; 
charges  d'affaires,  or  subordinate  diplomatic 
agents  loft  in  charge  of  missions  in  the 
United  States,  11  guns.  A  general-in-chief, 
field-marshal,  or  admiral  receives  a  salute 
of  17  guns;  a  lieutenant-general,  or  vice- 
admiral,  15  guns;  a  major-general,  or  rear- 
admiral,  13  guns;  a  brigadier-general,  or 
commodore,  11  guns.  The  officers  of  vol- 
unteers and  militia,  when  in  the  service  of 
the  United  States,  receive  the  salute  speci- 
fied for  their  rank.  Officers  of  foreign  ser- 
vices visiting  any  military  post,  are  saluted 
in  accordance  with  their  rank.  Salutes  are 
fired  only  between  suyirise  and  sunset,  and, 
as  a  rule,  never  on  Sunday.  A  national 
salute  is  to  be  tired  at  noon  on  the  anniver- 
sary of  the  independence  of  the  United 
States  at  each  military  post  and  camp  pro- 
vided with  artillery  and  ammunition.  The 
international  salute  is  the  only  salute  that 
is  returned,  and  this  should  be  done  as  soon 
as  possible;  foreign  ships  of  war,  in  return 
for  a  similar  compliment,  gun  for  gun  on 
notice  being  officially  received  of  such  in- 
tention. If  there  be  several  forts  in  sight 
of  or  within  0  miles  of  each  other,  the  prin- 
cipal only  shall  reciprocate  compliments 
with  ships  in  passing.  The  President  of  the 
United  States,  the  sovereign  or  chief  magis- 
trate of  a  foreign  country  traveling  in  a 
public  capacity,  is  saluted  when  pa.tsinp  in 
the  vicinity  of  a  military  post.  Personal 
ealutes  at  the  same  place  and  in  compliment 


to  the  same  person,  whether  civil,  diplo- 
matic, military,  or  naval,  are  never  to  be  fired 
oftener  than  once  in  twelve  months,  unless 
such  person  has,  in  the  mean  time,  been  ad- 
vanced in  rank. 

Salvo.  Is  a  concentrated  fire  from  a 
greater  or  less  number  of  pieces  of  artillery. 
Against  a  body  of  men,  a  salvo  is  generally 
useless,  as  the  moral  effect  is  greater  in  pro- 
portion to  the  area  over  which  devastation 
is  spread  ;  but  with  fortifications  the  case  ig 
otherwise.  For  the  purpose  of  breaching, 
the  simultaneous  concussion  of  a  number  of 
cannon-balls  on  masonry,  or  even  earth- 
work, produces  a  very  destructive  result. 
The  eftect  of  a  salvo  of  modern  artillery, 
with  its  enormous  steel  shot,  against  iron- 
plated  ramparts,  has  never  yet  been  tried  in 
act\uil  war.  The  concentrated  tire  of  a 
ship's  broadside  forms  a  powerful  salvo. 

Samanide  Dynasty.  Began  with  Ismail 
Samani,  who  overcame  the  army  of  the 
Safterides,  and  established  himself  in  the 
government  of  Persia,  'J02  ;  his  descendants 
ruled  till  '.m. 

Samarcand,  or  Samarkand  (anc.  Maza- 
cajida).  The  most  celebrated  city  of  Cen- 
tral Asia,  khanate  of  Bokhara,  but  an- 
nexed to  the  dominions  of  the  czar  in  1808. 
It  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Cho- 
banata,  and  is  145  miles  nearly  east  by 
north  from  Bokhara.  It  was  seized  by  the 
Arabs,  707,  and  from  this  time  belonged 
either  to  the  califate  or  to  some  of  the  dy- 
nasties which  were  ofishoots  from  it,  till 
1219,  when  it  was  taken  by  Genghis  Khan. 
In  1359  it  was  captured  by  Timour,  and  ten 
years  afterward  became  the  capital  of  his 
empire.  On  the  division  of  his  empire  after 
his  death,  it  continued  the  capital  of  Turk- 
estan till  14G8,  when  the  attacks  of  the 
Uzbeks  put  an  end  to  its  prosperity. 

Samaria.  Anciently  a  city  of  Palestine, 
the  chief  seat  of  the  Ephraimitic  Baal-wor- 
ship, and,  from  the  seventh  year  of  Omri's 
reign,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 
It  was  twice  besieged  by  the  Syrians  (901 
and  892  n.c),  under  Ahnb  and  Joram,  on 
both  occasions  unsuccessfully  ;  but  in  721 
(720)  B.C.,  it  was  stormed  by  Shalmancser, 
king  of  Assyria,  after  a  three  years'  siege, 
and  the  inhabitants  carried  ofll"  into  captiv- 
ity. Their  place  was  supplied  by  colonists 
from  Babylon  and  other  places.  It  was 
subsequently  captured  by  Alexander  the 
Great,  when  the  "Samaritan"  inhabitants 
were  driven  out,  and  their  place  supplied 
by  Syro-Macedonians.  It  was  again  taken 
(i09*n.c.)  by  John  Hyrcanus.  who  com- 
pletely destroyed  it.  Soon  rebuilt,  it  re- 
mained for  fifty  years  in  possession  of  the 
Jews  ;  but  Ponipey,  in  his  victorious  march, 
restored  it  to  the  descendants  of  the  ex- 
pelled Samaritans,  who  had  settled  in  the 
neighborhood,  and  it  was  re-fortified  by 
Gabinius.  Its  name  was  changed  to  Se- 
baste  by  Ilenxl  the  (Jrcat.  In  the  3d  cen- 
tury it  became  a  Koman  colony ;  but  ita 
prosperity  perished  with  the  Mohammedan 


SAMBAS 


508 


SAN  JACINTO 


conquest  of  Palestine,  and  is  at  present  only 
a  small  village  called  Sebustieh,  an  Arab 
corruption  of  Sebaste. 

Sambas.  A  town  on  the  west  coast  of 
Borneo.  It  was  attacked  in  1812  and  1813 
by  the  British,  who  were  repulsed  in  their 
first  attempt,  but  succeeded  in  capturing  the 
town  at  the  second  attack. 

Sambre.  A  river  of  French  Flanders, 
which  has  been  the  scene  of  many  sangui- 
nary conflicts  at  different  periods.  It  arises 
in  the  Ardennes,  between  La  Capelle  and 
Chateaux-Cambressis;  runs  from  southwest 
to  northeast ;  washes  Landrecy,  a  fortified 
town,  which  was  taken  by  the  Imperialists 
in  1793.  In  its  vicinity  is  Troisville,  where, 
in  1794,  the  French  were  defeated  by  the 
British  under  the  Duke  of  York.  Mau- 
beuge  is  situated  in  advance  of  the  forest  of 
Mormal.  It  was  fortified  by  Vauban,  and 
has  a  manufactory  of  fire-arms,  and  a  garri- 
son of  infantry  and  cavalry.  It  was  vainly 
besieged  by  the  allies  in  181-1.  Near  it  is 
Wattignies,  where  Jourdan  beat  the  Aus- 
trians  in  1813,  and  compelled  them  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Maubeuge.  From  hence  the 
Sambre  flows  out  of  France,  and  passing 
into  Belgium,  washes  Charleroi,  a  fortified 
place,  captured  by  the  French  in  1672,  1677, 
1693,  1736,  1792,  and  1794.  It  leaves  upon 
the  heights  on  its  right  bank,  Fleurus,  a 
place  rendered  famous  by  four  remarkable 
battles, — that  of  1622,  gained  by  the  Span- 
iards over  the  Protestants  of  Germany  ;  that 
of  1690,  gained  by  Luxemburg  over  the 
Imperialists  ;  the  battle  of  1794,  gained  by 
Jourdan  over  the  allies ;  and  the  battle  of 
1815  (also  designated  the  battle  of  Ligny), 
gained  bj'  Napoleon  over  the  Prussians. 
The  battle  of  1794  was  preceded  by  the 
siege  of  Charleroi,  during  which  the  French 
had  six  times  crossed  the  Sambre  in  vain, 
and  had  been  repulsed  in  six  battles,  the 
most  celebrated  of  which  are  those  of 
Grandreng,  of  the  Pechant,  and  of  Mar- 
chienne. 

Sambuque  (Fr.)  An  ancient  musical 
instrument  of  the  wind  kind,  resembling  a 
flute.  It  was  also  the  name  of  an  ancient 
engine  of  war  used  by  Marcellus  in  besieg- 
ing Syracuse.  Plutarch  relates  that  two 
ships  were  required  to  carry  it.  A  minute 
description  of  this  engine  may  be  seen  in 
Polybius. 

Same,  or  Samos  (anc.  Cephallenia).  A 
town  situated  on  the  eastern  coast,  opposite 
Ithaca;  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  the 
Komans,  189  B.C. 

Samnites.  The  people  of  ancient  Sam- 
nium,  a  country  of  Central  Italy.  They 
were  an  offshoot  of  the  Sabines,  who  emi- 
grated from  their  country  between  the  Nar 
and  Tiber, ;and  the  Anio,  before  the  founda- 
tion of  Pioti>3,  and  settled  in  Samnium. 
This  country  was  at  the  time  of  their  mi- 
gration inhabited  by  Opicans,  whom  the 
Samnites  conquered,  and  whose  language 
they  adopted.  The  Samnites  were  distin- 
guished for  their  hra,very  and  love  of  free- 


dom. Issuing  from  their  mountain  fast- 
nesses, the}'  overran  a  great  part  of  Cam- 
pania; and  it  was  in  consequence  of  Capua 
applying  to  the  Romans  for  assistance 
against  the  Samnites  that  war  broke  out  be- 
tween the  two  nations  in  343  B.C.  The  Ro- 
mans found  the  Samnites  the  most  warlike 
and  formidable  enemies  whom  they  had  yet 
encountered  in  Ital}',  and  the  war,  which 
commenced  in  343,  was  continued  with  few 
interruptions  for  the  space  of  fifty-three 
years.  It  was  not  until  290,  when  all  their 
bravest  troops  had  fallen,  and  their  country 
had  been  repeatedly  ravaged  in  every  direc- 
tion by  the  Roman  legions,  that  the  Sam- 
nites sued  for  peace  and  submitted  to  the 
supremacy  of  Rome.  They,  never,  how- 
ever, lost  their  love  of  freedom  ;  and,  ac- 
cordingly, they  not  only  joined  the  other 
Italian  allies  in  the  war  against  Rome  (90), 
but,  even  after  the  other  allies  had  submit- 
ted, they  still  continued  in  arms.  The  civil 
war  between  Marius  and  Sulla  gave  them 
hopes  of  recovering  their  independence;  but 
they  were  defeated  before  the  gates  of  Rome 
(82),  the  greater  part  of  their  troops  fell  in 
battle,  and  the  remainder  were  put  to  death. 
Their  towns  were  laid  waste,  the  inhabitants 
sold  as  slaves,  and  their  place  supplied  by 
Roman  colonists. 

Samos.  An  island  on  the  west  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  which  was  colonized  by  lonians 
about  1043  B.C.  Samos  was  taken  by  the 
Athenians,  440 ;  and,  with  Greece,  became 
subject  to  Rome,  146.  It  was  taken  by  the 
Venetians,  1125;  taken  by  the  emperor 
Leo  in  the  13th  century,  and  then  success- 
ively fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Venetians, 
Genoese,  and  Turks.  At  the  time  of  the 
Greek  insurrection  the  Samians  zealously 
embraced  the  side  of  liberty.  They  expelled 
the  Turks  from  the  island,  which  they  put 
into  a  state  of  defense,  establishing  an  inde- 
pendent government.  Various  attempts  were 
made  by  the  Turks  to  regain  the  island,  but 
they  were  all  foiled  by  the  courage  of  the 
people  and  the  vigilance  of  the  Greek  fleet. 
In  the  treaty,  however,  which  secured  the 
independence  and  defined  the  limits  of 
Greece,  Samos  was  still  left  to  Turkey,  and 
the  subsequent  efforts  that  she  has  made 
have  only  secured  a  partial  freedom. 

San  Antonio,  called  also  San  Antonio  de 
Bexar.  A  city  of  Texas,  U.  S.,  is  built 
near  the  sources  of  the  San  Antonio  River, 
110  miles  southwest  of  Austin.  It  is  one  of 
the  oldest  Spanish  towns  on  the  continent, 
and  in  the  Texan  revolution  of  1836  was  the 
scene  of  the  massacre  of  the  Alamo,  when 
a  garrison  of  150  men,  led  by  Col.  Travis, 
and  including  David  Crockett,  was  sur- 
rounded by  several  thousand  Mexicans,  and 
after  a  heroic  resistance  killed  to  the  last 
man.     It  contains  a  national  arsenal. 

San  Jacinto.  A  small  viUage  of  Harris 
Co.,  Texas,  on  Buffalo  Bayou,  near  its  en- 
trance into  Galveston  Bav,  about  18  miles 
east  of  Houston.  On  A*pril  21,  1836,  the 
main  Texan  army  under  Gen.  Houston  met 


SAN  SALVADOR 


509 


SAPPERS 


the  Mexicans,  who  were  double  their  num- 
ber, near  San  Jacinto.  Furiously  theTexans 
rushed  to  battle,  with  the  cry,  "  Renioniber 
the  Alamo  I"  They  fought  at  less  than  halt- 
rifle  distance,  and  in  It-ss  than  half  an  hour 
wholly  routed  the  ilexicans,  killing  and 
wounding  u  number  greater  than  the  whole 
Texan  force.  Among  the  prisoners  taken 
after  the  battle  was  Santa  Anna  himself. 
The  result  of  this  battle  was  the  undisputed 
inde|icndfnce  of  Texas. 

San  Salvador.  The  smallest  of  the  Cen- 
tral American  republics,  and  consists  of  a 
strip  of  territory  stretching  along  between 
Honduras  and  the  Pacific,  and  bounded  on 
the  west  by  Guatemala,  and  on  the  east  by 
Fonseca  Bay.  It  was  conciuercd  after  a  long 
and  obstinate  contest  by  Pedro  de  Alvarado, 
a  lieutenant  of  Corte/,.  In  1821  it  threw  otf 
the  yoke,  and  joined  the  Mexican  Confedera- 
tion, from  which,  however,  it  seceded  in 
18*23.  In  1803,  a  war  broke  out  between 
San  Salvador  and  Guatenuila,  in  which 
Honduras  joined  the  former  and  Nicaragua 
the  latter.  The  result  was  the  defeat  of  San 
Salvador. 

San  Sebastian.  A  seaport  of  Spain,  cap- 
ital of  Guipuzcoa,  one  of  the  Basque  prov- 
inces, on  the  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay, 
42  miles  north-northwest  of  Pampeluna. 
From  its  position  and  strength,  it  has  long 
been  a  place  of  much  importance,  and  has 
sustained  several  sieges.  The  most  memo- 
rable of  these  was  in  1813,  when  the  British 
under  Wellington  took  it  by  storm. 

San  Severe.  A  town  of  Naples,  capital 
of  a  district  in  the  province  of  Capitanata. 
The  inhabitants  in  17911  made  a  gallant  but 
vain  resistance  to  the  French  under  Du- 
hesme,  in  revenge  for  which  an  indiscrimi- 
nate slaughter  was  begun,  and  the  town  was 
only  saved  from  total  destruction  by  the  he- 
roism of  the  women,  who  threw  themselves 
between  the  victorious  soldiery  and  their 
victims. 

Sandhurst  Military  College.  See  Mili- 
tary Ac'ADKMiKs  (Great  Bkitaix). 

Sangiac.  A  situation  or  appointment  of 
dignity  in  Turkey.  The  sangiacs  are  gov- 
ernors of  towns  or  cantons,  and  take  rank 
immediately  after  the  bctilerhegH.  (See  Beo.) 
The  name  is  also  applied  to  the  banner  which 
he  is  authorized  to  display,  and  has  been  mis- 
taken for  Saint  Jacques. 

Sanjak.  A  Turkish  word  signifying  "a 
standard,"  is  employed  to  denote  a  subdivis- 
ion of  an  eyalet,  because  the  ruler  of  such  a 
subdivision,  called  sanjak-heg,  is  entitled  to 
carry  in  war  a  standard  of  one  horse-tail. 
The  sanjak  is  frequently  called  liva,  and  its 
ruler  a  minnivain. 

Sanjak-Sherif.  See  Flag  of  the 
Proimiet. 

Sansculottes  {i.e.,  "  without  breeches'"). 
"Was  the  name  given  in  scorn,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  French  revolution,  by  the  court 
party  to  the  democratic  "  proleta ires''  of 
Paris.  The  latter  accepted  this  superfine 
reproach  with  sardonic  pride,  and  the  term 


soon  became  the  distinctive  appellation  of  a 
"good  patriot,"  more  especially  as  such  a 
one  often  made  a  j)oint  of  showing  his  con- 
tempt fur  the  rich  by  neglecting  his  apparel, 
and  cultivating  rough  and  cynical  manners. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  Convention,  the 
name,  connected  as  it  had  been  with  all  the 
sanguinary  excesses  of  the  period,  naturally 
fell  into  bad  odor,  and  soon  after  totally 
disappeared. 

Santa  Fe.  City  and  capital  of  the  Ter- 
ritory of  New  Mexico,  built  among  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  on  a  plain  7047  feet  above 
the  sea.  It  is  an  old  Spanish  Mexican  town, 
about  20  miles  east  of  the  Rio  Grande  del 
Norte.  The  Sjtaniards  were  driven  out  of 
Santa  Fe  in  1*580  by  the  Pueblo  Indians; 
but  it  was  recaptured  by  the  former  in  1094, 
and  held  by  them  till  the  occupation  by 
Americans  in  1840.  It  was  occupied  by  the 
Confederates  for  several  days  in  1802. 

Santiago  de  Compostella.  An  impor- 
tant and  once  famous  city  of  Spain,  formerly 
the  capital  of  Galicia.  It  was  sacked  by 
the  Moors  in  995,  and  held  by  them  till  it 
was  taken  by  Ferdinand  III.  in  1235.  It 
Was  taken  by' the  French  in  1809,  and  held 
till  1814. 

Sap.  In  military  engineering,  is  a  nar- 
row ditch  or  trench,  by  which  approach  is 
made  from  the  foremost  parallel  towards  the 
glacis  or  covert  way  of  a  besieged  place. 
"The  sap  is  usually  made  by  four  sappers, 
the  leading  man  of  whom  rolls  a  large 
gabion  before  him,  and  excavates  as  he  pro- 
gresses, filling  smaller  gabions  with  the  earth 
dug  out,  and  erecting  them  on  one  or  both 
sides  to  form  a  parapet.  The  other  sappers 
widen  and  deepen  the  sap,  throwing  more 
earth  on  to  the  parapet.  A  sap  is  considered 
to  advance  in  average  ground  about  8  feet 
per  hour.  From  the  nearness  of  the  enemy's 
works,  running  a  sap  is  an  extremely  dan- 
gerous operation.  AVhen  possible,  therefore, 
it  is  carried  on  at  night ;  in  any  case,  the 
sappers  are  relieved  at  least  every  hour. 
When  a  sap  is  enlarged  to  the  dimensions 
of  a  trench,  it  bears  that  name.  AVhen  the 
fire  of  the  enemy  is  slack,  so  that  many 
gabions  may  be  placed  and  filled  at  the  same 
time,  it  is  called  ajfi/itig  sap.  If  two  parapets, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  trench,  be  formed, 
it  is  then  called  a  double  sap. 

Sap.  To  pierce  with  saps;  to  execute 
saps.  Also,  to  proceed  by  mining  or  secretly 
undermining. 

Sap-fagots.  Are  fascines  3  feet  long, 
placed  vertically  between  two  gabions,  for 
the  protection  of  the  sappers  before  the 
parapet  is  thrown  over. 

Sappers  and  Miners.  Are  soldiers  be- 
longing to  the  engineer  corps,  and  now  called 
engineers,  whose  business  it  is  to  make  ga- 
bions, fascines,  hurdles,  etc.,  to  trace  lines 
and  trenches,  to  drive  the  various  kinds  of 
saps,  to  descend  into  and  pass  the  ditch,  to 
destroy  the  enemy's  obstacles,  to  drain  the 
trenches,  to  put  up  the  various  kinds  of  re- 
vetments, to  post  and  superintend  working 


SAPPING 


510 


SARBACANE 


parties,  and  to  serve  in  the  mines  when  re- 
quired. They  are  also  taught  to  adjust  and 
sod  the  slopes,  to  erect  palisades,  fraises,  etc., 
and  to  repair  the  defenses  of  a  place,  as  also 
to  erect  bridges,  and  throw  pontons  over 
rivers,  to  plant  torpedoes,  and  in  fact  to  per- 
form all  the  duties  appertaining  to  engineer 
soldiers.  In  marching  near  an  enemy, 
every  column  should  have  with  its  advance- 
guaid  a  detachment  of  sappers,  furnished 
with  tools  to  open  the  way  or  repair  the 
road.  Bonaparte  considered  the  proper  pro- 
portion of  engineer  soldiers  to  an  army  to  be 
1:40;  but  now  in  France  it  is  1:33;  in 
England  1 :  34  ;  in  Prussia  1 :  36  ;  and  in 
the  United  States  1  :  60. 

Sapping.  The  art  of  excavating  trenches 
of  approach,  under  the  musketry-fire  of  the 
besieged. 

Sap-roller.  Consists  of  two  large  con- 
centric gabions,  6  feet  in  length,  the  outer 
one  having  a  diameter  of  4  feet,  the  inner 
one  a  diameter  of  2  feet  8  inches,  the  space 
between  them  being  stutfed  with  pickets  or 
small  billets  of  hard  wood,  to  make  them 
musket-shot  proof.  Its  use  is  to  protect  the 
squad  of  sappers  in  their  approach  from  the 
fire  of  the  place. 

Saracens.  A  name  variously  employed 
by  mediaeval  writers  to  designate  the  Mo- 
hammedans of  Syria  and  Palestine,  the 
Arabs  generally,  or  the  Arab-Berber  races 
of  Northern  Africa,  who  conquered  Spain 
and  Sicily,  and  invaded  France.  At  a  later 
date  it  was  employed  as  a  synonym  for  all 
infidel  nations  against  which  crusades  were 
preached,  and  was  thus  applied  to  the  Sel- 
juks  of  Iconium,  the  Turks,  and  even  to  the 
pagan  Prussians. 

Saracen's  Head.  A  not  unfrequent  bear- 
ing in  l]i3raldry.  It  is  represented  as  the 
head  of  an  old  man  with  a  savage  counte- 
nance. 

Saragossa,  or  Zaragoza.  A  city  of  Spain, 
the  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name, 
and  formerly  of  the  kingdom  of  Aragon. 
It  is  situated  on  the  Ebro,  which  divides 
the  city  into  two  parts.  It  was  a  place  of 
importance  under  the  Eomans,  but  there 
are  few  remains  of  the  Roman  city.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Moors  in  the  8th  century, 
and  recovered  from  them  in  1118,  after  a 
siege  of  five  years,  during  which  a  great  part 
of  the  inhabitants  died  of  hunger.  It  was 
taken  by  the  French  in  1809,  after  a  siege 
of  eight  months,  and  one  of  the  most  heroic 
defenses  recorded  in  the  history  of  modern 
warfare. 

Saratoga.  A  township  of  Saratoga  Co., 
N.  Y.,  situated  on  the  Hudson,  28  miles 
north  from  Albany.  It  is  remarkable  in 
American  history  as  the  place  where  Bur- 
goyne  surrendered  to  the  Americans  in  1777. 
From  September  19  to  October  7  frequent 
animated  skirmishes  occurred  between  the 
British  and  the  Americans,  but  on  tlie  latter 
date  the  battle  of  Saratoga  began.  Gen. 
Gates  drew  up  his  army  on  the  brow  of  a 
hill,  near  the  river,  his  camp  being  in  the 


segment  of  a  large  circle,  the  convex  side 
towards  the  enemy.  Gen.  Burgoyne's  troops 
were  drawn  up  with  his  left  resting  on  the 
river,  liis  right  extending  at  right  angles  to 
it  across  the  low  grounds,  about  200  yards, 
to  a  range  of  steep  heights.  The  Americans 
attacked  the  British  along  their  whole  line, 
when  the  action  became  general.  The  ef- 
forts of  the  combatants  were  desperate. 
Burgoyne  and  his  oflBcers  fought  like  men 
who  were  defending,  at  the  last  cast,  their 
military  reputation ;  Gates  and  his  army 
like  those  who  were  deciding  whether  them- 
selves and  their  children  should  be  freedmen 
or  slaves.  The  invading  army  gave  way  in 
the  short  space  of  fifty-two  minutes.  The 
defenders  of  the  soil  followed  them  to  their 
intrenchments,  forced  the  guard  and  killed 
its  commander.  The  works  of  the  British 
were  stormed,  but  darkness  coming  on,  the 
Americans  desisted,  and  rested  on  their  arms 
upon  the  field  which  they  had  so  bravely 
won,  determined  to  pursue  their  victory 
with  returning  light.  But  Burgoyne,  aware 
of  the  advantage  which  the  Americans  had 
gained,  efiected  with  admirable  order  a 
change  of  his  ground.  His  entire  camp 
was  removed  before  morning  to  the  heights. 
Gates  was  too  wise  to  attack  his  enemy  in 
his  new  position,  but  made  arrangements  to 
inclose  them,  which  Burgoyne  perceiving, 
put  his  army  in  motion  at  9  o'clock  at  night 
and  removed  to  Saratoga,  6  miles  up  the 
river,  abandoning  his  sick  and  wounded  to 
the  humanity  of  the  Americans.  Burgoyne 
now  made  several  efforts  to  eff'ect  a  retreat ; 
but  in  every  way  he  had  been  anticipated. 
He  found  himself  in  a  foreign  and  hostile 
country,  hemmed  in  by  a  foe  whose  army, 
constantly  increasing,  already  amounted  to 
four  times  his  own  wasted  numbers.  His 
boats  laden  with  supplies  were  taken,  and 
his  provisions  were  failing,  and  when  he 
found  he  could  not  hold  out  any  longer,  his 
troops  being  in  the  utmost  distress,  he  sur- 
rendered on  October  17.  The  whole  num- 
ber surrendered  amounted  to  5752  men, 
which,  together  with  the  troops  lost  before 
by  various  disasters,  made  up  the  whole 
British  loss  to  9213  men.  There  also  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Americans  35  field- 
pieces  and  5000  muskets.  It  was  stipulated 
that  the  British  should  pile  their  arms  at  the 
word  of  command,  given  by  their  own  oflii- 
cers,  march  out  of  their  camp  with  the 
honors  of  war,  and  have  free  passage  across 
the  Atlantic;  they,  on  their  part,  agreeing 
not  to  serve  again  in  North  America  during 
the  war. 

Sarawak.  A  town  and  province  of  Bor- 
neo, on  the  northeast  coast  of  the  island. 
The  Chinese  inhabitants  of  this  place  rose  in 
insurrection  and  massacred  a  number  of  Eu- 
ropeans, February  17  and  18,  1857;  the 
rajah.  Sir  J.  Brooke,  raised  a  force  and 
speedily  chastised  the  insurgents,  of  whom 
2000  were  killed. 

Sarbacane  (Fr.).  A  blow-pipe,  or  long 
tube  of  wood  or  metal,  through  which  poi- 


SAIICELED 


611 


SASSANID.E 


soned  arrows  were  shot  by  blowing  with  the 

mo  nth. 

Sarceled.  In  lieruldry,  cut  througli  the 
iiii.kllr. 

Sardar.  In  the  East  Indies,  a  chief  or 
Ifitdi-r  is  so  called. 

Sardinia.  A  former  kini!;dom  in  the 
south  of  Europe,  composed  of  the  island  of 
Sardinia,  Piedmont,  Savoy,  and  the  terri- 
tories of  Genoa  and  Nice.  It  takes  its 
name  from  the  island  of  Sardinia,  and  was, 
in  1800,  merged  in  the  new  kingdom  of 
Italy.  From  1798  to  1814  the  continental 
part  of  Sardinia  formed  a  portion  of  the 
French  empire.  In  1848,  Charles  Alhert, 
the  reigning  monarch,  encouraged  the  in- 
hahitants  of  the  Lomhardo- Venetian  king- 
dom, or  Austrian  Italy,  in  their  attempts 
to  throw  oft"  the  Austrian  yoke,  and  marched 
to  their  assistance,  when  they  broke  into 
open  revolt.  He  gained  many  victories  at 
first  over  the  Austrians,  but  he  was  subse- 
quently defeated  by  Radetzky,  and  resigned 
his  crown  to  his  son,  Victor  Emmanuel.  In 
1855  Sardinia  took  part  with  Britain  and 
France  against  Russia.  In  1850  a  war  broke 
out  between  Austria  on  the  one  hand,  and 
France  and  Sardinia  on  the  other,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  defeat  of  the  Austrians  and  the 
annexation  of  Lombardy  to  the  Sardinian 
crown. 

Sardinia,  Island  of.  The  largest  after 
Sitily,  of  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean, 
lies  directly  south  of  Corsica,  from  which  it 
is  separated  by  the  Strait  of  Bonefacio.  It 
was  called  Sardo  by  the  Romans,  and  was 
colonized  at  a  very  early  period.  The  first 
really  historical  event  is  its  conquest,  about 
480  H.c,  by  the  Carthaginians.  They  were 
forced  to  abandon  it  to  the  Romans  (2."58 
B.C.),  who  gradually  subdued  the  rebellious 
natives,  and  made  it  a  province  of  the  re- 
public; but  on  three  several  occasions,  for- 
midable outbreaks  required  the  presence  of 
a  consul  with  a  large  army  to  restore  the 
authority  of  Rome.  It  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Vandals  and  other  barbarians,  and 
was  recovered  b}'  the  Eastern  empire  in  534, 
but  was  finally  separated  from  the  Roman 
empire  by  the  Saracens.  They  were  driven 
out  in  their  turn  by  the  Pisans.  Pope  Boni- 
face took  upon  him  to  transfer  it  to  the  king 
of  Aragon,  who  subdued  the  Genoese,  Pi- 
sans, and  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants,  and 
annexed  it  to  his  own  dominions  in  1324. 
It  remained  united  to  the  crown  of  Spain 
till  the  allies  made  a  conquest  of  it  in  1708. 
It  was  allotted  to  the  emperor  of  (Tcrmany 
at  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  in  1713.  The  Span- 
iards recovered  it  in  1717,  but  were  obliged 
to  abandon  it  two  years  after,  when  it  was 
conferred  on  the  duke  of  Savov  in  lieu  of 
the  kingdom  of  Sicily,  in  1720.  "  From  17ft8 
to  1814  it  was  the  only  portion  of  the  Sardi- 
nian dominions  left  in  the  power  of  its  sov- 
ereign, the  French  occupying  the  other  por- 
tion of  the  kingdom. 

Sardis,  or  Sardes.  .\nciently  the  capital 
of  Lydia,  in  Asiu  Minor,  stood  at  the  foot  of 


Mount  Tmolus,  now  called  Bozdag,  about 
50  miles  northeast  from  Smyrna  ;  the  citadel 
on  a  steep  rock  was  almost  impregnable, 
being  fortified  by  three  walls.  It  was  thus 
enabled  to  hold  out  when  the  lower  town 
was  taken  by  the  Cimmerians  in  the  reign 
of  Ardys.  During  the  Ionian  revolt,  501 
B.C.,  the  insurgents,  aided  by  the  Athenians, 
took  the  city.  It  was  taken  by  the  Turks 
in  the  11th  century,  and  suffered  a  severe 
blow  from  Tamerlane,  who  almost  entirely 
destroyed  it  about  200  years  later. 

Sarmatia.  The  ancient  name  of  the  coun- 
try in  Asia  and  Europe,  between  the  Caspian 
Sea  and  the  Vistula,  including  Russia  and 
Poland.  The  Sarmatffi,  or  Sauromatae, 
troubled  the  early  Roman  empire  by  incur- 
sions;  after  subduing  the  Scythians,  they 
were  subjugated  by  the  Goths  in  the  3d  and 
4th  centuries.  They  joined  the  Huns  and 
other  barbarians  in  invading  Western  Eu- 
rope in  the  olh  century. 

Sarno.  A  city  of  Southern  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Principato  Citra,  on  the  river 
of  the  same  name,  13  miles  northwest  of 
Salerno.  In  the  plain  near  Sarno,  Teias, 
king  of  the  Goths,  in  a  desperate  battle  with 
the  Greeks,  commanded  by  Narses,  in  653, 
was  vanquished  and  slain,  and  the  reign  of 
the  Goths  in  Italy  brought  to  a  close. 

Sarrazine.     A  rough  portcullis. 

Sarre  (/•'/•.).  When  artillery  was  first  in- 
vented, this  name  was  given  to  a  long  gun, 
of  smaller  dimensions  than  the  bombnrde. 

Sasbach.  A  village  of  Baden,  28  miles 
southwest  from  Carlsruhe.  Marshal  Tu- 
renne  was  killed  here  by  a  random  shot  in 
1G75. 

Sash.  In  the  British  army,  is  a  military 
distinction  worn  on  duty  or  parade  by  offi- 
cers and  non-commissioned  officers.  For 
the  former,  it  is  of  crimson  silk  ;  ior  the 
latter,  of  crimson  cotton.  It  is  tied  on  the 
right  side  by  the  cavalry,  and  on  the  left 
side  by  the  infantry.  In  Highland  regi- 
ment*, the  sash  is  worn  over  the  left  shoulder 
and  across  the  body.  The  sashes  for  the 
Austrian  army  are  of  crimson  and  gold ; 
the  Prussian  army,  black  silk  and  silver; 
the  Hanoverian  wears  yellow  silk  ;  the  Por- 
tuguese, crimson  silk,  with  blue  tassels  ;  the 
French  have  their  sashes  made  of  three 
colors, — white,  pink,  and  light  blue, — to  cor- 
respond with  the  national  fiag  In  the 
U.  S.  army,  all  general  officers  above  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general  may  wear  a  sash 
of  buff  silk  and  gold-thread  worn  across  the 
body  ;  and  for  brigadier-generals,  .«ashe.s  of 
bufl""silk  net,  with  silk  bullion  fringe  ends, 
are  worn  around  the  waist. 

Sassanidse.  A  famous  dynasty  of  Persia, 
which  reigned  from  22ti  to  ()51.  They  were 
the  de.scendant.s  of  Artaxerxes  or  Ardi.-hir, 
whose  father,  Babek,  was  the  son  of  Sassan. 
Ardishir  revolted  against  Artabanus.  king 
of  Parthia,  and  defeated  him  on  the  plain  of 
Hormuz,  22f),  and  re-established  the  Persian 
monarchy.  The  Roman  armies  could  make 
no  impression   on   the   Persians  under  the 


SATELLITES 


512 


SAXONS 


Sassanidse  ;  but  from  time  to  time  had  to  re- 
turn defeated  and  humiliated  from  the  Per- 
sian frontiers.  Their  last  monarch,  Yezde- 
jerd,  was  defeated  and  the  dynasty  expelled 
in  G52. 

Satellites.  Were  certain  armed  men,  of 
■whom  mention  is  made  in  the  history  of 
Philip  Augustus,  king  of  France.  The  sat- 
ellites of  Philip  Augustus  were  men  selected 
from  the  militia  of  the  country,  who  fought 
on  foot  and  horseback.  The  servants  or  bat- 
men who  attended  the  military  knights  when 
they  went  into  action  were  likewise  called  sat- 
ellites, and  fought  in  their  defense  mounted 
or  on  foot. 

Sattara.  A  town  and  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name,  in  British  India,  in 
the  Presidency  of  Bombay.  In  1700  its  fort 
offered  a  vigorous  resistance  for  two  months 
to  Aurungzebe,  who  besieged  it  in  person, 
but  it  was  reduced  by  blockade  ;  and  in  1818 
a  few  bomb-shells  procured  its  surrender  to 
the  British. 

Saturn.  In  heraldry,  the  black  color  in 
blazoning  arms ;  sable. 

Saucisson,  or  Sausage.  Is  a  fascine  of 
more  than  the  usual  length  ;  but  the  princi- 
pal application  of  the  term  is  to  the  appara- 
tus for  tiring  a  military  mine.  This  consists 
of  a  long  bag  or  pipe  of  linen,  cloth,  or 
leather,  from  1  inch  to  IJ  inch  in  diameter, 
and  charged  with  gunpowder.  One  end  is 
laid  in  the  mine  to  be  exploded  ;  the  other  is 
conducted  to  the  galleries  to  a  place  where 
the  engineers  can  fire  in  safety.  The  electric 
spark  is  now  preferred  to  the  saucisson. 

Saumur.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Maine-et-Loire,  28  miles  south- 
east of  Angers.  A  striking  event  in  the 
history  of  the  town  was  its  brilliant  capture 
by  Larochejaquelein  and  the  Vendeans,  June 
10,  1793.  In  this  action,  the  victors,  with 
but  a  slight  loss,  captured  60  cannon,  10,000 
muskets,  and  11,000  republicans;  it  was  a 
stronghold  of  the  Protestants  during  the 
reign  of  Henry  IV. 

Savages,  or  Wild  Men.  In  heraldry,  are 
of  frequent  occurrence  as  supporters.  The}'^ 
are  represented  naked,  and  also,  particularly 
in  the  later  heraldry,  are  usually  wreathed 
about  the  head  and  middle  with  laurel,  and 
often  furnished  with  a  club  in  the  exterior 
hand.  Savages  are  especially  prevalent  in 
the  heraldry  of  Scotland.  In  more  than 
one  of  the  Douglas  seals  of  the  first  half  of 
the  ISth  century,  the  shield  is  borne  in  one 
hand  by  a  single  savage,  who  acts  as  sole 
supporter. 

Savan  Droog,  or  Savendroog.  A  strong 
hill  fort  of  India,  in  the  territory  of  Mysore, 
19  miles  west  from  Bangalore.  It  was 
stormed  by  the  British  in  1791  ;  and  after  the 
fall  of  Tippoo  Sahib  in  1799,  it  was  garri- 
soned by  a  native  force. 

Savannah.  A  city  and  port  of  Georgia, 
U.  S.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Savannah 
Kiver,  18  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  city  is 
surrounded  by  marshes  and  islands,  and  was 
defended  by  Fort  Pulaski  and  Fort  Jackson. 


Savannah  was  founded  in  1733,  by  the  Eng- 
lish general  Oglethorpe.  In  1776  a  British 
fleet,  attempting  to  take  the  town,  was  re- 
pulsed after  a  severe  action ;  but  it  was 
taken  in  1778,  and  held  in  1779  against  the 
combined  French  and  American  forces.  In 
the  war  of  Secession,  after  many  unsuccess- 
ful attacks  by  sea,  it  was  taken  by  Gen. 
Sherman  in  February,  1865. 

Saverne  (anc.  Taberna).  A  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  Bas-Bhin,  on 
the  Zorn,  19  miles  northwest  of  Strasburg. 
It  is  a  very  ancient  place,  and  was  formerly 
fortified.  It  suflfered  very  much  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  War;  and  its  fortifications 
were  destroyed  in  1696. 

Savigliano.  A  fortified  town  of  Northern 
Italy,  in  Piedmont,  28  miles  south  from 
Turin.  The  French  defeated  the  Austrians 
here  in  1799. 

Savona.  A  maritime  city  of  Northern 
Italy,  in  the  province  of  Genoa,  and  25 
miles  southwest  from  the  city  of  that  name. 
It  is  a  very  ancient  city,  and  in  the  time  of 
the  Romans  was  called  Sava ;  was  destroyed 
by  Ilotharis  (639),  rebuilt  by  Ludovic  the 
Pious  (981),  and  was  afterwards  laid  waste 
by  the  Saracens. 

Savoy.  Formerly  a  province  in  Northern 
Italy,  east  of  Piedmont.  It  became  a  Ro- 
man province  about  118  B.C.  The  Alemanni 
seized  it  in  395,  and  the  Franks  in  490.  It 
shared  the  revolutions  of  Switzerland  till 
about  1048.  The  French  subdued  Savoy  in 
1792,  and  made  it  a  department  of  France 
under  the  name  of  Mont  Blanc  in  1800;  it 
was  restored  to  the  king  of  Sardinia  in 
1814;  but  was  once  more  annexed  to  France 
in  1860. 

Sawunt  Warree.  A  native  state  of  India, 
in  the  Presidency  of  Bombay.  The  first 
treaty  between  Sawunt  Warre  and  the  Brit- 
ish took  place  in  1730,  and  had  for  its  object 
to  suppress  the  piracies  of  the  Angria  family 
in  the  island  of  Kolabah.  But  the  chief- 
tains of  Sawunt  Warree,  being  themselves 
addicted  to  piracy,  drew  upon  them  the  hos- 
tility of  the  British  in  1765.  A  series  of 
wars,  treaties,  and  negotiations  ensued, 
which  ended  in  the  subjugation  of  the  state 
in  1819  by  a  British  force.  The  sea-coast 
was  then  ceded  to  the  British,  and  the  na- 
tive government  restored.  Rebellions  were 
raised  against  the  chiefs  in  1828,  1832,  and 
1838.  The  most  important  event  that  has 
since  occurred,  was  the  dangerous  rebellion 
which  began  in  the  autumn  of  1844,  and 
was  put  down  after  some  months  of  hard 
fighting  by  Lieut. -Col.  Outram  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  following  year. 

Sawyer  Projectile.     See  Projectile. 

Saxons.  A  German  people  whose  name 
is  usually  derived  from  an  old  German  word, 
sahs,  "  a  knife,"  and  are  first  mentioned  by 
Ptolemy,  who  makes  them  inhabit  a  district 
south  of  the  Cimbrian  Peninsula.  They  are 
mentioned  as  brave  and  skillful  sailors  who 
often  joined  the  Chauci  in  piratical  expedi- 
tions against  the  coast  of  Gaul.     In  the  3d 


SAXONY 


613 


SCALING-LADDEKS 


century  thej'  appear  in  England  under  Ca- 
rausius,  u  Belijic  admiral  in  the  Konuin  ser- 
vice, who  made  him.*cif  "  Au«<ustus"  in 
Britain  by  their  help.  They  had  firmly 
rooted  themselves,  at  the  bej^inning  of  the 
5th  century,  in  the  present  Normandy,  and 
they  fought  against  Attila  in  the  Catalaunian 
Plain,  4.')1.  They  also  obtained  a  footing  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Loire;  but  all  the  Saxuns 
who  settled  in  France  disappeared  btfori'the 
Franks,  or  were  probably  incc^rporated  with 
their  more  powerful  kinsmen  of  Southern 
Germany.  Along  with  the  Franks,  they 
destroyed  the  kingdom  of  the  Thuringians 
in  531,  and  obtained  possession  of  the  land 
between  the  Ilarz  and  the  Unstrut ;  but  this 
district  was  in  turn  forced  to  acknowledge 
the  Frankish  sovereignty.  From  719,  wars 
between  the  Sa.xons  and  the  Franks  became 
constant;  but  the  latter,  after  772,  were 
generally  successful,  in  spite  of  the  vigorous 
resistance  otlered  by  Wittekind,  and  in  804, 
the  Saxons  were  finally  subjugated  by  the 
arms  of  Charlemagne. 

Saxony,  Kingdom  of.  The  second  in  im- 
portance and  population  of  the  mint>r  (ier- 
nian  states,  and  a  state  of  the  new  German 
empire.  The  earliest  inhabitants  of  U[)per 
Saxony,  since  the  Christian  era,  were  the 
Hermunduri ;  in  the  beginning  of  the  Glh 
century  their  settlements  were  taken  posses- 
sion of  by  the  Sorbs,  a  Slavic  race.  The 
Carlovingian  rulers,  dissatisfied  with  the  in- 
gress of  those  non-German  tribes,  erected 
"marks"  to  bar  their  progress;  and  Duke 
Otho  the  Illustrious  of  Saxony,  and  his 
celebrated  son,  Henry  the  Fowler,  warred 
against  them,  the  latter — subduing  the  Ile- 
veller,  the  Daleminzer,  and  the  Milt/.er — 
founded  in  their  country  the  marks  of  Bran- 
denburg Misnia  (Meissen),  and  Lusatia 
(Lausitz),  and  planted  colonies  of  Germans 
among  the  Sorbs.  In  10!)0  the  mark  was 
bestowed  on  the  house  of  "VVettin,  and  was 
confirmed  as  a  hereditary  possession  to  that 
family  in  1127.  Frederick  the  Warlike 
(1381-1428)  succeeded  in  uniting  the  severed 
portions  of  Saxony,  to  which  were  added 
various  districts  in  Franconia,  and  in  1423 
the  electorate  of  Saxony.  The  Saxon  elector 
was  now  one  of  the  most  powerful  princes  of 
Germany,  but  unfortunately  the  fatal  prac- 
tice of  subdividing  the  father's  territories 
among  his  sons  still  continued  ;  and  during 
the  reign  of  the  elector,  Frederick  the  Mild 
(1428-14ti4),  a  civil  war  broke  6ut  and 
was  carried  on  for  years.  By  a  separate 
treaty  of  peace  (KJSo),  John  George  I.  ob- 
tained Upper  and  Lower  Lusatia,  accjuisi- 
tions  confirmed  by  the  treaty  of  Westplialia 

il648).  The  reign  of  Frederick  Augustus 
.  (lt;'.)4-1733)  well-nigh  ruined  the  hitherto 
I)rosperous  electorate.  Frederick  Augustus 
lad  been  chosen  king  of  Poland  ;  and  his  at- 
tempt, in  company  with  the  czar  and  the 
king  of  Denmark,  to  dismember  Sweden, 
brought  down  upon  him  and  his  two  states 
the  vengeance  of  the  northern  "  fire-king." 
Poland  was  utterly  devastated,  and  Saxony 


exhausted  in  money  and  troops  ;  the  king 
was  forced  to  sell  many  important  portions 
of  territory  ;  Frederick  Augustus  II.  (1733- 
1703),  also  king  of  Poland,  took  part  in  the 
war  of  the  Austrian  Succession  against 
Maria  Theresa,  but  finding  tlie  treaty  of 
Berlin  (1742)  not  so  satisfactory  for  himself 
as  he  expected,  he  joined  the  empress  in  1745. 
The  country  was  atrociously  ravaged  during 
the  Seven  Years'  War,  and  a-  long  time 
elapsed  before  it  recovered  its  previous 
peaceful  and  prosperous  state.  In  the  con- 
flict of  18tj6  the  king  of  Saxony  took  the  side 
of  Austria,  and  his  army  f<night  in  the  battle 
of  Koniggratx,  July  3.  The  Prussians  en- 
tered Saxony  June  18.  Peace  between  Prus- 
sia and  Saxony  was  signed  October  21  (sub- 
jecting the  Saxon  army  to  Prussia),  and  the 
king  returned  to  Dresden  November  3.  In 
1870-71  the  Saxon  soldiers  fought  under  the 
leadership  of  the  crown-prince,  afterward 
King  Albert,  as  true  allies  by  the  side  of  the 
Prussians,  and  the  interior  development  of 
the  country  has  not  only  kept  pace  with,  but 
in  some  respects  even  advanced  beyond,  that 
of  the  rest  of  Northern  Germany. 

Scabbard.  Is  the  sheath  for  a  sword  or 
bayonet,  at  once  to  render  the  weapon  harm- 
less and  to  protect  it  from  damp.  It  was 
usually  made  of  black  leather,  tipped, 
mouthed,  and  ringed  with  metal,  but  is 
now  generally  made  of  bronzed  steel.  The 
cavalry  wear  scabbards  of  j)olished  steel. 
The.se  better  sustain  the  friction  against  the 
horses'  accoutrements,  but  are  objectionable 
from  their  noisiness,  and  the  consequent  im- 
possibility of  surprising  an  enemy.  The 
sword-scabbard  is  suspended  to  the  belt  by 
two  rings  ;  the  bayonet-scabbard  hooks  into 
a  frog  in  connection  with  the  waist-belt. 

Scalade  (from  the  Fr.  escalnd'^).  A 
furious  attack  upon  a  wall  or  rampart,  con- 
trary to  form,  and  with  no  regularity,  fre- 
quently carried  on  with  ladders,  to  insult 
the  wall  by  open  force. 

Scale.  To  climb  by  a  ladder,  or  as  if  by 
a  ladder;  to  clamber  up;  as,  to  scale  the 
ramparts. 

Scale-armor.  Consisted  t>f  small  plates 
of  steel  riveted  together  in  a  manner  resem- 
bling the  scales  of  a  fish.  From  the  small 
size  of  the  plates,  it  possessed  considerable 
pliability,  and  was  therefore  a  favorite  pro- 
tection for  the  neck,  in  the  form  of  a  curtain 
hanging  from  the  helmet.  Scale-armor  is 
now  obsolete,  except,  perhaps,  among  some 
Eastern  potentates. 

Scaling.  Scaling  a  piece  of  artillerj-,  is 
the  flashing  off  of  a  small  quantity  of  pow- 
der to  clean  out  the  bore  ;  about  onctwelfth 
of  the  shot's  weight.  The  practice  is  dis- 
continued. 

Scaling-ladders  (Fr.  rchellrs  dc  siege). 
Are  ladders  used  in  scaling  when  a  place  is 
to  be  taken  by  surprise.  They  arc  made 
several  ways  ;  'sometimes  of  flat  stave.*,  so  as 
to  move  about  their  pins,  and  shut  like  a 
parallel  ruler,  for  conveniently  carrying 
them. 


SCAMPER 


514 


SCHOOLMASTER 


Scamper,  To  run  away  precipitately ; 
said  of  troops. 

Scandinavia.  The  ancient  name  of  Swe- 
den, Norway,  and  a  great  part  of  Denmarlv, 
whence  proceeded  tlie  Northmen,  or  Nor- 
mans, who  conquered  Normandy  (ahout 
900),  and  eventually  England  (1066).  See 
Normans. 

Scarf.  In  heraldry,  a  small  ecclesiastical 
banner  suspended  from  the  top  of  a  crozier. 

Scarp,  To.  To  cut  down  a  slope  so  as  to 
render  it  inaccessible.  See  Counterscarp, 
and  Escarp. 

Scarpa.  In  heraldry,  a  diminutive  of  the 
bend  sinister,  being  half  the  breadth  of  that 
ordinary. 

Sceptre.  Originally  a  staff  or  walking- 
stick,  hence  in  course  of  time,  also  a  weapon 
of  assault  and  of  defense.  At  a  very  early 
period  the  privilege  of  carrying  it  came  to 
be  connected  with  the  idea  of  authority  and 
station.  The  sceptre  of  the  kings  of  Rome, 
which  was  afterwards  borne  by  the  consuls, 
was  of  ivory,  and  surmounted  by  an  eagle. 
Since  that  time  there  has  been  considerable 
variety  in  its  form.  The  English  sceptre 
now  in  use  dates  from  Charles  II. 's  time, 
and  is  cruciform. 

Schaife,  In  the  Middle  Ages,  a  quiver 
or  bundle  of  arrows  was  so  called. 

Schellenberg.  A  village  in  the  south- 
east of  Upper  Bavaria,  6  miles  southwest 
from  the  Austrian  town  of  Salzburg,  near 
which  occurred  the  first  battle  of  the  War 
of  the  Spanish  Succession,  in  which  the 
English  took  part.  Maximilian  Emmanuel, 
elector  of  Bavaria,  had  fortified  the  hill  of 
Schellenberg  to  resist  the  progress  of  Marl- 
borough ;  but  on  July  4,  1704,  the  work  was 
attacked  by  the  English,  led  on  by  Prince 
Ludwig,  of  Baden,  and  carried  by  storm 
after  a  bloody  fight. 

Schenkle  Projectile.     See  Projectile. 

Schierling.  A  town  of  Germany,  in  Ba- 
varia, 12  miles  south  from  Ratisbon.  The 
Austrians  were  defeated  by  the  French  in  its 
vicinity  in  1809. 

Schieswig,  or  Sleswick.  Formerly  a 
duchy  of  Denmark.  Its  history  is  identical 
with  that  of  Holstein  (which  see). 

Schliengen.  A  town  of  Baden,  22  miles 
southwest  from  Mulheim.  The  Archduke 
Charles  of  Austria  defeated  the  French  near 
this  place  in  1796. 

Schmalkald,  League  of.  The  name  given 
to  the  defensive  alliance  concluded  provis- 
ionally for  nine  years  at  Schmalkalden,  Feb- 
ruary 27,  1531,  between  nine  Protestant 
princes  and  eleven  imperial  cities,  with 
whom  other  five  princes  and  ten  imperial 
cities  subsequently  made  common  cause ; 
and  the  elector  of  Saxony  and  the  landgrave 
of  Hesse  were  appointed  chiefs  of  the  league, 
and  empowered  to  manage  its  aflfairs.  The 
object  of  this  formidable  alliance,  which  in- 
cluded the  whole  of  Northern  Germany, 
Denmark,  Saxony,  and  Wiirtemberg,  and 
portions  of  Bavaria  and  Switzerland,  was 
for  the  common  defense  of  the  religious  and 


political  freedom  of  the  Protestants  against 
the  emperor  Charles  V.  and  the  Catholic 
states.  The  league  was  not  rendered  super- 
fluous by  the  religious  peace  of  Niirnberg  in 
1532,  and  on  the  rumor  that  the  emperor 
was  meditating  new  hostile  measures  against 
the  Protestants,  another  meeting  of  the  con- 
federates was  held  December  24,  1535,  which 
resolved  to  raise  a  permanent  army  of  10,000 
foot  and  2000  cavalry,  and  to  prolong  the 
league  for  ten  years.  The  confederation  was 
further  consolidated  by  articles  of  guaran- 
tee, which  were  drawn  up  by  Luther  at 
Wittenberg  in  1536,  and  being  subscribed 
by  the  theologians  present  at  the  meeting  of 
the  league  at  Schmalkalden  in  February, 
1537,  were  called  the  Articles  of  Schmalkald. 
Against  the  league  the  emperor,  engaged  as 
he  was  at  the  time  in  contests  with  the  Turks 
and  French,  found  himself  unable  to  con- 
tend, though  supported  by  the  Holy  League, 
a  Catholic  coiifederation  formed  in  1538,  in 
opposition  to  the  Protestant  one.  But  im- 
politic management,  mutual  jealousies,  and 
conflicting  petty  interests  dissipated  their 
energies,  and  prevented  united  action.  The 
"  War  of  Schmalkald"  commenced  by  the 
advance  of  the  army  of  the  league,  under 
Sebastian  Schanlin,  in  Suabia,  to  bar  the 
approach  of  the  imperial  army  from  Italy, 
Schartlin  forced  his  way  to  the  banks  of  the 
Danube,  but  the  miserable  jealousy  of  the 
Saxon  princes  paralyzed  his  action.  The 
emperor,  by  a  proclamation  bearing  date 
July  20,  1546,  put  the  two  chiefs  of  the 
league  under  the  ban  of  the  empire  ;  Mau- 
rice, duke  of  Saxony,  took  possession  of  the 
electorate,  by  virtue  of  an  imperial  decree; 
and  the  Protestant  army  was  forced  to  re- 
treat. The  elector  of  Saxony  reconquered 
his  electorate  in  the  autumn  of  1546,  but 
meantime  the  imperial  army  subdued  the 
northern  members  of  the  League  of  Schmal- 
kald and  advanced  into  Franconia  to  meet 
the  combined  armies  of  Saxony  and  Hesse. 
The  latter  were  totally  routed  at  Miihlberg, 
April  24,  1547,  and  both  chiefs  fell  into  the 
emperor's  hands.  This  defeat,  which  has 
been  ascribed  to  treason,  and  was  perhaps  as 
much  owing  to  this  cause  as  to  weakness, 
finished  the  war.  The  object  of  the  league, 
the  guarantee  of  the  liberty  of  religion  to 
the  Protestants,  was  subsequently  effected 
by  Maurice,  now  elector  of  Saxony,  who, 
by  a  brilliant  feat  of  diplomacy  and  general- 
ship, compelled  the  emperor  to  grant  the 
treaty  of  Passau,  Jul}'  31,  1552,  by  which 
this  freedom  was  secured. 

Schoolmaster,  Army.  In  the  English 
army,  the  schoolmaster  is  a  non-commis- 
sioned officer  of  the  first  class,  ranking  next 
to  a  sergeant-major.  His  pay  varies  with 
length  of  service.  He  has  an  advantage 
over  other  non-commissioned  oflticers  in  quar- 
ters and  certain  allowances.  To  become  an 
army  schoolmaster,  it  is  necessary  either  to  be 
a  certificated  schoohnaster,  or  to  have  served 
the  apprenticeship  as  a  pupil-teacher,  and  to 
pass  through  a  course  of  training  for  one 


SCHOOLMISTRESS 


515 


SCIO 


year  at  the  Royal  Military  Asylum,  Chelsea. 
After  the  completion  of  the  training,  the 
candidate  is  required  to  enlist  as  a  ooinnion 
soldier  for  ten  years'  general  service,  where- 
upon he  is  immediately  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  schoolmaster.  A  few  of  the  most  deserv- 
ing schoolmasters  are  promoted  to  he  super- 
intending schoolmasters,  when  they  rank  as 
ensigns.  The  duties  of  the  schoolmaster  arc 
to  teach  the  soldiers  and  their  children  the 
rudiments  of  general  knowledge,  to  examine 
the  girl's  school,  and  to  deliver  lectures  to 
the  soldiers.  Ti)ere  were  in  18G5  214  army 
schoolmasters  in  the  Hritish  service. 

Schoolmistress,  Army.  In  the  British 
service,  is  a  person  attached  to  each  regiment 
or  corps  for  the  purpose  of  instructing  the 
daughters  of  soldiers  and  their  sons,  under 
eight  years  old,  in  the  rudiments  of  English 
and  in  plain  needle-work.  She  must  be  a 
certified  .schoolmistress,  or  a  pupil-teacher 
who  has  served  her  apprenticeship.  After 
admission  to  the  service,  she  is  speciall} 
trained  for  six  months  atone  of  four  training 
institutions.  This  training  is  at  the  expense 
of  the  government.  Proper  provision  is 
made  for  the  quarters  and  su)>plics  of  the 
schoolmistress,  whose  somewhat  anomalous 
position  among  rough  men  calls  for  the  most 
circumspect  behavior  on  her  part. 

Schools  of  Artillery.  See  Artillery, 
Schools  of. 

Schultz's  Powder.  A  powder  for  fire- 
arms invented  by  Capt.  Schultz  of  the 
Prussian  army,  sometimes  called  white  pim- 
poicdtr,  though  this  term  is  also  a[)plied  to 
other  [lowder.  It  is  made  by  treating  grains 
of  wood  with  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  sul- 
phuric acids,  by  means  of  which  a  low  form 
of  nitro-cellulose  is  produced.  The  exjilo- 
slve  power  is  heightened  by  steeping  the  pre- 
parea  grains  in  a  solution  of  nitre.  Ditf man's 
sportinfj  powder,  manufactured  in  America, 
is  believed  to  be  a  similar  powder. 

Schumla,  Shoomla,  or  Shumla.  A  large 
fortified  town  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  in  tlie 
province  of  IJulgaria,  about  58  miles  .south- 
west from  Silistria.  The  Russians  have 
made  several  unsuccessful  attempts  to  take 
it  in  their  ditlercnt  wars  with  Turkey. 

Schuwalov^r  Gun  (Fr.).  A  gun  named 
after  the  inventor,  a  Russian  general.  It 
diflered  from  a  common  gun  in  having  an 
oval  bore;  the  greater  diameter  lay  in  a 
horizontal  direction;  it  had  also  a  long 
C3lintlrical  chamber. 

Schweidnitz.  A  town  of  Prussian  Silesia, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Weistritz,  42  miles 
southeast  of  I^iegnitz.  It  is  in  part  fortified, 
and  was  besieged  and  taken  four  times  within 
fifty  years,  the  last  time  by  the  French  in 
1807,  when  the  defenses  were  in  great  part 
destroyed. 

Schwytz.  One  of  the  cantons  of  Switzer- 
land. It  was  one  of  the  three  original  can- 
tons that  formed  the  Confederation  in  1308 
against  the  Austrian  power;  and  from  its 
name  the  modern  appelhition  of  the  entire 
country  has  been  derived. 


Sciathus  (now  Skiatho).  A  small  island 
in  tiie  yEgean  Sea,  east  of  the  Magnesian 
coast  of  Thessaly.  It  is  frequently  men- 
tioned in  the  history  of  the  invasion  of 
Greece  by  Xerxes.  It  subsequently  became 
one  of  the  subject  allies  of  Athens.  Its  chief 
town  was  destroyed  by  the  last  Philip  of 
Macedonia. 

Science,  Military.  See  LoaiSTics,  Strat- 
AOKM,  Stratkgy,  Tactu's,  and  War. 

Scillus.  A  town  of  Elis,  on  the  river  Se- 
linus,  south  of  01ym])ia.  It  was  destroyed 
by  the  Eleans  in  the  war  which  they  carried 
on  against  the  Pisa-ans,  whose  cause  had 
been  espoused  by  the  inhabitants  of  Scillus. 
The  Lacediemonians  subsequently  took  pos- 
session of  the  territory  of  Scillus  ;  they  gave 
it  to  Xenophon  after  his  banishment  from 
Athens. 

Scimeter.     See  Cimetkk. 

Scio,  Chio,  or  Khio  (anc.  C/tio.i).  An 
island  belonging  to  Asiatic  Turkey,  lying 
in  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  ofi"  the  coast  of 
Asia  Minor.  Chios  became  a  member  of  the 
Ionian  confederation  of  twelve  states  on  the 
Asiatic  islands  and  coast.  Its  insular  posi- 
tion protected  it  against  the  Lydian,  and  for 
a  time  against  the  Persian  power.  But  in 
the  Ionian  revolt  the  Chians  lent  their  as- 
sistance to  their  fellow-countrymen  by  fur- 
nishing ships  to  the  fleet,  which  was  totally 
defeated  by  the  Persians  off  Miletus,  4^4  B.C. 
The  conquerors  in  consequence  landed  on 
the  island,  and  ravaged  it  with  fire  and 
sword.  The  battle  of  Mycale,  in  47'J,  liber- 
ated Chios  from  the  Persian  yoke,  but  only 
to  become  a  dependency  of  Athens.  To  this 
ix)wer  it  remained  faithful  till  after  the  out- 
break of  the  Peloponncsian  war  ;  but  as  that 
disastrous  contest  proceeded,  and  the  fortune 
of  war  began  to  prove  adverse  to  Athens, 
the  Chians  attempted  to  assert  their  liberty. 
They  sufl'ered  several  defeats  from  the 
Athenians,  who  laid  waste  the  island,  but 
could  not  conquer  the  capital.  At  a  later 
period  (])hios  was  again  subject  to  Athens, 
and  again  revolted,  and  seems  to  have  main- 
tained its  independence  for  some  time.  It 
gave  assistance  to  the  Romans  in  their  war 
with  Antiochus,  190  u.c. ;  and  afterwards, 
when  allied  with  Mithridates,  that  monarch, 
suspecting  the  people  of  a  bearing  towards 
the  Romans,  sent  a  lieutenant,  wln>  carried 
the  inhabitants  away  from  the  i-land,  S(\  B.C. 
They  were  restored  by  the  Romans  ;  and,  in 
consideration  of  this  calamity,  the  island  was 
made  a  free  state  and  an  ally  of  Rome. 
Early  in  the  14lh  century,  the  Turks  con- 
quered the  capital,  and  perjictrated  a  general 
massacre  of  its  inhabitants;  but  from  1346 
to  15GG  Scio  was  held  by  tlie  Genoese.  In 
the  latter  year  it  was  conquered  by  Solyman 
the  Magnificent ;  and  since  that  time,  with 
the  exception  of  a  short  period  when  the 
Venetians  possessed  it,  the  island  has  be- 
longed to  the  Ottoman  empire.  In  1822, 
during  the  Greek  insurrection,  a  number  of 
Samians  landed  in  .'^cio,  and  persuaded  or 
forced  its  peaceful  inhabitants  to  rise  against 


SCIONE 


516 


SCOTLAND 


the  Turks.  They  did  not  succeed  in  mas- 
tering the  castle',  and  soon  an  army  was 
hinded  from  Asia,  who  renewed  the  ancient 
calamities  of  the  island.  The  plunder  and 
massacre  that  ensued  was  so  unsparing  that 
in  a  short  time  only  2000  Christians  were 
left  out  of  a  population  of  110,000. 

Scione.  The  chief  town  in  the  Macedo- 
nian peninsula  of  Pallene,  on  the  western 
coast.  It  revolted  from  the  Athenians  in 
the  Peloponnesian  war,  but  was  retaken  by 
Cleon,  whereupon  all  the  men  were  put  to 
death,  the  women  and  children  sold  as 
slaves,  and  the  town  given  to  the  Platajans. 

Scirtis.  A  wild  and  mountainous  district 
in  the  north  of  Laconia,  on  the  borders^  of 
Arcadia,  with  a  town  called  Scirus,  which 
originally  belonged  to  Arcadia.  Its  inhab- 
itants, the  Sciritse,  formed  a  special  division 
of  the  Lacedajmonian  army.  This  body, 
which,  in  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
was  600  in  number,  was  stationed  in  battle 
at  the  extreme  left  of  the  line,  formed  on 
march  the  vanguard,  and  was  usually  em- 
ployed on  the  most  dangerous  kinds  of 
service. 

Sconce.  In  fortification,  is  a  term  applied 
to  any  small  redoubt  or  fort,  detached  from 
the  main  works  for  some  local  object,  as  the 
defense  of  a  pass  or  fort,  etc.  The  word  is 
not  now  often  used. 

Scopetin  [Fi:).  A  rifleman  was  formerly 
so  called  who  was  armed  with  the  escopette. 

Scordisci.  A  people  in  Pannonia  Supe- 
rior, who  are  sometimes  classed  among  the 
lUyrians,  but  were  the  remains  of  an  ancient 
and  powerful  Celtic  tribe.  They  dwelt  be- 
tween the  Savus  and  Dravus. 

Scorpion  {Fr.).  A  small  kind  of  catapult, 
or  large  cross-bow,  which  threw  heavy  ar- 
rows by  means  of  a  steel  bow,  which  was 
bent  by  a  double-handed  roller  turned  by 
one  man. 

Scorpion  {Fr.).  An  ancient  gun,  whose 
dolphins  represented  the  scorpion.  Also  the 
name  of  an  implement  used  by  the  ancients 
for  laying  hold  of  the  enemy's  battering 
ram. 

Scotch  Brigade.  A  brigade  of  Scotch- 
men, gentlemen,  and  others,  who  served 
under  the  elector  of  Bavaria  in  the  reign  of 
James  I.,  and  subsequently  under  Gustavus 
Adolphus  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Scotland.  The  northern  division  of  the 
island  of  Great  Britain.  An  account  has 
been  given  under  the  article  Picts  (which 
see)  of  the  early  inhabitants  of  the  country 
which  has  long  been  known  by  the  name  of 
Scotland.  The  original  Scotia,  or  Scotland, 
was  Ireland,  and  the  Scoti,  or  Scots,  at  their 
first  appearance  in  history  were  the  people 
of  Ireland.  The  original  seat  of  the  Scots 
in  Northern  Britain  was  in  Argyle,  which 
they  acquired  by  colonization  and  conquest 
before  the  end  of  the  5th  century,  and  from 
whence  they  spread  themselves  along  the 
western  coast  from  the  Firth  of  Clyde  to  the 
modern  Koss.  The  first  prince  of  the  Brit- 
ish Scots  mentioned  in  authentic  annals  was 


Fergus,  son  of  Eric,  who  crossed  over  to 
Britain  about  the  year  503.  His  great- 
grandson,  Conal,  was  king  of  the  British 
Scots  when  Columba  began  the  conversion 
of  the  Northern  Picts.  His  nephew,  Aidan, 
who  succeeded  him  was  a  powerful  prince, 
and  more  than  once  successfully  invaded  the 
English  border,  but  toward  the  end  of  his 
reign  he  received  a  severe  defeat  from  the 
Northumbrian  sovereign  Ethelfrid  at  the 
battle  of  Degsestan.  The  history  of  Aidan's 
successors  is  obscure.  Their  kingdom  was 
overshadowed  by  the  more  powerful  mon- 
archy of  the  Picts,  with  which,  as  well  as  with 
its  neighbors  in  the  south, — the  Britons  of 
Cumbria, — it  was  engaged  in  almost  unceas- 
ing conflict.  The  Scots  were  for  some  time 
under  some  sort  of  subjection  to  the  English 
of  Northumbria,  but  recovered  their  inde- 
pendence on  the  defeat  and  death  of  King 
Egfried  in  battle  with  the  Picts  at  Nechtans- 
mere  in  685.  In  the  middle  of  the  9th  cen- 
tury, the  Scots  acquired  a  predominance  in 
Northern  Britain.  Kenneth,  son  of  Alpin, 
succeeded  his  father  as  king  of  the  Scots. 
The  Pictish  kingdom  was  weakened  by  civil 
dissensions  and  a  disputed  claim  to  the  crown. 
The  Picts  and  Scots,  each  speaking  a  dialect 
of  the  Celtic  tongue,  gradually  coalesced 
into  one  people.  The  reign  of  Constantine, 
son  of  Aodh,  who  succeeded  in  904,  was  a 
remarkable  one.  Even  before  the  establish- 
ment of  the  kingdom  of  the  Picts  and  Scots 
in  the  person  of  Kenneth,  Northern  Britain 
had  experienced  the  attacks  of  a  new  enemy, 
the  Scandinavian  invaders,  generally  spoken 
of  under  the  name  of  Danes.  Constantine 
resisted  them  bravely,  but  towards  the  end 
of  his  reign,  he  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
them  in  opposition  to  the  English.  A  pow- 
erful army,  composed  of  Scots,  Picts,  Brit- 
ons, and  Danes,  disembarked  on  the  Humber, 
and  was  encountered  at  Brunanburgh  by 
Athelstan,  king  of  England.  A  battle  was 
fought  there,  the  first  of  a  series  of  unfortu- 
nate combats  by  Scottish  princes  on  English 
ground.  The  confederate  army  was  defeated, 
but  Constantine  escaped,  and  died  953.  Dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Malcolm  I.,  a  portion  of  the 
Cumbrian  "kingdom  was  bestowed  by  Ed- 
mund, king  of  England,  on  the  Scottish 
sovereign.  The  northern  kingdom  was  still 
further  increased  in  the  reign  of  Kenneth, 
son  of  Malcolm,  by  the  acquisition  of  Lothian 
and  of  Northern  Cumbria,  or  Strathclyde. 
Alexander  III.  employed  the  period  of  his 
reign  well ;  by  a  treaty  with  the  king  of 
Norway,  he  added  to  his  kingdom  Man  and 
the  other  islands  of  the  Western  Sea.  The 
reigns  of  David  II.  and  his  successors, 
Robert  II.  and  liobert  III.,  were  the  most 
wretched  period  of  Scottish  history.  In 
the  year  1411,  half  of  the  kingdom  would 
have  become  barbarous  if  the  invasion  of 
the  Lord  of  the  Isles  had  not  been  repulsed 
at  Ilarlaw  (which  see).  The  vigorous  rule 
of  James  I.  had  restored  a  tranquillity  to 
which  his  kingdom  had  long  been  unaccus- 
tomed:    but  strife  and  discord  were  again 


I 


SCOTS 


517 


SEA-COAST 


brought  back  on  his  assassination.  The 
reigns  of  Charles  II.  and  James  VII.  were 
more  corrupt  and  oppressive  than  any  wliieh 
Scotland  hud  experienced  since  the  regencies 
in  the  minority  of  James  VI.;  the  natural 
result  was  tlio  revolution,  which  seated 
"William  and  Mary  on  the  throne.  Under 
James  VI.,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
England,  the  kingdoms  became  united,  from 
which  j)eriod  (HiO;})  the  annals  of  the  two 
kingdoms  became  almost  identical,  though 
they  both  n-tainod  their  independence,  and 
continued  to  be  ruled  by  separate  titles  till 
the  Act  of  Union  in  1707. 

Scots  Fusileer  Guards.     See  Guards. 

Scots  Grays.  The  2d  regiment  of  dra- 
goons in  the  British  service  is  so  named. 
They  are  considered  a  superior  body  of  cav- 
alry, and  bear  as  their  motto  "  Second  to 
Kone." 

Scott  Projectile.    See  Prciectile. 

Scotussa.  A  very  ancient  town  of  Thes- 
saly,  ill  the  district 'of  Pclasgiotis,  near  the 
source  of  the  Cynoscephahe,  where  Flamini- 
nus  gained  his  celebrated  victory  over  Philip, 
197  ii.c. 

Scour,  To.  This  term  is  frequently  used 
to  express  the  act  of  discharging  ordnance 
or  musketry,  rapidly  and  heavily,  for  the 
purpose  of  dislodging  an  enemy.  Hence,  to 
scour  the  rampart,  or  the  covert  way.  It 
likewise  signifies  to  clear,  to  drive  away  ;  as, 
to  scour  the  seas  ;  also  to  run  about  in  a  loose 
desultory  manner;  as,  to  scour  the  country. 
To  scoio-  a  line,  is  to  flank  it,  so  as  to  see  di- 
rectly along  it,  that  a  niuskct-ball  entering 
at  one  end  may  fly  to  the  other,  leaving  no 
place  of  security. 

Scout.  A  person  sent  out  in  the  front  or 
on  the  flank  of  an  army  to  observe  the  force 
and  movements  of  the  enemy.  He  should 
be  a  keen  observer,  and  withal  fleet  of  foot, 
or  well  mounted. 

Scout-master-General.  A  person,  for- 
merly so  called,  under  whose  direction  all 
the  scouts  and  army  messengers  were  placed. 

Screw.     See  Elkvatino  Screw. 

Screw-jack.     See  Implements. 

Scribe  (lleb.  Sofer).  Among  the  Jews, 
originally  a  kind  of  military  officer,  whose 
business  appears  to  have  been  the  recruiting 
and  organizing  of  troops,  the  levying  of 
war-taxes,  and  the  like.  At  a  later  period, 
especially  at  the  time  of  Christ,  it  had  come 
to  desigmite  a  learned  man,  a  doctor  of  the 
law. 

Scutari.  A  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  op- 
posite Constantinople.  It  was  anciently 
called  C/iri/sopolis,  "golden  city,"  in  conse- 
quence, it  is  said,  of  tlie  Persians  having  es- 
tablished a  treasury  here  when  they  at- 
tempted the  conquest  of  Greece.  Near  hero 
Constantine  finally  defeated  Licinius,  323. 
Scutari  Hos|)ital  was  occupied  by  the  sick 
and  wounded  of  the  Anglo-French  army  in 
1854-05,  whose  sutVerings  were  much  alle- 
viated by  the  kind  exertions  of  Miss  Flo- 
rence Nightingale  and  a  band  of  nurses 
under  her. 


Scutum.  A  Komun  buckler  made  of 
wood,  the  parts  being  joined  together  with 
little  plates  of  iron,  and  the  whole  covered 
with  a  bull's  hide.  In  the  middle  was  an 
umbo,  or  boss  of  iron,  which  jutted  out,  and 
was  useful  to  glance  ott'  stones  or  darts.  The 
scuta,  in  general,  were  4  feet  long,  and  dif- 
ferent in  size  frijm  the  clypei,  which  were 
less,  and  quite  round. 

Scythed.  Armed  or  furnished  with 
scythes,  as  some  of  the  ancient  chariots  were. 

Scythia.  A  name  employed  in  ancient 
times  to  denote  a  vast,  indefinite,  and  almost 
unknown  territory  north  and  east  of  the 
Black  Sea,  the  Caspian,  and  the  Sea  t)f  Aral. 
This  country  was  inhabited  by  a  race  of  peo- 
ple who  were  called  Scytlne,  but  who  called 
themselves  Scoloti.  Only  two  important 
events  in  Scythian  history  are  mentioned  by 
Herodotus  ;  the  one  is  the  invasion  of  Media 
by  the  Scythians,  and  the  other  that  of 
Scythia  by' Darius.  In  G24  B.C.  the  Scyth- 
ians entered  Media,  defeated  Cyaxares,  the 
reigning  monarch,  and  occupied  the  land  for 
twenty-eight  years  before  they  were  expelled. 
It  was  at  least  ostensibly  in  revenge  for  this 
incursion  that  Darius  Ilystaspis  determined 
to  invade  Scythia  about  ol3  it.c.  He  formed 
a  bridge  across  the  Danube,  and  crossing 
that  river  obtained  some  advantages  over  the 
Scythians.  But  he  was  unable  to  effect  any 
real  conquest  over  these  nonuid  tribes,  and 
narrowly  escaped  having  his  retreat  cut  off 
by  the  destruction  of  the  bridge. 

Sea-coast    Carriage.       See    Ordnance, 

CAUKIAIiKS   KOK. 

Sea-coast  Artillery.  Is  a  species  of  ar- 
tillery which  is  used  for  the  defense  of  the 
sea-coast.  In  the  United  States  it  consists 
of  15-inch  and  20-inch  smooth-bores,  12- 
inch  rifles,  and  10-inch  and  13-inch  mortars. 
(See  Ordnance.)  The  24-pounder  flank- 
defense  howitzer,  although  no  longer  be- 
longing to  the  system,  is  still  employed  in 
several  of  the  forts  on  the  sea-board.  Sea- 
coast  pieces  are  mounted  on  barbette,  case- 
mate, and  flank-casemate  carriages  ;  and  the 
carriage  upim  which  the  mortar  is  mounted 
is  called  its  bed.  These  carriages  do  not 
subserve  the  purpose  of  transportation.  The 
heaviest  rifle-cannon  should  be  placed  on 
the  salients  and  flunks  of  a  fortification, 
having  an  enfilading  fire  on  a  channel. 
Heavy  smooth-bore  pieces  should  occupy 
the  curtains  and  faces  which  bear,  directly 
on  the  channel.  The  24-pounder  flank-de- 
fense howitzer  is  employed  in  the  defense  of 
ditches.  Single-  or  double-shotted  canister 
should  be  tired  from  it.  The  Calling  gun 
has  been  recommended  as  a  desirable  auxil- 
iary in  special  cases.  A  12-pounder  field- 
piece  may  be  usefully  employed  to  prevent 
a  landing,  or  to  fire  in  close  engagements  at 
the  rigging  and  boats  of  vessels.  There  are 
three  kinds  of  fire  generally  employed, — 
dirrct,  incochci,  and  pluntjiuff.  The  first 
should  be  used  when  the  surface  of  the  water 
is  rough,  and  the  accuracy  of  the  rebound 
cannot  be  depended  on.      In  aiming  ut  a 


SEA-COAST 


518 


SECRECY 


vessel  with  direct  fire,  the  piece  should  be 
pointed  at  the  water-line.  The  effective 
range  of  direct  lire  is  about  one  mile  and  a 
quarter.  The  intended  eifect  of  sea-coast 
mortars  is  to  strike  the  decks  of  vessels,  pen- 
etrating to  the  bottom  and  causing  them  to 
sink. 

Sea-coast  Howitzer.  See  Sea-coast 
Artillery. 

Sea-horse.  In  heraldry,  a  fabulous  ani- 
mal, consisting  of  the  upper  part  of  a  horse 
with  webbed  feet,  united  to  the  tail  of  a 
fish.  A  scalloped  fin  is  carried  down  the 
back.  The  arms  of  the  town  of  Cambridge 
are  supported  by  two  sea-horses,  proper 
finned  and  maned  or. 

Sea-lion.  In  heraldry,  a  monster  con- 
sisting of  the  upper  part  of  a  lion  combined 
with  the  tail  of  a  fish. 

Sealkote.  A  town  in  the  Punjab,  near 
the  left  bank  of  the  Chenab,  65  miles  north- 
northeast  from  Lahore.  All  the  European 
troops  had  been  removed  in  July,  1857,  to 
repress  disturbances  that  had  broken  out 
elsewhere,  and  on  the  9th  of  that  month 
the  native  troops  fired  on  their  ofiicers.  A 
considerable  number  of  Europeans  were 
killed,  and  the  survivors  suflered  great  pri- 
vations until  the  Sepoys,  having  plundered 
the  station,  started  oli"  in  the  direction  of 
Delhi. 

Search  a  Country,  To.  Is  to  examine 
minutely  all  the  inlets  and  outlets,  woods, 
rivers,  etc.,  of  a  country  through  which  an 
army  is  to  advance. 

Searcher.      See  Inspection  of  Cannon. 

Seasoned  Troops.  Are  troops  that  have 
been  accustomed  to  climate,  and  are  not  so 
liable  to  become  the  victims  of  any  endemi- 
cal  disorder  as  raw  men  unavoidably  are. 

Seat  of  War.  The  country  in  which  a 
war  is  being  carried  on. 

Sebastopol,  or  Sevastopol.  A  Eussian 
seaport,  fortress,  and  arsenal  in  the  Crimea, 
in  the  government  of  Taurida.  It  is  situ- 
ated near  the  southwest  extremity  of  the  Cri- 
mea, on  the  southern  side  of  the  magnifi- 
cent harbor  or  roadstead  of  Sebastopol,  one 
of  the  finest  natural  harbors  in  the  world. 
The  siege  of  Sebastopol  by  the  allied  Eng- 
lish and  French  armies  will  rank  among  the 
most  famous  sieges  in  history  ;  it  lasted  for 
eleven  months,  from  October,  1854,  to  Sep- 
tember, 1855.  Immediatelj'  after  the  battle 
of  the  Alma,  September  20,  1854,  the  allied 
army  marched  to  Sebastopol,  and  took  up 
its  position  on  the  plateau  between  it  and 
Balaklava,  and  the  grand  attack  and  bom- 
bardment commenced  October  17,  1854, 
without  success.  After  many  sanguinary 
encounters  by  day  and  night,  and  repeated 
bombardments,  a  grand  assault  was  made  on 
September  8,  1855,  upon  the  Malakoft' tower 
and  the  redans,  the  most  important  fortifi- 
cations to  the  south  of  the  town.  The 
French  succeeded  in  capturing  and  retaining 
the  MalakofT.  The  attacks  of  the  English 
on  the  great  redan  and  of  the  French  upon  the 
little  redan  were  successful,  but  the  assail- 


ants were  compelled  to  retire  after  a  desper- 
ate struggle  with  great  loss  of  life.  The 
French  lost  1646  killed,  of  whom  5  were 
generals,  24  superior  and  116  inferior  offi- 
cers, 4500  wounded,  and  1400  missing.  The 
English  lost  885  killed,  1886  wounded,  and 
176  inissing.  In  the  night  the  Russians 
abandoned  the  southern  and  principal  part 
of  the  town  and  fortifications,  after  destroy- 
ing as  much  as  possible,  and  crossed  to  the 
northern  forts.  They  also  sank  or  burnt 
the  remainder  of  their  fleet.  The  allies 
found  a  very  great  amount  of  stores  when 
they  entered  the  place,  September  9.  The 
works  were  utterly  destroyed  in  April,  1856, 
and  the  town  was  restored  to  the  Russians 
in  July. 

Second.  The  next  in  order  to  the  first ; 
the  next  in  place  or  station  ;  as,  a  second 
lieutenant  of  the  artillery  service. 

Second  Covert  Way.  In  fortification, 
is  that  beyond  the  second  ditch. 

Second  Ditch.  In  fortification,  is  that 
made  on  the  outside  of  the  glacis,  when  the 
ground  is  low.  and  there  is  plenty  of  water. 

Second  Flank.     See  Flank,  Oblique. 

Second,  To.     To  aid  or  assist ;  to  support. 

Secondary  Bases.  The  bases  established 
at  the  beginning  of  a  campaign  and  from 
which  the  first  advances  are  made,  are  known 
as  primary  bases.  An  army  carries  with  it 
ammunition  only  sufficient  for  one  battle, 
and  but  a  few  days'  supply  of  food.  Other 
supplies  of  ammunition  and  provisions  must 
be  brought  from  the  base ;  and  as  an  army 
advances,  the  difficulty  of  keeping  it  sup- 
plied increases.  Unless  some  additional 
provision  be  made  for  its  supply,  the  army 
cannot  advance  and  is  then  said  to  be  "  tied 
to  its  base."  As  the  necessary  supplies  can- 
not be  obtained  in  the  theatre  of  operations 
in  sufficient  quantities  for  the  daily  needs  of 
an  army,  depots  and  magazines  must  be  or- 
ganized near  the  army  from  which  these 
supplies  can  be  procured,  and  these  together 
form  what  is  known  as  a  secondary  base. 

Seconding.  In  Great  Britain,  is  a  tempo- 
rary retirement  to  which  officers  of  Royal 
Artillery  and  Roj'al  Engineers  are  subjected 
when  they  accept  civil  employment  under 
the  crown.  After  six  months  of  such  employ- 
ment the  officer  is  seconded,  by  which  he  loses 
military  pay,  but  retains  his  rank,  seniority, 
and  promotion  in  his  corps.  After  being 
seconded  for  ten  years,  he  must  elect  to 
return  to  military  duty  or  to  retire  alto- 
gether. 

Secrecy.  In  military  economy  this  qual- 
ity is  peculiarly  requisite.  It  signifies  fidel- 
ity to  a  secret;  taciturnity  inviolate;  close 
silence.  Officers,  in  particular,  should  be 
well  aware  of  the  importance  of  it,  as  the 
divulging  of  what  has  been  confidentially 
intrusted  to  them,  especially  on  expeditions, 
might  render  the  whole  project  abortive. 
The  slightest  deviation  from  it  is  very  justly 
considered  a  breach  of  honor,  as  scandalous 
conduct  unbecoming  an  officer  and  a  gentle- 
man.    In  official  matters  the  person  so  of- 


I 


SECRETARY 


519 


SEDAN 


finding  is  liable  to  tlie  severest  punishment 
and  peniilty. 

Secretary  of  War.  Is  an  officer  of  the 
executive  department  and  member  of  the 
Cabinet,  appointed  by  the  President  and 
confirmed  by  the  Senate,  and  has  charge  of 
all  duties  connected  with  the  army  of  the 
United  States,  fortifications,  etc.,  issues  of 
commissions,  movement  of  troops,  payment, 
commissary,  etc.,  and  engineering.  The 
following  is  extracted  from  the  law  of  the 
United  States: 

"  There  shall  be  at  the  seat  of  government 
an  executive  department  to  be  known  as  the 
Department  of  War,  and  a  Secretary  of  War, 
•who  shall  be  the  head  thereof. 

"The  Secretary  of  War  shall  perform  such 
duties  as  shall  from  time  to  time  be  enjoined 
on  or  intrusted  to  him  by  the  President 
relative  to  military  commissions,  the  mili- 
tary forces,  the  warlike  stores  of  the  United 
States,  or  to  other  matters  respecting  military 
affairs,  and  he  shall  conduct  the  business  of 
the  department  in  such  manner  as  the  Presi- 
dent shall  direct. 

"The  Secretary  of  War  shall  have  the 
custody  and  charge  of  all  the  books,  records, 
papers,  furniture,  fixtures,  and  other  prop- 
erty appertaining  to  the  defmrtment. 

"  The  Secretary  of  War  shall  from  time  to 
time  cause  to  be  collected  and  transmitted 
to  him,  at  the  seat  of  government,  all  such 
flags,  standards,  and  colors  as  are  taken  by 
the  army  from  enemies  of  the  United  States. 

"  The'Secretary  of  War  shall  from  time  to 
time  define  and  prescribe  the  kinds  as  well 
as  the  amount  of  supplies  to  be  purchased  by 
the  subsistence  and  quartermaster  depart- 
ments of  the  army,  and  the  duties  and  powers 
thereof  respecting  such  purchases,  and 
shall  prescribe  general  regulations  for  the 
transportation  of  the  articles  or  supply  from 
the  place  of  purchase  to  the  several  armies, 
garrisons,  posts,  and  recruiting-places,  for 
the  safe-keeping  of  such  articles,  and  for 
the  distribution  of  an  adequate  and  timely 
supply  of  the  same  to  the  regimental  quarter- 
masters, and  to  such  other  officers  as  may  by 
virtue  of  such  regulations  be  intrusted  with 
the  same,  and  shall  fi.x  and  make  reasonable 
allowances  for  the  store  rent  and  storage 
necessary  for  the  safe-keeping  of  all  military 
stores  and  supplies. 

"  The  transportation  of  troops,  munitions 
of  war,  equipments,  military  property,  and 
stores,  thrnughi>ut  the  United  States,  shall 
be  under  the  immediate  control  and  super- 
vision of  the  Secretary  of  War  and  such 
agents  as  he  may  appoint." 

The  British  secretary  of  war  was  formerly 
a  high  officer  of  the  British  ministry,  having 
control  of  the  financial  arnmgements  of  the 
army,  and  being  the  responsible  medium  for 
parliamentary  supervision  in  military  atfairs. 
The  formation  of  a  war-office  proper  took 
place  about  lU'iO,  the  secretary  of  state  hav- 
ing previt)usly  performed  its  duties.  It  was, 
however,  limited  to  financial  authority, 
neither     the   commander-in-chief    nor    the 


muster-general  of  the  ordnance  being  sub- 
ject to  it.  During  the  Russian  war  the  evils 
of  this  divided  authority  led  to  the  creation 
of  a  secretary  of  state  for  war,  to  control 
all  the  military  departments.  Thesecretary- 
ship-at-war  was  merged  in  the  superior  office 
in  1855,  and  aboli.shed  by  act  of  Parliament 
in  18153.     See  Minister. 

Section.  A  certain  proportion  of  a  bat- 
talion or  company,  when  it  is  told  otT  for 
military  nioviriicrits  and  evolutions. 

Sector  of  Explosion.  At  the  moment 
that  a  gun  is  fired,  there  is  a  sort  of  spherical 
sector  of  fire  formed  in  front  of  the  piece, 
whose  extremity  presses  against  the  bottom 
of  the  bore,  while  the  external  portion  of  it 
terminates  in  the  air,  which  this  sector  com- 
presses and  drives  in  every  direction  ;  the 
air  thus  forming  a  support,  the  sector  reacLs 
with  its  full  force  upon  the  bottom  of  the 
bore  and  causes  the  recoil  of  the  piece. 

Secure,  To.  In  a  military  sense,  is  to 
preserve,  to  keej),  to  make  certain ;  as,  to 
secure  a  plan  ;  to  secure  a  conquest.  In  the 
management  of  a  musket,  it  signifies  to 
bring  it  to  a  certain  position,  by  which  the 
lock  is  secured  against  rain.  Hence,  secure 
arms  is  a  word  of  command  which  is  given 
to  troops  who  are  under  arms  in  wet  weather. 
I  Secuteur  (/•>.).  A  gladiator  who  was 
armed  with  a  helmet,  shield,  and  sword,  or 
leaden  club,  and  who  fought  with  the  Re- 
tiaire. 

Sedan.  A  town  of  France,  department  of 
Ardennes,  on  the  Meuse ;  it  is  fortified,  and 
contains  an  arsenal  and  several  magazines. 
On  July  6,  1641,  a  victory  was  gained  at 
La  Marfee,  near  Sedan,  by  the  Count  of 
1  Soissons  and  the  troops  oi"  Bouillon  and 
I  other  French  princes  over  the  royal  army 
I  supporting  Richelieu.  On  August  *29-31, 
1870,  a  series  of  desj)erate  conflicts  took  place 
here  between  the  French  Army  of  the  North 
under  ^MacMahon  (about  150,000  men),  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  three  German  armies, 
under  the  king  and  crown-prince  of  Pru-ssia 
I  and  the  crown-prince  of  Saxony  (about  U50,- 
i  000  men),  and  was  brought  to  a  close  on  Sep- 
tember 1, 1870.  The  battle  began  with  attacks 
on  the  French  right  and  left,  about  5  a.m., 
and  was  very  severe  at  2  p.m.  At  4  r.M.  the 
Germans  remained  masters  of  the  field,  and 
the  crown-prince  of  Prussia  announced  a 
complete  victory,  thechief  j)art  of  the  French 
army  retreating  into  Sedan.  The  empen)r 
Napoleon  was  present  during  the  battle,  and, 
it  is  said,  stood  at  Iges,  near  Sedan,  exposed 
for  four  hours  to  the  German  grenades.  The 
impossibility  of  further  resistance  was  then 
evident.  The  Gernuins  had  contracted  their 
circle  close  around  Sedan  ;  their  formidable 
artillery  held  all  the  heights,  from  which 
they  C()uld  at  pleasure  wholly  destroy  the 
town  and  the  army,  and  only  UtHX)  men  were 
inacondition  to  respond  totheircommander's 
call,  and  to  make  a  supreme  ctfort  to  break 
through  the  enemy  with  the  emperor,  and 
escape  to  Montmttly.  At  first.  Gen.  de 
Wimpften    (called   to   the   command   when 


SEDGEMOOR 


520 


SELJUKS 


MacMalion  was  wounded),  indignantly  re- 
jected the  terms  offered  by  the  victor,  and 
the  emperor  had  a  fruitless  interview  with 
Count  Bismarck  to  endeavor  to  mitigate 
them.  On  September  2, 1870,  a  capitulation 
of  Sedan  and  the  whole  army  therein  was 
signed  by  Gens,  von  Moltke  and  de  Wimp- 
fl'en,  at  the  chateau  of  Bellevue,  near  Fre- 
nois.  The  conflict  was  principally  carried 
on  by  the  artillery,  in  which  the  Germans 
had  the  advantage,  not  only  in  number  (600 
to  500),  but  also  in  weight,  range,  and  pre- 
cision. The  carnage  was  awful,  and  the 
field  the  next  day  was  a  mass  of  shattered 
bones,  torn  flesh,  and  colored  rags.  About 
25,000  French  prisoners  were  taken  in  the 
battle,  and  83,000  surrendered  the  next  day, 
together  with  70  mitrailleures,  400  field- 
pieces,  and  150  fortress  guns.  About  14,000 
French  wounded  were  found  lying  in  the 
neighborhood,  and  about  3000  escaped  into 
Belgium  and  laid  down  their  arms.  The 
great  Army  of  the  North  ceased  to  exist. 
On  September  1,  the  village  of  Bazeilles 
was  stormed  by  the  Bavarians  and  burnt,  it 
was  said,  because  the  inhabitants  fired  on 
the  ambulances  ;  many  women  and  children 
perished.  The  French  denied  the  provoca- 
tion. The  place  had  been  previously  twice 
bombarded  and  stormed  by  the  maddened 
combatants. 

Sedgemoor.  A  wild  tract  of  England,  in 
Somersetshire,  between  Bridgewater  and 
King-s  Weston,  where  the  Duke  of  Mon- 
mouth (the  natural  son  of  Charles  II.  by 
Lucy  Walters),  who  had  risen  in  rebellion 
on  the  accession  of  James  II.,  was  com- 
pletely defeated  by  the  royal  army,  July  6, 
1685.  The  duke  was  made  a  prisoner  in  the 
disguise  of  a  peasant,  at  the  bottom  of  a 
ditch,  overcome  with  hunger,  fatigue,  and 
anxiety. 

Sedition.  In  a  military  sense,  is  to  dis- 
obey orders,  to  cabal  or  form  factions  against 
the  officer  or  officers  in  command  ;  to  loosen 
confidence;  to  resist  or  oppose  orders,  or  to 
stir  up  mutiny.  It  is  an  offense  in  military 
law  of  the  most  fatal  character,  and  always 
punished  in  a  most  exemplary  manner. 

Sedusii.  A  German  people,  forming  part 
of  the  army  of  Ariovistus  when  he  invaded 
Gaul,  58  B.C.  ;  they  are  not  mentioned  at  a 
later  period,  and  consequently  their  site  can- 
not be  determined. 

See,  To.  In  a  military  sense,  is  to  have 
practical  knowledge  of  a  thing;  as,  to  see 
service.  To  have  seen  a  shot  fired  is  a  figura- 
tive expression  in  the  British  service,  signi- 
fying to  have  been  in  action  ;  also,  to  have 
been  under  fire. 

Seetabuldee.  A  strong  military  position 
in  Hindostan,  near  Nagpore,  where  a  severe 
contest  took  place  during  the  Mahratta  war 
between  the  Boosla  rajah  and  a  small  num- 
ber of  the  British  troops,  in  which  the  for- 
mer were  defeated. 

Segbans.  Are  horsemen  among  the 
Turks  who  have  care  of  the  baggage  belong- 
ing to  cavalry  regiments. 


Segesta.  A  town  situated  in  the  north- 
west of  Sicily,  near  the  coast,  between  Pa- 
normus  and  Drepanum.  Its  inhabitants 
were  constantly  engaged  in  hostilities  with 
Selinus  ;  and  it  was  at  their  solicitation  that 
the  Athenians  were  led  to  embark  in  their 
unfortunate  expedition  against  Sicily.  The 
town  was  taken  by  Agathocles,  who  de- 
stroyed or  sold  as  slaves  all  its  inhabitants, 
peopled  the  city  with  a  body  of  deserters, 
and  changed  its  name  into  that  of  Dicaio- 
polis  ;  but  after  the  death  of  this  tyrant,  the 
remainder  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  re- 
turned to  the  city,  and  it  resumed  its  former 
name. 

Seistan  (formerly  called  Segestan).  A 
khanat  or  principality  of  Asia,  forming  the 
southwest  portion  of  Afghanistan.  It  was 
devastated  by  Tamerlane  in  1383. 

Sejant,  or  Assis.  In  heraldry,  is  the 
term  of  blazon  applied  to  a  beast  in  his  usual 
sitting  posture.  A  lion  borne  in  full  face, 
with  his  forepaws  extended  sideways,  is 
blazoned  sejant  affronte,  as  in  the  crest  of 
Scotland. 

Sejour  {Fr.).  In  a  military  sense,  signi- 
fies a  halting  day. 

Selection.  The  act  of  choosing  in  pref- 
erence to  others  ;  hence,  selection  of  officers 
to  act  upon  the  staff',  etc. ;  to  select  quar- 
ters, etc.     See  Quarters,  Choice  of. 

Seleucia  ad  Tigrin  (also  called  Seleucia 
Babijlonia^  Seleucia  Assyrice,  and  Seleucia 
Parthorum).  A  great  city  on  the  confines  of 
Assyria  and  Babylonia,  and  for  a  long  time 
the  capital  of  Western  Asia.  It  commanded 
the  navigation  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 
It  was  burned  by  Trajlm  in  his  Parthian 
expedition,  and  again  by  L.  Verus,  the  col- 
league of  M.  Aurelius  Antoninus.  It  was 
again  taken  by  Se verus. 

Seleucia  Pieria  (ruins,  called  Seleiikeh, 
or  Kcpse,  near  Suadeia.h).  A  great  city  and 
fortress  in  Syria,  founded  by  Seleucus  in 
April,  300  b!c.  In  the  war  with  Egypt, 
which  ensued  upon  the  murder  of  Antiochus 
II.,  Seleucia  surrendered  to  Ptolemy  III. 
Euergetes  (246  B.C.).  It  was  afterwards  re- 
covered by  Antiochus  the  Great  (219).  In 
the  war  between  Antiochus  VIII.  and  IX., 
the  people  of  Seleucia  made  themselves  in- 
dependent (109  or  108)  ;  afterwards  they 
successfully  resisted  the  attacks  of  Tigranes 
for  fourteen  years  (84-70).  The  city  bad 
fallen  entirely  into  decay  by  the  6th  century 
of  our  era. 

Selictar.     A  Turkish  sabre. 

Seljuks,  or  Seljuk-Turks.  A  small  Turk- 
ish tribe  which,  at  an  early  date,  took  pos- 
session of  Bokhara  and  the  surrounding 
country.  They  attracted  the  notice  of  Sultan 
Mahmoud,  the  founder  of  the  dj-nasty  of 
the  Ghuznevides,  who  had  advanced  into 
Bokhara  with  his  army,  and  was  so  im- 
pressed with  the  fine  military  qualities  of 
their  chief,  that  he  induced  them  to  cross  the 
Oxus  and  to  occupy  the  country  of  Klioras- 
san.  He  had  soon  reason  to  repent  of  this 
fatal  error.    Like  all  those  wandering  hordes. 


SELKIRKSHIRE 


521 


SEMINOLES 


tl)c  Turkomans  were  sliepherds  or  robbers. 
Tlie^'  cither  molested  the  neighboring  states 
by  petty  inroads,  or,  with  tlie  whole  united 
force  of  the  nation,  they  practiced  robbery 
on  a  great  scale,  seizing  on  kingdoms  and 
despoiling  nations.  The  first  migrations  of 
these  Eastern  Turkomans  is  generally  lixed 
in  the  lOlh  century.  They  became  formid- 
able to  Mahmuud,  and  more  especially  to  his 
successor,  Massoud,  who,  from  inability  to 
resist  their  progress,  was  forced  to  grant 
them  lands.  Ue  was  afterwards  defeated  by 
them  in  a  great  battle;  and  the  victorious 
Turks,  under  their  leader,  Togrul  Beg,  whom 
they  now  elected  king,  invaded  Khorassan, 
an(l  finally  exjielled  the  Ghuznevides,  the 
descendants  of  Mahmoud,  from  the  eastern 
provinces  of  Persia.  They  fled  eastwards 
towards  the  Indus,  and  established  the 
Ghuznian  empire  in  the  northwestern  prov- 
inces of  India.  This  empire  was  maintained 
with  various  success  till  about  the  year  1184, 
under  the  Glmznian  emperors,  when  they 
were  su})erseded  by  that  of  the  Afghan  or 
Patan  emj)erors,  who  completed  the  conquest 
of  the  greatest  part  of  llindostan  Proper 
about  1210.  Togrul  Beg  hastened  to  im- 
prove bis  victory  over  the  Persian  monarch. 
Turning  his  arms  to  the  west,  he  invaded 
Irak,  in  the  centre  of  Persia,  and  advancing 
westward  of  the  Caspian  Sea  into  Azerbijan, 
the  ancient  Media,  he  made  his  first  ap- 
proaches to  the  confines  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire. He  afterwards  proceeded  to  Bagdad, 
and  by  his  conquest  of  that  place,  gained 
possession  of  the  caliph.  His  successors  Alp 
Arslan  and  Jlalek  Shah  extended  the  empire 
transmitted  to  them  by  Togrul  Beg.  Tliej' 
subdued  the  fairest  portions  of  Asia.  Jeru- 
salem and  the  Holy  Land  were  taken  and 
pillaged  by  the  Seljuks,  and  it  was  the  vexa- 
tion and  rapine  to  which  the  Chris'ian  pil- 
grims were  exposed  in  their  journey  to  Jeru- 
salem, that  gave  rise  to  those  wild  and  warlike 
expeditions  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy 
Land,  known  under  the  name  of  the  Cru- 
sades. The  empire  under  Malek  Shah  ex- 
tended from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Chi- 
nese frontier,  and  from  the  Caspian  to  the 
Arai)ian  Sea.  Upon  the  death  of  Malek 
Shah  the  empire  was  divided  up  into  petty 
sultanates,  which  finally  caused  the  over- 
throw of  the  Seljuk  empire.  The  Turkish 
dynasty  of  the  Seljuks  continued  for  215 
years,  and  with  the  overthrow  of  its  dynasty 
in  1299,  and  on  its  ruins,  arose  the  Turkish 
empire. 

Selkirkshire  (formerly  called  the  Ef/rir.k 
Forfsf ).  A  small  inland  county  of  Scotland, 
in  the  Lowlands.  Among  the  interesting 
liistt>rical  scenes  this  county  contains  is  the 
field  of  Philiphaugh,  where  the  great  Mar- 
quis of  Montrose  was  defeated  by  the  Cove- 
nanters under  Gen.  Leslie. 

Sell  Out.  In  the  British  service,  was  n 
term  geiuTally  used  when  an  officer  was  per- 
mitted to  retire  from  the  service,  selling  or 
disposing  of  his  commission  or  commissions. 
It  was  the  correlative  word  to  buy  in.  Offi- 
34 


cers  whopurchased  commissions  were  usually 
allowed  to  sell  out. 

Sellasia.  A  town  in  Laconia,  north  of 
Sparta,  situated  near  the  River  (Enus,  and 
commanded  one  of  the  principal  passes  lead- 
ing to  Sparta.  Here  the  celebrated  battle 
was  fought  between  Cleomencs  III.  and 
Antigonus  Doson,  221  B.C.,  in  which  the 
former  was  defeated. 

Selling  Ammunition.  See  Appendix, 
Aktici.ks  nl-  Wak,  lO. 

Selymbria,  i)r  Selybria  (now  SeltTrin). 
An  important  town   in  Thrace,  on  the  Pro- 

fontis.  It  was  a  colony  of  the  Megarians. 
t  was  conquered  by  Philip,  father  of  Alex- 
ander. 

Semaphore.  A  machine  for  facilitating 
the  internal  communications  of  the  country 
by  means  of  telegraphic  signals,  especially 
between  the  government  and  the  military  or 
naval  functionaries  of  the  outposts  ;  but  its 
use  has  been  entirely  superseded  by  the  in- 
troduction of  the  railways  and  the  electric 
telegraph. 

Seme.  In  heraldry,  when  a  cliarge  is  re- 
l)eated  an  indefinite  number  of  times  so  as  to 
produce  the  appearance  of  a  pattern,  the 
term  seme  (sometimes  aspersed  or  powdered) 
is  applied  to  it.  When  a  field  is  seme,  it  is 
treated  as  if  it  were  cut  out  of  a  larger  ex- 
tent of  surface,  some  of  the  charges  being 
divided  by  the  outline  of  the  shield.  The 
term  c.rusilly  denotes  seme  of  cross  crosslets, 
and  billetfi/  seme  of  billets. 

Semendria.  A  frontier  fortress  of  the 
principality  of  Servia,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Danube,  28  miles  southeast  of  Belgrade. 
It  has  frequently  been  stormed  by  the  na- 
tions who  have  contended  for  the  Danube 
from  the  Middle  Ages  to  the  present  cen- 
tury. 

Seminara.  A  town  of  Naples,  province 
of  Calabria  Ultra  II.  Near  here  Gonsalvo 
de  Cordova,  the  great  captain,  was  defeated 
bv  the  French,  in  1495;  but  defeated  them 
April  21,  1503. 

Seminoles.  A  tribe  of  Indians  who  for- 
merly inliabited  Central  Florida,  but  now 
located  on  a  reservation  in  the  Indian  Ter- 
ritory. During  the  time  they  were  in  Flor- 
ida they  became  allies  of  the  British  in  their 
incursions  into  Georgia  during  the  Revolu- 
tionary war.  They  commenced  a  series  of 
border-foraj-s  in  1794,  when  their  numbers 
were  largely  increased  by  fugitive  slaves  and 
negroes ;  their  force  was  also  augmented  by 
the  Creeks  in  1808.  They  invaded  the  fron- 
tiers of  Georgia  in  1812  and  1817,  when  they 
massacred  a  number  of  persons  ;  but  were 
speedily  punished  by  Gen  Gaines  and  sub- 
sequently by  Gen.  Jackson.  Florida  was 
purchased  by  the  United  States  in  1819,  and 
the  Seminoles  nnide  treaties  with  the  United 
Suites  a  few  years  afterwards.  The  govern- 
ment resolveil  to  move  the  Seminoles  to  a 
reservation  beyond  the  Mississippi,  in  con- 
formity with  atreaty  signed  in  1832,  but  the 
Indians,  beaded  by'<.)sce«>la,  their  chief,  re- 
sisted, which  gave  rise  to  a  prolonged  bloody 


SEMI-STEEL 


522 


SENT 


war,  which  hegan  in  December,  1835.  This 
war  cost  the  U.  S.  government  §)10,000,000 
and  1500  lives.  The  greater  portion  of  the 
Seminoles  were  subdued  and  transported  be- 
yond the  Mississippi  in  1842,  only  about  300 
remaining  in  the  Everglades  of  Florida,  un- 
der their  chief,  Billy  Bowlegs.  The  Semi- 
noles on  their  new  reservation  in  Indian 
Territory  were  divided  in  their  sentiments 
during  the  civil  war,  some  of  them  taking 
up  arms  for  the  South  ;  a  civil  contest  en- 
sued, in  which  those  remaining  loyal  to  the 
Union  were  defeated  with  great  slaughter  in 
December,  1861.  After  the  civil  war  the 
two  bands  were  reunited  and  purchased  a 
reservation  from  the  Creeks,  where  they  are 
now  industrious  and  prosperous.  In  1870 
they  numbered  2553. 

Semi-steel.  See  Ordnance,  Metals 
FOR,  Steel. 

Sempach.  A  small  town  of  Switzerland, 
in  the  canton  of  Lucerne,  situated  on  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Sempach.  It 
was  one  of  the  outposts  of  the  confederate 
cantons  against  their  Suabian  and  Austrian 
assailants  in  the  14th  century.  Under  the 
walls  of  Sempach  took  place  the  second  great 
conflict  of  the  confederate  Swiss  cantons 
with  Austria,  in  which  the  nobles  of  Austria, 
in  spite  of  their  valor  and  overwhelming 
numbers,  were  slaughtered  like  sheep  by 
the  Swiss.  The  Swiss  lost  but  200  men, 
while  the  loss  of  the  Austrians  was  ten  times 
as  great.  The  anniversary  of  this  great  vic- 
tory is  still  celebrated  by  prayer  and  thanks- 
giving on  the  tield  of  battle. 

Sena.  A  town  on  the  coast  of  Umbria, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  small  river  Sena,  was 
founded  by  the  Senones,  a  Gallic  people,  and 
was  made  a  colony  by  the  llomans  after  the 
conquest  of  the  Senones,  283  B.C.  In  the 
civil  war  it  espoused  the  Marian  party,  and 
was  taken  and  sacked  by  Pompey. 

Seneca  Indians.  One  of  the  tribes  of  the 
Six  Nations,  and  the  most  numerous  and 
warlike  of  that  confederation.  When  they 
first  became  known  they  were  located  in  the 
region  between  the  Lakes  of  Cayuga,  Sen- 
eca, Canandaigua,  and  Ontario.  In  the  17th 
century  they  waged  successful  wars  against 
the  Hurons  and  other  tribes  to  the  westward, 
and  finally  the  defeated  tribes  were  adopted 
by  the  Senecas,  who  by  this  means  of  re- 
cruiting their  ranks  became  a  powerful  peo- 
ple. They  were  firm  allies  of  the  English, 
as  was  attested  in  several  battles  against  the 
French,  and  took  a  valiant  part  in  the 
memorable  battle  wherein  Gen.  Braddock 
was  killed ;  they  again  sufl'ered  severely  in 
the  campaign  led  by  Gen.  Sullivan  in  1779. 
They  removed  to  Lake  Erie  in  1784.  The 
Senecas  were  allies  of  the  Americans  in  the 
war  of  1812-14.  In  1870  there  were  240 
Senecas  on  a  reservation  in  Indian  Territory, 
and  3017  on  a  reservation  in  the  State  of 
New  York. 

Seneffe,  or  Senef.  A  town  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Hainault,  Belgium,  about  11  miles 
northwest  of  Charleroi.     Seneft'e  is  notable 


for  its  proximity  to  the  battle-field  on  which 
William  of  Orange  (III.  of  England),  at 
the  head  of  the  forces  of  the  coalition  against 
France,  fought  the  French  army  under  the 
great  Conde,  August  11,  1674.  In  William's 
army  there  were  four  lieutenants, — Monte- 
cuculi,  Duke  Charles  of  Lorraine,  the  Prince 
of  Waldeck,  and  the  Prince  of  Vaudemont, 
the  first  three  of  whom  subsequently  at- 
tained prominence  as  military  commanders. 
Of  the  allied  forces  of  60,000  men,  the  Dutch 
lost  from  5000  to  6000  men,  the  Spaniards 
3000,  and  the  Imperialists  600;  while  the 
French  army,  which  entered  into  the  conflict 
30,000  strong,  could  scarcely  muster  20,000 
after  the  battle.  Under  the  walls  of  Seneft'e, 
Moreau,  in  1794,  defeated  the  Austrians. 

Senegal.  French  colonies  on  the  river  of 
that  name  in  Senegambia,  West  Africa,  set- 
tled about  1626  ;  several  times  taken  by  the 
British,  but  recovered  by  the  French,  to 
whom  they  were  finally  restored  in  1814. 

Seneschal.  In  the  origin  of  the  office, 
probably  an  attendant  of  the  servile  class, 
who  had  the  superintendence  of  the  house- 
hold of  the  Prankish  kings.  In  the  course  of 
time,  however,  the  seneschalship  rose  to  be  a 
position  of  dignity,  held  no  longer  by  per- 
sons of  servile  race,  but  by  military  com- 
manders, who  were  also  invested  with  ju- 
dicial authority.  The  lieutenants  of  the 
great  feudatories  often  took  the  title  of  senes- 
chal. A  similar  oflice  in  England  and  Scot- 
land was  designated  steward. 

Seniority.  Priority  of  rank  and  standing 
in  the  army.  As  regards  regiments,  this 
precedence  is  regulated  by  the  number  of 
the  corps;  among  individuals,  it  is  decided 
by  the  date  of  the  commission.  Where 
commissions  of  the  same  date  interfere,  ref- 
erence is  to  be  had  to  the  dates  of  former 
commissions. 

Senones.  A  powerful  people  in  Gallia 
Lugdunensis,  dwelt  along  the  upper  course 
of  the  Sequana  (now  Seine).  A  portion  of 
this  people  crossed  the  Alps  about  40  B.C.,  in 
order  to  settle  in  Italy  ;  but  the  greater  part 
of  Upper  Italy  being  already  occupied  by 
other  Celtic  tribes,  the  Senones  were  obliged 
to  penetrate  a  considerable  distance  to  the 
south,  and  took  up  their  abode  on  the  Adri- 
atic Sea,  between  the  modern  Kavenna  and 
Ancona.  They  extended  their  ravages  into 
Etruria ;  and  it  was  in  consequence  of  the 
interference  of  the  Komans  while  they  were 
laj'ing  siege  to  Clusium,  that  thej'  marched 
against  Kome  and  took  the  city,  390  B.C. 
They  were  defeated  by  Camillus,  367  B.C. 
They  defeated  Metellu's,  the  consul,  at  Ar- 
retium,  284,  but  were  almost  exterminated 
by  Dolabella,  283.  They  invaded  Greece  in 
279;  were  defeated  by  Antigonus  Gonatus, 
278,  and  sued  for  peace.     See  Rome. 

Sent  to  the  Front.  A  term  applied  to 
bodies  of  troops  or  individual  soldiers  when 
ordered  from  camp  or  garrison  to  the  scene 
of  active  hostilities. 

Sent  to  the  Rear.  A  term  applied  to 
bodies  of  troops  or  individual  soldiers  when 


SENTENCE 


623 


SEREGNO 


ordered  from  the  immediate  scene  of  active 
hostilities  to  the  rear  of  the  command  in 
which  they  are  serving,  so  as  to  be  out  of 
immediate  danijer. 

Sentence.  Decision,  determination,  final 
judgment.  There  is  an  appeal  allowed  from 
the  sentonec  of  a  regimental  court-martial 
to  the  opinion  of  a  general  one. 

Sentinel,  or  Sentry  ( from  the  Lat.  seniire, 
"to  feel  or  perceive,"  through  the  Ital. 
sentinrlla).  A  private  soldier,  marine,  or  | 
sailor,  posted  at  a  point  of  trust,  with  the 
duty  of  watching  the  approach  of  an  enemy, 
or  any  person  suspected  of  hostile  intentions. 
Sentinels  mount  giuird  over  de|)ots  of  arms, 
the  tents  of  commanding  officers,  etc.  Dur- 
ing the  night,  each  sentinel  is  intrusted  with 
the  "  word,"  or  countersign  ;  and  no  person, 
however  exalted  in  position,  may  attempt  to 
approach  or  pass  him  without  giving  that 
as  a  signal.  In  such  case,  the  sentinel  is 
bound  to  arrest  the  intruder,  and  if  neces- 
sary to  shoot  him.  It  has  happened  before 
now  that  the  commander-in-chief  of  an  army 
has  been  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  one  of  his 
own  sentinels.  When  an  army  is  in  the  field, 
the  sentinels  are  its  eyes,  for  they  guard  the 
approaches  in  every  direction  some  distance 
in  front  of  the  main  body  of  troops.  In  the 
event  of  an  attack,  they  give  the  alarm,  and 
retire  slowly  on  their  suppcjrts.  There  is 
usually  an  agreement,  tacit  or  expressed,  be- 
tween commanders  that  their  outlying  sen- 
tinels shall  not  fire  upon  one  another,  which 
would  only  be  productive  of  useless  blood- 
shed. Under  martial  law,  death  is  the  pen- 
alty to  a  sentinel  sleeping  on  post.  Senti- 
nels will  present  arms  to  general  and  field- 
officers,  to  the  officer  of  the  day,  and  the 
commanding  officer  of  a  post;  to  all  other 
officers  they  will  carry  arms.  Stafi'-officers 
above  the  rank  of  captain  are  entitled  to  the 
same  compliments  from  sentinels  as  are 
given  to  field-officers. 

Sentinum,  Battle  of.     See  Rome. 

Sentry.  The  .same  as  sentinel.  "  Sentry 
go,"  is  the  warning  given  by  the  sentry  at 
the  guard-room  or  tent  that  it  is  time  to 
relieve  sentries. 

Sentry-box.  A  box  to  cover  a  sentinel  at 
his  \w<\.,  and  shelter  him  from  the  weather. 

Sepadar.  Is  an  East  Indian  term  for  an 
ofiicer  of  the  rank  of  brigadier-general. 

Sepahi.  An  East  Indian  term  for  a  feud- 
atory chief,  or  military  tenant;  a  soldier. 

Sepoy.  Corrupted  from  the  Indian  word 
sipa/ii,  "a  soldier."  This  word  sipahi,  in 
its  more  familiar  form  of  spnfiia,  is  known 
in  most  Eastern  armies  ;  and  is  itself  de- 
rived from  nip,  "a  bow  and  arrow,"  the 
ordinary  armament  of  an  Indian  soldier  in 
ancient  times.  The  word  Sepoy  now  denotes 
a  native  Hindoo  soldier  in  the  British  army 
in  India.  The  Sepoys  consist  of  Moham- 
medans, Rajpoots,  Brahmans,  and  men  of 
other  ca.stes,  besides  Sikhs,  (ihoorkas,  and 
men  of  various  hill-tribes.  They  are  gener- 
ally officered  by  Europeans. 

Septembrizers.      In  the  French  revolu- 


tion a  dreadful  ma-s-sacre  took  place  in  Paris, 
September  2-5,  17'J2.  The  prisons  were 
broken  open  and  the  prisoners  butchered, 
among  them  an  ex-bishop,  and  nearly  100 
non-juring  priests.  Some  accounts  state  the 
number  of  persons  slain  at  1200,  others  at 
4000.  The  agents  in  this  slaughter  were 
named  .""^i-ptemhri/.crs. 

Sepulchre,  Knights  of  the  Holy.  A  mil- 
itary order,  established  in  Palestine  about 
the  year  1114.  Those  of  this  class  chose 
Philip  II.,  king  of  Spain,  for  tlieir  master, 
in  1558,  and  afterwards  his  son  ;  but  the 
grand  master  of  the  order  of  Malta  pre- 
vailed on  him  to  resiijn  ;  and  when  after- 
wards the  Duke  de  Nevers  assumed  the 
same  quality  in  France,  the  same  grand 
master,  by  his  interest  and  credit,  procured  a 
like  renunciation  by  him,  and  a  confirmation 
of  the  union  of  this  order  to  that  of  Malta. 

Sequani.  A  Celtic  nation  of  ancient  Gaul. 
Before  the  conquest  of  Gaul  by  Ciesar,  the 
Arverni  and  ^Edui,  the  two  most  powerful 
nations  of  that  country,  were  in  a  state  of 
hostility;  and  the  Sequani  allied  themselves 
with  the  former.  In  order  more  efl'ectually 
to  crush  their  enemies,  these  two  nations 
hired  a  large  body  of  Germans,  under  Ario- 
vistus,  from  over  the  Rhine.  With  their 
assistance  they  totally  defeated  the  vEdui ; 
but  the  Germans  seized  for  themselves  a 
third  part  of  the  territory  of  the  Sequani, 
and  would  have  made  further  encroach- 
meuts,  had  not  Cicsar  defeated  them,  and 
expelled  them  frcmi  the  land. 

Serakhur,  Serang.  In  the  East  Indies 
are  non-commissioned  officers  who  are  em- 
ployed in  the  artillery  and  on  board  ships  of 
war.  In  the  artillery  the  former  title  an- 
swers to  that  of  sergeant  ;  in  the  naval  ser- 
vice the  latter  to  that  of  boatswain. 

Seraphim,  or  Jesus,  Order  of  The.  An 
ancient  Swedish  order  of  knighthood,  in- 
stituted in  1334;  but  dormant  from  the  pe- 
riod of  the  Reformation  until  1748.  The 
number  of  knights,  besides  the  king  and 
members  of  the  roval  family,  is  limited 
to  24. 

Seraskier,  or  Seri-Asker  (Pers.  "head 
of  the  army  ').  The  name  given  by  the 
Turks  to  every  general  having  the  com- 
mand of  a  separate  army,  and,  in  partic- 
ular, to  the  commander-in-chief  or  min- 
ister of  war.  The  sera*kier,  in  the  latter 
sense,  possesses  most  extensive  authority, 
being  subordinate  only  to  the  sultan  and 
grand  vizier.  He  is  selected  by  the  mon- 
arch from  among  the  pashas  of  two  or  three 
tails. 

Seraskur  (huL).  This  word  is  sometimes 
written  scrnskirr,  and  signifies  the  com- 
mander-in-chief of  a  Turkish  army. 

Serdans.  Colonels  in  the  Turkish  ser- 
vice are  so  called. 

Seregno.  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Milan,  Italy,  13  miles  north  from  Milan. 
It  is  noted  for  the  heroic  resistance  which 
the  women  of  the  city  made  against  the 
conscription,  and  which  ultimately  induced 


SERGEANT 


52i 


SERRE-FILE 


Bonaparte  to  rescind  his  order  for  the  hom- 
bardment  of  the  place.  The  Austrians,  in 
1848,  severely  chastised  Seregno  for  its 
patriotism. 

Sergeant.  A  non-commissioned  officer 
in  a  company,  battery,  or  troop,  usually 
selected  from  among  the  corporals  on  ac- 
count of  his  general  intelligence  and  good 
conduct.  He  is  vested  with  the  command 
of  small  detachments,  and  sometimes  with 
his  company  in  the  absence  of  his  superior 
officers. 

Sergeant,  Armorer-.  In  the  British  ser- 
vice, is  a  trained  artificer  who  repairs  the 
arms  of  a  corps. 

Sergeant,  Band-.  In  the  British  service, 
is  a  non-commissioned  officer  who  is  respon- 
sible for  the  discipline  of  the  band,  as  is  the 
bandmaster  for  instruction.  In  the  United 
States  service  a  principal  musician  performs 
this  duty. 

Sergeant,  Color-.    See  Color-Sergeant. 

Sergeant,  Cook.  In  the  British  service, 
is  a  non-commissioned  olKcer  who  superin- 
tends the  cooking  for  the  corps. 

Sergeant,  Covering.  Is  a  non-commis- 
sioned officer,  who,  during  the  e.\ercise  of  a 
battalion,  regularly  stands  or  moves  behind 
each  officer  commanding  or  acting  with  a 
platoon  or  company. 

Sergeant  d'Armes  (sergeant  of  arms), 
Fr.  Philip  Augustus,  fearing  to  be  assassi- 
nated on  the  instigation  of  the  sheik  of  the 
mountain,  during  his  stay  in  Palestine,  or- 
ganized for  the  protection  of  his  person  a 
corps  of  sergeants  d'armes,  consisting  of 
gentlemen,  which  he  armed  with  bronze 
war-clubs,  and  bows  and  arrows,  whose 
duty  it  was  to  accompany  him  everywhere. 

Sergeant,  Drill-.    See  Drill-Skrgeant. 

Sergeant,  Hospital.  In  the  British  ser- 
vice, is  a  non-commissioned  officer  who  car- 
ries out  the  orders  of  the  surgeon  as  regards 
discipline  in  a  hospital. 

Sergeant  Instructor  in  Fencing.  In  the 
British  service,  is  a  sergeant  who  performs 
the  duties  implied  by  his  title  in  regiments 
of  cavalry. 

Sergeant  Instructor  in  Gunnery.  A  ser- 
geant of  artillery  who  aids  the  officer  in- 
structor in  teaching  gunnery. 

Sergeant,  Lance-.  Is  a  corporal  who  acts 
as  a  sergeant  in  a  company,  but  only  re- 
ceives the  pay  of  a  corporal. 

Sergeant-Major.  The  chief  non-com- 
missioned officer  in  a  regiment,  and,  from 
the  nature  of  his  duties,  in  a  great  degree 
an  assistant  to  the  adjutant.  He  must  be 
master  of  every  point  connected  with  the 
drill,  interior  economy,  and  discipline  of  a 
regiment.  It  is  his  duty,  on  receiving  the 
orders  from  the  adjutant,  to  assemble  the 
orderly  sergeants,  and  issue  the  orders  and 
details  correctly.  He  is  to  keep  a  regular 
duty  roster  of  the  sergeants  and  corporals, 
and  to  proportion  the  number  of  men  to  be 
furnished  for  duty  according  to  the  strength 
of  their  respective  companies.  Finally,  it 
is  always  expected  that  he  should  set  an  ex- 


ample to  the  non-commissioned  officers  by 
his  activity,  zeal,  and  personal  appearance. 
In  the  British  cavalry  service  this  non-com- 
missioned officer  is  termed  regimental  ser- 
geant-major, the  chief  non  commissioned 
officer  of  a  troop  being  styled  troop  ser- 
geant-major. Similarly  in  the  artillery 
there  are  the  brigade  sergeant-major  and  the 
batter}'  sergeant-major. 

Sergeant,  Orderly.  See  Orderly  Ser- 
geant. 

Sergeant,  Pay-.     See  Pay-Skrgeant. 

Sergeant,  Paymaster-.  See  Paymaster- 
Sergeant. 

Sergeant,  Pioneer.  See  Pioneer  Ser- 
geant. 

Sergeant,  Quartermaster.  See  Quar- 
termaster Sergeant. 

Sergeant,  White.  Is  a  term  of  ridicule 
in  the  British  service,  applied  to  those  ladies 
who,  taking  advantage  of  the  weakness  of 
their  husbands,  neglect  their  domestic  con- 
cerns to  interfere  in  military  matters. 

Seringapatam  (anc.  Srl-Ru7)ffaputtun, 
"City  of  Vishnu").  A  celebrated  fortress 
of  South  India,  and  under  Hyder  Ali  and 
Tippoo  Sahib,  the  capital  of  Mysore,  at  the 
west  angle  of  the  island  of  the  Cavery 
(Kaveri).  Seringapatam  was  besieged  by 
Lord  Cornwallis  in  1791,  and  again  in  1792, 
when  Tippoo  purchased  a  peace  by  ceding 
half  his  dominions  and  paying  330  lacs  of 
rupees  to  the  British  and  their  allies.  It 
was  again  besieged  in  1799  and  taken  by 
storm  on  May  3  (4),  on  which  occasion  Tip- 
poo was  killed,  and  the  dynasty  of  Hyder 
terminated  ;  the  ancient  Rajpoot  line  being 
restored  to  the  sovereignty  of  Mysore. 

Serjeant.     See  Sergeant. 

Serpenteau  (Fr.).  A  round  iron  circle, 
with  small  spikes,  and  squibs  attached  to 
them.  It  is  frequently  used  in  the  attack 
and  defense  of  a  breach.  It  likewise  means 
a  fusee,  which  is  filled  with  gunpowder,  and 
is  bent  in  such  a  manner,  that  when  it  takes 
fire,  it  obtains  a  circular  rapid  motion,  and 
throws  out  sparks  of  light  iu  various  direc- 
tions. 

Serpentine  (Fr.).  An  ancient  wall-piece, 
with  a  matchlock,  carrying  an  8-ounce  leaden 
ball,  with  a  charge  of  4  ounces  of  powder. 
It  was  6  or  7  feet  long,  and  weighed  from 
one  to  two  hundred-weight. 

Serpentix  {Fr.).  Cock  of  the  ancient 
matchlock,  also  the  lock  itself.  Also,  an 
ancient  24-pounder  gun,  of  13  feet,  weigh- 
ing 4360  pounds,  whose  dolphins  represented 
the  figures  of  serpents. 

Serre-demi  File  (Fr.).  That  rank  in  a 
battalion  which  determines  the  half  of  its 
depth,  and  which  marches  before  the  demi- 
file.  Thus  a  battalion  standing  six  deep, 
has  its  serre-doni  file  in  the  third  rank, 
which  determines  its  depth. 

Serre-file  (Fr.).  The  last  rank  of  a  bat- 
talion, by  which  its  depth  is  ascertained, 
and  which  always  forms  its  rear.  When 
ranks  are  doubled,  the  battalion  resumes  its 
natural  formation  by  means  of  the  serrc- 


SERVANS 


525 


SESSION 


files.  Serre-file  literally  signifies  a  "  bringer 
up." 

Servans  d'Armes,  or  Chevaliers  Ser- 
vans  (Fr.).  Were  persons  bcloniriiig  to  tlic 
third  class  of  the  order  of  Miiltn.  They 
were  not  noblemen,  although  they  wore  the 
sword  and  the  cross. 

Servants.  In  the  British  service,  regi- 
mental and  staff  officers  are  allowed  the  in- 
dulgence of  a  steady  and  well-drilled  soldier 
for  a  servant;  and  field-officers,  keeping 
horses,  two  each.  These  soldiers  are  to  take 
their  share  of  any  duty  on  which  the  officer 
to  whom  they  are  attached  is  employed,  and 
they  must  fall  in  with  their  respective  troops 
and  companies  at  all  reviews,  inspections, 
and  field-days.  In  the  U.  S.  service,  offi- 
cers are  not  permitted  to  employ  soldiers  as 
servants. 

Serve.  To  be  in  service ;  to  do  duty  ;  to 
discharge  the  requirements  of  an  office  or 
employment;  and,  specifically,  to  act  as  a 
soldier,  seaman,  etc.  To  serve  a  piece,  in  the 
artillery,  is  to  load  and  fire  with  promptitude 
and  correctness.  To  sej^ve  the  vent,  to  stop 
it  with  the  thumb. 

Servia.  One  of  the  Danubian  principali- 
ties, nominally  included  in  the  Ottoman 
empire,  but  in  reality  only  tributary  to  that 
power.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Aus- 
tria, on  the  east  by  Wallachia  and  Bulgaria, 
on  the  south  by  Kumli  and  Bosnia,  and  on 
the  west  by  Bosnia.  In  the  earliest  times 
of  which  we  have  any  record,  Servia  was 
inhabited  by  Thracian  or  Illyrian  races  ; 
shortly  before  Christ  it  was  subjugated  by 
the  Romans,  and  formed  part  of  the  province 
of  Illyricum,  whose  fortunes  it  shared  during 
the  vicissitudes  of  the  empire.  Overrun 
successively  by  the  Huns,  Ostrogoths,  Lon- 
gobards,  etc.,  it  reverted  to  the  Byzantine 
rulers  about  the  middle  of  the  (1th  century, 
but  was  wrested  from  them  by  the  Avars  in 
the  7th  century,  who  in  turn  were  routed  by 
the  Serbs,  and  compelled  to  give  up  the 
country.  They  were  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity in  the  9th  century,  but  this  did  not 
in  the  least  abate  their  ardor  for  battle,  and 
for  nearly  200  years  they  were  almost  con- 
stantly at  war  with  the  neighboring  Bul- 
garians,— the  inveterate  enemies  of  their 
Byzantine  liege  lord.  In  1043,  however, 
the  roj'al  governors  were  expelled,  and  they 
became  an  independent  kingdom.  For  the 
ne.\t  100  years  the  Serbs  hadl  to  fight  hard  to 
maintain  their  independence,  and  the  strug- 
gle terminated  in  their  favor;  and  in  llfio, 
Stephen  Nemanja  founded  a  dynasty  which 
lasted  for  two  centuries,  during  which  period 
the  kingdom  of  Servia  attained  the  acme  of 
its  power  and  prosperity.  Eventually  the 
progress  of  the  Turks,  however,  was  fatal 
to  its  welfare,  and  in  1389  King  Lazar  fell 
in  the  disastrous  battle  at  Kossovapolje. 
Sultan  Bajazet  divided  the  country  between 
Lazar's  son  and  son-in-law.  compelled  them 
to  pay  tribute  and  follow  him  in  war.  Grad- 
ually the  Serbs  sunk  more  and  more  under 
the  Turkish  voke,  until,  in  1453,  Servia  was 


thoroughly  subjugated  by  the  sultan  Mah- 
moud.  It  was  uniformly  the  theatre  of  the 
bloody  wars  between  Hungary  and  Turkey, 
and  frequently  suffered  the  uttermost  horrors 
of  devastation.  Prince  Eugene's  brilliant 
successes  for  a  moment  flashed  a  ray  of  hope 
into  the  miserable  hearts  of  the  long-suffer- 
ing Serbs,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Passarowitz 
(1718),  a  considerable  portion  of  the  country 
was  made  over  to  Austria;  but  in  1739  it 
reverted  to  Turkey,  and  for  the  next  sixty 
years  the  cruelty  and  opjiressions  of  the 
pashas  and  their  .Janissaries  surpass  all  belief. 
At  length  the  unhappy  people  could  endure 
the  tyranny  of  their  foreign  masters  no 
longer,  and  in  1801  an  insurrection  broke 
out,  headed  by  George  Czerny,  which,  by 
the  help  of  Russia,  ended  in  the  triumph  of 
the  patriots,  and  in  the  election  of  Czerny 
by  the  people  as  prince  of  Servia.  The  in- 
vasion of  Russia  by  France,  however,  left  the 
Serbs  at  the  mercy  of  their  late  rulers  and 
the  war  again  broke  out.  Czerny  was  forced 
to  flee,  and  the  tyranny  of  the  Turks  became 
more  ferocious  than  ever.  Again  the  people 
flew  to  arms  under  the  leadership  of  Milosch 
Obrenovitch,  and  were  a  second  time  suc- 
cessful in  winning  back  their  liberties.  Mil- 
osch ruled  as  prince  of  Servia  until  1839, 
when  he  was  forced  to  abdicate  ;  but  in  1858 
he  was  restored  to  his  former  dignity.  In 
the  war  between  Russia  and  Turkey  in  1876, 
the  .Servians  took  the  side  of  the  former,  but 
were  not  actively  engaged. 

Service.  In  a  military  sense  is  the  art  of 
serving  the  state  in  war.  All  studies,  acts, 
and  efforts  of  the  profession  of  arms  have 
this  end  in  view.  To  belong  to  the  army 
and  to  belong  to  the  land  service,  are  the 
same  thipg.  In  a  more  restricted  sense,  ser- 
vice is  the  performance  of  military  duty.  In 
its  general  sense,  service  embraces  all  details 
of  the  military  art.  But  in  its  restricted 
sense,  actual  service  is  the  exercise  of  mili- 
tary functions.  To  sec  service,  is  a  common 
expression  denoting  actual  collision  with  an 
enemy.  To  retire  from  service,  to  quit  the 
army,  or  resiijn. 

Service,  Foreign.  See  Foreign  Ser- 
vice. 

Service,  Home.     See  Home  Service. 

Service,  Secret.  Any  service  performed 
by  an  individual  in  a  clandestine  secret 
manner.  It  likewise  means  intelligence  or 
information,  given  by  spies  when  countries 
are  engaged  in  war,  for  which  they  receive 
pecuniary  compensation. 

Serviceable.  Capable  of  performing  all 
military  duty,  or  of  being  used  in  the  mili- 
tary service. 

Servile  or  Slave  War.     See  Rome. 

Session.  Tl;o  actual  sitting  of  a  court, 
council,  etc.,  or  thi'  actual  assembly  of  the 
members  of  such  a  body  for  the  transaction 
of  business.  Hence,  also  the  time,  period, 
or  term  during  which  a  court,  council,  and 
the  like,  meet  daily  for  business  ;  or  the 
space  of  time  between  the  first  meeting  and 
prorogation  or  adjournment. 


SESTUS 


526 


SHARPS 


Sestus.  A  town  in  Thrace,  situated  at 
the  narrowest  part  of  the  Hellespont,  oppo- 
site Abydos  in  Asia,  from  which  it  was  only 
seven  stadia  distant.  It  was  always  reck- 
oned a  place  of  importance  in  consequence 
of  its  commanding,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
passage  of  the  Hellespont.  It  was  for  some 
time  in  possession  of  the  Persians,  but  was 
retaken  by  the  Greeks,  478  B.C.,  after  a  long 
siege.  It  subsequently  formed  part  of  the 
Athenian  empire. 

Set.  A  word  used  in  a  military  sense  in 
various  combinations ;  as,  to  set  a  sentinel, 
is  to  place  a  soldier  at  any  particular  spot 
for  its  security.  To  set  oji,  is  to  attack.  To 
set  at  defiance,  is  to  defy,  to  dare  to  combat, 
etc.  To  set  up,  is  to  make  a  man  fit  for 
military  movements  and  parade. 

Seteef,  or  Setif  (anc.  Sitipka,  or  Sitifi).  A 
town  of  Algeria,  distinguished  by  the  obsti- 
nate resistance  it  made  against  the  Saracens, 
when  Northern  Africa  was  overrun  by  that 
fierce  and  warlike  people.  The  old  city  is 
now  in  ruins. 

Setendy.  In  the  East  Indies,  the  militia 
is  so  called. 

Setia.  An  ancient  town  of  Latium,  in 
the  east  of  the  Pontine  Marshes;  originally 
belonged  to  the  Volscian  confederacy,  but 
was  subsequently  taken  by  the  Romans  and 
colonized.  It  was  here  that  the  Romans 
kept  the  Carthaginian  hostages. 

Setter.  In  gunnery,  a  round  stick,  to 
drive  fuzes,  or  any  other  compositions,  into 
cases  of  paper. 

Sevastopol.     See  Sebastofol. 

Seven  Weeks'  War.  The  war  declared 
by  Prussia,  on  June  18,  1866,  which  ended 
in  the  total  defeat  of  Austria  and  her  allies. 
See  Prussia. 

Seven  Years'  War.  This  was  the  third, 
last,  and  by  far  the  longest  and  most  terrible 
of  the  contests  for  the  possession  of  Silesia. 
This  long  and  desperate  war  was  maintained 
by  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia  against  Austria, 
Russia,  and  France,  from  1756  to  1763.  It 
made  no  change  in  the  territorial  distribu- 
tion of  Europe,  but  it  increased  tenfold  the 
moral  power  of  Prussia,  and  gave  its  army 
a  prestige  it  retained  till  the  battle  of  Jena. 
It  cost  Europe  1,000,000  lives,  and  pros- 
trated the  strength  of  almost  all  the  powers 
who  had  engaged  in  it. 

Seville,  or  Sevilla  (anc.  Hispalis,  or  His- 
paL).  A  famous  city  of  Spain,  capital  of 
the  province  of  the  same  name,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Guadalquiver,  60  miles  north- 
northeast  of  Cadiz.  It  was  captured  by 
Julius  Caesar,  45  B.C.  It  surrendered  to  the 
Moors  at  once,  after  the  defeat  of  Don  Rod- 
erick on  the  Guadalete,  and  it  continued  its 
allegiance  to  the  caliph  of  Damascus  until 
756;  it  surrendered  to  Ferdinand  III.  of 
Castile  on  November  23,  1248,  when  300,000 
Moors  left  for  Granada  and  Africa.  In  1810 
it  was  taken  and  ravaged  by  Soult.  It  was 
taken  by  assault  by  the  British  and  Span- 
iards, August  27,  1812.  It  capitulated  to 
Espartero'in  1843.     The  peace  of  Seville  be- 


tween England,  France,  and  Spain,  and  also 
a  defensive  alliance  to  which  Holland  ac- 
ceded, was  signed  November  9,  1729. 

Sevir.  A  captain  of  cavalry  among  the 
Romans  was  so  called. 

Sextant.  An  instrument  of  reflection  for 
measuring  angular  distances  between  ob- 
jects. It  is  constructed  on  the  same  optical 
principle  as  Hadley's  quadrant,  but  usually 
of  metal,  with  a  nicer  graduation,  telescopic 
sight,  and  its  arc  the  sixth,  and  sometimes 
the  third  part  of  a  circle. 

Seymeny-bassy.  Appellation  given  to 
the  lieutenant-general  of  Janissaries  in  the 
Turkish  service. 

Shabrack,  or  Shabraque.  A  Hungarian 
term,  generally  used  among  cavalry  ofiRcers, 
to  signify  the  cloth  furniture  of  a  troop- 
horse. 

Shaft.  A  body  of  a  long,  cylindrical 
shape;  a  stem,  stalk,  trunk,  or  the  like. 
Hence,  the  stem  of  an  arrow,  upon  which 
the  feather  and  head  are  inserted  ;  hence,  an 
arrow  ;  a  missile  weapon.  Also,  the  handle 
of  a  weapon  ;  as,  the  shaft  of  a  spear.  It 
likewise  means  a  perpendicular  excavation 
into  the  earth  for  the  purpose  of  mining. 

Shafted.  In  heraldry,  borne  on  a  shaft ; 
— applied  to  a  spear-head. 

Shaftesbury.  A  town  of  England,  in 
Dorsetshire,  95  miles  southwest  of  London. 
It  was  destroyed  by  the  Danes  both  before 
and  after  888,  but  each  time  it  was  after- 
wards restored. 

Shag-bush.     An  old  term  for  a  hand-gun. 

Shahporee,  or  Shapuree.  An  island  of 
British  Burmah,  lying  ofl"  the  coast  of  Ara- 
can.  The  capture  of  this  island  by  the  Bur- 
mese led  to  the  first  British  war  with  that 
nation,  in  1824. 

Sham.  False;  counterfeit;  pretended; 
as,  a  sham  fight. 

Shamaka,  Shamachi,  or  Shemakha.  A 
town  of  Russia  in  Asia,  Transcaucasia,  207 
miles  east-southeast  from  Tiflis.  It  was  taken 
and  sacked  by  Nadir  Shah  in  1734. 

Shambrie.  In  the  manege,  is  a  long 
thong  of  leather,  made  fast  to  the  end  of  a 
cane  or  stick,  for  the  purpose  of  animating 
a  horse,  or  of  punishing  him  if  he  refuses  to 
obey  the  rider. 

Shang-hae,  or  Shanghai.  A  seaport  city 
of  China,  in  the  province  of  Kiangsu,  on  the 
river  Woo-sung,  one  of  the  five  ports  opened 
for  European  commerce.  It  was  captured 
by  the  British,  June  19,  1842,  by  the  Tae- 
ping  rebels,  September,  1853 ;  retaken  by 
the  imperialists,  1855.  The  rebels  were  de- 
feated near  here  by  the  English  and  French, 
allies  of  the  emperor,  March  1,  1862. 

Sharp.  Fierce  ;  ardent ;  fiery  ;  violent ; 
impetuous.     "  In  sharp  contest  of  battle." 

Sharps  Rifle.  One  of  the  oldest  of  suc- 
cessful breech-loading  rifles.  The  chamber 
of  this  piece  is  fixed,  and  the  barrel  closed 
by  a  vertical  sliding  breech-piece,  which 
moves  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of 
the  piece.  The  fire-arm  is  loaded  by  depress- 
ing the  lever,  or  trigger-guard,  which  with- 


SHARPSBURG 


527 


SHELTER 


draws  the  slide  and  opens  the  breoch  for  the 
insertidn  of  the  cartridf^e.  Orij^inally  a 
paper  cartridge  was  used,  the  rear  end  of 
■which  was  broken  open  by  the  breech-piece 
inclosing;  this  was  superseded  by  a  linen 
cloth  cylinder  to  contain  the  powder,  one 
end  of  which  overlaps  and  is  guninied  to 
the  base  of  the  bullet;  the  other  is  closed 
with  a  layer  of  thin  bank-note  paper.  Tlie 
flame  of  the  percussinn-<'ap  penetrates 
through  this  paper  and  ignites  the  powder. 
The  linen  case  is  carried  out  with  the  bullet 
and  drops  to  the  ground  a  short  distance  in 
front  of  the  piece.  A  metallic  cartridge  is 
now  used. 

Sharpsburg.     See  Antiktam  Ckeek. 

Snarpshooters.  An  old  term  applied  in 
the  army  to  rillcmen. 

Sharp-shooting.  A  shooting  with  great 
prt'ii>iiin  and  cll'ect. 

Shawnees.  A  tribe  of  American  Indians, 
which  were  first  known  on  the  banks  of  Fox 
River,  Wisconsin,  in  HUH.  They  were  a 
warlike  tribe,  and  waged  war  with  the  Iro- 
quois. The  Shawnees  eventually  became  a 
scattered  race,  and  disjiersed  to  several  f)arts 
of  the  country  ;  we  find  a  part  of  them  after- 
wards taking  part  with  the  French  in  their 
wars  in  America;  joined  in  Pontiac's  con- 
spiracy, but  were  subdued  by  Col.  Boquet. 
They  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Western 
wars,  especially  against  the  expeditions  of 
Ilarmer,  Wayne,  etc.  ;  but  made  peace  at 
Greenville  in  1795.  They  afterwards  ef- 
fected an  alliance  with  some  tribes  of  North- 
western Indians,  and  under  th(;ir  celebrated 
leader  Tecumsch  gave  battle  to  the  whites 
under  Gen.  Harrison,  at  Tippecanoe,  but 
were  defeated.  Tecumseh,  with  a  band  of 
Shawnees,  proceeded  to  Canada  at  the  out- 
break of  the  war  of  1812,  and  made  an  alli- 
ance with  the  English,  who  gave  him  a 
brigadier-general's  commission;  he  was 
kilted  while  leading  the  right  wing  at  the 
battle  of  the  Thames  in  1813.  Since  then 
the  Shawnees  have  again  reunited  and  are 
now  upon  reservations  in  Indian  Territory, 
and  luimbered  in  1870  about  800. 

Sheaf.     A  bundle  of  arrows. 

Sheathe.  To  put  into  a  sheath,  case,  or 
scabbard  ;  to  inclose  or  cover  with  a  sheath 
or  case.  To  sheathe  the  sicord,  to  put  an  end 
to  war  or  enmity  ;  to  make  peace. 

Sheeting.  The  term  sheeting  is  applied 
to  the  coarse  hempen  cloth  used  for  making 
tarpaulins 

Sheffield.  A  large  town  of  England  in 
the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Sheaf  and  Don,  43  miles 
southwest  from  York.  During  the  civil 
■wars  in  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  the  castle 
sustained  a  long  siege  for  the  king,  but 
scarcely  a  vestige  of  it  can  now  be  dis- 
cerned. 

Shell.  To  throw  shells  or  bombs  upon  ; 
to  bombard  ;  as,  to  shell  a  t<jwn. 

Shell  Extractor.  An  instrument  for  ex- 
tracting headless  cartridge-cases  from  breech- 
luading  small-arms. 


Shell-hooks.     See  Implbmknts. 

Shelling.  The  act  of  bombarding  a  fort, 
town,  or  position. 

Shell-jacket.    An  undress  military  jacket. 

Shell-plug  Screw.     See  Imi'LKMkxts. 

Shell-proof.  Capable  of  resisting  bomb- 
shells. 

Shells.  IKiIlow  projectiles  ;  also,  the  ca^es 
of  metallic  cartridges  for  use  in  small-arms. 
See  Pkojectii.k.s. 

Shelter.  In  a  military  sense,  that  which 
protects  the  troops  in  the  Held.  There  are 
various  means  resorted  to  for  this  purpose. 
A  common  arrangement  is  as  follows:  A 
cross-bar  is  supported  by  two  ujirights; 
against  this  cross-bar  a  luiinber  of  poles  are 
made  to  lean ;  on  the  back  (»f  the  poles 
abundance  of  fir  branches  are  laid  horizon- 
tally ;  and  lastly,  on  the  back  of  the  fir 
branches  is  ano'thcr  set  of  leaning  poles,  in 
order  to  make  all  secure  by  their  weight. 
A  cloth  of  any  kind  is  made  use  of  to  give 
shelter  by  an  arrangement  of  this  kind. 
The  corners  of  the  cloth  should  be  secured 
by  a  simple  hitch  in  the  rope,  and  not  by  a 
knot.  The  former  is  sufficient  for  all  pur- 
poses of  security,  but  the  latter  will  jam, 
and  you  may  have  to  injure  both  cloth  and 
string  to  get  it  loose  again.  It  is  convenient 
to  pin  a  skewer  in  the  middle  of  the  sides 
of  the  cloth,  round  the  ropes. 

Shelter-tents  affording  an  excellent  protec- 
tion for  (j  soldiers  may  bo  made  as  follows: 
Three  tent-sticks  are  fixed  into  the  ground, 
whose  tops  are  notched  ;  a  light  cord  is  then 
passed  round  their  tops,  and  fastened  into 
the  ground  with  a  peg  at  each  end.  Two 
sheets  are  then  buttoned  together  and  thrown 
over  the  cord,  then  two  others,  which  aro 
buttoned  to  the  previous  ones.  Lastly, 
another  sheet  is  thrown  over  each  of  the 
slanting  cords,  and  buttoned  to  the  others. 
The  sides  of  the  tent  are,  of  course,  pegged 
to  the  ground.  There  are  many  modifica- 
tions in  the  way  of  pitching  these  tents.  For 
want  of  sticks  muskets  can  be  used. 

Huts  are  also  frequently  used  as  a  means 
of  protection  by  troops,  as  there  is  scarcely 
any  place  which  does  not  furnish  materials 
for  tlieir  construction. 

Walls. — Those  principally  in  use  are  as 
follows  :  Skins,  canvas,  felt,  tarpaulin,  bark, 
reed  mats,  reed  walls,  straw  walls,  wattle- 
and-dab,  log  huts,  fascines  or  fagots,  boards, 
etc. ,  fastened  by  malay-hitch,  brick,  sunburnt 
or  baked,  turf,  stones,  gabions,  bags  or  mats 
filled  with  sand  or  shingle,  snow  huts,  un- 
derground huts,  tents  over  holes  in  earth. 

Roofs. — Many  of  the  above  list  would  be 
perfectly  suitable  for  roofs  ;  in  addition  may 
he  mentioned  slating  with  flat  stones,  thatch, 
sea-weed,  and  wood  shingles. 

Straw  tcall.'i  of  the  following  kind  are  very 
effective,  and  they  have  the  advantage  of 
requiring  a  minimum  of  string  (or  substi- 
tute for  string)  in  their  manufacture.  The 
straw  or  herbage  of  almost  any  description 
is  simply  nipped  between  two  pairs  of  long 
Slicks,  which  arc  respectively  tied  together 


SHENANDOAH 


528 


SHOT 


at  the  two  ends,  and  at  a  sufficient  number 
of  intermediate  places.  Tiie  whole  is  neatly 
squared  and  trimmed.  A  few  of  these  would 
help  in  finishing  the  roof  or  walls  of  a  house. 
They  can  be  made  movable  so  as  to  suit  the 
wind,  shade,  and  aspect.  Even  the  hut 
door  can  be  made  on  this  principle. 

Malay  hitch  is  the  name  given  to  a  won- 
derfully simple  way  of  attaching  together 
wisps  of  straw,  rods,  laths,  reeds,  planks, 
poles,  or  anything  of  the  kind  into  a  secure 
and  flexible  mat ;  the  sails  used  in  the  far 
East  are  made  in  this  way,  and  the  movable 
decks  are  made  of  bamboos  joined  together 
with  a  similar  but  rather  more  complicated 
stitch. 

Shenandoah.  A  river  of  Virginia,  United 
States,  the  largest  tributary  to  the  Potomac, 
drains  the  beautiful  and  fertile  valley  be- 
tween the  Blue  Ridge  and  the  principal 
range  of  the  Alleghanies.  In  the  war  of 
1861-05,  this  valley  was  the  scene  of  numer- 
ous conflicts,  was  successively  occupied  by 
the  opposing  armies,  and  finally  laid  waste 
by  Gen.  Sheridan  in  the  autumn  of  1864. 

Shield.  A  piece  of  defensive  armor,  borne 
on  the  left  arm,  to  ward  olf  the  strokes  of 
the  sword  and  of  missiles.  It  has  been  con- 
stantly used  from  ancient  times,  through  the 
Middle  Ages,  till  the  invention  of  fire-arms. 
The  large  shield  worn  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  [clipeiis)  was  circular,  and  often 
ornamented  with  devices.  Aiiother  form  of 
shield  (sculiim)  was  used  by  the  lloman 
heavy-armed  infantry,  square,  but  bent  to  en- 
circle the  body-  The  early  shield  or  knightly 
escutcheon  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  circular 
in  outline,  and  convex,  with  a  boss  in  the 
centre  ;  the  body  generally  of  wood,  and 
the  rim  of  metal.  There  were  many  other 
kinds  of  shields,  made  of  leather,  wood, 
basket-work,  etc.,  employed  up  to  the  intro- 
duction of  fire-arms,  when  they  became  prac- 
tically useless,  although  some  savage  nations 
employ  shields  at  the  present  time. 

Shield.  To  cover,  as  with  a  shield;  to 
cover  from  danger  ;  to  defend  ;  to  protect ; 
to  secure  from  assault  or  injury. 

Shift.  In  a  military  sense,  to  change 
place  or  station.     Hence,  to  shift  quarters. 

Shiloh.  A  locality  in  Tennessee,  a  few 
miles  from  Pittsburg  Landing,  situated  on 
the  Tennessee  River.  Here  on  April  6-7, 
1862,  a  great  battle  was  fought  between  the 
Union  troops  under  Grant  and  the  Confed- 
erate army  under  Albert  Sydney  Johnston 
and  Beauregard.  The  Confederates  began 
the  attack,  taking  the  Union  forces  by  sur- 
prise, who,  after  a  brave  resistance  during 
the  first  day,  were  compelled  to  retire  before 
the  victorious  Confederates,  who,  however, 
lost  their  gallant  chief.  Gen.  Johnston.  The 
Federals  having  been  reinforced  during  the 
night,  commenced  the  attack  on  the  7th, 
along  the  whole  of  the  rebel  line,  which 
was  resisted  gallantly,  and  the  field  was 
stubbornly  contested  until  about  4  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon,  when  the  Union  army  re- 
gained their  lines  of   the  day  before,  and 


drove  the  enemy  off"  the  field.  The  Con- 
federates retreated  to  Corinth.  The  loss  of 
the  Confederates  was  1785  killed,  about 
8000  wounded,  and  960  missing.  Grant's 
loss  was  estimated  at  something  under  this 
number. 

Shirvan,  or  Shirwan.  A  province  of 
Russia  in  Asia,  in  the  country  of  the  Cau- 
casus. Shirvan  formed  until  the  6th  cen- 
tury a  part  of  the  monarchy  of  Armenia  ; 
but  was  afterwards  conquered  by  the  Per- 
sians, and  made  a  part  of  that  empire  under 
Khosroo  Nooshirvan,  who  called  this  coun- 
try after  his  name.  The  rulers  of  Shirvan 
carried  on  many  wars  with  Persia,  over 
which  country  they  repeatedly  gained  great 
advantages.  Pinally,  in  the  end  of  the  15th 
centur}',  it  was  completely  brought  under 
Persian  sway.  The  Russians  gradually  in- 
vaded the  country,  and  it  was  ceded  to  them 
in  1812. 

Sholapore.  Capital  of  the  collectorate  of 
the  same  name,  in  British  India,  in  the 
Presidency  of  Bombay.  It  is  strongly  for- 
tified, and  was  taken  by  escalade  by  a  British 
force  under  Gen.  Pritzter. 

Shoomla.     See  Schumla. 

Shoot.  To  let  fly  or  cause  to  be  driven 
with  force,  as  an  arrow  or  bullet  ; — followed 
by  a  word  denoting  the  missile,  as  an  ob- 
ject. Also,  to  discharge,  causing  a  missile 
to  be  driven  forth  ; — said  of  the  weapon  or 
instrument,  as  an  object;  as,  to  shoot  a  gun 
and  the  like. 

Shooter.  One  who  shoots  ;  an  archer  ;  a 
gunner;  a  shot.  Also,  that  which  shoots; 
as,  a  five-shooter. 

Shooting-iron.  A  fire-arm  is  sometimes 
so  called. 

Shoshones,  or  Snakes.  A  tribe  of  North 
American  Indians  inhabiting  the  country 
between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  from  Idaho  southward  into 
Utah.  They  have  generally  been  peacea- 
ble ;  but  they  collided  with  the  whites  on 
several  occasions,  which  resulted  disastrously 
for  them,  several  of  their  bands  being  al- 
most annihilated.  Treaties  were  formed 
with  them  on  several  occasions  between  1863 
and  1868,  and  attempts  have  been  made  to 
place  them  upon  reservations.  All  the 
property  of  a  dead  Shoshone  is  buried  with 
him,  and  formerly  his  favorite  wife  and 
horse  were  killed  over  the  corpse.  In  1870 
they  numbered  about  4000  souls. 

Shot.     See  Projkctile. 

Shot.  The  act  of  shooting  ;  discharge  of 
a  missile  weapon.  Also,  the  flight  of  a 
missile  weapon,  or  the  distance  which  it 
passes  from  the  engine  ;  as,  a  cannon-shot ; 
a  musket-shot,  etc.  Also,  a  marksman  ; 
one  who  practices  shooting;  as,  an  excel- 
lent shot. 

Shot.  To  load  with  shot  over  a  car- 
tridge ;  as,  to  shot  the  guns. 

Shot,  Canister-.     See  Canistek-shot. 

Shot,  Case-.     See  Case-shot. 

Shot,  Chain-.     See  Chain-shot. 

Shot,  Grape-.     See  Gkape-Shot. 


SHOT-BELT 


529 


SICILY 


Shot-belt.  A  belt  having  a  pouch  for 
carrying  shut. 

Shot-gauge.  An  instrument  for  measur- 
ing the  diaiiioter  of  round-shot. 

Shot-tower.  A  lofty  tower  for  making 
shot,  by  dr<ij)ping  from  its  summit  melted 
lead,  whirh  cools  in  the  descent,  and  is  re- 
ceived into  water  or  other  liquid. 

Shoulder.  The  upper  part  of  a  blade  of 
a  sword.  Also,  the  salient  angle  of  the 
flank  of  a  bastion.  To  shoulder,  to  lay  on 
the  shoulder,  or  to  rest  anything  against  it. 
Hence,  to  shoulder  arms,  a  word  of  com- 
mand ill  the  niunual  exercise. 

Shoulder-belt.     See  Bklt.s. 

Shoulder-knot.  An  oriuimental  knot  of 
gold  cord  on  cloth  of  the  same  color  as  the 
facings  of  tliearm  to  which  the  officer  be- 
longs, with  insignia  of  rank  and  number  of 
regiment  embroidered  on  the  cloth  ground. 
They  are  worn  on  the  shoulder  by  commis- 
sioned officers  of  the  army,  and  are  some- 
times embroidered.     A  kind  of  epaulette. 

Shoulder-strap.  A  narrow  strap,  \\ 
inches  wide  by  4  inches  long,  bordered  with 
an  embroid'-ry  of  gold  \  inch  wide.  It  is 
worn  on  the  shoulder  of  a  commissioned 
officer  in  the  army,  indicating  by  a  suitable 
device  the  rank  he  holds  in  the  service.  See 
Kank,  I.nsionia  of. 

Shrapnel.      See    Projectile,  SMOOTn- 

BOKK   l'U().JKCTILES. 

Shrewsbury.  An  ancient  town  of  Eng- 
land, inSliropshire, on  theSevern.  Itwasthe 
scene  of  many  military  events,  the  inhabit- 
ants always  taking  an  active  share  in  the 
various  contests  of  the  most  turbulent  period 
of  English  history,  from  the  conquest  to  the 
civil  war.  It  was  taken  by  Llewellyn  the 
Great,  prince  of  North  Wales,  in  r21o,  dur- 
ing the  disturbances  between  King  John  and 
the  barons.  The  famous  battle  of  Shrews- 
bury, in  which  Henry  IV.,  then  prince  of 
"Wales,  first  distinguished  himself  in  the  field, 
and  the  fiery  Hotspur  was  slain,  was  fought 
in  1403. 

Shropshire,  Battle  of.  In  which  the  Brit- 
ons wen-  coiiiiiloteiy  subjugated,  and  Carac- 
tacus,  the  renowned  king  of  the  Silures, 
became,  tlirough  the  treachery  of  the  queen 
of  the  Brigantes,  a  prisoner  to  the  Komans. 

Shunt  Gun.  A  rified  fire-arm  having  two 
sets  of  grooves,  down  one  of  which  the  shot 
is  passed  in  loading,  and  along  the  other  of 
which  it  passes  out  when  fired,  having  been 
shunted  from  one  set  to  the  other,  when  at 
the  bottom,  by  turning  upon  its  axis. 

Shuternaul.  In  the  East  Indies,  is  a  sort 
of  arquebuse,  which  is  fixed  upon  the  back 
of  a  camel. 

Siberia,  or  Siberi.  A  vast  territory  in 
Northern  Asia,  belonging  to  Russia,  and  in- 
cluding all  the  Russian  possessions  in  that 
continent,  with  the  exception  of  the  Trans- 
caucasian  and  Armenian  provinces.  Siberia 
seems  to  have  been  first  made  known  to  the 
Russians  by  a  merchant  named  .Vnika  Strog- 
anoft";  and  soon  after  the  conquest  of  West 
Siberia  was  etlected  by  the  Cussack  Vassili 


Yermak,  an  absconded  criminal,  at  the  head 
of  a  numerous  band  of  wild  followers.     After 
Yermak's  death,  in  1554,  the  Russians  pur- 
I  sued    their    conquests    eastward,    founding 
!  Tomsk  in  lf)04,  and  though  they  often  expe- 
!  rienced  serious  reverses,  their  progress  was 
rapid,  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  being  reached  in 
1G39,   and   Irkutsk  founded   in  IWl.     Fre- 
quent disturbances  have   occurred  between 
the  Russians  and  the  Chinese  and  Tartars, 
which  have  resulted  in  the  extension  south- 
ward of  the  Siberian  boundary  into  Man- 
churia and  Turkestan. 

Sicarii  (i.e..  Assassins).  The  name  given 
by  the  Romans  to  certain  savage  mountain 
tribes  of  the  Lebanon,  who  were,  like  the 
Thvgs  of  India,  avowed  murderers  by  pro- 
fession. In  the  same  mountains  there  ex- 
isted, at  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  a  branch 
of  the  fanatic  sect  called  "  Assassins,"  whoso 
habits  resembled  those  of  the  Sicarii,  and 
whose  name  the  Crusaders  imported  into 
Europe;  but  these  were  of  Arabian  origin. 
Sicilian  Vespers.  The  name  given  to 
the  massacre  of  the  French  in  Sicily,  on  the 
day  after  Easter  (March  30),  1822,  the  signal 
for  the  commencement  of  which  was  to  be 
the  first  stroke  of  the  vesper-bell.  On  the 
evening  of  Easter  Monday,  the  inhabitants 
of  Palermo,  enraged  (according  to  the  com- 
mon story)  at  a  gross  outrage  which  was 
perpetrated  by  a  French  soldier  on  a  young 
'Sicilian  bride,  suddenly  rose  against  their 
o]>pressors,  the  French,  and  put  to  the  sword 
I  every  man,  woman,  and  cliild,  and  did  not 
even  spare  those  Italians  and  Sicilians  who 
had  married  Frenchmen.  Tliis  example  was 
followed  by  Messina  and  other  tosvns,  and 
the  massacre  soon  became  general  over  the 
island.  The  French  were  hunted  like  wild 
beasts,  and  dragged  even  from  the  churches, 
where  they  vainly  thought  themselves  secure. 
More  than  80(K)  of  tliem  were  slain  by  the 
Palermitans  alone.  This  event  was  the  final 
overthrow  of  Charles  of  Anjou's  domination 
in  Sicily. 

Sicily  (anc.  Sicilia).  The  largest  island 
in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  situated  between 
Italy  and  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  separated 
on  the  northeast  from  Naples  by  the  Strait 
of  Messina  ;  it  is  a  province  of  the  kingdom 
of  Italy.  It  was  successively  occupied  by 
the  Pliccnicians,  Greeks,  Carthaginians,  and 
Romans.  For  history  of  the  Carthaginians 
in  Sicily,  see  Caktuaoe.  The  western  part 
of  Sicily  was  made  a  Roman  province  in 
241  B.C. ;  but  after  the  revolt  of  Syracuse  in 
the  second  Punic  war,  and  the  ci>nquest  of 
that  city  by  Marcellus,  the  whole  island  was 
made  a"  Roman  province.  On  the  downfall 
of  the  Roman  empire,  Sicily  formed  part  of 
the  kingdom  of  tlie  Ostrogoths  ;  but  it  was 
taken  I'rom  them  by  Beiisarius  in  530,  •nd 
annexed  to  the  Byzantine  empire.  In  the 
8th  and  9th  centuries  the  Saracens  succeeded 
in  conquering  it.  The  Normans  c<mquered 
the  island  in  the  11th  century  under  Roger 
Guiscard,  duke  of  Apulia.  It  passed  suc- 
cessively into  the  hands  of  France  ^soc  Si- 


SICK 


530 


SIEGE 


ciLTAN  Vespkrs),  Germany,  and  Spain.  By 
the  peace  of  Utrecht,  in  1713,  it  was  given 
to  the  Duke  of  Savoy  ;  was  added  to  the 
kingdom  of  Naples  in  1720.  The  war  of 
1734,  however,  carried  on  by  France  and 
Spain  against  Austria,  transferred  the  crown 
of  Naples,  or,  as  it  was  subsequently  termed, 
of  the  Two  Sicilies,  to  a  branch  of  the  royal 
family  of  Spain  ;  it  remained  in  their  hands 
until  the  French  revolution  led,  in  1799,  to 
the  expulsion  of  the  royal  family  from  Na- 
ples. In  1815,  Ferdinand  IV.  of  Naples 
assumed  the  title  of  Ferdinand  I.  of  the  Two 
Sicilies.  In  1847,  1848,  and  1849,  the  Sicil- 
ians made  several  attempts,  in  common  with 
the  Neapolitans,  to  rid  themselves  of  their 
obnoxious  monarch,  Ferdinand  II.,  but 
without  success.  The  Bourbons  were,  how- 
ever, driven  from  the  throne  by  Garibaldi 
in  1860,  and  in  the  same  year  Sicily  was 
united  to  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy.  See 
Naplks. 

Sick  and  Hurt.  A  board  so  called,  to 
which  the  agents,  commissaries,  etc.,  belong- 
ing to  the  several  military  hospitals  in  Great 
Britain  were  responsible. 

Sick  Call.  A  military  call  which  is 
sounded  on  the  drum,  bugle,  or  trumpet, 
whereby  the  sick  men  are  warned  to  attend 
the  hospital. 

Sick-flag.  The  yellow  quarantine  flag 
hoisted  to  prevent  communication  ;  whence 
the  term  of  the  yellow  flag  and  yellow  ad- 
mirals. There  are  two  others, — one  with  a 
black  ball,  the  other  with  a  square  in  the 
centre, — denoting  plague  or  actual  diseases. 

Sick  Report  Book.  A  book  in  which  the 
names  of  the  men  who  are  sick  in  a  company, 
troop,  etc.,  are  entered,  also  the  names  of 
their  diseases,  and  probable  cause  of  same. 
This  book  is  signed  by  one  of  the  company 
officers  to  which  the  men  belong,  and  the 
attending  surgeon. 

Sicyonia.  A  small  district  in  the  north- 
east of  Peloponnesus.  Its  chief  town  was 
Sicyon,  which  was  destro_yed  by  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes.  In  the  Persian  war  the  Sicyo- 
nians  sent  fifteen  ships  to  the  battle  of  Sala- 
mis,  and  300  hoplites  to  the  battle  of  PlastaB. 
In  the  interval  between  the  Persian  and  Pelo- 
ponnesian  wars  the  Sicyonians  were  twice 
defeated  and  their  country  laid  waste  by  the 
Athenians, — first  under  Tolmides  in  4.56 
B.C.,  and  again  under  Pericles  in  454  B.C. 
In  the  Peloponnesian  war  they  took  part 
with  the  Spartans. 

Side-arms.  Such  arms  as  are  suspended 
by  the  side  and  attached  to  the  person,  such 
as  a  bayonet  or  sword. 

Sidon,  or  Zidon  (now  So.ida,  or  Seida). 
For  a  long  time  the  most  powerful,  and 
probably  the  most  ancient,  of  the  cities  of 
Phoenice.  It  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  mari- 
time power  of  Phoenice  until  eclipsed  by  its 
own  colony,  Tyre.  It  submitted  to  Shal- 
manezer  at  the  time  of  the  Assyrian  con- 
quest of  Syria.  In  the  expedition  of  Xerxes 
against  Greece  the  Sidonians  furnished  the 
best  ships  in  the  whole  fleet.    Sidon  received 


the  great  blow  to  her  prosperity  in  the  reign 
of  Artaxerxes  III.  (Ochus),  when  the  Sido- 
nians, having  taken  part  in  the  revolt  of 
Phajnice  and  Cyprus,  and  being  betrayed  to 
Ochus  by  their  own  king  Tennes,  burned 
themselves  with  their  citv,  351  b.c.  It  was 
rebuilt.  On  September  27,  1840,  the  town 
was  taicen  from  the  pasha  of  Egypt  by  the 
troops  of  the  sultan  and  of  his  allies,  assisted 
by  some  ships  of  the  British  squadron,  under 
Admiral  Sir  Robert  Stopford  and  Commo- 
dore Charles  Napier. 

Siege  (Fr.  siege,  "a  seat,  a  sitting  down"). 
Is  the  sitting  of  an  army  before  a  hostile 
town  or  fortress  with  the  intention  of  cap- 
turing it.  With  certain  elements,  the  suc- 
cess of  a  siege  is  beyond  doubt ;  the  result 
being  merely  a  question  of  time.  These  ele- 
ments are :  First,  the  force  of  the  besiegers 
shall  be  sufficient  to  overcome  the  besieged 
in  actual  combat,  man  to  man.  If  this  be 
not  the  case,  the  besieged,  by  a  sortie,  might 
destroy  the  opposing  works  and  drive  away 
the  besiegers.  The  second  element  is,  that 
the  place  must  be  thoroughly  invested,  so 
that  no  provisions,  reinforcements,  or  other 
aliment  of  war  can  enter.  The  third  ele- 
ment is,  that  the  besiegers  be  undisturbed 
from  without.  For  this  it  is  essential  that 
there  shall  not  be  a  hostile  army  in  the 
neighborhood  ;  or  if  there  be,  that  the  oper- 
ations of  the  besiegers  be  protected  by  a  cov- 
ering army  able  to  cope  with  the  enemy's 
force  in  the  field.  The  ancients  executed 
gigantic  works  to  produce  these  effects.  To 
complete  the  investment  they  built  a  high 
and  strong  wall  around  the  whole  fortress  ; 
and  to  render  themselves  secure  from  with- 
out they  built  a  similar  wall,  facing  out- 
wards, beyond  their  own  position.  The  first 
was  circumvallation,  the  second  contravalla- 
tion.  It  was  thus  that  Cajsar  fortified  him- 
self while  besieging  Alexia,  and  maintained 
60,000  men  within  his  ring.  In  modern 
warfare  it  is  considered  preferable  to  estab- 
lish strong  posts  here  and  there  round  the 
place,  and  merely  sentinels  and  videttes  be- 
tween. Let  us  now  assume  that  a  fortress  of 
great  strength  has  to  be  reduced,  and  that  the 
force  of  the  enemy  in  the  vicinity  has  been 
eitlier  subdued  or  held  in  check  by  a  covering 
army.  By  rapid  movements  the  place  is  at 
once  invested  on  all  sides.  This  step  consti- 
tutes merely  a  blockade ;  and  if  time  be  of 
little  importance,  it  is  a  sufficient  operation, 
for  hunger  must  sooner  or  later  cause  the 
fortress  to  surrender;  but  if  more  energetic 
measures  are  required,  the  actual  siege  must 
be  prosecuted.  Advantage  is  taken  of  any 
hidden  ground  to  establish  the  park  of  ar- 
tillery and  the  engineer's  park ;  or,  if  there 
be  none,  these  parks  have  to  be  placed  out  of 
range.  The  besieging  force  is  now  encamped 
just  beyond  the  reach  of  the  guns  of  the 
fortress  ;  and  their  object  is  to  get  over  the 
intervening  ground  and  into  the  works  with- 
ovit  being  torn  to  pieces  by  the  concentrated 
fire  of  the  numerous  pieces  which  the  de- 
fenders can   bring   to  bear  on  every  part. 


SIEGE 


531 


SIEGE 


With  this  view,  the  place  is  approached  by 
a  series  of  zigzag  trc^iulios  so  pointed  tliat 
they  cannot  be  enfihided  by  any  guns  in  the 
fortress.  In  order  to  accommodate  the  forces 
necessary  to  protect  the  workers,  tlie  trendies 
ut  certain  intervals  are  cut  laterally  for  a 
great  length,  partly  encircling  the  place,  and 
afl'ording  safe  room  f<)r  a  large  force  with 
ample  battering  material.  These  are  called 
parallels,  and  they  are  generally  three  in 
number.  The  distance  of  the  first  parallel 
will  increase  as  small-arms  become  more 
deadly ;  but  with  smooth-bore  muskets  it 
lias  been  usual  to  break  ground  at  600  yards 
from  the  covered  way  of  the  fortress,  while 
in  the  case  of  Sebastopol,  ground  was  broken 
at  2000  yards.  The  engineers  having,  by 
reconnoissances,  decided  the  locality  of  the 
parallel,  and  taken  advantage  of  an\-  ine- 
qualities of  surface,  a  strong  body  of  men  is 
sent  to  the  spot  soon  after  nightfall.  The 
attention  of  the  garrison  is  distracted  by 
false  alarms  in  other  directions.  Half  the 
men  are  armed  cap-a-pie,  and  lie  down  be- 
fore the  proposed  parallel ;  while  the  other 
half,  bearing  each  a  pick  and  shovel,  and 
two  empty  gabions,  prepare  for  work.  Each 
man  deposits  the  gabions  where  the  parapet 
of  the  trench  should  be.  He  then  digs  down 
behind  them,  filling  the  gabions  with  the 
earth  dug  out,  and  after  they  are  tilled, 
throwing  it  over  them,  to  widen  and  heighten 
the  parapet.  Before  daylight  the  working 
party  is  expected  to  have  formed  sufficient 
cover  to  conceal  themselves  and  the  troops 

Protecting  them.  During  the  day,  they — 
eing  concealed  from  the  garri.son — widen 
and  complete  their  parallel,  making  it  of  di- 
mensions sufficient  to  allow  of  wagons  and 
bodies  of  troops  with  guns  passing  along. 
During  the  same  night  other  parties  will 
have  been  at  work  at  zigzags  of  approach 
from  the  depots  out  of  range  to  the  first  par- 
allel, which  zigzags  will  be  probably  not 
less  than  1000  yards  in  length.  As  a  rule, 
the  defenders  will  not  expend  ammunition 
on  the  first  parallel,  for  its  extent  (often 
several  miles)  will  render  the  probability  of 
doing  material  damage  extremely  small. 
For  this  reason  also,  tlie  dimensions  of  the 
parapet  and  its  solidity  are  of  far  less  im- 
portance in  the  first  parallel  than  in  the  more 
advanced  works  of  attack.  The  first  par- 
allel being  completed,  the  engineers  select 
points  near  its  extremities,  at  which  they 
erect  breastworks  to  cover  bodies  of  cavalry, 
who  are  kept  at  hand  to  resist  sorties  from 
the  garrison.  The  length  of  the  parallel  is 
usually  nuido  sufficient  to  embrace  all  the 
works  of  two  bastions  at  least.  Sites  are 
then  chosen  for  batteries,  which  are  built 
up  of  fascines,  gabions,  sand-bags,  and 
earth.  They  are  placed  at  points  in  the 
parallel  formed  by  the  prolongation  of 
the  several  faces  of  the  bastions,  rave- 
lins, and  other  works  of  the  fortress,  which 
faces  the  batteries  are  severally  intended  to 
enfilade  by  a  ricochet  fire.  Other  batteries 
will  be  formed  for  a  vertical  fire  of  morturs. 


By  these  means  it  is  hoped  that  the  traverses 
on  the  hostile  ramparts  will  be  destroyed, 
the  guns  dismounted,  and  the  defenders  dis- 
persed, before  the  final  approaches  bring  the 
assailants  to  the  covered  way.  The  sappers 
will  now  commence  their  advance  towards 
the  points,  or  salient  angles,  of  the  two 
bastions  to  be  attacked.  If,  however,  the 
trench  were  cut  straight  towards  the  fortress, 
its  guns  could  easily  destroy  the  workmen, 
and  enfilade  the  approach.  To  prevent  this, 
it  is  cut  into  short  zigzags,  the  direction  al- 
ways being  to  a  point  a  few  yards  beyond  the 
outmost  fianking-works  of  the  garrison. 
The  side  of  each  trench  nearest  the  fortress 
is  protected  by  gabions  and  sand-bags,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  parallel.  At  intervals 
short  spurs  of  trench,  incipient  parallels,  arc 
cut,  to  contain  infantry,  to  act  as  guards  to 
the  sappers.  The  second  parallel  is  about 
300  yards  from  the  enemy's  works,  and  has 
to  be  more  strongly  formed  than  the  first. 
It  often  terminates  in  a  redoubt  to  hold  some 
light  artillery,  and  a  strong  force  of  infantry, 
who  could  assail  any  sortie  in  flank  ;  or  it 
may  run  into  the  first  parallel,  giving  easier 
access  for  troops  than  through  the  zigzags. 
The  second  parallel  is  revetted  with  sand- 
bags, in  which  loop-holes  are  left  for  mus- 
ketry. After  passing  the  second  parallel, 
the  angles  of  the  zigzags  become  more  acute, 
to  prevent  enfilading.  At  about  150  yards, 
certain  dcnii-parallels  are  cut,  and  armed 
with  howitzer-batteries  to  clear  the  covered 
way,  while  riflemen  also  act  from  it.  Tho 
third  parallel  is  at  the  foot  of  the  glacis. 
Thence  the  place,  after  being  sufficiently 
battered,  is  taken  by  a  storming  )>arty,  who 
make  their  way  over  the  glacis ;  or  iho 
covered  way  is  topped  by  the  double  sap, 
which  is  a  safer  plan  for  the  army  generally, 
though  much  more  deadly  to  the  sappers. 
AV'hen  the  crest  of  the  covered  way  has  thus 
been  reached,  batteries  of  heavy  artillery 
will  be  there  established,  for  the  purpose  of 
breaching  the  walls  of  the  ravelin  and  bas- 
tion ;  while  at  the  same  time  miners  will 
first  seek  to  destroy  the  defenders'  counter- 
mines (which  would  otherwise  be  likely  to 
send  these  batteries  into  the  air),  and  then 
will  excavate  a  tunnel  to  the  ditch  at  the 
foot  of  the  counterscarp.  If  the  breach  be- 
comes practicable,  a  storming  party  will 
emerge  from  this  tunnel  or  gallery,  and  seek 
to  carry  the  opposite  work  by  hard  fighting. 
If  inner  works  still  subsist,  which  would 
tear  assailants  to  pieces,  the  double  sap  may 
be  continued  across  the  ditch,  if  a  dry  ditch, 
right  up  the  breach,  that  counter-batteries 
may  be  formed.  If  the  ditch  be  wet.  means 
must  be  adopted  for  a  causeway  or  a  bridge. 
By  these  means,  however  obstinate  may  be 
the  defense,  if  the  besieging  force  be  suffi- 
ciently strong,  and  aid  uo  not  arrive  from 
without,  the  ultimate  success  of  the  attack 
becomes  certain.  Vauban  raised  attack  to  a 
superiority  above  defense,  first  by  the  intro- 
duction of  ricochet  fire,  which  sweeps  a 
whole   line;    and   secondly  by   originating 


SIEGE 


532 


SIGHT 


parallels.  Before  his  time,  the  whole  at- 
tack was  conducted  by  zi2;zag  approaches, 
in  which  the  troops  actually  in  front  could 
be  but  few,  and  were  therefore  unable  to 
withstand  strong  sorties  of  the  garrison, 
who,  in  consequence,  frequently  broke  out 
and  destroyed  the  works  of  the  besiegers, 
rendering  a  siege  an  operation  of  the  most 
uncertain  character. 

Siege  and  Sea-coast  Ammunition.  See 
Ordnance,  AMMtiNiTiON  for. 

Siege  Artillery.  Is  heavy  ordnance  used 
for  battering  purposes,  and  of  too  weighty  a 
character  to  take  the  field.  A  siege-train  of 
guns  and  their  ponderous  ammunition  is 
usually  maintained  in  the  rear  of  an  army, 
ready  to  be  brought  up  for  use  when  re- 
quired.    See  Artillery. 

Siege  Carriages.  See  Ordnance,  Car- 
riages FOR. 

Siege-train.  The  number  and  kind  of 
pieces  composing  a  siege-train  must  al- 
together depend  on  circumstances  ;  but  the 
following  general  principles  may  be  observed 
in  assigning  the  proportion  of  different  kinds 
and  calibers,  and  the  relative  quantitj^  of 
other  supplies,  for  a  train  of  100  pieces  : 

Guns,  about  three-fifths  the  whole  num- 
ber (60) ;  howitzers,  one-fourth  (25) ;  mor- 
tars, 10-inch  siege,  one-eighth  (12),  8-in'cli 
siege,  3  ;  Coehorn  viortars,  in  addition  to  the 
100  pieces,  6.     Total  number  of  guns,  106. 

Carriages,  for  guns  and  howitzers,  one- 
fifth  spare,  102;  for  10-inch  mortars,  one- 
sixth  spare,  14  ;  for  8-inch  mortars,  4. 

Mortar-wagons,  one  for  each  10-inch  mor- 
tar and  bed,  and  for  three  8-inch  mortars 
and  beds,  14. 

Wagons,  for  transporting  implements,  in- 
trenching and  miners'  tools,  laboratory  tools 
and  utensils,  and  other  stores,  each  loaded 
with  about  2700  pounds, — say  140. 

Carts,  carrying  balls,  etc.,  on  the  march,  50. 

Park  battery-wagons,  fully  equipped,  28. 

Park  forges,  fully  equipped,  8. 

Sling-carts,  large,  5. 

Sling-carts,  hand,  4. 

Total  number  of  carriages,  369. 

Draught-horses,  for  each  gun  and  howit- 
zer, with  its  carriage,  8  ;  for  each  spare  gun- 
carriage,  6;  for  each  mortar-wagon,  8;  for 
each  battery-wagon,  6;  for  each  forge,  6 ; 
for  each  cart,  2 ;  for  each  sling-cart,  large, 
2;  spare  horses,  one-tenth.  Total,  about 
1900  horses. 

Siemens-Martin  Steel.  See  Ordnance, 
Metals  for,  Steel. 

Siena,  or  Sienna.  A  city  of  Central 
Italy,  about  30  miles  southeast  from  Flor- 
ence. In  the  Middle  Ages,  Siena  became 
one  of  the  powerful  city  republics  of  Italy 
It  embraced  the  Ghibelline  cause,  and  in, 
conjunction  with  the  forces  of  Pisa,  defeated 
the  Tuscan  Guelfs,  in  the  memorable  battle 
of  Monte  Aperto  (1206).  Through  intestine 
quarrels  it  was  subjugated  by  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  and  given  to  his  son  in  1555, 
who  ceded  it  to  Cosmo  of  Tuscany,  1557.  It 
was  incorporated  with  France,  1808-14. 


Sierra  Leone.  A  district  of  "Western 
Africa,  situated  on  the  Atlantic.  Tiie  Brit- 
ish settlement  of  Sierra  Leone  was  estab- 
lished in  1787,  when  400  negroes,  with  60 
wives,  mostly  women  of  bad  character,  were 
removed  to  it  from  London.  The  settle- 
ment was  attacked  by  the  French  in  Septem- 
ber, 1794,  and  by  the  natives  in  Februarv, 
1802 

Sight.  A  small  piece  of  brass  or  iron 
fixed  to  a  cannon  or  a  musket,  to  serve  as  a 
point  of  direction,  and  to  assist  the  eye  in 
aiming  the  piece. 

Sight.  To  give  the  proper  elevation  and 
direction  to  by  means  of  a  sight ;  as,  to  sight 
a  rifie  or  cannon.  To  take  sight,  to  take  aim ; 
to  look  for  the  purpose  of  directing  a  piece 
of  artillery,  or  the  like. 

Sight,  Angle  of.     See  Pointing. 

Sight,  Breech-.     See  Breech-sight. 

Sight,  Buckhorn-.  A  form  of  rear-sight 
much  used  in  sporting  rifles,  which  takes  its 
name  from  the  curved  form  of  the  notch 
used.  This  form  of  notch  is  now  attached 
to  the  Springfield  rifle  in  use  by  U.  S.  troops. 

Sight,  Coarse.  An  aim  of  a  piece  in 
which  a  ct>nsiderable  portion  of  the  front- 
sight  covers  the  object. 

"sight,  Elevating.  The  rear-sight  of  a 
small-arm,  arranged  to  give  varying  heights 
of  sight  for  dift'erent  ranges.  There  are  a 
variety  of  forms.  The  leaf-sight  has  a  num- 
ber of  hinged  leaves  of  diflferent  lengths. 
The  one  now  used  in  the  U.  S.  army  has 
one  hinged  leaf.  Up  to  500  yards,  the  ele- 
vation is  given  by  moving  the  sighting- 
piece  up  a  curved  incline.  Above  500  yards, 
the  leaf  is  turned  up  to  the  perpendicular. 

Sight,  Fine.  An  aim  in  which  only  the 
summit  of  the  front-sight  is  used  to  get  the 
line  of  sight. 

Sight,  Front-.  The  sight  nearest  the  muz- 
zle of  a  cannon  or  small-arm.  In  military 
arms,  it  is  set  on  a  short  projection  which 
is  used  also  as  the  bayonet-stud.  In  cannon 
of  old  model,  using  the  tangent  scale,  or  pen- 
dulum hausse,  the  height  of  the  front-sight 
is  made  equal  to  the  dispart,  making  the 
natural  line  of  sight  parallel  to  the  axis  of 
the  piece.     See  Dispart. 

Sight,  Line  of.     See  Pointing. 

Sight,  Peep-.  A  form  of  rear-sight  for 
small-arms  in  which  the  marksman  looks 
through  a  small  hole. 

Sight,  Plane  of.     See  Pointing. 

Sight,  Quarter-.  The  quarter-sights  of  a 
cannon  are  divisions  marked  on  the  upper 
quarters  of  the  base-ring,  commencing  where 
it  would  be  intersected  by  a  plane  parallel 
to  the  axis  of  the  piece,  and  tangent  to  the 
upper  surface  of  the  trunnions  ;  used  for 
giving  elevations  up  to  three  degrees,  and 
especiall}^  for  pointing  at  a  less  elevation 
than  the  natural  angle  of  sight.  Now  obso- 
lete. 

Sight,  Rear-.  The  sight  nearest  the  breech 
of  a  cannon  or  small-arm.  The  term  is  spe- 
cially applied  to  small-arms. 

Sight,   Telescopic.      An    apparatus    for 


1 


SIGHT 


533 


SIKH 


sijrhting  a  cannon  or  sniull-arrn,  consisting 
of  a  telescope  so  mounted  as  to  give  varying 
angles  of  sight ;  \isccl  especially  for  long 
ranges.  Riiles  with  such  an  attachment  are 
soiiH'limcs  called  telescopic  ritles. 

Sight,  Trunnion.  A  front-sight  fixed  on 
or  near  the  truniiiuns  of  a  gun. 

Sign.  An  indication  or  token.  In  as- 
trunotny,  one  of  the  twelve  divisions  of  the 
zodiac. 

Sign.     To  aflTix  a  signature;  to  subscribe. 

Sign  Language.  A  pantomimic  sj'slem 
of  communicating  ideas,  extensively  used 
by  North  American  Indians.  The  range  of 
its  use  is  not  exactly  known,  but  it  is  com- 
mon among  all  the  tribes  of  the  plains  and 
numy  of  those  beyond  the  Kocky  Mountains. 
It  is  in  one  sense  the  court  language  of  the 
Indians,  being  the  only  means  of  communi- 
cation between  tribes  not  speaking  a  com- 
mon dialect.  According  to  Gen.  3Iar<'y,  it 
is  accurately  used  and  perfectly  understood 
by  all  the  Indians  from  the  Gila  to  the  Co- 
lumbia. The  same  author  tells  a  remark- 
able story,  which  seems  to  show  that  the 
system  is  very  nearly,  if  not  exactly,  the 
same  as  that  used  in  teaching  mutes  in  deaf 
and  dumb  asylums. 

Signal.  Any  sign  made  for  marching, 
fighting,  etc.  Signals  are  likewise  given  by 
the  drum,  bugle,  and  trumpet,  during  the 
exercise  of  a  battalion.     Sec  Signal  Skr- 

VICK. 

Signal  Code.    See  Signaling. 

Signal  Equipments.     See  Equipmknts. 

Signal  Service.  In  the  U.  S.  army  there 
is  one  cliicf  sigiial-ofiicer  of  the  army,  with 
the  rank,  pay,  and  emolumentsof  a  brigadier- 
general,  and  400  enlisted  men.  The  chief 
signal-oflicer  is  assisted  in  his  duties  by  com- 
missioned officers  detailed  from  the  line  for 
that  purpose.  In  war  times  the  Signal  Ser- 
vice of  the  U.  S.  army  is  equipped  to  main- 
tain communications  by  telegraph,  signals, 
etc.,  between  dit^erent  sections  of  an  army  or 
armies,  or  between  land  and  sea  forces.  The 
enlisted  men  are  thoroughly  drilled  in  the 
art  of  field  telegraphy.  In  peace  times  the 
Signal  Service  has  a  corps  of  observers  sta- 
tioned in  large  towns,  and  important  com- 
mercial centres,  to  give  timely  warning  of 
the  approach  of  storms,  rise  of  rivers,  and  all 
other  important  weather  news  for  the  guid- 
ance of  merchants  and  others. 

Signaling.  Is  of  remote  origin.  A  rude 
code  of  signals  uddressed  to  the  eye  is  com- 
mon among  the  savage  races  of  the  present 
day,  and  doubtless  existed  from  the  earliest 
times  among  the  historical  races.  The  In- 
dians of  the  great  plains  of  North  America 
avail  themselves  for  night-signals  of  fires 
lighted  on  elevated  points,  and  of  dense 
clouds  of  smoke  made  by  suddenly  heaping 
preen  brush  upon  a  fire  for  day-signals.  Gen. 
Marcy,  in  his  "Army  Life  on  tlio  Border," 
shows  that  similar  signals  can  bo  used  in 
this  region  with  great  advantage  by  troops 
engaged  in  Indian  campaigning.  Messages 
exchanged  in  this  way  must  be  preconcerted. 


This  method  of  signaling  dates  from  a  re- 
mote antiquity.  Alphabetical  signaling — 
a  system  in  which  a  written  language  is  con- 
veyed by  means  of  its  elements — is  first  de- 
scribed "by  Polyhius,  about  2'JO  B.C.,  and 
seems  to  have  been  devised,  or  at  least 
greatly  improved  by  him.  He  formed  a 
code  by  arranging  the  letters  of  the  Greek 
alphabet  in  several  columns.  A  given  letter 
was  represented  by  a  number  of  lanterns  or 
torches  or  other  signals,  which  gave  the 
number  of  the  column,  and  a  second  set  of 
signals  giving  the  number  of  the  letter  in 
the  column.  Cajit.  John  Smith,  of  Virginia 
fame,  is  said  to  have  used  the  system  of 
Polyhius  during  the  siege  of  Vienna.  Al- 
phabetical signaling  thus  early  adopted  re- 
mained without  improvement,  and  too  cum- 
bersome for  general  application  till  recent 
times.  Message  siffnulinc/  by  torches,  flags, 
and  rockets  has  been  generally  used,  espe- 
cially at  sea,  where  it  has  a  wide  application 
both  in  war  and  commerce.  The  signals 
usually  represented  numbers,  which  were 
referred  to  printed  codes.  The  invention  of 
the  magnetic  telegraph  led  to  the  Morse 
alphabet,  which  crystallized  the  hitherto 
vague  idea  of  representing  letters  by  the 
combination  and  arrangement  of  a  few  sim- 
ple efements.  In  the  gcnernl  service  code 
of  the  United  States,  there  are  used  two  ele- 
ments. These  can  readily  be  represented 
by  sounds,  motions,  numbers,  colors,  etc. 
The  ordinary  method  of  signaling  is  by 
waving  a  flag  by  day  and  a  torch  at  night. 
See  also  Tki.kcrapii,  Fiki.D. 

Sikh  Wars.  Two  brief  but  desperate 
contests  waged  between  the  British  power 
in  India  and  the  Sikhs  in  18-1")-4(J,  1848-49, 
which  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  the  lat- 
ter as  an  indejiendent  nation.  The  first  had 
its  origin  in  the  dissensions  which  convulsed 
the  Sikh  country  after  the  death  of  Runjeet 
Singh,  and  which  necessitated  the  exercise 
of  wary  regard  on  the  part  of  the  Calcutta 
authorities.  At  length  an  army  of  Sikhs, 
flushed  with  their  triumph  over  all  lawful 
authority  in  their  own  country,  crossed  the 
Sutlej,  and  extended  their  ravages  over 
British  territory  ;  but  their  advanced  guard 
was  met  by  Sir  Henry  Hardinge,  the  gover- 
nor-general, at  the  head  of  four  regiments 
of  infantry  and  one  of  dragoons,  and  routed 
at  Mudki  with  heavy  loss.  Three  days  after, 
the  main  body,  which  had  in  the  mean  time 
crossed  the  river  and  intrenched  itself  at 
Feroze-Shah,  was  attacked  by  a  larger  force 
of  British  under  Gough  and  Hardinge,  and 
after  a  bloody  conflict,  which  lasted  two 
days,  also  routed.  Still  undismayed  by 
these  reverses,  they  again  intrenched  them- 
selves at  Sobraon  ;  but  a  fresh  bodv  which 
had  just  crossed  the  Sutlej  at  Aliwal  19.000 
strong  with  <iS  pieces  of  cannon,  was  wholly 
routed  and  driven  across  the  river  by  Sir 
Harry  Smith,  at  the  head  of  7000  men,  with 
32  guns  ;  and  their  main  body  was  soon  after 
similarly  dispersed  at  Sobraon  (which  see). 
The  British  then  crossed  the  river,  took  La- 


SIKHS 


534 


SILLON 


bore,  and  restored  the  authority  of  the 
young  Maharajah  from  whom  they  took  the 
territory  between  the  Beas  and  the  Sutlej  ; 
the  treaty  confirming  this  settlement  being 
made  at  Lahore,  March  9,  1846.  But  the 
internal  disturbances  in  the  kingdom  of 
Lahore  soon  became  as  active  as  before,  and 
induced  the  Maharajah's  prime  minister  to 
put  the  country  under  the  Company's  pro- 
tection ;  and  a  residency  with  a  guard  of 
regular  troops  was  then  established  in  the 
capital.  On  April  20,  1848,  two  British 
officers  were  murdered  by  a  Sikh  chief,  the 
dewan  of  Moolraj  of  Multan  ;  and  as  it  was 
found  to  be  but  a  premonitory  symptom  of 
a  general  outbreak,  a  small  force  of  British 
under  Lieut.  Edwardes,  aided  by  a  body 
of  Sikhs,  under  the  rajah  of  Bhawalpur, 
gallantly  attacked  the  army  of  Moolraj, 
which,  after  a  desperate  conflict  of  nine 
hours,  they  defeated  on  June  18,  and,  both 
sides  in  the  mean  time  having  received  re- 
inforcements, again  on  July  1  ;  Multan  was 
then  laid  siege  to,  but  the  defection  of  5000 
auxiliary  Sikhs  under  Shere  Singh  (the  son 
of  the  Sirdar  Chuttur  Singh,  the  governor 
of  Hazara,  who  had  been  for  some  time  in 
revolt,  and  had  driven  the  British  from  his 
district),  compelled  the  British  to  retreat. 
Tor  some  time,  the  British  authorities' in  the 
Punjab  were  hampered  by  a  want  of  mili- 
tary force,  and  though  the  Maharajah  and 
much  of  his  army  still  opposed  the  Sikh 
rebels,  little  reliance  could  be  placed  upon 
most  of  it.  Shere  Singh  now  succeeded  in 
raising  his  army  to  40,000,  but  was  defeated 
by  Lord  Gough  at  liamnuggur  (November 
22).  The  inconsiderate  haste  of  Gough  at 
Chillianwalla,  January  13,  nearly  lost  him 
that  great  battle,  which  was  saved  only 
by  the  extreme  valor  of  his  soldiers ;  but 
amends  for  this  fault  were  made  at  Gujerat, 
where  the  power  of  Shere  Singh  and  his 
allies  was  completely  broken.  Meanwhile, 
the  fortress  of  Multan  had,  after  a  pro- 
tracted bombardment,  been  captured,  and 
the  Company,  seeing  no  other  mode  of  pro- 
tecting their  territories  from  annoyance  by 
these  warlike  fanatics,  annexed  the  Punjab, 
March  29,  1849,  and  thus  terminated  the  ex- 
istenceof  the  Sikhs  as  an  independent  nation. 
Sikhs.  The  term  Sikh,  a  corruption  of 
the  Sanscrit  s'isAya,  signifying  "disciple," 
is  applied  to  a  community  of  which  the  Pun- 
jab, in  Northern  India,  constitutes,  substan- 
tially, the  confines.  Less  commonly,  even 
among  themselves,  the  members  of  this 
community  are  also  known  as  Sinhs  (vul- 
garly Singhs),  that  is,  "Lions,"  a  title 
given  them  by  Govind,  the  last  and  most 
influential  of  their  hierarchs.  Every  name 
of  a  Sikh  male  now  terminates  with  the 
word  Sinh.  Originally  a  body  of  mere  re- 
ligionists, the  Sikhs,  from  the  energy  which 
they  developed  under  repression,  and  the 
inducements  which  they  offered  as  prose- 
lytizers,  grew  by  degrees,  in  strength  and 
numbers,  and  ended  in  a  formidable  nation- 
ality.    Their  originator,  Nanak,  was  born 


in  1469,  in  the  vicinity  of  Lahore,  and  died 
in  1539,  not  far  from  the  place  of  his  na- 
tivity. 

Silence.  To  cause  to  cease  firing  by  a 
vigorous  cannonade  ;  as,  to  silence  the  bat- 
teries of  an  enemy. 

Silesia.  A  province  of  the  kingdom  of 
Prussia,  included  in  the  limits  of  the  new 
German  empire,  lies  south  of  the  provinces 
of  Brandenburg  and  Posen.  Formerly  a 
province  of  Poland  ;  was  invaded  by  John 
of  Bohemia  in  1325;  ceded  to  him,  1355. 
In  1740,  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,  taking 
advantage  of  the  helpless  condition  of 
Maria  Theresa  of  Austria,  laid  claims  to 
certain  portions  of  Silesia;  and  without 
declaring  war,  marched  into  and  took  pos- 
session of  the  province,  maintaining  his 
hold  despite  the  utmost  efforts  of  Austria 
in  1740-1742,  and  1744-1745,  called  the  first 
and  second  Silesian  wars.  After  the  third 
Silesian  war,  better  known  as  the  Seven 
Venrs'  War  (which  see),  it  was  finally  ceded 
(1763)  to  Prussia.  It  was  overrun  by  the 
French  in  1807. 

Silistria.  A  strongly  fortified  town  of 
Bulgaria,  in  Turkey  in  Europe,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Danube.  Here  in  971, 
the  Byzantine  emperor,  John  Zimisces, 
routed  the  Russians  under  Sviatoslav.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Russians,  June  30,  1829, 
and  held  some  years  by  them  as  a  pledge 
for  the  payment  of  a  large  sum  of  money 
by  the  Porte,  but  was  eventually  returned. 
In  1854  it  was  again  besieged  by  the  Russians 
(30,000  strong),  under  Prince  Paskewitsch, 
and  many  assaults  were  made.  The  Russian 
general  was  compelled  to  return  in  conse- 
quence of  a  dangerous  contusion.  On  June 
2,  Mussa  Pasha,  the  brave  and  skillful  com- 
mander of  the  garrison,  was  killed.  On 
June  9,  the  Russians  stormed  two  forts, 
which  were  retaken.  A  grand  assault  took 
place  on  June  13,  under  Prince  Gortscha- 
kofl'  and  Gen.  Schilders,  which  was  vigor- 
ously repelled.  On  the  15th,  the  garrison 
assumed  the  offensive,  crossed  the  river, 
defeated  the  Russians,  and  destroyed  the 
siege-works.  The  siege  was  thus  raised, 
and  the  Russians  commenced  their  retreat 
as  Omar  Pasha  was  drawing  near.  The 
garrison  was  ably  assisted  by  two  British 
officers,  Capt.  Butler  and  Lieut.  Nasmyth, 
the  former  of  whom,  after  being  wounded, 
died  of  exhaustion.  They  were  highly 
praised  by  Omar  Pasha  and  Lord  Har- 
dinge,  and  Lieut.  Nasmyth  made  a  major. 

Sill.  In  fortification,  the  inner  edge  of 
an  embrasure. 

Silladar  Horse.  Indian  irregular  cav- 
alry, raised  and  maintained  on  the  principle 
of  every  man  furnishing  and  maintaining 
his  own  horse,  arms,  equipments,  etc.,  in 
return  for  his  pay. 

Sillon.  In  fortification,  a  work  raised  in 
the  middle  of  a  ditch,  to  defend  it  when  it 
is  too  wide.  It  has  no  particular  form,  and 
is  sometimes  made  with  little  bastions,  half- 
moons,  and  redans,  which  are  lower  than 


SI  LURES 


635 


SIR 


the  works  of  the  place,  but  hipjher  than  the 
covert  way.  It  is  more  frequently  called  an 
envelope. 

Silures.  A  powerful  people  in  Britain, 
inhabitint;  South  Wales,  who  Inns;  ottL-red  a 
formidable  resistance  to  the  Uonians,  and 
were  the  only  people  in  the  island  who  at  a 
later  time  maintained  their  independence 
against  the  Saxons. 

Silver  Stick.  Is  the  title  given  to  a  field- 
officer  of  the  Life  Guards,  when  on  duty  at 
the  palace.  The  silver  stick  is  in  waiting 
for  a  week,  during  which  period  all  reports 
are  made  through  him  to  the  gold  stick 
(which  see),  and  orders  from  the  gold  stick 
pass  through  to  the  brigade.  In  the  absence 
of  the  (/old  stick  on  levees,  and  drawing- 
room  days,  he  goes  to  the  royal  closet  for 
the  parole. 

Simancas.  A  town  of  Spain,  province 
of  \'allado]id.  Near  it  Ramirez  II.  of 
Leon  and  Fernando  of  Castile  gained  a 
victory  over  Abderahman,  the  Moorish  king 
of  Cordova,  August  0,  938.  The  archives 
of  Castile  are  kept  in  the  fortress  of  this 
place,  and  many  valuable  documents  and 
records  were  burnt  by  the  French  troops 
quartered  in  the  town  in  1809. 

Simonoseki.  A  town  of  Japmn,  at  the 
southwestern  extremity  of  the  island  of 
Nipon,  and  at  the  entrance  of  the  island  sea 
Suonada.  In  1863  three  vessels  belonging 
to  the  American,  Dutch,  and  French  gov- 
ernments were  fired  into  from  batteries  on 
the  shore  of  Simonoseki  Strait;  this  assault 
was  subsequently  returned  by  French  and 
American  war-vessels.  In  1804  a  combined 
fleet  of  Great  Britain,  France,  Holland,  and 
the  U.  S.  men-of-war  bombarded  and  de- 
stroyed Simonoseki.  The  Japanese  govern- 
ment had  to  pay  an  indemnity  of  $3,(X)0,000. 

Simulation.  The  vice  of  counterfeiting 
illness  or  defect,  for  the  purpose  of  being  in- 
valided. 

Sinalunga.  A  town  of  Central  Italy,  in 
the  province  of  Sienna.  Here  Garibaldi  was 
arrested  in  18G7,  whilst  attempting  to  cross 
into  the  I'apal  territory  to  take  coninuind  of 
the  volunteers  who  intended  to  march  upon 
Rome. 

Sinde,  or  Scinde.  (Called  also  Sindh,  or 
Sindin,  and  Sindni/,  from  sind/tno,  or  sindhti, 
•'a  collection  of  waters.")  An  extensive 
territory  of  British  India,  included  in  the 
presidency  of  Bombay,  comprising  the  lower 
course  and  delta  of  the  Indus.  It  was  tra- 
versed by  the  Greeks  under  Alexander,  about 
326  B.C.;  conquered  by  the  Persian  Moham- 
medans in  the  8th  century  ;  tributary  to  the 
Ghaznevide  dynasty  in  the  11th  century; 
conquered  by  Nadir  Shah,  1730  ;  reverted  to 
the  empire  of  Delhi  after  his  death,  1747. 
After  various  changes  of  rulers,  Sinde  was 
conquered  by  the  English.  Sir  Charles 
James  Napier,  the  British  envoy,  at  the 
headofaconsiderahlemilitary  force,  nnirched 
against  the  enemy,  totally  routed  them  at 
Meeanee  (February  17,  1843),  and  bv  defeat- 
ing tho  ameers  of  Mirpur,  at  Dubba,  near 


Hyderabad  (March  24),  completed  the  sub- 
jugation of  Sinde.  For  two  years  after- 
wards, Napier  was  actively  emjiloyed  in  re- 
ducing the  marauding  tribes  of  the  west, 
who  pillaged  the  province  ;  and  so  successful 
was  the  "  Sheitanka  bhai''  (Devil's  Brother), 
as  the  robber  trihes  named  him,  that  they 
were  completely  rooted  out  of  tlieir  fast- 
nesses, and  most  of  them  transported  to  dis- 
tant regions. 

Sine  Die  ("without  day'').  When  the 
court  or  other  body  rise  at  the  end  of  a  ses- 
sion or  term  they  adjourn  sine  die.  In  law 
this  does  not  preclude  further  proceedings 
by  the  same  court. 

Single  Combat.  A  contest  in  which  no 
more  tlian  two  are  engaged. 

Single-stick.  A  cudgel  used  in  fencing 
or  lighting.  Also,  a  game  at  cudgels,  in 
which  he  who  first  brings  blood  from  his  ad- 
versary's head  is  pronounced  victor. 

Sinister.  In  heraldry,  the  left-hand  side 
of  a  shield.  As  shields  are  supposed  to  be 
carried  in  front  of  the  person,  the  sinister 
side  is  that  which  covers  the  bearer's  left 
side,  and  therefore,  lies  to  the  spectator's 
right.     See  Point.s  of  the  E.scutcheon. 

Sinope  (Turk.  Sinuh).  A  town  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  province  of  Anatolia,  on  the  south- 
ern side  of  a  little  promontory  running  east- 
ward into  the  Black  Sea,  80  miles  northwest 
of  Samsun.  Ancient  Sinope  was  the  most 
important  of  all  the  (ireek  colonies  on  the 
shoresof  the  Euxine.  Having  been  destroyed 
in  the  invasion  of  Asia  by  the  Cimmerians, 
it  was  restored  by  a  new  colony  from  Mi- 
letus, 032  B.C.  It  remained  an  independent 
state  till  it  was  taken  by  Pharnaces  1  ,  king 
of  Pontus.  After  an  obstinate  resistance  to 
the  Romans  under  Lucullus,  it  was  taken 
and  plundered,  and  proclaimed  a  free  city. 
The  bay  of  Sinojie,  which  aftords  the  finest 
anchorage  for  ships  along  the  whole  north- 
ern coast  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  was  the  scene 
of  a  bloody  naval  engagement,  or  rather 
massacre,  November  30,  1853,  when  a  Turk- 
ish squadron  of  13  shij)s  was  suddenly  at- 
tacked and  destroyed  (except  one  vessel 
which  conveyed  the  tidings  to  Constanti- 
nople) by  a  Russian  fleet  of  (J  sail  of  tho 
line,  2  sailing-vessels,  and  3  steamers  ;  4000 
lives  were  lost  by  tire  or  drowning,  and 
Osman  Pasha,  the  Turkish  admiral,  died  at 
Sebastopol  of  his  wninds.  In  consequence 
of  this  event,  the  Anglo-French  fleet  entered 
the  Black  Sea,  January  3,  1854. 

Sinople.  In  heraldry,  the  same  as  Vert 
(which  see). 

Sinuessa.  An  ancient  town  of  Italy,  on 
the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  near  the 
confines  of  Latium  and  Campania.  It  was 
colonized  by  the  Romans  in  296  B.r.  It  suf- 
fered much  during  the  invasion  of  Hannibal, 
who,  in  217,  carried  his  devastations  up  to 
the  very  gaits. 

Sioux  Indians.    See  Dakota  Indians. 

Sir.  The  title  of  a  knight  or  baronet, 
which,  for  distinctions  sake,  is  always  pre- 
fixed to  the  knighfl  or  baronet's  Christian 


SIRACENI 


53G 


SKIVER 


name,  either  in  speaking  or  in  writing  to 
hi  in. 

Siraceni,  Siraci,  or  Siraces.  A  powerful 
people  of  Sarmiitiii  Asiatiea,  dwelt  in  the 
district  of  Siracene,  east  of  Palus  Ma3otis,  as 
far  as  the  river  Rha  (now  Volga).  The 
Romans  were  ensiaged  in  a  war  with  them 
in  50. 

Sirmium  (now  Mltroviz).  An  important 
city  in  Pannonia  Inferior,  was  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Savus.  It  was  founded 
by  the  Taurisci,  and  under  the  Romans  be- 
came the  capital  of  Pannonia,  and  the  head- 
quarters of  all  their  operations  in  their  wars 
against  the  Dacians  and  the  neighboring 
barbarians.  It  contained  a  large  manufac- 
tory of  arms,  a  spacious  forum,  an  imperial 
palace,  etc.  It  was  the  residence  of  the  ad- 
miral of  the  first  Flavian  fleet  on  the  Dan- 
ube, and  the  birthplace  of  the  emperor  Pro- 
bus. 

Siscia.  An  important  town  in  Pannonia 
Superior,  situated  upon  an  island  formed 
by  the  rivers  Savus  Colapis  and  Odra.  It 
was  a  strongly-fortified  place,  and  was  con- 
quered by  Tiberius  in  the  reign  of  Augustus, 
from  which  time  it  became  the  most  impor- 
tant town  in  all  Pannonia. 

Sissopoli,  or  Sizeboli.  A  town  of  Tur- 
key in  Europe,  80  miles  northeast  from 
Adrianople.  It  was  taken  by  the  Russians 
in  1829. 

Sistova,  or  Schistab,  called  also  Shtab. 
A  town  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  in  Bulgaria, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  24  miles 
east-southeast  from  Nicopolis.  A  treaty  of 
peace  ("peace  of  Sistova")  was  signed  here 
between  Austria  and  Turkey  in  1791. 

Sit.  In  a  militar}'  sense,  to  take  a  station- 
ary position  ;  as,  to  sit  before  a  fortification^ 
to  lie  encamped  for  the  purpose  of  besieg- 
ing it. 

Sitka.  Called  by  the  Russians  New  Arch- 
angel, is  the  most  important  settlement  in 
Alaska.  It  is  situated  on  the  west  side  of 
Baranofi"  Island,  in  lat.  57°  3'.  The  popu- 
lation is  mainly  composed  of  Indians  and 
Russian  half-breeds.  A  census  taken  in  1875 
made  the  total  number,  excluding  Indians, 
502.  For  many  years  Sitka  was" the  head- 
quarters of  the  Russian  American  Company. 
Upon  the  transfer  of  the  Territory,  in  1867, 
to  the  United  States,  Sitka  became  the  head- 
quarters, of  the  military  department  of 
Alaska.  It  remained  iin  army  post  till  1877, 
when  the  garrison  was  withdrawn.  The  in- 
habitants are  at  present  protected  from  the 
Indians  by  a  naval  vessel. 

Sixain.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  was  an  order 
of  battle,  wherein  six  battalions  being  ranged 
in  one  line,  the  second  and  fifth  were  made 
to  advance,  to  form  the  vanguard  ;  the  first 
and  sixth  to  retire,  to  form  the  rear-guard  ; 
the  third  and  fourth  remaining  on  the  spot, 
to  form  the  corps  or  bod_y  of  the  battle. 

Six-shooter.  A  pistol  with  six  barrels,  or 
capable  of  firing  six  shots  in  quick  succes- 
sion ;  especially  a  six-biirreled  or  six-cham- 
bered revolver. 


Size,  To.  In  a  military  sense,  to  take  the 
height  of  men  for  the  purpose  of  placing 
them  in  military  array,  and  of  rendering 
their  relative  statures  more  efi'ective. 

Skalitz.  A  small  town  of  Austria,  in  the 
northwest  of  Hungary,  near  the  borders  of 
Moravia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  March.  It 
was  stormed  by  the  Prussian  general  Stein- 
metz,  June  28,  1866;  whereby  the  junction 
of  the  divisions  of  the  Prussians  was  greatly 
facilitated. 

Skean,  Skeen,  or  Skeine.  A  Celtic  word 
which  signifies  a  knife.  It  was  a  weapon  in 
the  shape  of  a  small  sword  or  knife,  which 
was  worn  by  the  Irish  in  ancient  times. 

Skedaddle.  To  betake  one's  self  to  flight ; 
to  run  away  with  precipitation,  as  if  in  a 
panic ;  to  withdraw,  as  an  army,  or  part  of 
an  army,  from  the  presence  of  an  enemy, 
especially  in  a  hasty  or  secret  manner. 

Skeleton.  A  word  applied  to  regiments 
that  have  become  reduced  in  their  number 
of  men. 

Sketch,  Military.  The  delineation  of  a 
small  portion  of  ground  for  military  pur- 
poses. The  scale  is  generally  larger  than 
that  of  a  map. 

Skid.  In  military  language,  is  any  tim- 
ber which  is  used  as  a  base  to  keep  one  object 
from  resting  on  another.  Thus,  a  row  of 
cannon  in  store  will  be  kept  from  the  ground 
by  skids.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the 
drag  which  is  put  on  the  wheels  of  carriages 
in  going  up  hills,  to  prevent  rolling  back- 
wards. 

Skierniwice.  A  town  of  Russia,  situated 
on  the  Bzura,  38  miles  southwest  from  War- 
saw. The  French  were  defeated  here,  in 
1809,  by  the  Russians. 

Skinners,  A  name  assumed  by  a  preda- 
tory band  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  who, 
professing  allegiance  to  the  American  cause, 
but  influenced  by  a  desire  to  plunder,  roamed 
over  the  "neutral  ground"  lying  between 
the  hostile  armies,  robbing  those  who  refused 
to  take  the  oath  of  fidelity. 

Skipton.  A  town  of  England  in  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  38  miles  west  of 
York.  The  old  castle  of  Skipton  was  founded 
in  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror;  it 
was  a  place  of  great  strength  in  the  17th 
centurj-,  and  held  out  for  three  years  against 
the  Parliamentary  forces.  In  1649  it  was 
dismantled,  but  subsequently  rebuilt  b}'  the 
Countess  of  Pembroke. 

Skirmish.  A  slight  fight  in  war  ;  a  light 
combat  between  detachments  from  armies 
which  are  yet  at  a  considerable  distance  from 
each  other,  or  between  detached  and  small 
parties. 

Skirmish,  To  fight  slightly  or  in  small 
parties ;  to  engage  in  a  skirmish  ;  to  act  as 
skirmishers. 

Skirmisher.  One  who  skirmishes  ;  one  of 
such  troops  as  are  sent  forward  in  advance, 
or  move  deployed  in  loose  order  on  the  flanks 
of  a  marching  column,  to  discover  and  in- 
tercept hostile  forces. 

Skiver.     A  dirk  to  stab  with. 


SKOTTEFER 


537 


SLING 


Skottefer.     Formerly  a  nume  applied  to 

an  art'li(!r. 

Sky-rocket.     See  Pyrotechny. 

Slash.  A  cut;  a  wound;  also,  a  cut  in 
cloth.  It  was  formerly  used  to  express  the 
pieces  of  tajjc  or  worsted  lace  which  were 
placed  upon  the  arms  of  non-commissioned 
officers,  in  order  to  distinguish  them  from 
privates. 

Slash.  To  strike  violently  and  at  ran- 
dom witli  an  edged  instrument ;  to  lay  about 
one  iiulisiTiminately  with  blows. 

Slashed.  Cut  in  stripes  or  lines.  Hence, 
slaslu'ci  sleeves  and  pockets,  which  are  pecu- 
liar to  tlic  British  cavalry,  when  the  officers 
or  men  wear* long  coats. 

Slaughter.  The  extensive  and  unneces- 
sary dustruction  of  human  life;  carnage. 
Alsii,  til  visit  with  great  destruction  of  life; 
to  kill;   to  slay  in  battle. 

Slavonia,  or  Sclavonia  (called  by  the  na- 
tive Slaro7ifikn).  A  territory  or  province  of 
the  Austrian  empire,  formerly  incorporated 
with  Hungary,  but  now  forming  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia.  The 
country  anciently  formed  part  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Pannonia.  During  the  barbarian 
migrations,  the  land  was  overrun,  now  by 
one  and  now  by  another  tribe,  and  at  length 
remained  in  the  possession  of  the  Avars. 
Those,  however,  were  conquered  about  the 
end  of  the  8th  century  by  Charlemagne,  who 
settled  in  their  place  a  tribe  of  Slavonians 
from  Dalmatia.  AVlien,  in  the  10th  cen- 
tury, the  Hungarians  conquered  Pannonia, 
they  also  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
wiiole  of  Slavonia,  except  Syrmia,  which 
still  remained  subject  to  the  Eastern  emper- 
ors. It  was,  however,  the  object  of  conten- 
tion, and  the  scene  of  bloody  conflicts  be- 
tween the  Greeks  and  the  Hungarians,  until, 
after  various  vicissitudes,  it  was  Hnally  ceded 
to  the  latter  in  llGo.  From  1526,  when  it 
was  conquered  by  the  Turks,  Slavonia  re- 
mained in  their  possession  till  it  was  restored 
to  Hungary  by  the  peace  of  Carlowitz  in 
1(599.  in  1734  its  size  was  diminished  by 
the  fornuition  of  the  Military  Frontier,  and 
in  1848  it  was  separated  from  Hungary. 

Slavonians,  or  Slaves  (native  name  Slow- 
enr,  or  Slairunc).  The  general  name  of  a 
group  of  iiatit)ns  belonging  to  the  Aryan 
family,  whose  settlements  extend  from  the 
Elbe  to  Kamtschatka,  and  from  tlie  Frozen 
Sea  to  Kagusa  on  the  Adriatic,  the  whole  of 
Eastern  Kurope  being  alm<ist  exclusively 
occupied  by  tliem.  The  original  names  of 
the  Slavic  tribes  seem  to  have  been  Winds, 
or  Wends  (  Veitedi),  and  Serbs.  The  latter 
of  these  names  is  spoken  of  by  Procopius  as 
the  ancient  name  common  to  the  whole  Slavic 
stock.  The  Slavonians  proper  are  a  hand- 
some, tall,  and  slender  race. 

Sleepers.  Small  joists  of  timber,  which 
form  the  foundation  for  the  platform  of  a 
battery,  and  upon  which  the  hoards  for  the 
flooring  are  laid.  Also,  the  undermost  tim- 
bers of  a  gun  or  mortar. 

Sleets.  The  parta  of  a  mortar  extending 
85 


from  the  chamber  to  the  trunnions,  to 
strengthen  that  part. 

Sleeves,  Gunner's.     See  Implement.s. 

Sliding-rings.  See  Ordnance,  Carri- 
A(iKs  FOR,  Nomenclature  or  Artillery 
Carriage. 

Sligo.  A  maritime  county  in  the  north- 
west of  Ireland,  and  the  provijice  of  Con- 
naught.  It  formed  iiart  of  tlie  kingdom  of 
Connaught  previously  to  the  arrival  of  the 
English,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  Subse- 
quently it  came  into  the  possession  of  one  of 
the  family  of  the  O'Connors,  kings  of  Con- 
naught,  who  was  called  O'Connor  Sligo. 
After  a  protracted  struggle  between  the  na- 
tives and  the  English,  it  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  De  Burgos,  who  either  by  force  or 
treaties  had  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Con- 
naught.  It  became  the  theatre  of  several 
conflicts  in  the  war  against  O'Neil,  chieftain 
of  Tyrone,  in  the  latter  part  of  Elizabeth's 
reign.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  was 
that  with  Sir  Conyers  Cliflbrd,  who  in  at- 
tempting to  pass  into  the  country  from  Ros- 
common with  a  body  of  from  1500  to  2000 
men,  in  order  to  relieve  Belleek,  was  attacked 
in  a  defile  of  the  Curlew  Mountains  by 
O'Roark,  chieftain  of  Breti'ney,  was  himself 
killed  and  his  troops  were  driven  back  with 
considerable  loss.  During  the  civil  wars  of 
1041,  the  Irish  kept  possession  of  the  open 
country  until  nearly  its  close,  when  they 
were  reduced  to  submission  by  the  Parlia- 
mentary forces  under  Ireton.  In  the  subse- 
quent war  of  lt;88  this  country  was  held  by 
the  forces  of  King  James  for  some  time,  but 
ultimately  yielded  to  the  victorious  arms  of 
AV^illiam  III.  The  French  force  which 
landed  at  Killalla  under  Gen.  Humbert  in 
1798,  had  a  severe  skirmish  at  Ci>loony  with 
the  Limerick  militia,  commanded  by  Col. 
Vereker,  afterwards  V'iscount  Gort,  which 
ended  in  the  retreat  of  the  latter. 

Sligo.  The  cliief  town  of  the  above 
county,  and  a  seaport,  situated  on  the  mouth 
of  tlie  river  Garrogue.  In  lti41,  it  was  taken 
without  opposition,  by  the  Parliamentarians, 
under  Sir  Charles  Coote,  who  was  afterwards 
attacked  by  a  force  collected  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  archbishop  of  Tuam,  which  re- 
treated in  consequence  of  an  alarm  being 
spread  that  a  large  force  was  approaching  to 
relieve  the  town.  When  retiring  they  were 
attacked  by  the  Parliamentarian  forces,  the 
archbishop  killed,  and  on  his  person  was 
found  the  important  document  exposing  the 
secret  communications  which  took  place  be- 
tween Charles  I.  and  the  Irish  Catholics. 
Coote  subsequently  evacuated  the  town, 
which  thence  continued  in  possession  of  the 
royalists  till  the  termination  of  the  war.  In 
1688  it  was  taken  for  King  William  by  the 
Enniskilleners,  who,  in  turn,  were  driven 
out  by  Gen.  Sarstiold  ;  but  the  place  ulti- 
mately surrendered  to  the  Earl  of  (Jranard. 

Sling.  A  weapon  much  in  use  before  the 
introduction  of  tire-arms,  consisted  of  a  piece 
of  leather,  with  a  round  bole  in  the  middle, 


SLING 


538 


SMALL-ARMS 


and  two  cords  of  about  a  j'ard  in  length.  A 
round  pebble  being  hung  in  the  leather  by 
cords,  the  latter  were  held  firmly  in  the 
right  hand,  and  swung  rapidly  round. 
When  the  stone  had  attained  great  speed, 
one  string  was  disengaged,  on  which  the 
stone  flew  oft'  at  a  tangent,  its  initial  ve- 
locity being  the  same  as  it  had  at  the  last 
moment  of  revolution.  This  velocity  gives 
far  greater  range  and  force  than  could  be 
imparted  in  mere  throwing.  The  men  who 
used  this  weapon  were  called  sUngers. 

Sling.  A  leather  strap  attached  to  a  mus- 
ket, serving  to  support  it  across  the  soldier's 
back,  as  occasion  may  require. 

Sling-cart.     See  Hand  Sling-cart. 

Slingers.     See  Sling. 

Slope  Arms.  A  word  of  command  in  the 
British  service,  for  placing  the  musket  upon 
the  shoulder  with  the  butt  advanced.  In 
marches,  soldiers  are  almost  invariably  per- 
mitted to  slope  arms. 

Slope,  Interior.    See  Interior  .Slope. 

Slopes,  The  approaches  to  the  crest  of 
heights  are  by  slopes,  which  may  be  either 
gentle  or  steep.  When  these  slopes  are 
gentle,  the  fire  from  the  crest  can  be  made 
an  effective  one  by  reason  of  its  "grazing 
action."  Especially  will  it  be  so  with  artil- 
lery fire  when  properlj'^  directed.  When 
slopes  are  quite  steep,  the  fire  will  be  a 
plunging  one,  and  will  be  apt  to  pass  over 
the  heads  of  the  attacking  troops.  Espe- 
cially will  this  be  the  case  with  the  fire  of 
artillery. 

Sloping  Swords.  In  the  British  service, 
is  a  position  of  the  sword  among  cavalry, 
when  the  back  of  the  blade  rests  on  the 
hollow  of  the  right  shoulder,  the  hilt  ad- 
vanced. 

Slow  Time.  The  same  as  common  time, 
by  which  troops  on  foot  march  at  the  rate  of 
ninety  steps  per  minute. 

Slow-match.     See  Laboratory  Stores. 

Slugs.  Cylindrical  or  cubical  pieces  of 
metal,  discharged  from  a  gun. 

Slur-bow.  A  species  of  cross-bow  for- 
merly used  for  discharging  fire  and  arrows. 

Smalcald.     See   Schmalkald,    League 

OF. 

Small-arms.  Are  portable  fire-arms 
known  as  muskets,  rifles,  carbines,  pistols, 
etc.,  and  were  first  invented  about  the  middle 
of  the  14th  century.  At  first  they  consisted 
simply  of  a  tube  of  iron  or  copper,  tired 
from  a  stand  or  support.  They  were  loaded 
with  leaden  balls,  and  were  touched  oft"  by 
a  lighted  match  held  in  the  hand.  They 
weighed  from  25  to  75  pounds,  and  conse- 
quently two  men  were  required  to  serve 
them.  The  difficulty  of  loading  these  weap- 
ons, and  the  uncertainty  of  their  eftects,  as 
regards  range  and  accuracy,  prevented  them 
from  coming  rapidly  into  use,  and  the  cross- 
bow was  for  a  long  time  retained  as  the  prin- 
cipal projectile  weapon  for  infantry.  The 
difficulty  of  aiming  hand-cannon,  arising 
from  their  great  weight,  was  in  a  measure 
overcome  by  making  them  shorter,  and  sup- 


porting them  on  a  tripod,  by  means  of  trun- 
nions which  rested  on  forks.  This  arm  was 
called  an  arquebuse  (which  see).  The  next 
improvement  in  the  arquebuse  was  to  make 
it  lighter,  and  inclose  it  in  a  piece  of  wood 
called  the  stock,  the  butt  of  which  was 
pressed  against  the  left  shoulder,  while  the 
right  hand  applied  the  match  to  the  vent. 
It  was  still  very  heavy,  and  in  aiming,  the 
muzzle  rested  in  the  crotch  of  a  fork  placed 
in  the  ground.  To  give  steadiness  to  the 
aim  while  applying  the  match  to  the  prim- 
ing, a  species  of  lock  was  next  devised,  which 
consisted  of  a  lever  holding  at  its  extremity 
a  lighted  match.  In  firing,  the  lever  was 
pressed  down  with  the  finger  unnl  the  lighted 
end  of  the  match  touched  the  priming.  This 
apparatus,  known  as  the  serpentine,  con- 
tinued in  use  until  it  was  replaced  by  the 
wheel-lock,  which  was  invented  in  Nurem- 
burg,  in  1517.  (See  Whkel-lock.)  The 
petronel  was  a  wheel-lock  arquebuse  of  larger 
caliber  and  lighter  weight  than  its  predeces- 
sors.    See  Petronel. 

Musket. — The  musket  was  first  introduced 
by  the  Spaniards,  under  Charles  V.  The 
original  caliber  of  the  musket  was  such  that 
8  round  bullets  weighed  a  pound  ;  the  piece 
was,  consequently,  so  heavy  that  it  was  ne- 
cessary to  tire  it  from  a  forked  rest  inserted 
in  the  ground.  The  size  of  the  bore  was 
finally  reduced  to  18  bullets  to  the  pound  ; 
and  from  this  arm  was  derived  the  late 
smooth-bored  rifle. 

Rifle. — It  is  generally  stated  that  the  rifle 
was  invented  by  Gaspard  Zoller,  of  Vienna, 
and  that  it  first  made  its  appearance  at  a 
target-practice  at  Leipsic,  in  1498.  The  first 
rifle-grooves  were  made  parallel  to  the  axis 
of  the  bore,  for  the  purpose  of  diminishing 
the  friction  of  loading  forced  or  tightly-fit- 
ting bullets.  It  was  accidentally  discovered, 
however,  that  spiral  grooves  gave  greater 
accuracy  to  the  flight  of  the  projectile,  but 
the  science  of  the  day  was  unable  to  assign 
a  reason  for  this  superiority,  and  the  form, 
number,  and  twist  of  the  grooves  depended 
on  the  caprice  of  individual  gunmakers. 
About  1600,  the  rifle  began  to  be  used  as  a 
military  weapon  for  firing  spherical  bullets. 
In  1729,  it  was  found  that  good  results  could 
be  attained  by  using  oblong  projectiles  of 
elliptical  form.  The  great  difficulty,  how- 
ever, of  loading  the  rifle,  which  was  ordina- 
rily accomplished  by  the  blows  of  a  mallet 
on  a  stout  iron  ramrod,  prevented  it  from 
being  generally  used  in  regular  warfare.  The 
improvements  which  have  been  made  of  late 
years  have  entirely  overcome  this  difficulty, 
and  rifles  have  now  superseded  the  smooth- 
bored  arms. 

Muzzle-loading  Gims. — The  following  are 
among  the  most  prominent  muzzle-loading 
guns  in  use  prior  to  1860: 

T/ie  Layicaster  Elliptic  Rifle.— So  called, 
although  the  elliptical  rifle  is  very  old.  The 
bore  in  this  rifle  is  slightly  oblate  ;  the  twist 
found,  by  experience,  to  be  most  advantage- 
ous is  one  turn  in  52  inches,  the  approved 


SMALL-ARMS 


539 


SMALL-ARMS 


diameter  of  the  bore  .498  inch,  the  length 
of  the  barrel  being  3'J  inches.  An  eccen- 
tricity of  .01  inch  in  half  an  inch  is  found 
sufficient  to  make  the  bullet  8j)in  on  it.s  axis 
to  the  extreme  verge  of  its  flight.  The  length 
of  the  bullet  found  to  answer  best  with  these 
rifles  is  2}  diameters  in  length,  with  a  wind- 
age of  four-  or  five-thousandths  of  an  inch. 

NuthalV.i  Rifle. — In  the  ordinary  mode  of 
grooving  rifles,  sharp  angles  are  left  between 
the  groove  and  "land"  (those  parts  of  the 
smooth-bore  left  in  their  original  state  after 
the  process  of  grooving  has  been  completed). 
These  create  great  friction  with  the  projec- 
tile, both  in  loading  and  discharging.  Maj. 
Nuthall  removes  these  objections  by  round- 
ing ort"  the  "  lands"  into  the  grooves,  that  is, 
making  them  a  series  of  convex  and  concave 
curves,  liie  bore  assuming  a  beautiful  appear- 
ance to  the  eye,  for  the  smoothness  and  even- 
ness with  which  the  lands  and  grooves  blend 
into  each  other. 

Enfield  Rifle. — This  rifle  has  three  grooves, 
taking  one  compbfte  turn  in  78  inches,  firing 
a  bullet  resembling  the  Minie,  except  that  a 
wooden  cup  was  substituted  for  one  of  iron. 
Its  diameter  is  .577  of  an  incli,  its  bullet 
weighs  530  grains,  and  ranges  with  groat 
accuracy  for  800  yards,  and  fairly  up  to 
1100.  Thei'e  are  also  Gen.  Boileau's  rifle, 
and  some  others  which  our  space  will  not 
admit  of  our  noticing.  The  extraordinary 
efficacy  of  the  breech-loading  principles,  es- 
pecially in  combination,  have,  however, 
only  been  very  prominent  during  the  wars  of 
the  last  fewyears,  and  notably  in  the  Prussian 
campaign  of  18G4  against  Denmark,  and  of 
180(1  against  Austria.  The  successes  of  the 
Prussian  arms  were  attributed  in  no  small 
degree  to  the  rapidity  with  which  their 
tr<K)ps  could  fire  as  compared  with  the 
enemy.  They  had  in  greater  or  less  num- 
bers borne  these  same  rifles  since  1835,  but 
these  were  the  first  opportunities  of  using 
them  in  waqfarc.  To  all  other  powers,  whose 
men  still  carried  muzzle-loading  rifles,  and 
who  had  debated,  without  practical  result, 
for  years  j)ast  the  question  of  armament  with 
breech-loaders,  soldiers  thus  armed  appeared 
irresistible.  From  July,  18t)0,  to  the  present 
moment,  the  hammer  and  the  anvil  have  been 
busy  throughout  the  civilized  world  in  mak- 
ing the  weapons  of  death  yet  more  deadly. 
Scarcely  twt)  countries  seem  to  have  adopted 
the  same  plan :  each  nation  has  elaborated 
a  system  from  among  its  own  inventors. 
Those  pos.scssing  no  great  reserve  of  rifles 
have  prepared  new  arms,  but  the  majority 
of  governments  have  been  content,  in  the 
first  instance,  to  convert  their  existing  stock 
into  noodle-firing  breech-loaders  of  as  good 
a  construction  as  circumstances  would  per- 
mit. The  advantage  of  brooch-loading  is 
obvious:  to  be  ahlo  to  insert  the  charge  at 
the  head  of  the  barrel  instead  of  at  it.-*  mouth, 
is  to  iave  time  and  avoid  exposure  to  hostile 
fire  during  tlio  operatitm  of  loading  and 
ramming  home,  which  of  necessity  involves 
considerable  outstretchin<r  of  the  limbs.    The 


great  condition  of  success  is,  that  the  bullet 
shall  be  propelled  with  equal  force  and  with 
equal  safety  to  the  rifleman,  as  from  the 
muzzle-loader.  When  a  charge  is  ignited 
the  constituents  of  the  gunpowder,  assuming 
a  gaseous  condition  under  the  heat  engen- 
dered, expand  into  a  volume  of  light  gas 
many  times  greater  in  bulk  than  the  powder 
before  occupied.  On  the  amount  of  this  ex- 
pansion, and  its  sudden  action  on  the  pro- 
jectile, the  force  of  the  shot  depends.  Any 
joint  in  the  breoch-piece  through  which  a 
portion  of  this  gas  can  escape,  without  having 
imparted  its  thrust  to  the  hall,  tends,  there- 
fore, to  lessen  the  range  and  penetration  ; 
wliile  the  shock  of  the  explosion  falling 
more  severely  on  this  than  on  any  other  part 
of  the  barrel,  tends  yet  more  to  dislocate 
the  breech-piece  and  diminish  the  closeness 
of  the  joint's  fit.  In  weapons  which  do  not 
call  for  a  long  range,  as  revolvers  and  pistols, 
a  perceptible  interval  is  left  between  the 
chamber  and  barrel,  through  which  much 
gas  escapes  ;  but  in  rifles,  which  have  range 
and  penetration  as  principal  objects,  there  is 
prima  facie  ground  for  preferring  a  muzzle- 
loader.  The  gas,  however,  is  far  from  pure 
as  generated  in  the  barrel,  for  much  water 
is  produced  and  held  in  suspension,  while 
there  is  also  a  solid  residuum  consisting  of 
uriburned  materials  of  the  powder.  In  the 
muzzle-loader,  these  clog  (or,  technicallv, 
foul)  the  barrel,  filling  the  groov&s  and  ren- 
dering the  ramming  home  of  succeeding 
charges  more  and  more  difficult.  The  effect 
is,  that  a  solid  mass  of  unburned  matter  is 
gradually  forced  by  ramming  into  the  head 
of  the  barrel,  destroying  the  accuracy  and 
usefulness  of  the  weapcm.  In  the  breech- 
loader, this  solid  deposit  must  be  provided 
against  both  ways.  The  backward  throw 
on  firing  (for,  of  course,  the  charge  explodes 
with  equal  power  in  every  direction)  tends 
to  force  it  into  the  mechanism  of  the  joints, 
preventing  their  proper  fit,  and  continually, 
augmenting  the  escape  of  gas.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  deposit  is  prevented  from  accumu- 
lating in  the  barrel  by  the  fact  that  suc- 
ceeding charges  are  inserted  behind  it,  and, 
by  their  explosion,  force  the  solid  matters 
out  at  the  muzzle.  Thus,  in  the  matter  of 
fouling,  if  the  gases  can  be  jirevonted  from 
blocking  up  the  breech-apparatus,  the  breech- 
loader has  a  great  advantage  over  the  muz- 
zle-loader. This  protection  of  the  breech- 
apparatus  is  the  jiroblem  which  inventttrs 
have  had  to  solve.  The  following  are  the 
most  notable  among  breech-loading  arms: 

The  American  Sprinpfii'l<i,  model  of  1873. 
The  barrel  is  of  "U)w  stool,"  caliber  .45  inch, 
rifled  with  throe  concontrii-  grooves  of  equal 
widths  with  the  lands,  and  of  the  uniform 
depth  tif  .CX).">  of  an  inch,  and  uniform  twist 
of  one  complete  turn  in  'I'l  inches.  The  Inck- 
platc  is  0.175  inch  thick,  and  lot  in  flush. 
The  exterior  metal-work  is  browned.  An 
open  swivel  is  attached  to  the  upper  band, 
for  stacking  arms,  instead  of  locking  bayo- 
nets, as  heretofore  ;  also  a  "  trowel  bavonet" 


SMALL-AKMS 


540 


SMALL-AKMS 


and  "intrenching  tool."  Length  of  rifle- 
barrel  including  receiver,  36  inches  ;  carbine, 
25.4  inches.  Length  of  rifle-bayonet,  18 
inches;  crook  of  stock,  2^  inches,  and  dis- 
tance from  butt  to  trigger,  13^  inches.  Total- 
length  of  rifle,  without  bayonet,  51.9;  of 
carbine,  41.3  inches  ;  weight  of  rifle  without 
bayonet,  8.38  pounds ;  of  carbine,  6.87 
pounds.  Trigger  adjusted  to  pull  at  6  to 
_  8  pounds. 

Remington. — This  is  a  magazine-gun,  and 
belongs  to  that  system  in  which  a  fixed 
chamber  is  closed  by  a  bolt,  by  direct  action, 
and  in  which  the  lock  is  concealed.  The 
magazine  is  in  the  tip-stock,  and  carries  8 
cartridges,  which  are  brought  into  the  cham- 
ber by  the  action  of  the  trigger ;  the  mech- 
anism is  so  arranged  that  no  more  than  one 
cartridge  can  enter  the  chamber  at  the  same 
time.  The  magazine  is  loaded  from  below, 
and  in  any  position  of  the  bolt. 

Sharps. — See  Sharps  Eifle. 

Spencer.  —  A  magazine-gun,  holding  7 
cartridges  which  are  brought  one  by  one 
into  the  chamber  by  a  movement  of  the 
trigger-guard  as  a  lever,  which  at  the  same 
time  throws  out  the  shell  of  the  exploded 
cartridge.  A  new  magazine  can  be  inserted 
whenever  the  cartridges  have  been  exhausted, 
or  the  magazine  may  be  shut  ott"  and  the 
rifle  used  as  a  single  breech-loader. 

Winchester. — Same  pattern  as  the  Spen- 
cer. 

Snider  Rifle. — So  called  from  its  inventor, 
the  essential  features  of  which  are  that  the 
breech-block  revolves  around  an  axis  on  the 
right  of  and  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  bore, 
and  the  firing-pin  passes  obliquely  from  the 
nose  of  the  hammer,  througli  the  breech- 
block, to  the  centre  of  the  base  of  the  car- 
tridge. This  was  the  first  form  of  breech- 
loaders adopted  by  the  British  government, 
which  in  1866  directed  that  the  old  Enfield 
muzzle-loaders  should  be  altered  to  breech- 
loaders upon  this  system. 

Martini- Henry. — Adopted  by  the  British 
government,  has  a  breech-loading  apparatus 
on  the  Martini  system  united  to  a  barrel 
rifled  on  the  system  of  Henry,  a  gunmaker 
of  Scotland.  Martini,  a  Swiss,  derived  his 
system  of  breech-loading  from  the  Peabody 
system  of  the  United  States  by  dispensing 
with  the  independent  outside  lock  and  sub- 
stituting therefor  a  spiral-spring  firing -bolt 
or  striker,  inclosed  in  the  breech-block  ;  tlie 
number  of  grooves  is  seven ;  in  shape  they 
are  flat  at  the  bottom  ;  the  lands  are  narrow, 
having  the  appearance  of  sharp  ribs,  which 
are  designed  to  take  a  firm  hold  of  the  bul- 
let. It  is  understood  that  these  grooves  are 
made  somewhat  deeper  at  the  breech  than 
at  the  muzzle.  The  twist  is  one  turn  in  22 
inches.  Tliere  is  a  brass  collar  around  the 
head  of  the  ramrod  to  prevent  injury  to  the 
bore  in  wiping  out.  The  weight  of  the  rifle 
is  8|  pounds ;  of  bayonet  14^  ounces.  The 
weight  of  rifle  with  bayonet  attached  9 
pounds  11  ounces. 

Mauser  Rijie. — This  rifle  is  used  in  Prus- 


sia, and  is  a  modification  of  the  Chassepot 
system,  by  which  it  is  adapted  to  the  use  of 
the  metallic  gas-check  cartridge.  It  was  in- 
vented in  1871.  The  mechanism  of  this  gun 
is  much  simpler  than  the  needle-gun,  and 
has  a  longer  range. 

Chassepot  Rifle. — The  Chassepot  rifle  is 
used  in  France,  and  was  introduced  shortly 
after  the  Austro-Prussian  war  of  1866.  In 
its  principal  features  it  resembled  the  Prus- 
sian needle-gun,  inasmuch  as  the  breech  was 
clesed  with  a  sliding-bolt,  and  it  fired  a  self- 
primed  paper-case  cartridge,  which  was  ig- 
nited by  a  needle  impelled  by  a  spiral  spring. 
Unlike  the  needle-gun,  however,  it  was  pro- 
vided with  a  gas-check,  which  was  of  the 
form  of  a  thick  india-rubber  disk  or  pack- 
ing, attached  to  the  end  of  the  breech-bolt, 
and  it  possessed  the  modern  improvements 
of  reduced  caliber  and  rapid  twist  of  the 
rifle-grooves  for  obtaining  great  range  and 
accuracy  of  tire.  The  Chassepot  was  the 
principal  arm  used  by  the  French  army 
during  the  German  war.  Since  that  time 
efl'orts  have  been  made  to  adapt  it  to  fire  the 
modern  metallic-case  cartridge.  The  plan 
of  alteration  to  this  end  adopted  by  the 
French  authorities  is  that  submitted  by 
Capt.  Gras  of  the  French  artillery  commit- 
tee. The  length  of  the  bore,  including  the 
chamber,  is  32.28  inches ;  the  length  of  the 
complete  arm,  without  sabre-bayonet,  is  50.8 
inches  ;  and  with  the  bayonet  it  is  about  72.0 
inches.  The  weight  with  the  bayonet  is  10.3 
pounds  ;  without  the  bayonet,  8.9  pounds. 
The  grooves  are  four  in  number,  and  of  a 
width  equal  to  that  of  the  lands  ;  the  depth 
of  the  grooves  is  0.0118  inch  ;  the  twist  is 
one  turn  in  21.6  inches,  and  is  from  right  to 
left  instead  of  from  left  to  right,  according 
to  the  usual  practice.  The  pull  on  the  trig- 
ger is  thought  to  disturb  the  aim  by  carry- 
ing the  muzzle  of  the  arm  slightly  to  the 
right;  the  object  of  grooving  the  barrel  to 
the  left  is  to  correct  this  disturbance  by  the 
drift  which  follows  the  direction  of  the  twist. 
The  initial  velocity  is  stated  to  be  420  metres 
(about  1377  feet),  and  the  ettective  range  ex- 
tends to  1700  yards,  about  one  mile.  The 
rapidity  of  fire  is  15  times  per  minute.  The 
Russian  army  is  armed  with  two  patterns  of 
Berdan  breech-loaders.  One  lot  of  30,000, 
in  which  the  breech-block  swings  upward 
and  forward,  was  manufactured  by  the 
Colt's  Patent  Fire-Arms  Company,  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  and  a  second  lot  of  30,000  on 
a  sliding  breech-bolt  system  made  in  Bir- 
mingham, England.  The  latter-named  arm 
was  adopted  for  the  entire  Russian  army. 
The  following  are  the  principal  dimensions: 
Diameter  of  bore  (caliber),  0.42  inch  ;  length 
of  barrel,  30.43  inches  ;  total  length  of  arm 
without  bayonet,  50.38  inches  ;  length  of 
arm  with  bayonet,  70.38  inches  ;  number  of 
grooves,  6;  twist,  one  turn  in  20  inches; 
weight  of  arm  with  bayonet,  9.75  pounds. 

Vetterlin  Rifle.— Is  a  repeating  rifle  used 
in  the  Swiss  service,  and  is  a  Swiss  inven- 
tion, the  peculiarity  of  which  is  the  union 


SMALL  ARMS 


641 


SMART-MONEY 


of  a  cartridge  niusazinc  with  a  sliding-bolt- 
brecch  system.  The  following  are  the  prin- 
cipal dimensions :  Caliber,  0.41  inch;  num- 
ber of  grooves,  4 ;  depth  of  grooves,  0.008G 
inch;  width  of  grooves,  0.0177  inch;  twist 
of  grooves,  2G  inches  ;  length  of  barrel,  33  14 
inches;  length  of  arm  without  bayonet, 
51.18  inches;  length  of  arm  with  bayonet, 
70.08  inches;  weight  of  arm  without  bayo- 
net, 10.14  pound.s;,  with  bayonet,  11.02; 
weight  of  rirte  with  magazine  filled,  12.12 
pounds;  initial  velocity,  1341  feet. 

WertuU  Rifle. — Adopted  in  the  Austrian 
service  in  place  of  the  alteration  of  Wanzl, 
is  the  invention  of  Joseph  Werndl,  a  gun 
manufacturer  of  Styria,  and  is  applied  to 
mu.skets,  carbines,  and  pistols.  The  breech- 
block in  this  system  vibrates  around  an  axis 
parallel  to  and  below  the  axis  of  the  bore 

1)rolonged  to  the  rear  of  the  chamber.  The 
larrel  of  the  musket  is  made  of  cast  steel. 
Its  length  is  33.14  inches,  including  the 
chamber,  which  is  2.07  inches.  Its  weight 
is  3.83  pounds.  The  rifle-grooves  are  six  in 
number,  and  their  depth  is  0.007  inch.  The 
lands  are  0.07  inch  wide,  and  the  grooves 
0.15  inch.  The  twist  is  one  turn  in  28.5 
inches.  The  total  length  of  arm,  including 
sabre-bayonet,  73.0  inches,  while  its  weight, 
including  the  bayonet,  is  about  11.5  pounds; 
without  the  bayonet  the  length  is  50.5 
inches,  and  the  weight  9.85  pounds.  The 
barrel,  bands,  and  sights  are  browned. 

U'erder  Jiijic— Adopted  in  1860  for  the 
Bavarian  army,  is  the  invention  of  J.  L. 
"Werder  of  Nuremberg,  and  is  known  as  the 
Werder  system.  It  belongs  to  the  class  of 
falling  breech-blocks,  of  which  the  Peabody 
may  be  considered  the  exponent  in  this 
country.  It  diflers,  however,  from  this  and 
most  other  guns  of  this  class,  as  the  breech- 
block is  opened  and  closed  by  the  hammer 
instead  of  the  lever-guard,  giving,  as  claimed, 
greater  safety  and  ease  of  manipulation,  es- 
pecially when  the  soldier  loads  lying  on  the 
ground.  The  rifle-grooves  are  four  in  num- 
ber, their  depth  is  0.0075,  and  twist  is  one 
turn  in  22  inches.  The  diameter  of  the  bore 
is  0.435;  the  length  of  the  barrel,  including 
chamber,  but  exclusive  of  breech-frame,  is 
35.0;  the  weight  of  the  arm  without  bay- 
onet, 9.75  pounds.  The  breech-loaders  with 
and  without  the  needle-arrangement  are  too 
numerous  to  mention,  but  the  most  notable 
are  given  above.  See  Magazine  Guns, 
and  LymaiTs  Multi-charok  Gin. 

Revolver. — In  fire-arms,  is  a  weapon  which, 
by  means  of  a  revolving  breech, or  revolving 
barrels,  can  be  made  to  fire  more  than  once 
without  reb)ading.  The  invention  is  very 
far  from  new,  specimens,  with  even  the  pres- 
ent system  of  rotation,  being  still  in  exist- 
ence, which  were  manufactured  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  17th  century.  Probably  the 
first  revolver  to  suggest  itself  was  one  in 
which  several  barrels  were  mounted  on  an 
axis,  and  made  to  revolve  by  the  action  of 
the  trigger,  so  that  their  powder-pans  came 
successivclv  under  the  action  of  the  lock. 


This  principle  was  never  entirely  abandoned, 
and  in  the  reign  of  George  IV.  was  pro- 
duced a  pistol  called  the  "  Mariette,"  which 
had  from  4  to  24  small  barrels  bored  in  a 
solid  mass  of  metal,  made  to  revolve  as  the 
trigger  was  drawn  back.  At  close  quarters, 
such  a  pistol  would  doubtless  have  been  use- 
ful ;  but  its  great  weight  and  cumbrous  me- 
chanism rendered  aim  extremely  unsteady. 
Contemporaneously  from  the  first  with  the 
revolving  barrels,  went  the  fonnation  of  a 
revolving  chamber  or  breech,  pierced  with 
several  cylindrical  apertures  to  receive  the 
charges.  Being  made  to  revolve,  each  mo- 
tion brought  a  chamber  into  line  with  the 
one  barrel,  common  to  all,  whereupon  the 
weapon  was  ready  for  use.  Numerous  pat- 
ents for  this  principle  have  been  taken  out, 
including  one  by  the  celebrated  Marquis  of 
Worcester  in  IfiOl.  Various  improvements 
were  made,  especially  in  the  mode  of  caus- 
ing revolution  ;  an  American  patented  such 
a  weapon  in  the  United  States  and  Kng- 
land  about  1818.  In  1835,  Col.  Samuel  Colt 
brought  to  a  conclusion  experiments  of  some 
years'  standing,  and  patented  his  world-re- 
nowned Colt's  revolver,  which  was  a  great 
advance  on  all  previous  attempts,  and  is  sub- 
stantially still  in  use.  The  fame  attached  to 
Colt's  revolvers  renders  them  .=0  well  known 
as  to  require  but-  little  introduction  neces- 
sary. This  make  is  now  extensive!}-  used  in 
the  United  States,  and  indeed  in  almost 
every  country  of  the  world,  and  seems  not  to 
lose  favor  anywhere.  The  barrel  is  rifle- 
bored.  The  lever-ramrod  renders  wadding 
or  patch  unnecessary,  and  secures  the  charge 
against  moisture,  or  becoming  loose  by  rough 
handling  or  hard  riding.  The  hammer, 
when  at  full  cock,  forms  the  sight  by  which 
to  take  aim,  and  is  readily  raised  at  full 
cock  by  the  thumb,  with  one  hand.  The 
movements  of  the  revolving  chamber  and 
hammer  are  ingeniously  arranged  and  com- 
bined. The  breech,  containing  si.x  cylindri- 
cal cells  for  holding  the  powder  and  ball, 
moves  one-sixth  of  a  revolution  at  a  time; 
it  can  only  be  fired  when  the  chamber  and 
the  barrel  are  in  a  direct  line.  The  base  of 
the  cylinder  being  cut  externally  into  a  cir- 
cular ratchet  of  six  teeth  (the  lever  which 
moves  the  ratchet  being  attached  to  the 
hammer) ;  as  the  hammer  is  raised  in  the 
act  of  cocking,  the  cylinder  is  made  to  re- 
volve, and  to  revolve  in  one  direction  only  ; 
while  the  hammer  is  falling  the  chamber  is 
firmly  held  in  position  by  a  lever  fitte<l  for 
the  purpose;  when  the  hammer  is  raised  the 
lever  is  removed,  and  the  chamber  is  re- 
leased. So  long  as  the  hammer  remains  at 
half-cock,  the  chamber  is  free  and  can  be 
loaded  at  pleasure.     Col.  Colt  has  improved 

I  on    this  patent.     Revolvers    made  by  Kem- 

1  ington,  Smith  &  Wesson,  Daw,  Adams  «.fe 
Dean,  and  others,  are  mostly  on  the  same 
principle  as  the  Colt. 

I  Smart-money.  In  England,  the  money 
which  was  paid  hy  the  person  who  had  taken 

I  the  enlisting  money,  in  order  to  get  released 


SMITE 


542 


SOLAKS 


from  an  engagement  entered  into  previous 
to  a  regular  enlistment.  Also,  money  al- 
lowed to  soldiers  or  sailors  in  the  British 
service  for  wounds  or  injuries  received. 

Smite.  To  destroy  the  life  of  by  beating, 
or  by  weapons  of  any  kind  ;  to  slay  by  a 
blow;  to  kill;  as,  to  smite  one  with  the 
sword,  or  with  an  arrow  or  other  weapon. 
Also,  to  beat  or  put  to  rout  in  battle;  to 
destroy  or  overthrow  by  war. 

Smoke-ball.  Is  a  hollow  sphere  similar 
to  a  light-ball,  and  filled  with  a  composition 
which  emits  a  dense,  nauseous  smoke;  it  is 
employed  to  suffocate  the  enemy's  miners 
when  at  work,  or  to  conceal  one's  own  oper- 
ations ;  it  burns  from  25  to  30  minutes. 

Smolensk.  A  fortified  town  of  Russia, 
capital  of  the  government  of  the  same  name, 
250  miles  west-southwest  from  Moscow.  The 
French  in  a  most  sanguinary  engagement 
here  were  three  times  repulsed,  but  ulti- 
mately succeeded  in  entering  Smolensk,  and 
found  the  city  which  had  been  bombarded 
burning  and  partly  in  ruins,  August  16-17, 
1812.  Barclay  de  Tolly,  the  Russian  com- 
mander-in-chief, incurred  the  displeasure  of 
the  emperor  Alexander  because  he  retreated 
after  the  battle,  and  KutusoflF  succeeded  to 
the  command. 

Smooth-bore  Projectile.  See  Projec- 
tile, Sphekical  Prcjectiles. 

Smyrna.  One  of  the  most  ancient  and 
important  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  and  the  only 
one  of  the  Greek  cities  on  the  western  coast 
which  has  retained  its  name  and  importance 
to  the  present  day.  At  an  early  period  it 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  lonians  of  Colo- 
phon ;  it  became  a  member  of  the  Panionic 
Confederacy.  Its  early  history  is  obscure ; 
but  thus  much  is  clear,  however,  that  at 
some  period  the  old  city  of  Smyrna,  which 
stood  on  the  northeast  side  of  the  Hermaean 
Gulf  (now  the  Gulf  of  Smyrna),  was  aban- 
doned, and  that  it  was  succeeded  by  a  new 
city,  on  the  southeast  side  of  the  same  gulf 
(the  present  site),  which  is  said  to  have  been 
built  by  Antigonus.  It  had  a  magnificent 
harbor,  the  largest  ships  could  lie  alongside 
the  quays.  In  the  civil  wars  it  was  taken 
and  partly  destroyed  by  Dolabella,  but  it 
soon  recovered.  In  the  successive  wars 
under  the  Eastern  empire  it  was  frequently 
much  injured,  but  always  recovered.  After 
various  vicissitudes  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
the  city  fell  finally  into  the  hands  of  the 
Turks,  in  whose  possession  it  has  since  re- 
mained. 

Snaffle-bit.  A  kind  of  slender  bit,  hav- 
ing a  joint  in  the  part  to  be  placed  in  the 
mouth. 

Snaphance.  An  old  musket  of  the  17th 
and  first  half  of  the  18th  centuries,  called 
also  ounophnri.     See  Gun. 

Snare-drum.  The  smaller,  common  mil- 
itary drum,  as  distinguished  from  the  bass- 
drum  ; — so  called  because  (in  order  to  render 
it  more  resonant)  there  is  stretched  across 
its  lower  head  a  catgut  string,  or  collection 
of  strings. 


Snick  and  Snee.  A  combat  with  knives 
such  as  the  Dutch  carry. 

Snider  Rifle.     See  Small-arms. 

Soanes.  A  powerful  people  of  the  Cau- 
casus, governed  by  a  king  who  could  bring 
200,000  soldiers  into  the  field.  They  are 
also  called  Suani  and  Suanocok-hi. 

Sobraon.  A  town  of  Northwest  India, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sutlej,  25  miles  east- 
northeast  of  Ferozpur  (or  Ferozepoore), 
near  which,  on  February  10,  1846,  a  mojt 
obstinate  battle  was  fought  between  the 
British  army  under  Sir  Hugh  Gough  and  a 
Sikh  force  numbering  about  35,000.  The 
Sikhs  were  strongly  intrenched,  and  vigor- 
ously resisted  the  attacks  of  their  opponents, 
but  the  courage  and  perseverance  of  the  lat- 
ter ultimately  gave  them  the  mastery  ;  the 
various  earthworks  were  captured  in  succes- 
sion, and  the  Sikhs  driven  across  the  Sutlej, 
with  a  loss  in  killed,  wounded,  and  drowned 
of  13,000.  Gough  immediately  followed  up 
his  victory  by  crossing  into  the  Punjab  in 
pursuit  of  the  fleeing  enemy. 

Social  War.  A  celebrated  contest  be- 
tween the  Socii  of  Italy  and  the  city  of 
Rome,  which  lasted  from  91  b.c.  till  89,  and 
was  the  most  formidable  war  ever  carried  on 
in  Italy  during  the  dominion  of  the  Romans. 
It  arose  from  the  desire  of  the  Italians  to  be 
placed  on  a  footing  of  equality  with  the  Ro- 
mans. Nearly  300,000  lives  were  sacrificed 
in  the  contest,  and  numerous  towns  de- 
stroyed. The  senate  of  Rome  were  at  length 
compelled  to  grant  the  franchise  and  all 
other  privileges,  which  they  at  first  abso- 
lutely refused  to  the  Italians. 

Socket.  Generally  means  any  hollow  pipe 
that  receives  something  inserted. 

Socket  of  a  Bayonet.  The  round  hollow 
near  the  bent  or  heel  of  a  bayonet,  into 
which  the  muzzle  of  a  fire-arm  is  received 
when  the  bayonet  is  fixed. 

Sogdiana.  The  northeastern  province  of 
the  ancient  Persian  empire,  separated  on  the 
south  from  Bactriana  and  Margiana  by  the 
upper  course  of  the  Oxus ;  on  the  east  and 
north  from  Scythia  by  the  Sogdii  Comeda- 
rum  and  Oxii  Mountains,  and  by  the  upper 
course  of  the  laxartes,  and  bounded  on  the 
northwest  by  the  great  deserts  east  of  the  Sea 
of  Aral.  It  was  conquered  by  Cyrus,  and 
afterwards  by  Alexander.  After  the  Mace- 
donian conquest  it  was  subject  to  the  kings, 
first  of  Syria  and  then  of  Bactria,  till  it  was 
overrun  by  the  barbarians.  The  natives  of 
the  country  were  a  wild,  warlike  people  of 
the  great  Arian  race,  resembling  the  Bac- 
trians  in  their  character  and  customs. 

Soissons  (anc.  Noviodunum,  subsequently 
Augusta  Suessonnm).  A  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Aisne,  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Aisne,  about  65  miles  northeast  of 
Paris.  It  was  subdued  by  Julius  Cajsar,  57 
B.C.  ;  held  by  Syagrius,  after  his  father 
^gidius,  till  his  defeat  by  Clovis,  486. 

Solaks.  Were  bowmen  or  archers  belong- 
ing to  the  personal  guard  of  the  grand 
seignor.     They  were   always   selected  from 


I 


SOLDAN 


543 


SOLDIERS 


the  most  expert  bowmen  that  were  among 
the  Janissaries.  Their  only  arms  were  the 
sabre,  bow,  and  arrows. 

Soldan.  The  title  of  the  lieutenant-gen- 
erals of  the  calij)hs,  which  they  bore  in  their 
provinces  and  armies.  These  officers  after- 
wards made  themselves  sovereipns.  Saladin, 
general  of  the  forces  of  King  Noureddin  of 
Dama.scus,  was  the  first  that  took  upon  him 
this  title  in  Egypt,  1165,  after  having  killed 
the  cali|ih  Caym. 

Soldier.  Is  one  who  enters  into  an  obli- 
gation to  some  chieftain  or  government  to 
devote  for  u  specified  period  his  whole  ener- 
gies, and  even  if  necessary  his  life  itself,  to 
the  furtherance  of  the  policy  of  that  chief  or 
government.  The  consideration  may  be  im- 
mediate pay,  or  prospective  reward;  or  the 
contract  may  be  merely  an  act  of  loyal  de- 
votion. The  acknowledgment  of  the  service 
by  the  employer  constitutes  the  man  a  rec- 
ognized soldier,  and  empowers  him  to  take 
life  in  open  warfare,  without  being  liable  to 
the  penalties  of  an  assassin  and  a  robber. 
The  fact  of  being  mercenary — that  is,  of  re- 
ceiving wages  for  killing  and  being  killed — 
does  not  render  a  soldier's  trade  less  honora- 
ble. He  bears  arms  that  others  may  be  able 
to  do  without  them  ;  he  is  precluded  by  the 
exigencies  of  military  training  from  main- 
taining himself  by  peaceful  occupation  ;  and 
it  is  therefore  but  fair  that  those  whom  he 
protects  should  support  him,  and  give  him, 
over  and  above  actual  maintenance,  reason- 
able wages  for  the  continual  risk  of  his  life. 
If  a  man  willingly  enlist  himself  as  a  soldier 
in  what  he  believes  to  be  an  unrighteous 
cause,  it  is  an  act  of  moral  turpitude ;  but 
when  once  enlisted,  the  soldier  ceases  to  be 
morally  responsible  for  the  justice  or  iniquity 
of  the  war  he  wages  ;  that  rests  with  his  em- 

Eloyer.  Obedience,  implicit  and  entire,  is 
is  sole  virtue.  The  maxim  is,  "The  mili- 
tary force  never  deliberates,  but  always 
obeys."  Brother  soldier  is  a  term  of  afl'ec- 
tion  which  is  commonly  used  by  one  who 
serves  under  the  same  banners,  and  fights 
for  the  same  cause,  with  another.  In  a  more 
ext^sive  signification,  it  means  any  military 
man  with  respect  to  another. 

Soldier  of  Fortune.  During  the  frequent 
wars  which  occurred  in  Italy,  before  the 
military  profession  became  so  generally 
prevalent  in  Europe,  it  was  usual  for  men 
of  enterprise  and  reputation  to  offer  their 
services  to  the  different  states  that  were  en- 
gaged. They  were  originally  called  condoi- 
tieri,  or  leaders  of  reputation.  They  after- 
wards extended  their  sphere  of  action,  and 
under  the  title  o{  suldiers  of  fortune,  sought 
for  employment  in  every  country  or  state 
that  would  pay  them. 

Soldiering.  The  estate  of  being  a  soldier  ; 
the  occupation  of  a  soldier. 

Soldierly.  Like,  or  becoming,  a  real  sol- 
dier ;  brave;  martial;  heroic;  honorable. 

Soldiers'  Friend.  A  term  in  the  military 
service  which  is  generally  applied  to  such 
officers  as  pay  the  strictest  attention  to  their  i 


men  ;  granting  them  reasonable  indulgences 
without  injuring  the  .service;  seeing  their 
wants  relieved;  and,  above  all  things,  en- 
forcing just  dealings  and  the  most  prompt 
settlements.  There  is  much  confidence  in 
the'multitude  when  they  are  justly  dealt  by, 
and  every  soldier  fights  well  under  the  guid- 
ance of  a  soldiers'  friend. 

Soldiers'  Homes.  In  the  United  States, 
are  homes  of  a  permanent  character  estab- 
lished by  the  general  government  for  the 
benefit  of  old  soldiers,  or  men  who  were  dis- 
abled in  the  military  service  of  their  coun- 
try. The  "Soldiers'  Home,"  which  is  situ- 
ated about  3J  miles  from  the  Capitol  of 
Washington,  was  founded  in  compliance 
with  provisions  of  act  of  Congress  dated 
March  3,  1851.  It  contains  about  470  acres, 
some  of  which  is  cultivated  for  garden  prod- 
uce, flowers,  etc.,  and  the  remainder  forms 
a  magnificent  park.  In  1848,  (icn.  Scott 
forwarded  to  the  Secretary  of  War  the  sum 
of  $118,791.19,  levied  on  Mexico  during  the 
war  with  that  country,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
soldiers  of  the  U.  S.  army,  and  he  requested 
that  this  amount  might  be  set  aside  for  the 
construction  of  an  army  a.sylum.  The  fol- 
lowing funds  are  also  set  apart  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  "  Soldiers'  Home"  :  All  stop- 
pages or  fines  adjudged  against  soldiers  hy 
sentence  of  courts-martial,  over  and  above 
any  amount  that  may  be  due  for  the  reim- 
bursement of  government  or  individuals ;  all 
forfeitures  on  account  of  desertion  ;  and  all 
moneys  belonging  to  the  estate  of  deceased 
soldiers,  which  are  now  or  may  hereafter  be 
unclaimed  for  the  period  of  three  years  sub- 
sequent to  the  death  of  said  soldier  or  sol- 
diers, to  be  repaid  by  the  commissioners  of 
the  institution,  upon  the  demand  of  the  heirs 
or  legal  representatives  of  the  deceased  ;  also 
the  sum  of  12i  cents  per  month  is  stopped 
from  every  non-commissioned  officer,  musi- 
cian, artificer,  and  private  of  the  U.  S.  army. 
The  following  persons,  members  of  the  "  Sol- 
diers' Home,"  are  entitled  to  the  rights  and 
benefits  of  the  institution,  viz.  :  Every  sol- 
dier of  the  army  of  the  United  States  who 
has  served,  or  may  serve,  honestly  and 
faithfully,  twenty  years  in  the  same,  and 
every  discharged  soldier,  who  has  suffered 
by  reason  of  disease  or  wounds  incurred  in 
the  service  and  in  the  line  of  his  duty,  ren- 
dering him  incapable  of  further  military 
service,  if  such  disability  has  not  been  occa- 
sioned by  his  own  misconduct.  No  deserter, 
mutineer,  or  habitual  drunkard  is  received 
into  the  institution  without  such  evidence 
of  subsequent  service,  good  conduct,  and 
reformation  of  character  as  the  commission- 
ers may  deem  sufficient  to  authorize  his  ad- 
mission. There  are  three  commissioners  des- 
ignated to  administer  the  affairs  of  the  asy- 
lum, namely,  the  commissarv-gencral  of 
subsistence,  the  surgeon-general,  and  the  ad- 
jutant-general, whose  duty  it  is  to  examine 
and  audit  the  accounts  of  the  treasurer  quar- 
ter-yearly, and  to  visit  and  ins|>ect  the 
"  Home''  at  least  once  in  every  month.    The 


SOLDIERS 


544 


SOTTIATES 


officers  of  the  institution  consist  of  a  gov- 
ernor, a  deputy  governor,  and  a  secretary 
and  treasurer,  who,  with  a  medical  officer, 
are  detailed  from  the  active  or  retired  list  of 
the  army.  Inmates  of  this  institution  re- 
ceive a  small  allowance  of  pocket-money  per 
month,  and  they  are  also  paid  for  any  labor 
they  can  perform.  About  $8  per  month  is 
allowed  to  old  soldiers,  who,  having  fami- 
lies, are  permitted  to  live  elsewhere  than  at 
the  "  Home."  There  was  also  incorporated 
by  the  act  of  Congress  dated  March  3,  1865, 
"  the  National  A.sylum  for  Disabled  Volun- 
teer Soldiers,"  which  consists  of  the  central 
asylum,  at  Dayton,  Ohio,  the  eastern  branch 
at  Augusta,  Me.,  and  the  northwestern 
branch  at  Milwaukee,  Wis.  This  asylum 
is  kept  up  by  annual  appropriations  of  Con- 
gress. There  are  similar  institutions  for  old 
and  disabled  soldiers  in  Europe.  See  Asy- 
lum, KoYAL  Military,  and  Hotel  des 
Invaltdes. 

Soldiers'  Thigh.  "When  tight  breeches 
were  worn  in  the  British  army,  the  term 
had  its  peculiar  military  application,  from 
the  notorious  poverty  of  army  men.  Sol- 
diers' thigh  figuratively  meant  an  empty 
purse;  or  speaking  familiarly,  a  pair  of 
breeches  that  sit  close  and  look  smooth,  be- 
cause the  pockets  have  nothing  in  them. 

Soldiership.  A  term  which  is  rarely  used  ; 
it  means  military  qualities  ;  military  charac- 
ter or  state  ;  martial  skill;  behavior  becom- 
ing a  soldier. 

Soldiery.  A  body  of  soldiers  collectively 
considered ;  the  military.  "  A  camp  of 
faithful  soldiery." 

Solduriers  (Fr.).  A  term  anciently  used 
among  the  French,  to  signify  those  persons 
who  attached  themselves  to  some  particular 
general  or  military  knight,  whose  fortunes 
they  followed,  in  consequence  of  being  paid 
and  supported  by  him. 

Sole.  The  bottom  or  lower  surface  of  an 
embrasure. 

Solferino.  A  village  of  Northern  Italy, 
province  of  Brescia,  20  miles  northeast  from 
Mantua.  Here,  in  1796,  the  French  con- 
quered the  Austrians,  and  on  June  24,  1859, 
it  was  again  the  scene  of  an  overwhelming 
victory  obtained  by  the  French  and  Italians 
over  the  Austrians. 

Soli.  An  ancient  town  of  Asia  Minor, 
on  the  coast  of  Cilicia.  In  the  war  between 
Mithridates  and  the  Romans,  Soli  was  de- 
stroyed by  Tigranes,  but  subsequently  re- 
built by  Pompey,  who  settled  there  many  of 
the  pirates  whom  he  had  captured,  and  called 
the  town  after  himself,  Pompeiapolis. 

Solicinium.  A  town  in  Roman  Germany, 
on  the  mountain  Pirus,  where  Valentinian 
gained  a  victory  over  the  Alemanni  in  369, 
probably  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  modern 
Heidelberg. 

Solid  Shot.     See  Projectile. 

Solid  Square.  A  square  body  of  troops ; 
a  body  in  which  the  ranks  and  files  are 
equal. 

Sollerets  (Fr.).     Armor  for  the  feet. 


Somma.  A  town  of  Italy,  Lombardy, 
not  far  from  the  Tecino,  near  the  foot  of 
Lake  Maggiore,  27  miles  northwest  of 
Milan.  It  was  near  Somma  that  Han- 
nibal gained  his  first  victory  on  Italian 
ground,  completely  defeating  the  Romans 
under  Scipio,  218  B.C. 

Somnauth,  or  Somnath-Putten.  A  town 
of  Guzerat,  in  Hindostan,  is  situated  on  the 
southwest  coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Katty- 
war.  In  1024,  Mahmud  of  Ghizni,  the  zealous 
idol-destroyer,  appeared  before  Somnauth, 
drove  its  defenders  to  take  refuge  in  the 
temple,  where  they  defended  themselves 
with  such  valor  that  Mahmud's  army  was 
forced  to  retreat;  but  the  subsequent  rout 
of  two  Hindu  armies  which  had  advanced 
to  the  aid  of  the  sacred  city  so  dispirited 
the  defenders,  that  Somnauth  was  immedi- 
ately surrendered,  the  idol  destroyed,  and 
the  enormous  wealth  of  the  temple  carried 
off,  along  with  the  gates  of  the  temple. 

Songhay.  A  former  kingdom  of  Africa. 
In  1468-1469  the  ruler  of  Songhay  marched 
upon  Timbuctoo,  and  conquered  the  town 
and  surrounding  state.  Under  Haj  Mo- 
hammed Askia,  who  came  into  power  at  the 
end  of  the  15th  century,  and  who  was  per- 
haps the  greatest  sovereign  that  ever  ruled 
over  Negroland,  the  Songhay  empire  ex- 
tended from  Hausa  almost  to  the  shores  of 
the  Atlantic,  and  from  lat.  12°  N.  to  the 
confines  of  Morocco.  After  many  years  of 
revolution  and  civil  war,  this  great  empire 
became  a  province  of  Morocco  in  1607. 

Sonthals.  A  tribe  of  Northern  India, 
brought  to  Bengal  about  1830,  where  they 
prospered,  till,  partly  from  the  instigation 
of  a  fanatic,  and  partly  from  the  exactions 
of  money-lenders,  they  broke  out  into  re- 
bellion in  July,  1855,  and  committed  fear- 
ful outrages.  They  were  quite  subdued 
early  in  1856,  and  many  were  removed  to 
the  newly-conquered  province  of  Pegu. 

Sooloo,  or  Suluk  Islands.  A  group  of 
the  East  Indian  Archipelago.  The  sultan 
of  Sooloo  and  his  subordinate  chiefs  were 
formerly  notorious  for  their  piracy,  jind 
kept  up  a  large  fleet  for  that  purpose ;  but 
their  power  was  entirely  broken  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1851. 

Sora.  A  town  of  Naples,  in  the  province 
of  Terra  di  Lavoro,  15  miles  east-northeast 
from  Frosinone.  Sora  was  originally  a 
Volscian  city  ;  was  seized  by  the  Romans 
in  345  B.C.,  and  subsequently  made  a  col- 
ony; but  in  315  the  inhabitants  rose  against 
the  Romans,  and  joined  their  enemies,  the 
Samnites.  It  was  not  finally  secured  as  a 
Roman  colony  till  the  end  of  the  second 
Samnite  war  in  303. 

Sorn.  Formerly  a  servile  tenure  in  Scot- 
land, by  which  a  chieftain  might,  with  his 
followers,  live  upon  his  tenants  nt  free  quar- 
ters. 

Sorties  (Fr.  sortir).  In  a  siege,  parties 
who  sally  out  of  a  town  secretly  to  annoy 
the  besiegers,  and  retard  their  operations. 

Sottiates,  or  Sotiates.     A  powerful  and 


SOUND 


545 


SPAIN 


wnrlike  people  in  Gallia  Aquitanico,  on  the 
frontiers  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  were  sub- 
dued by  P.  Crassus,  Cajsar's  legate,  after  a 
hard-fouiijht  battle.  The  modern  Sos  prob- 
ably represents  the  ancient  town  of  this 
people. 

Sound.  The  velocity  of  sound  in  the  air, 
at  the  temperature  of' 32°  Fahr.,  is  about 
1090  feet  in  a  second.  It  is  increased  or 
diminished  1.07  feet  for  each  degree  of  tem- 
perature above  or  below  S'2°.  The  distance 
of  an  object  can  be  ascertained  by  the  report 
of  fire-arms,  by  observini;  the  number  of 
seconds  that  elapse  between  the  flash  and 
the  report  of  a  gun,  and  multiplying  the 
number  by  the  velocity  of  sound  in  air. 

Sound,  To.  To  betoken  or  direct  by  a 
sound;  as,  to  sound  the  retreat;  sound  the 
assembly,  etc. 

Sourabaya,  Soerabaya,  Soorabaya,  or 
Surabaya.  A  large  seaport  town  of  Java, 
on  the  northeast  coast.  When  the  French 
had  possession  of  Java,  the  French  govern- 
ment resolved  to  make  Sourabaya  a  jiort  of 
consequence.  Gen.  Daendels  expended  large 
sums  in  the  construction  of  works  for  the 
defense  of  the  harbor,  and  was  proceeding 
in  his  plans  when  the  island  was  taken  by 
the  British. 

South  Carolina.  An  Atlantic  State  of 
the  American  Union,  of  a  triangular  form, 
with  North  Carolina  and  Georgia  on  its  in- 
land sides.  It  is  said  to  have  been  discov- 
ered by  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1498,  or  by  De 
Leon  in  1512,  and  to  be  permanently  settled 
by  the  English  about  IGfiO.  The  province 
was  divided  into  North  and  South  in  1729. 
The  Carolinas  were  slave  States.  Great  ex- 
citement prevailed  in  them  in  November, 
1860,  on  account  of  Mr.  Abraham  Lincoln's 
election  to  the  presidency  of  the  United 
States,  he  being  strongly  opposed  to  slavery. 
South  Carolina  began  the  secession  from  the 
United  States  December  20,  18(il.  The  State 
was  restored  to  the  Union  in  June,  1808. 
This  State  took  an  active  part  in  the  civil 
war  (18*31-65),  on  the  Confederate  side.  See 
Charlkston,  Columbia,  Morri.s  Island, 
MouLTKiK,  Fort  Si'mtkr,  etc. 

Southern  Confederacy.     See  Cokfeder- 

ATK    StATKS  ok  AmKKICA. 

Sow.  A  kind  of  covered  shed,  formerly 
used  by  besiegers  in  filling  up  and  passing 
the  ditch  of  a  besieged  ])l!ice,  sapping  or 
mining  the  wall,  and  the  like.  It  had  its 
name  from  its  being  used  for  rooting  up 
the  earth  like  swine,  or  because  the  soldiers 
therein  were  like  pigs  under  a  sow. 

Sowar.  A  trooper  in  an  Indian  cavalry 
regiment. 

Space.  A  quantity  or  portion  of  exten- 
sion ;  the  interval  between  any  two  or  more 
objects;  as,  the  space  between  ranks. 

Spadroon.  A  sword  much  lighter  than 
a  broadsword,  and  made  both  to  cut  and 
thrust. 

Spahis.  Were  the  cavaliers  furnished  by 
the  holders  of  military  fiefs  to  the  Turkish 
armv,  and   formed   the  ilitc  of  its  cavalry. 


The  Spahis  along  with  the  Janissaries  owe 
their  organization  primarily  to  Orchan,  the 
second  of  the  Ottoman  sultans,  finally  to 
Sultan  Amurath  I.,  and  when  levied  en 
manse  could  number  140,0<^K),  but  such  a 
levy  was  very  seldom  called  for.  In  the 
field  they  were  divided  into  two  classes,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  cob^r  (red  and  yellow)  of 
their  standards.  One  class  had  pistols  and 
carbines,  the  other  bows  and  arrows,  and 
both  carried  a  sabre,  lance,  and  jfrid,  or 
javelin.  They  were  excellent  irregular 
troops ;  but  when  Eur<>|tian  organization 
was  introduced  into  the  Turki-b  army,  they 
were  replaced  (1826)  by  regular  horse.  At 
the  present  tinie  the  French  have  numerous 
regiments  of  Spahis,  raised  from  among  the 
native  tribes  of  Algeria  and  from  France  in 
about  equal  proportions;  the  dress,  espe- 
cially of  the  indigenous  soldiers,  partalces 
very'  much  of  the  Arab  character.  The 
natives  are  allowed  to  rise  to  any  grade 
below  that  of  captain;  but  all  the  superior 
officers  are  of  French  descent. 

Spain.  A  kingdom  of  Europe,  occupying 
the  larger  portion  of  the  great  peninsula 
which  forms  the  southwestern  corner  of  the 
European  continent,  reaching  farther  south 
than  any  other  European  country,  and  far- 
ther west  than  any  except  Portugal.  Spain, 
the  Spania,  Hispanin,  and  Ihcrin  of  the 
Greeks,  and  known  to  the  Romans  by  the 
same  names,  was  inhabited  at  the  period  at 
which  it  first  receives  historical  mention,  by 
a  people  deriving  their  origin  from  diflTerent 
races.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  originally 
inhabited  by  a  distinct  race  called  Iberians  ; 
upon  whom,  however,  a  host  of  Celts  are 
supposed  to  have  descended  from  the  Pyr- 
enees. In  the  earliest  times  of  which  we 
have  any  record,  these  two  races  had  already 
coalesced  and  formed  the  mixed  nation  of 
the  Celtiberians.  The  Phoenicians  and  Car- 
thaginians successively  planted  colonies  on 
the  coasts  of  Spain  about  360  n.c. ;  and  the 
Romans  conquered  the  whole  country,  206 
B.C.,  which  they  erected  into  a  Roman  prov- 
ince, consisting  of  two  political  divisions, — 
Hispania  Citerior  (Hither  Spain)  and  His- 
pania  Ulterior  (Farther  Spain).  From  the 
time  of  the  complete  supremacy  of  the  Ro- 
mans till  the  death  of  Constantine,  the  con- 
dition of  Spain  was  eminently  prosperous. 
In  409,  hordes  of  barbarians,  Alans,  Van- 
dals, and  Suevi,  crossed  the  Pyrenees,  and 
swept  over  and  desolated  the  peninsula; 
about  412,  the  Visigoths  invaded  the  coun- 
try, and  their  king,  Athaulf,  who  acknowl- 
edged a  nominal  dependence  on  the  Roman 
emperor,  established  the  Gi>thic  monarchy 
in  Catalonia.  The  battle  of  Xerxes  in  711 
gave  the  Moors  almost  undisputed  mastery 
of  nearly  the  whole  of  Spain,  as  well  as  of 
the  outlying  Gothic  jirovince  of  Septimanift 
(Languedoc)  in  Fnince.  The  Moors  held 
Spain,  for  the  first  few  years  of  their  rule,  as 
a  dependency  of  the  province  of  North  Af- 
rica; but.  after  the  downfall  of  Mu/ji  and 
his  son  Abd-el-aziz,  who  had  been  the  dep- 


SPAIN 


546 


SPARTA 


uty-governor  of  Spain,  the  country  was 
governed  (1717)  by  emirs  appointed  by  the 
caliph  of  Damascus.  The  favorite  scheme 
pursued  by  the  Spanish  emirs  was  the  ex- 
tension of  their  conquests  into  Gaul,  to  the 
neglect  of  the  rising  power  of  the  Goths  in 
Asturias  ;  they  also  took  the  Balearic  Isl- 
ands, Sardinia,  Corsica,  and  part  of  Apulia 
and  Calabria  ;  but  their  northward  progress 
was  signally  checked  on  tlie  plain  of  Tours 
by  Charles  Martel.  Anarchy  and  blood- 
shed were  prominent  features  of  the  lirst 
forty  years  of  Mohammedan  rule  in  Spain. 
Within  this  period  of  forty  years,  no  fewer 
than  twenty  emirs  had  been  called  to  the 
direction  of  affairs  ;  but  a  revolution  at  Da- 
mascus, which  unseated  the  Ommiades,  and 
placed  the  Abbasides  in  possession  of  the 
caliphate,  put  an  end  to  this  state  of  misrule 


>pain. 


The  Moors  at  leno;th  suffered  a 


great  defeat  at  Tarifa,  by  Alfonso  XI.  of 
Castile  in  1340,  and  nearly  the  whole  Chris- 
tian dominions  of  Spain  were  united  in  one 
monarchy  in  1479 ;  but  the  power  of  the 
Moors  was  not  finally  extirpated  until  1492, 
when  Spain  was  consolidated  into  one  em- 
pire from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Strait  of  Gi- 
braltar. But  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors  and 
Jews  was  productive  of  the  direst  results, 
and  the  decline  of  the  splendid  Spanish  em- 
pire may  be  said  to  have  had  its  origin  in 
the  event  which  raised  the  country  to  the 
height  of  its  magnificence.  In  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.,  Mexico  and  Peru  were  added  to 
the  possessions  of  Spain.  Philip  II.,  by  his 
enormous  war  expenditure  and  maladminis- 
tration, laid  a  sure  foundation  for  the  decline 
of  the  country  ;  and  the  reigns  of  Philip  III. 
and  Philip  IV.  witnessed  a  fearful  accelera- 
tion in  the  decline  of  Spain  by  the  contests 
with  the  Dutch,  and  with  the  German  Prot- 
estants in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  the  in- 
termeddling in  the  affairs  of  Northern  Italy, 
the  rebellion  of  the  Catalans,  the  wars  with 
France,  and  the  rebellion  of  Portugal  (1040), 
which  had  been  united  to  Spain  by  Philip 
II.  That  of  Charles  II.  was  still  more  un- 
fortunate, and  the  death  of  the  latter  was  the 
occasion  of  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succes- 
sion. (See  Succession  Wars.)  During 
the  inglorious  reign  of  Charles  IV.  (1788- 
1808),  a  war  broke  out  with  Britain,  which 
was  productive  of  nothing  but  disaster  to 
the  Spaniards,  and  by  the  pressure  of  the 
French  another  arose  in  1804,  and  was  at- 
tended with  similar  ill  success.  Charles 
abdicated  in  favor  of  his  eldest  son,  the 
prince  of  the  Asturias,  who  ascended  the 
throne  as  Ferdinand  VII.  Forced  by  Na- 
poleon to  resign  all  claims  to  the  Spanish 
throne,  Ferdinand  became  a  prisoner  of  the 
French  in  the  year  of  his  accession,  and  in 
the  same  year  Joseph,  the  brother  of  the 
French  emperor,  was  declared  king  of  Spain. 
But  an  armed  resistance  was  organized 
throughout  the  whole  country,  and  the 
supreme  junta,  that  of  Seville,  declared  war 
against  Napoleon  and  France  on  June  6, 
1808.      In  July,   England,  on  solicitation, 


made  peace  with  Spain,  recognized  Ferdi- 
nand VII.  as  king,  and  sent  an  army  to  aid 
the  Spanish  insurrection.  This  war  lasted 
until  the  beginning  of  1814,  when  the  allied 
armies  of  England,  Spain,  and  Portugal 
were  thoroughly  victorious.  For  important 
events  which  took  place  during  this  war,  see 
appropriate  headings  in  this  work.  Ferdi- 
nand VII.  treated  the  subjects  who  had 
shown  him  devoted  loyalty  with  infamous 
ingratitude,  and  subsequently  obtained  the 
aid  of  France  to  establish  despotism.  The 
reign  of  his  daughter  Isabella  II.  was  dis- 
turbed by  the  Carlist  rebellion  in  1834-39, 
in  which  the  British  aided  the  queen  with 
an  army  under  Sir  De  Lacy  Evans.  The 
next  events  of  importance  were  the  contest 
between  Espartero,  the  regent,  and  Queen- 
dowager  Christina,  for  the  supreme  power 
during  the  minority  of  the  queen  ;  Espar- 
tero's  flight  before  O'Donnell  and  Narvaez 
(1843);  his  restoration  in  1847  ;  banishment 
of  Queen  Christina  (1854)  ;  formation  of 
the  O'Donnell  ministry  (1858)  ;  war  with 
Morocco  and  annexation  of  St.  Domingo 
(1861)  ;  war  with  Peru  and  Chili  (1864-05), 
and  permanent  truce  in  1871  ;  Prince  Ama- 
deus  of  Savoy  declared  king  in  December, 
1870  ;  abdication,  February,  1873  ;  insurrec- 
tion of  Don  Carlos,  1873-76,  when  Prince 
Alfonso,  son  of  Queen  Isabella,  became 
king.  For  more  specific  history  of  prov- 
inces and  cities  of  Spain,  see  appropriate 
headings. 

Spancelled.  In  heraldry,  a  term  applied 
to  a  horse,  two  of  whose  legs  are  fettered  by 
a  log  of  wood. 

Spandau.  A  fortified  town  of  Prussia, 
in  the  province  of  Brandenburg,  7  miles 
west  from  Berlin.  It  was  taken  by  the 
Swedes  in  1031,  and  by  the  French  in  1806. 

Spanish  Fury,  The.  A  name  given,  in 
history,  to  the  attack  upon  Antwerp  by  the 
Spaniards,  November  4, 1576,  which  resulted 
in  the  pillage  and  burning  of  the  place,  and 
a  monstrous  massacre  of  the  inhabitants. 

Spanish  War  of  Succession.  See  Suc- 
cession Wars. 

Spare-pole.     See  Ordnance. 

Spare-pole  Key.     See  Ordnance. 

Spare-pole  Ring.     See  Ordnance. 

Spare-wheel  Axle.     See  Ordnance. 

Sparta.  Also  called  Lacediemon,  the  cap- 
ital of  Laconia  and  the  chief  city  of  Pelo- 
ponnesus, was  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Eurotas  (now  I?-i),  about  20  miles  from 
the  sea.  Sparta  was  never  surrounded  by 
walls,  since  the  bravery  of  its  citizens  and 
the  difficulty  of  access  to  it  were  supposed 
to  render  such  defense  needless.  In  the 
mythical  period,  Argos  was  the  chief  city 
in  Peloponnesus,  and  Sparta  is  represented 
as  subject  to  it.  The  Dorian  conquest  of 
Peloponnesus,  which,  according  to  tradition, 
took  place  eighty  years  after  the  Trojan  war, 
made  Sparta  the  capital  of  the  country. 
The  oldest  inhabitants  of  the  country  main- 
tained themselves  at  Amyclaj,  which  was 
not  conquered  for  a  long  time.     From  va- 


SPARTA 


547 


SPECIFICATION 


rious  causes  the  Spiirtans  became  distracted 
by  intestine  quarrels,  till  at  length  Lycurjjus 
gave  a  new  constitution  to  the  state.  This 
constitution  laid  tlie  foundation  of  Sparta's 
greatness.  She  soon  became  aggressive,  and 
gradually  extended  her  sway  over  the  greater 
part  of  Peloponnesus.  In  74:]  h.c.  the  Spar- 
tans attacked  Mossenia,  and  after  a  war  of 
twenty  years  subdued  this  country.  In  G85 
the  Messenians  again  took  up  arms,  but  at 
the  end  of  seventeen  years  were  again  com- 
pletely subdued,  and  their  country  from  this 
time  forward  became  an  integral  part  of 
Laconia.  After  the  close  of  the  second 
!Messenian  war,  the  Spartans  continued  their 
conquests  in  Peloponnesus.  They  defeated 
the  Tegeans,  and  wrested  the  district  of 
Thyreas  from  the  Argives.  At  the  time  of 
the  Persian  invasion  they  were  confessedly 
the  first  people  in  Greece;  and  to  them  was 
granted  by  unanimous  consent  the  chief 
comnumd  in  war.  But  after  the  final  defeat 
©f  the  Persuins,  the  haughtiness  of  Pausa- 
nias,  king  of  Sparta,  disgusted  most  of  the 
Greek  states,*  and  led  them  to  transfer  the 
supremacy  to  Athens  (477).  From  this  time 
the  power  of  Athens  steadily  increased,  and 
Sparta  possessed  little  inHuence  outside  of 
the  Peloponnesus.  The  Spartans  made  sev- 
eral attempts  to  check  the  rising  greatness  of 
Athens,  and  their  jealousy  of  the  latter  led 
at  length  to  the  Peloponnesian  war  (431). 
This  war  ended  in  the  overthrow  of  Athens, 
and  the  restoration  of  the  supremacy  of 
Sparta  over  the  rest  of  Greece  (404).  But 
the  Spartans  did  not  retain  this  supremacy 
more  than  thirty  years.  Their  decisive  de- 
feat by  the  Thebans,  under  Epaminondas,  at 
the  battle  of  Leuctra  (371),  gave  the  Spar- 
tan power  a  shock  from  which  it  never  re- 
covered;  and  the  restoration  of  the  Messe- 
nians to  their  country  two  years  afterward 
completed  the  humiliation  of  Sparta.  Thrice 
was  the  Spartan  territory  invaded  by  the 
Thebans,  and  the  Spartan  women  saw  for 
the  first  time  the  watch-fires  of  an  enemy's 
camp.  The  Spartans  now  finally  lost  their 
supremacy  over  (ireece ;  and  about  thirty 
years  afterward  the  greater  part  of  Greece 
was  obliged  to  yield  to  Philip  of  Macedon. 
The  Spartans,  however,  kejit  haughtily  aloof 
from  the  Macedonian  conqueror,  and  refused 
to  take  part  in  the  Asiatic  expedition  of  his 
son,  Alexander  the  Great.  The  power  of 
Sparta  continued  to  decline  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  reign  of  Cleomenes  III.  (236), 
whose  reforms  for  a  time  infused  new  blood 
into  the  state,  and  for  a  short  time  he  carried 
on  war  with  success  against  the  Acha;ans. 
But  Aratus,  the  general  of  the  Achajans, 
called  in  the  assistance  of  Antigonus  Doson, 
king  of  Macedonia,  who  defeated  Cleomenes 
at  the  decisive  battle  of  Sellasia  (2'21),  and 
followed  up  his  success  by  the  capture  of 
Sparta.  S[)arta  now  sank  into  insignificance, 
and  was  ruled  by  a  succession  of  native 
tyrants,  till  at  length  it  was  compelled  to 
abolish  its  peculiar  institutions,  and  to  join 
the  Acha}an  League.     Shortlv  afterward  it 


fell,  with  the  rest  of  Greece,  under  the  Ro- 
man power.  The  Spartans  were  a  race  of 
stern,  cruel,  resolute,  rude,  and  narrow- 
minded  warriors,  capable  of  a  momentary 
self-sacrificing  patriotism,  but  utterly  desti- 
tute of  the  ca|iacity  for  adopting  or  appre- 
ciating a  permanently  noble  and  wise  policy. 

Spartans.     See  Si'arta. 

Sparthe.  An  Anglo-Saxon  term  for  a 
halbert  or  battle-axe. 

Sparum.  A  kind  of  dart,  which  was  used 
by  the  ancients  in  war,  and  was  shot  out  of 
a  cross-bow.  The  wound  it  occasicmed  was 
extremely  dangerous,  as  its  point  was  tri- 
angular. Several  of  these  darts  were  dis- 
charged in  a  volley. 

Spatterdashes.  Were  a  kind  of  covering 
for  the  legs  of  soldiers,  made  of  cloth,  or 
coarse  linen  waxed  over,  and  buttoned  tight, 
by  which  the  wet  was  kept  off. 

Spatts.  Were  a  kind  of  spatterdashes, 
that  reached  only  a  little  above  the  ankle. 

Spayade.  In  heraldry,  a  stag  in  his  third 
year ;  a  spay. 

Spear.  A  lance  or  long  weapon  with  a 
sliarp  point,  formerly  used  as  a  manual  or 
nxissile  weapon.  Pliny  ascribes  the  inven- 
tion of  the  spear  to  the  Etolians.  The  spear 
of  the  Greeks  was  generally  of  ash,  with  a 
leaf-shaped  head  of  metal,  and  furnished 
with  a  pointed  ferrule  at  the  butt,  with 
which  it  was  stuck  in  the  ground;  a  method 
used,  according  to  Homer,  when  the  troops 
rested  on  tlK-ir  arms,  or  slept  upon  their 
shields.  The  cross  spear-heads  of  the  Brit- 
ons were  all  pyramidal,  narrowing  at  the 
base.  The  heads  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  spears 
were  exceedingly  long,  and  sometimes  dread- 
fully barbed. 

Spear-hand.  The  hand  in  which  a  horse- 
man holds  a  spear;  the  right  hand. 

Spear-head.     The  pointed  end  of  a  spear. 

Spearman.  One  who  is  armed  with  a 
spear. 

Special  Duty.  Soldiers  may  be  employed 
on  duties  not  strictly  military,  when  the  ex- 
igencies of  the  service  require  it,  for  the  rea- 
son that  they  are  incident  to  the  operations 
of  an  army  ;  as,  mechanics,  laborers,  cooks, 
and  attendants  in  hospitals,  clerks,  scouts, 
etc.  Soldiers  when  detailed  on  these  duties 
are  generally  reported  on  special  or  extra 
duty,  but  are  required  to  attend  the  regular 
inspections  and  musters,  and  if  not  pro- 
ficient in  drill,  should  be  required  to  attend 
drills  until  they  know  their  duties  as  sol- 
diers. Officers  when  placed  on  duty  which 
temporarily  relieves  them  from  duty  with 
their  companies,  as  acting  commis^-iaries  and 
quartermasters,  or  on  ci)urt-martial  duty, 
etc..  arc  reported  on  special  duty. 

Special  Orders.     See  C)ri)KR.s,  Special. 

Specific  Gravity.     See  Gravity. 

Specification.  The  designation  of  partic- 
ulars ;  jiartiiular  mention  ;  as,  the  spei-ifica- 
tion  of  a  charge  against  a  military  otlicer. 
A  written  statement  containing  a  minute 
description  or  enumeration  of  particulars,  as 
of  charges  against  oflScers  or  soldiers. 


SPEEN 


548 


SPIKE 


Speen.  A  parish  of  England,  in  Berk- 
shire, 2  miles  from  Newbury,  in  which  the 
second  battle  of  Newbury  was  fought,  Octo- 
ber 27,  1646. 

Spencer  Rifle.  See  Small-arms,  and 
31AGAZINE  Guns. 

Spend.  This  term  is  sometimes  used  in 
military  matters  to  express  the  consump- 
tion of  anything  ;  as,  to  spend  all  your  am- 
munition. 

Spent  Ball.  A  ball  shot  from  a  fire-arm, 
which  reaches  an  object  without  having 
sufficient  force  to  penetrate  it. 

Speyer,  also  Speier.  The  capital  of 
Khenish  Bavaria  (the  former  Palatinate), 
and  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  Germany, 
stands  at  the  influx  of  the  Speyerbach  in 
the  Khine  23  miles  north  of  Carlsruhe. 
During  the  Orleans  Succession  war — well 
called  by  the  Germans  the  Mordbrcnner 
Kreig — the  whole  Palatinate  was  savagely 
wasted,  Speyer  was  taken  by  the  French,  its 
inhabitants  driven  out,  and  the  city  blown 
up  with  gunpowder  and  burned  to  the 
ground.  Only  the  cathedral  resisted  the 
barbarous  efforts  to  mine  it.  In  1794,  it 
was  wasted  by  the  French  under  Custine, 
and  has  never  recovered  from  these  calami- 
ties. 

Spherical  Bullets.     See  Projectile. 

Spherical  Case-Shot.  A  spherical  case- 
shot  consists  of  a  thin  shell  of  cast  iron, 
containing  a  number  of  musket-balls,  and 
a  charge  of  powder  sufficient  to  burst  it;  a 
fuze  is  fixed  to  it  as  in  an  ordinary  shell,  by 
which  the  charge  is  ignited  and'  the  shell 
burst  at  any  particular  instant.  A  spheri- 
cal case-shot,  when  loaded  ready  for  use, 
has  about  the  same  specific  gravity  as  a 
solid  shot,  and  therefore,  when  fixed  with 
the  service  charge  of  powder,  its  range,  and 
its  velocity  at  any  point  in  its  range,  is 
about  equal  to  that  of  a  solid  shot  of  the 
same  caliber.  The  spherical  case  mostly 
used  for  field  service  is  the  12-pounder,  and 
contains,  when  loaded,  90  bullets.  Its  burst- 
ing charge  is  1  ounce  of  powder,  and  it 
weighs  11.75  pounds.  Its  rupture  may  be 
made  to  take  place  at  any  point  in  its  flight, 
and  it  is  therefore  superior  to  grape  or  can- 
ister. The  attrition  of  the  balls  with  which 
it  is  loaded,  formerly  endangered  the  firing 
of  the  bursting  charge.  This  is  now  obvi- 
ated, in  making  one  mass  of  the  balls,  by 
pouring  in  melted  sulphur.  It  is  also  pre- 
vented by  Capt.  Boxer's  improved  spherical 
case-shot,  of  which  there  are  two  forms.  In 
one  form  the  bursting  charge  of  powder  is 
contained  in  a  cylindrical  tin  box,  attached 
to  a  brass  socket  which  receives  the  fuze, 
and  which  is  screwed  into  the  shell.  In  the 
other,  the  part  of  the  shell  containing  the 
bursting  charge  is  separated  from  tiiat  con- 
taining the  bullets  by  a  diaphragm  of  sheet- 
iron,  cast  into  the  shell  {i.e.,  the  shell  is  cast 
on  to  the  diaphragm  which  is  inserted  into 
the  core).  The  bullets  are  introduced  into 
the  shell  by  a  second  orifice,  and  are  kept 
in  their  places  by  a  composition  afterwards 


poured  in.  The  present  12-pounder  spheri- 
cal case-shot,  fixed  with  a  charge  of  2^  pounds 
of  powder,  is  eftective  at  1500  yards.  The 
proper  position  of  the  point  of  rupture 
varies  from  60  to  130  yards  in  front  of,  and 
from  15  to  20  feet  above,  the  object.  The 
mean  number  of  destructive  pieces  from  a 
12-pounder  spherical  case-shot,  which  may 
strike  a  target  9  feet  high  and  54  feet  long, 
at  a  distance  of  800  yards,  is  30.  The  spheri- 
cal case-shot  from  rifle-cannon  is  said  to  be 
effective  at  over  2000  yards.  Spherical  case 
should  not  be  used  at  a  less  distance  than 
500  yards. 

Spicheren,   or   Speicheren.     See   Saar- 

BRUCK. 

Spike  Cannon,  To.  Is  to  drive  into  the 
vent  a  jagged  and  hardened  steel  spike  with 
a  soft  point,  or  a  nail  without  a  head  ;  break 
it  off  flush  with  the  outer  surface  and  clinch 
the  point  inside  by  means  of  a  rammer.  A 
gun  may  be  unspiked  if  the  spike  is  not 
screwed  in  or  clinched,  and  the  ,bore  is  not 
impeded,  by  putting  in  a  charge  of  powder 
one-third  of  the  weight  of  the  shot,  and 
ramming  junk-wads  over  it;  laying  on  the 
bottom  of  the  bore  a  slip  of  wood,  with  a 
groove  on  the  under  side  containing  a  strand 
of  quick-match,  by  which  fire  is  communi- 
cated to  the  charge.  In  a  brass  gun,  take 
out  some  of  the  metal  at  the  upper  orifice 
of  the  vent,  and  pour  sulphuric  acid  into  the 
groove,  and  let  it  stand  some  hours  before 
tiring.  If  this  method,  several  times  re- 
peated, is  not  successful,  unscrew  the  vent- 
piece  if  it  be  a  brass  gun  ;  and  if  an  iron 
one,  drill  out  the  spike,  or  drill  a  new 
vent.  * 

Artillery  can  be  rendered  unserviceable 
by  other  methods  besides  spiking,  as  follows : 
(1)  Wedge  a  shot  in  the  bottom  of  the  bore 
by  wrapping  it  with  felt,  or  by  means  of 
iron  wedges,  using  the  rammer  or  a  bar  of 
iron  to  drive  them  in.  (2)  Cause  shells  to 
burst  in  the  bore  of  bronze  guns.  (3)  Fire 
broken  shot  from  them  with  large  charges. 
(4)  Fill  the  piece  with  sand  over  the  charge, 
to  burst  it.  (5)  Fire  a  piece  against  another, 
muzzle  to  muzzle,  or  the  muzzle  of  one  to 
the  chase  of  the  other.  (6)  Light  a  fire  under 
the  chase  of  a  bronze  gun,  and  strike  on  it 
with  a  sledge,  to  bend  it.  (7)  Break  off  the 
trunnions  of  iron  guns ;  or  burst  them  by 
firing  them  at  a  high  elevation,  with  heavy 
charges  and  full  of  shot. 

To  drive  out  a  shot  wedged  in  the  bore: 
unscrew  the  vent-piece  if  there  be  one,  and 
drive  in  wedges  so  as  to  start  the  shot  for- 
ward ;  then  ram  it  back  again  in  order  to 
seize  the  wedge  with  a  hook  ;  or  pour  in 
powder,  and  fire  it  after  replacing  the  vent- 
piece.  In  the  last  resort,  bore  a  hole  in  the 
bottom  of  the  breech,  drive  out  the  shot, 
and  stop  the  hole  with  a  screw.  When  a 
shot  is  jammed  in  a  gun  and  cannot  be 
rammed  home  to  the  cartridge,  destroy  the 
charge  by  pouring  water  down  the  vent  and 
muzzle  until  the  ingredients  are  dissolved, 
and  cleared  out  of  the  bore ;  then  introduce 


SPIN 


649 


SPY 


a  small  quantity  of  powder  through  the  vent 
and  blow  out  the  shot. 

Spin  Hay,  To.  Is  to  twist  it  up  in  ropes, 
very  hard,  for  an  expedition;  by  which 
means  it  is  less  bulky,  and  less  troublesome 
for  the  cavalry  to  carry  behind  them.  An 
expert  horseman  can  spin  live  days'  forage 
into  a  very  narrow  compass. 

Spingard.     A  kind  of  small  cannon. 

Splay.  The  divergence  outwards  from  the 
line  of  fire  of  the  lines  which  mark  the  bot- 
tom of  the  sides  of  an  embrasure. 

Splinter-bar.  See  Ordnance,  Carriages 

FOR. 

Splinter-proof.  Strong  enough  to  resist 
the  splinters  of  bursting  shells. 

Spoils.  Whatever  is  taken  from  the  enemy 
in  time  of  war.  Among  the  ancient  Greeks, 
the  spoils  were  divided  among  the  whole 
army,  only  the  share  given  to  the  general 
was  the  largest ;  but  among  the  Komans  the 
sjioils  belonged  to  the  republic. 

Spoleto  (anc.  Spolcihon).  A  city  of  Cen- 
tral Italy,  province  of  Umbria,  is  situated 
on  a  rocky  hill,  (Jl  miles  north-northwest  of 
Kome.  During  the  second  Punic  war,  Han- 
nibal is  said  to  have  been  repulsed  by  the 
colonists  in  an  assault  which  he  made  on  the 
town  (217  H.c),  after  the  battle  of  Thrasy- 
mene.  In  18G0  it  was  taken  by  the  Italians 
from  a  body  of  Irish  mercenaries  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  pope,  and  now  forms  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy. 

Sponge.     ScelMi'i.KMENT.s. 

Sponge   and   Rammer-stop.     See   Ord- 

NANCK,   C'ARKIAOKS   FOR. 

Sponge-bucket.     See  Implements. 
Sponge-chain.     See  Ordnance,  Carri- 
ages FOR. 

Sponge-hook.  See  Ordnance,  Carri- 
ages KOR. 

Spontoon.  A  weapon  bearing  resemblance 
to  a  halberd,  which,  prior  to  1787,  was  borne 
instead  of  a  half-pike  by  otRcers  of  British 
infantry.  It  was  a  medium  for  signaling 
orders  to  the  regiment.  The  spontoon  planted 
in  the  ground  commanded  a  halt;  pointed 
backwards  or  forwards,  advance  or  retreat ; 
and  so  on. 

Sporting  Powder.  Gunpowder  used  in 
sporting  arms, — usually  liner  grained  than 
that  for  military  arms. 

Sporting  Rifle.  A  rifle  made  especially 
for  himtiiig.  There  is  no  invariable  feature 
distiiiL:uishiiig  it  from  otiier  rifles.  Ordina- 
rily the  rear  sigiit  is  not  elevating. 

Spottsylvania  Court-house.  A  village 
in  Spottsylvania  Co.,  Va.,  situated  on  the 
river  Po,  Gj  miles  north  from  Kichmond. 
A  series  of  desperate  battles  took  place  in 
the  neighborhood  of  this  village  between 
the  Federals  and  Confederates,  from  May  8 
to  21,  18G4,  in  which  the  former  compelled 
the  latter,  after  much  carnage,  to  retreat  to 
the  North  Anna  River,  which  ultinuitely 
resulted  in  the  battle  of  Cold  Harbor  (which 
see ) . 

Spread-eagle.  In  heraldry,  an  eagle,  or 
the  tigure  of  an  eagle,  with  its  wings  ele- 


vated and  its  legs  extended  ; — often  met  as 
a  device  in  heraldry,  upon  military  orna- 
ments, and  the  like. 

Springfield.  A  post-town,  capital  of 
Greene  Co.,  Mo.,  130  mile.s  southwest  of 
Jeflerson  City.  Near  here  was  fought  the 
desperate  battle  of  Wilson's  Creek,  in  which 
the  Federals  had  the  advantage  over  the  Con- 
federates, but  lost  their  brave  general,  Na- 
thaniel Lyon,  August  10,  1801. 

Springfield.  A  city  of  Massachusetts,  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Connecticut  Kiver,  98 
miles  west  by  south  of  Bost(»n.  The  national 
armory  is  located  here,  which  rej)aired  and 
altered  in  18G9  upwards  of  2o,00(J  rifles  and 
muskets.  The  present  U.  S.  breech-loader, 
mode!  of  187:5,  is  nuide  hero. 

Springfield  Rifle.     See  S.mall-arms. 

Sprue.  See  Ordnance,  Construction 
OK,  Molding. 

Spur.  An  apparatus  fastened  to  the  heel 
of  a  horseman,  for  goading  the  horse.  It  is 
much  less  used  than  formerly.  All  cavalry 
soldiers  wear  spurs;  but  their  use,  except  in 
the  heat  of  an  actual  charge,  is  discouraged 
as  much  as  possible  In  the  days  of  chivalry, 
the  use  of  the  spur  was  limited  to  knights, 
and  it  was  among  the  emblems  of  knight- 
hood. To  win  his  spurs,  was  for  a  young 
man  to  earn  knighthood  by  gallant  conduct. 
The  degradation  of  a  knight  involved  the 
hacking  ofl"  of  his  spurs  ;  and  the  serving 
before  a  knight  of  a  pair  of  spurs  on  a  di^h, 
was  a  strong  hint  by  his  host  that  he  had  out- 
stayed his  welcome. 

Spurs,  Battle  of  the.     Sec  Courtrai. 

Spy.  In  war,  is  a  useful  but  not  highly 
honored  auxiliary,  employed  to  ascertain  the 
state  of  an  enemy's  afl'airs,  and  of  his  in- 
tended operations.  Sjiies  have  been  used  in 
all  wars  from  the  time  when  Moses  sent 
Joshua  on  such  a  purpose  to  the  present 
time.  Theiremployment  is  quite  recognized 
by  the  law  of  nations  as  interpreted  by 
Grotius,  Vattel,  and  Martens  ;  nor  is  it  held 
to  be  any  dishonor  to  a  general  to  avail  him- 
self of  their  services.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  spy  himself  is  looked  upon  as  an  outlaw, 
and  one  devoid  of  honor.  If  taken  by  the 
enemy,  he  is  put  to  death  ignominiously  and 
without  mercy.  As,  however,  the  calling  is 
so  dangerous,  and  so  little  redounds  to  honor, 
it  is  never  permissible  for  a  general  to  com- 
pel by  threats  any  person,  whether  of  his 
own  or  the  hostile  party,  to  act  as  a  spy  ;  but 
ho  is  at  liberty  to  accept  all  such  servicer 
when  proffered".  A  spy  is  well  paid,  lest  he 
betray  his  employer.  In  the  British  army, 
spies  are  usually  controlled  by  the  quarter- 
master-general. Martial  law,  though  dis- 
tinct enough  in  ordering  the  death  of  a  spy, 
is  not  clear  in  defining  what  constitutes  a 
spy.  A  man— not  of  the  enemy— within 
the  enemy's  lines,  and  in  the  enemy's  uni- 
form, would  presumably  be  a  sj>y.  If  in 
civil  dress,  ana  unable  to  give  a  good  account 
of  himself,  his  chance  of  hangi'ng  would  be 
considerable  ;  but  if  found  in  one  camp  in 
i  the  uniform  of  the  opposite  side,  he  may  not 


SQUAD 


550 


STADIA 


be  treated  otherwise  than  as  a  prisoner  of 
war,  or  at  least  as  a  deserter  from  the  enemy. 
Both  as  regards  honor  and  penalties,  it  would 
seem  that  spies  ought  in  fairness  to  be  divided 
into  two  classes, — first,  those  who  betray  their 
own  country  to  an  enemy  ;  secondly,  those 
who,  being  enemies,  contrive  surreptitiously 
to  obtain  inf(jrmation  by  penetrating  into  the 
opposing  army.  The  first  class  are  traitors 
of  a  deep  dye,  for  whom  no  ignominious 
death  is  too  bad ;  but  the  second  class  are 
often  brave  men,  who  dare  much  in  the  ser- 
vice of  their  country.  It  is  unfair  to  ac- 
cord them  the  same  treatment  as  the  traitors. 

Squad.  A  small  portion  of  a  company, 
troop,  or  battery,  placed  in  the  especial 
charge  of  an  officer  or  non-commissioned 
officer  for  purposes  of  inspection  and  super- 
vision. In  the  infantry  it  corresponds  with 
a  section.  It  also  signifies  a  small  number 
of  men  drilled  together.  The  term  awkward 
squad  is  applied  to  those  soldiers  who,  on 
account  of  clumsiness  or  want  of  attention, 
are  sent  back  to  the  lowest  squad  to  be  re- 
drilled. 

Squad  Book.  In  the  British  service,  is 
the  roll  of  a  squad,  containing,  besides  the 
names,  the  trades  and  other  particulars  of 
the  men. 

Squad-bags.  In  the  British  service,  are 
black  canvas  bags,  which  are  issued  at  the 
rate  of  one  to  every  25  men,  and  are  in- 
tended to  contain  those  articles  of  a  man's 
kit  which  are  not  comprised  in  the  "  service 
kit."  They  are  only  used  when  a  regiment 
is  in  the  field  or  on  the  line  of  march.  In 
India,  where  knapsacks  are  never  carried, 
a  small  squad-bag  is  issued  to  each  soldier. 

Squadron.  In  military  language,  denotes 
two  troops  of  cavalry.  It  is  the  unit  by 
which  the  force  of  cavalry  with  an  army  is 
always  computed.  Three  or  four  squadrons 
constitute  a  regiment.  The  actual  strength 
of  a  squadron  ranges  from  120  to  200  sabres. 

Squall.  A  sudden  and  violent  gust  of 
wind,  often  attended  with  rain  or  snow.  Black 
squall,  a  squall  attended  with  dark,  heavy 
clouds.  Thick  squall,  a  black  squall  accom- 
panied by  rain,  hail,  sleet,  etc.  White  squall, 
a  squall  which  comes  unexpectedly,  without 
being  marked  in  its  approach  by  the  clouds. 

Square.  In  military  evolutions,  is  the 
forming  of  a  bodj^  of  men  into  a  rectangu- 
lar figure,  with  several  ranks  or  rows  of  men 
facing  on  each  side.  With  men  of  ordinary 
firmness,  a  square  should  resist  the  charges  of 
the  heaviest  horse.  The  formation  is  not 
new,  for  a  Grecian  Syntagma  was  a  solid 
square  of  16  men  in  every  direction;  but  in 
modern  warfare,  the  solid  square  having 
been  found  cumbrous,  has  been  abandoned 
for  the  hollow  square,  with  officers,  horses, 
colors,  etc.,  in  the  centre.  The  front  rank 
kneels,  and  the  two  next  stoop,  which  ena- 
bles five  ranks  of  men  to  maintain  a  rolling 
fire  upon  an  advancing  enemy,  or  to  pour 
in  a  murderous  voUej'  at  close  quarters. 

Square-pierced.  In  heraldry,  a  term 
used  to  designate  a  charge  perforated  with  a 


square  opening,  so  as  to  show  the  field.  A 
cross  square-pierced  is  often  improperly  con- 
founded with  a  cross  quarter-pierced,  where 
the  intersecting  part  of  the  cross  is  not 
merely  perforated,  but  entirely  removed. 

Squire.  An  attendant  on  a  warrior  was 
formerly  so  called. 

Stab.  To  pierce  with  a  pointed  weapon  ; 
as,  to  be  stabbed  by  a  bayonet,  dagger,  etc. 

Stabiae  (now  Castella  Mare  di  Stabia). 
An  ancient  town  in  Campania,  between 
Pompeii  and  Surrentura  ;  was  destroyed  by 
Sulla  in  the  Social  war. 

Stable  Guard.  In  each  squadron,  the 
stable  guard  generally  consists  of  a  corporal 
and  one  man  for  every  20  horses.  It  is  their 
duty  to  feed  the  horses,  watch  over  their 
safety  during  the  night,  and  attend  to  the 
general  police  of  the  stables,  being  assisted 
bv  an  additional  detail  at  the  hours  of  stable 
call. 

Stable  Horse.  A  name  formerly  applied 
to  that  part  of  the  Tippoo  Sahib's  cavalry 
which  was  best  armed,  accoutred,  and  most 
regularly  disciplined. 

Stack  Arms.  To  set  up  muskets  or  rifles 
together,  with  the  bayonets  crossing  one  an- 
other, and  forming  a  sort  of  conical  pile. 

Stack  of  Arms.  A  number  of  muskets 
or  rifles  set  up  together,  with  the  bayonets 
crossing  one  another,  forming  a  sort  of  coni- 
cal pile. 

Stacket.     A  stockade. 

Stadia.  A  very  simple  aid  in  estimating 
distances,  consists  of  a  small  stick,  held  ver- 
tically in  the  hand  at  arm's  length,  and 
bringing  the  top  of  a  man's  h^ad  in  line 
with  the  top  of  the  stick,  noting  where  a  line 
in  the  eye  of  the  observer  to  the  feet  of  the 
man  cuts  the  stick  or  stadia,  as  it  is  called. 
To  graduate  the  stadia,  a  man  of  the  ordi- 
nary height  of  a  foot-soldier,  say  5  feet  8 
inches,  is  placed  at  a  known  distance,  say  50 
yards,  and  the  distance  on  the  stick  covered 
by  bim  when  it  is  held  at  arm's  length  is 
marked  and  divided  into  eight  equal  parts. 
If  the  distance  is  now  increased  until  the 
man  covers  only  one  of  these  divisions,  we 
know  he  is  at  a  distance  equal  to  50  x  8  = 
400  yards.  This  instrument  is  not  very  ac- 
curate, except  for  short  distances.  A  much 
more  accurate  stadia  is  constructed  by 
making  use  of  a  metal  plate  having  a  slit  in 
it  in  the  form  of  an  isosceles  triangle,  the 
base  of  which,  held  at  a  certain  distance 
from  the  edge,  subtends  a  man  (5  feet  8 
inches),  say  at  the  distance  of  100  yards.  A 
slider  moves  along  the  triangle,  being  always 
parallel  to  the  base,  and  the  length  of  it 
comprised  between  the  two  sides  of  the  tri- 
angle represents  the  height  of  men  at  differ- 
ent distances,  which  are  marked  in  yards  on 
the  side  of  the  triangle,  above  or  below,  ac- 
cording as  the  object  looked  at  is  a  foot-sol- 
dier or  horseman.  In  order  to  keep  the 
stadia  always  at  the  same  distance  from  the 
eye,  a  string  is  attached  to  the  slider,  the 
opposite  end  having  a  knot  tied  in  it,  which 
is  held  between  the  teeth  while  using  the 


STAFF 


651 


STAFFORD 


instrument,  which  is  held  in  the  right  hand, 
the  slider  beinej  moved  with  the  left-hand 
finejer.  The  string  should  always  be  kept 
stretched  when  the  instrument  is  used,  and 
the  line  in  a  vertical  position.  It  must  be 
graduated  experimentally  by  noting  the  po- 
sitions in  which  the  slider  represents  the 
height  of  the  object.  The  instrument  used 
is  not,  however,  reliable.  Its  uncertainty 
increases  in  an  equal  ratio  with  the  distance 
of  the  object  observed.  At  the  extreme 
ranges  it  is  quite  useless.  At  the  school  for 
liring,  at  Vincennes,  therefore,  they  rely  en- 
tirely on  the  eye  alone  for  the  judgment  of 
distances,  and  great  pains  by  careful  practice 
and  instruction  is  taken  to  perfect  that 
judgment.  A  simple  instrument  by  which 
distances  can  be  determined  is,  therefore, 
still  a  great  desideratum. 

Stafif.  The  staft"  of  an  army  consists  of  a 
body  of  skilled  officers  whose  duty  it  is  to 
combine  and  give  vitality  to  the  movements 
and  mechanical  action  of  the  several  regi- 
ments and  drilled  bodies  composing  the  force. 
The  distinction  between  an  officer  on  the 
staff  of  an  armj'  and  a  regimental  officer  is 
that  the  latter  is  concerned  with  his  own 
regiment  alone,  while  the  former  deals  with 
his  army  (of  course  under  the  orders  of  his 
commanding  officer),  or  section  of  an  army, 
and  regulates  the  combined  action  of  the 
several  arms  and  bodies  of  men.  A  good 
staff"  is  all-important  to  the  success  of  a  mili- 
tary enterprise.  In  the  British  service  the 
general  staff  of  an  army  comprises  the 
general  in  actual  command,  with  the  sub- 
ordinate generals  commanding  the  sev- 
eral divisions  and  brigades;  as  assistants  to 
these  the  officers  of  the  adjutant-general's 
department, — i.e.,  the  adjutant-general,  his 
deputy,  assistants,  and  deputy-assistants,  if 
the  army  be  large  enough  to  require  them 
all.  Similarly,  the  officers  of  the  quarter- 
master-general's department;  the  brigade- 
major;  the  provost-marshal,  and  the  judge- 
advocate. 

In  the  U.  S.  service  the  general  staff  con- 
sists of  the  officers  of  the  several  military 
bureaux,  such  as  of  the  adjutant-general's 
department,  the  quartermaster's  department, 
etc.  For  the  officers  comprising  these  corps, 
sec  appropriate  headings  throughout  this 
work. 

'The  peneral  s/r//f  of  the  British  army  con- 
sists at  present  of  a  flcld-marshal  command- 
ing-in-chief, whose  hcadqiuirters  are  at  Lon- 
don; under  him,  of  a  lieutenant-general 
commanding-in-chief  in  Ireland.  This  com- 
mand includes,  of  course,  the  general  otHcer 
commanding  in  each  military  district  of  the 
United  Kingdcmi  and  in  each  colony;  each 
of  these  generals  having  the  usual  subordi- 
nate staff' subjeit  to  his  orders.  India  forms 
a  nearly  independent  command,  under  a 
commander-in-chief,  whose  headquarters  are 
at  Bengal.  There  arc  subonlinate  com- 
manders-in-chief in  Bombay  and  Madras; 
and  in  each  presidency  there  are  several 
military  divisions. 


The  personal  ainff  conn\sXs  of  the  aides-de- 
camp and  military  secretaries  to  the  respec- 
tive general  officers.  These  officers,  who  are 
treated  of  separately  in  this  work,  are  ap- 
])oiiited  within  certain  limits  by  the  generals 
whom  they  serve,  and  their  apiiointment.? 
expire  on  those  generals  ceasing  to  com- 
mand. 

The  tjarrison  staff  consists  of  the  officers 
governing  in  fortresses  and  garrisons  ;  iis 
comnumdants,  fort-majors,  town-majors, 
fort-adjutants,  and  garrison-adjutants. 

The  civil  or  department  stuff  includes 
those  non-combatant  officers  who  have  to 
provide  for  the  daily  requirements  of  the 
troops.  These  are  the  commissaries,  bar- 
racks, medical,  chaplains,  purveyors,  store, 
and  veterinary  departments. 

The  recruiting  staff  consists  of  inspecting 
field-officers,  district  paymasters,  district  ad- 
jutants, and  superintending  officers. 

The  pensioner  s^rz/f  includes  only  the  staff- 
officers  of  the  enroiled  force. 

Regimental  Staffs  —  (See  Officer.", 
Staff-.)  Stafi'-officers  should  carry  in  their 
heads  all  general  information  regarding  the 
army  with  which  they  are  serving  ;  the  com- 
position and  distribution  of  corps,  divisions, 
brigades,  etc.  ;  they  should  remember  as  ac- 
curately as  possible  the  strength  of  each 
battalion  in  their  immediate  division,  and 
the  names  of  the  respective  commanding 
officers.  Officers  of  the  headquarters  staff' 
should  know  the  position  of  every  division 
or  detachment  each  night ;  their  composition 
and  strength,  and  the  names  of  their  com- 
manders, etc. 

In  connnunicating  orders  to  others,  staff"- 
officers  must  speak  and  write  in  the  name  of 
their  generals.  They  must  remember  that 
they  have  no  power  of  themselves  to  confer 
favors,  and  that  all  patrt)nage  rests  with  the 
general.  In  theory  they  are  merely  his 
agents,  and,  althougli,  in  practice,  officers  of 
importance  have  mucli  in  their  power,  they 
should  be  careful  to  prevent  its  being  gen- 
erally known.  Their  commander  must  never 
be  ignored,  even  when  they  know  him  to  be 
a  fool.  It  is  not  that  you  injure  an  indi- 
vidual by  slighting  hini,  but  that  by  doing 
so  you  deprive  of  that  general  confidence 
which  for  the  public  good  it  is  essential  ho 
should  possess. 

In  delivering  verbal  orders,  and  in  their 
dealings  with  superior  officers,  the  staff 
should  be  most  respectful.  A  staff'-tifficer 
should  feel  bound  by  his  position,  if  not  by 
his  breeding,  to  treat  every  one  with  the 
courtesy  due  from  one  gentleman  to  another. 
The  motto  for  the  staff' should  be  "  aff'ability 
and  reticence." 

Staff,  Cylinder.  Sec  IssrECTioy  of 
Cannon. 

Stafford.  A  town  of  England,  in  Stafford- 
shire, 123  miles  northwest  by  west  from 
London.  In  the  civil  war  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, it  was  occupied  by  the  king's  forces, 
after  the  capture  of  Lichfield  by  their  adver- 
saries.    An  indecisive  battle  whs  fought  at 


STAKES 


552 


STANDAKD 


Hopton  Heath,  in  the  vicinity,  in  1643,  and 
at  a  later  period  the  town  was  taken  by  the 
Koundheads,  under  Sir  William  Brereton. 
The  castle  was  also  taken  shortly  after,  and 
at  the  close  of  the  war  was  entirely  demol- 
ished. 

Stakes,  Pointing-.  See  Pointing-stakes. 

Stalwart.  Brave;  hold;  strong;  re- 
doubted ;  daring. 

Stamford.  An  ancient  town  of  England, 
in  Lincolnshire,  12  miles  northwest  from 
Peterborough.  The  Britons  and  Saxons 
here  defeated  the  Picts  and  Scots  in  449. 
Many  of  the  Jews  of  Stamford  were  slain, 
and  the  whole  community  plundered  in 
1190  by  those  who  had  enlisted  for  the  Cru- 
sade. 

Stand.  The  act  of  opposing.  Thus, 
troops  that  do  not  yield  or  give  way,  are 
said  to  make  a  stand. 

Stand,  To.  To  stand  one's  ground,  to 
keep  the  ground  or  station  one  has  taken  ; 
to  maintain  one's  position;  as,  raw  troops 
are  not  able  to  stand  their  ground  against 
veteran  soldiers.  To  stand  fire,  to  receive 
the  fire  of  arms  from  an  enemy  without  giv- 
ing way.  To  make  a.  stand,  to  halt  for  the 
purpose  of  offering  resistance  to  a  pursuing 
enemy. 

Stand  at  Ease.  In  the  British  service,  is 
to  be  allowed,  when  in  the  ranks,  a  certain 
indulgence  with  regard  to  bodily  position, 
with  or  without  arms. 

Stand  Fast.  Is  the  term  used  as  a  cau- 
tion to  some  particular  part  of  a  line  or  col- 
umn, to  remain  quiescent  while  the  rest  are 
moving. 

Stand  of  Arms.     See  Arms,  Stand  of. 

Stand  of  Ammunition.  See  Ammuni- 
tion, Stand  of. 

Stand  of  Colors.     A  single  color,  or  flag. 

Stand  to  the  Guns.  Is  to  prepare  for 
action,  by  taking  one's  station  at  the  guns. 

Stand  to  your  Arms.  Is  a  cautionary 
command,  when  soldiers  are  put  upon  the 
alert. 

Standard.  A  measure  by  which  men  en- 
listed into  the  army  have  the  1-egulated  height 
ascertained. 

Standard.  In  its  widest  sense,  a  standard 
is  a  flag  or  ensign  under  which  men  are 
united  together  for  some  common  purpose. 
Th«  use  of  the  standard  as  a  rallying-point 
in  battle  takes  us  back  to  remote  ages.  The 
Jewish  army  was  marshaled  with  the  aid  of 
standards  belonginc  to  the  four  tribes  of 
Judah,  Reuben,  Ephraim,  and  Dan  ;  and 
the  Egyptians  had  ensigns  with  representa- 
tions of  their  favorite  animals.  The  flag  of 
Persia  was  white,  and,  according  to  Xeno- 
phon,  bore  in  his  time  a  golden  eagle  with 
expanded  wings ;  it  was  flxed  on  a  chariot, 
and  thus  conveyed  to  the  field  of  battle. 
..^ischylus,  in  enumerating  the  six  chiefs 
who,  headed  by  Polynices,  set  themselves  in 
battle  array  against  Thebes,  describes  the 
device  on  the  standard  of  each.  In  the 
earliest  era  of  Roman  history,  a  bundle  of 
hay  or  fern  is  said  to  have  been  used  as  a 


military  standard,  which  was  succeeded  by 
bronze  or  silver  figures  of  animals  attached 
to  a  staff,  of  which  Pliny  enumerates  five, — 
the  eagle,  the  wolf,  the  minotaur,  the  horse, 
and  the  boar.  In  the  second  consulship  of 
Marius,  104  B.C.,  the  other  animals  were  laid 
aside,  and  only  the  eagle  retained,  and  down 
to  the  time  of  the  later  emperors,  the  eagle, 
often  with  a  representation  of  the  em- 
peror's head  beneath  it,  continued  to  be  car- 
ried with  the  legion.  On  the  top  of  the 
stafi'  was  often  a  figure  of  Victory  or  Mars. 
Each  cohort  had  also  an  ensign  of  its  own, 
consisting  of  a  serpent  or  dragon  woven  on 
a  square  piece  of  cloth,  and  elevated  on  a 
gilt  staff  with  a  cross-bar.  Under  the  Chris- 
tian emperors,  the  Labarum  was  substituted 
for  the  imperial  standard.  Standards  or  en- 
signs among  the  Greeks  were  of  different 
kinds  ;  some  had  the  representations  of  dif- 
ferent animals,  bearing  some  relation  to  the 
cities  they  belonged  to.  Among  the  earlier 
Greeks  the  standard  was  a  piece  of  armor  at 
the  end  of  a  spear;  though  Agamemnon, 
in  Homer,  uses  a  purple  vail  to  rally  his 
men,  etc.  Afterwards  the  Athenians  bore 
the  olive  and  owl  ;  the  Thebans,  a  sphinx; 
the  other  nations,  the  effigies  of  their  tute- 
lary gods,  or  their  particular  symbols,  at  the 
end  of  a  spear.  The  Corinthians  carried  a 
pegasus,  the  Messenians  their  initial  M,  and 
the  Lacedaemonians^.  But  the  most  fre- 
quent ensign  among  the  Greeks  was  a  purple 
coat  upon  the  top  of  a  spear.  The  flag  or 
standard  elevated  was  a  signal  to  begin  the 
battle,  and  the  standard  depressed  was  a  sig- 
nal to  desist.  The  Anglo-Saxon  ensign  was 
splendid.  It  had  on  it  the  white  horse,  the 
Danish  being  distinguished  by  the  raven. 
Various  standards  of  great  celebrity  occur 
in  mediaeval  history,  among  which  may  be 
enumerated  the  Flag  of  the  Prophet  (which 
see)  ;  the  standard  taken  from  the  Danes  by 
Alfred  of  England  ;  and  the  Oriflamme,  orig- 
inally belonging  to  the  Abbey  of  St.  Denis, 
and  borne  by  the  counts  of  Vexin,  which 
eventually  became  the  standard  of  the 
French  kingdom.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the 
ensigns  of  the  army  were  the  banderols, 
banners,  guidons,  pencels,  and  pennons,  for 
which  see  appropriate  headings.  In  strict 
language,  the  term  standard  is  applied  ex- 
clusively to  a  particular  kind  of  flag,  long 
in  proportion  to  its  depth,  tapering  towards 
the  fly,  and,  except  when  belonging  to 
princes  of  the  blood  royal,  slit  at  the  end. 
Each  baron,  knight,  or  other  commander  in 
feudal  times,  had  a  recognized  standard, 
which  was  distributed  among  his  followers. 
The  length  of  the  standard  varied  according 
to  the  rank  of  the  bearer.  A  king's  stand- 
ard was  from  8  to  9  yards  in  length  ;  a 
duke's,  7  yards;  a  marquis's,  Qk  yards;  an 
earl's,  6  yards ;  a  viscount's,  5^  yards  ;  a 
baron's,  5  yards  ;  a  banneret's,  4j  yards  ; 
and  a  knight's,  4  yards.  There  was  never  a 
complete  coat  of  arms  on  the  standard ;  it 
generally  exhibited  the  crest  or  supporter 
with  a  device  or  badge  of  the  owner,  and 


STANDARD 


553 


STATION 


every  English  standard  of  the  Tudor  era  had 
the  cross  of  St.  George  at  the  head.  Stand- 
ards were  registered  by  the  heralds,  and  the 
(•tuirircs  on  thcin  .selected  and  authorized  by 
an  (>nicor-of-arnis. 

Standard,  Battle  of  the.  See  North- 
am.  kkton. 

Standard  Hill.  A  hill  in  England,  so 
called  hcfiiu'^e  William  the  Conqueror  upon 
it  .'•('t  hi.s  standard,  before  he  gave  battle  to 
Harold. 

Standard-bearer.  An  officer  of  an  armj', 
coiniiany,  or  troop,  who  bears  a  standard; 
un  ensign  of  infantry  or  a  cornet  of  horse. 

Standard-rule.  Sec  Insi-ectiox  of  Can- 
non. 

Standing.  Settled,  established,  not  tem- 
porary. Standing  army,  is  an  army  which 
is  kept  up  by  a  country,  and  is  liable  to 
every  species  of  duty,  without  any  limita- 
tions being  fixed  to  its  service. 

Standing.  Rank  ;  condition.  It  likewise 
signifies  length  of  time;  as,  such  an  officer 
is  of  very  (;ld  standing  in  the  arm}'. 

Stanford  Bridge.  In  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land. In  lUtJt),  Tostig,  brother  of  Harold 
II.,  rebelled  against  his  brother,  and  joined 
the  invading  army  of  Harold  Hardrada, 
king  of  Norway.  They  defeated  the  north- 
ern earls  and  took  York,  but  were  defeated 
at  Stanford  Bridge  by  Harold,  September 
25,  and  both  were  slain. 

Stang-ball.  A  projectile  consisting  of 
two  half-balls  united  by  a  bar  ;   a  bar-sjiot. 

Stanislaus,  Saint.  A  Polish  order  of 
knighthood,  founded  by  Stanislaus,  king  of 
Poland,  in  17'Jo;  renewed  by  the  emperor 
Alexander  in  1815. 

Star.  In  heraldry,  the  star  is  of  frequent 
occurrence;  it  sometimes  represents  the 
heavenly  body  so  called,  and  sometimes  the 
rowel  of  a  spur.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  bla- 
zoned a  Mullet.  Stars  of  more  than  live 
points  should  have  the  number  of  pt>ints 
designated,  and  the  points  may  be  wavy. 
The  star,  or  esfoile,  with  wavy  points,  is 
often  designated  a  blazing  star;  and  when 
the  points  are  more  than  six  in  number,  it  is 
usual  to  represent  only  every  second  point  as 
waved.  The  star  is  a  well-known  ensign  of 
knightly  rank.  A  star  of  some  specitied 
form  constitutes  part  of  the  insignia  of 
every  order  of  knighthood. 

Star  Fort.  An  inclosed  field-work,  in 
shape  like  the  heraldic  representation  of  a 
star. 

Star,  Order  of  the.  An  order  of  knight- 
hood formerly  existing  in  France,  founded 
by  Johti  II  in  1350,  in  imitation  of  the  then 
recently  instituted  order  of  the  Garter  in 
England.  The  ceremony  of  installation  was 
originally  performed  on  the  festival  of  the 
Epiphany,  and  the  name  of  the  order  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  allusive  to  the  Star  of 
the  Magi. 

Star  of  India,  The  Order  of  the.     An 

order  of    knighthood    instituted    by   Queen 

Victoria  in  June,  18*31,  with  the  view  of  af- 

fordini;  the  princes,  chiefs,  and  people  of  the 

'3G 


Indian  empire  a  testimony  of  her  majesty's 
regard,  commemorating  her  majesty's  reso- 
lution to  take  on  her.-elf  the  government  of 
India  and  rendering  honor  to  merit  and  loj'- 
alty.  The  order  consistij  of  the  sovereign,  u 
grand  master,  who  is  to  be  the  governor- 
general  of  India  for  the  time  being,  and  25 
knights,  together  with  such  extra  and  hon- 
orary knights  a.s  the  crown  n)ay  apjioint. 
The  members  of  the  order  are  to  be  mili- 
tary, naval,  and  civil  officers  who  have  ren- 
dered important  service  to  the  Indian  em- 
pire, and  such  native  princes  and  chiefs  of 
India  as  have  entitled  themselves  to  her  ma- 
jesty's favor.  The  insignia  consists  of  a  col- 
lar, badge,  and  star.  The  collar  of  the 
order  is  composed  of  the  heraldic  rose  of 
England,  two  palm  branches  in  saltire  tied 
with  a  ribbon,  and  a  lotus-flower  alternating 
with  each  other,  all  of  gold  enameled,  and 
connected  by  a  double  golden  chain.  From 
an  imperial  crown,  intervening  between  two 
lotus-leaves,  depends  the  badge,  consisting  of 
a  brilliant  star  of  five  points,  and  hanging 
from  it  an  oval  medallion,  with  an  onyx 
cameo  profile  bust  of  Queen  Victoria,  en- 
circled by  the  motto,  "  Heaven's  light  our 
Guide,"  in  gold  letters,  on  an  enriched  bor- 
der of  light-blue  enamel.  The  inrrstmeiit 
badge  is  similar  to  the  collar-badge,  but  with 
the  star,  the  setting  of  the  cameo,  and  the 
motto  all  of  diamonds;  it  is  worn  pendent 
from  a  ribbon  of  pale  blue  with  white  bor- 
ders. The  star  of  the  order  is  a  five-pointed 
star  or  mullet  of  diamonds  on  an  irradiated 
field  of  gold.  Around  it,  on  an  azure  fillet 
bordered  with  gold,  is  the  same  motto  in 
diamonds,  the  whole  encircled  by  wavv  rays 
of  gold. 

Star-gauge.  See  Inspkction  of  Can- 
non. 

Statant.  In  heraldry,  a  term  applied  to 
an  animal  standing  still,  with  all  tiie  feet 
touching  the  ground.  If  the  face  be  turned 
to  the  spectator  it  is  said  to  be  statant  gard- 
ant,  or  in  the  case  of  a  stag,  at  gaze. 

State.  In  the  British  service,  is  a  state- 
ment of  the  number  of  officers  and  men  of 
any  body  of  troops,  distinguishing  those 
present,  those  employed,  absent,  or  sick,  and 
the  difterent  ranks  under  separate  headings. 

States  of  the  Church.  See  Papal  St  at  ks. 

Station.  To  place;  to  set;  or  to  appoint 
to  the  occuiiution  of  a  post,  place,  or  office; 
as,  to  station  troops  on  the  right  or  left  of 
an  army ;  to  station  a  sentinel  on  a  ram- 
part. 

Station,  Military.  A  ]ilacc  calculated  for 
the  rendezvous  of  troops,  or  for  the  distribu- 
tion of  them;  also,  a  spot  well  calculated 
for  offensive  or  defensive  measures.  The 
name  of  stationcs,  or  stations,  was  given  by 
the  Romans  to  the  guard  which  was  kept  in 
the  daytime  at  the  gates  of  the  camp,  and 
at  the  intrenchments.  The  statio  agraria  was 
an  advanced  post  to  prevent  surprise,  insure 
the  safety  of  prisoners,  etc.  The  chief  use 
was  to  keep  the  military  sxcag  secure  from 
hostile  incursions,  whence  wc  find  them  at 


STATUS  IN  QUO 


554 


STOCKACH 


the  concurrence  of  roads.  The  word  is  also 
extensively  applied  to  the  old  military  sta- 
tions of  the  Komans,  when  encampments  of 
towns  existed.  The  statii-a  castra  were  en- 
campments for  a  short  time;  the  cestiva  cas- 
tra were  the  same,  but  might  be  occupied 
only  for  one  night.  The  hyberna  cnsira,  or 
winter  camps,  were  elaborately  fortified, 
even  with  stone  walls,  houses  within,  etc., 
so  that  many  towns  grew  out  of  them. 

Status  in  Quo, or  Status  Quo  {Lat.).  A 
treaty  between  belligerents,  which  leaves 
each  party  in  statu  quo  ante  bellum, — that  is, 
in  the  state  in  which  it  was  before  the  Avar. 

Stays.     See  Ordnance,  Carriages  for. 

Steam-gun.  A  machine  or  contrivance 
by  which  balls  or  other  projectiles  may  be 
driven  by  the  force  of  steam. 

Steed.     A  horse  either  for  state  or  war. 

Steel.     See  Ordnance,  Metals  for. 

Steel  Punches.  See  Inspection  of  Pro- 
jectiles. 

Steenkerke,  or  Steenkerque.  A  village 
of  Belgium,  province  of  Hainaut,  15  miles 
north-northeast  of  Mons.  The  allies,  com- 
manded by  William  III.  of  England,  were 
here  defeated  by  the  French,  July  24,  1692. 

Step.  Progression  by  one  removal  of  the 
foot.  It  likewise  signifies  pace.  To  step, 
to  move  forward  or  backward  by  a  single 
change  of  the  place  of  the  foot.  To  step 
out,  is  to  lengthen  the  step,  without  alteri'ng 
the  cadence.  To  step  short,  is  to  diminish  or 
slacken  the  pace,  according  to  the  tactics. 
These  phrases  are  frequently  used  in  mili- 
tary movements  when  it  is  found  necessary 
to  gain  ground  in  front,  or  to  give  the  rear 
of  a  column,  etc.,  time  to  acquire  its  proper 
distance.  To  step  off,  is  to  take  a  prescribed 
step  from  a  halted  position,  in  common  or 
quick  time,  in  conformity  to  some  given 
word  of  command  or  signal.  Balance-step, 
is  so  called  from  the  body  being  balanced 
upon  one  leg,  in  order  to  render  it  firm  and 
steady  in  military  movements,  etc.  Step  is 
likewise  figuratively  used  to  signify  promo- 
tion ;  as,  the  next  step  from  a  lieutenancy  is 
a  captaincy,  from  a  captaincy  a  majority, 
etc. 

Stettin.  A  fortified  town  of  Prussia, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Pomerania,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Oder,  78  miles  north- 
east from  Berlin.  In  1121,  Boleslas,  duke 
of  Poland,  gained  possession  of  it.  The 
peace  of  Westphalia  gave  it  to  the  Swedes. 
From  them  it  passed  to  the  Prussians,  with 
whom,  though  not  without  some  interrup- 
tions, it  has  since  remained.  In  1171  it  was 
besieged  by  the  Danes  ;  in  1677  by  the  elec- 
tor of  Brandenburg  ;  in  1713  by  the  Prus- 
sians ;  and  from  1806  to  1813  it  was  occu- 
pied by  the  French. 

Steward,  Hospital,  See  Hospital  Stew- 
ard. 

Stick,  Gold.    See  Gold  Stick. 

Stick,  Silver.    See  Silver  Stick. 

Stickler.  A  sidesman  to  fencers,  or  second 
to  a  duelist. 

Sticklestadt  (Norway).     Here  Olaf  II., 


aided  by  the  Swedes,  was  defeated  and  slain 
in  his  endeavors  to  recover  his  kingdom 
from  Canute,  king  of  Denmark,  July  29, 
1030. 

Stiletto.  A  small  dagger  with  a  round 
pointed  blade. 

Stillwater.  A  township  of  the  United 
States,  on  the  Hudson  River  and  on  Saratoga 
Lake.  The  township  includes  the  incor- 
porated village  of  Alechanicsville  and  the 
post-village  of  Bemis's  Heights,  notable  for 
the  two  battles  of  September  19  and  October 
7,  1777  (sometimes  called  the  battles  of  Still- 
water), which  led  to  the  surrender  of  Bur- 
goyne. 

Stink-pot.  Is  a  shell,  often  of  earthen- 
ware, charged  with  combustibles,  which,  on 
bursting,  emit  a  foul  smell  and  a  sutt'ocating 
smoke.  It  is  useful  in  sieges  for  driving  the 
garrison  from  their  defenses ;  also  in  board- 
ing a  ship,  for  eifecting  a  diversion  while 
the  assailants  gain  the  deck.  The  stink-pot 
is  a  favorite  weapon  of  the  Chinese.  Under 
the  more  elegant  title  of  asphyxiated  shell, 
the  French  and  other  modern  nations  have 
experimented  considerably  on  this  mode  of 
harassing  an  enemy. 

Stipendium.  The  amount  of  pay  for 
soldiers,  a  term  in  general  use  among  the 
Eomans. 

Stirling.  An  ancient  town  of  Scotland, 
the  chief  town  of  Stirlingshire,  81  miles 
northwest  from  Edinburgh.  During  the 
Danish  invasion  in  1009,  it  was  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Scottish  army.  In  the  vi- 
cinity was  fought  the  battle  of  Stirling  in 
1297.  The  town  was  taken  by  Edward  I., 
after  a  siege  of  three  months,  in  1304.  It 
was  held  by  the  English  for  ten  years,  until 
it  was  retaken  by  Robert  Bruce  after  the 
battle  of  Bannockburn.  In  1651,  after  the 
battle  of  Dunbar,  the  castle  was  taken  by 
Gen.  Monk ;  and  it  withstood  a  siege  by  the 
Highlanders  in  1745. 

Stirrup.  A  kind  of  ring,  or  bent  piece  of 
metal,  leather,  etc.,  horizontal  in  one  part 
for  receiving  the  foot  of  the  rider,  and  at- 
tached to  a  strap  which  is  fastened  to  the 
saddle, — used  to  assist  persons  in  mounting 
a  horse,  and  to  enable  them  to  sit  steadily 
in  riding,  as  well  as  to  relieve  them  by  sup- 
porting a  part  of  the  weight  of  the  body. 

Stirrup-cover  (Sp.  tapadera).  A  hood 
made  of  leather  attached  to  a  stirrup  to  pro- 
tect the  foot  of  a  mounted  soldier. 

Stoccade.  To  fortify  with  sharpened 
posts.     See  Stockade. 

Stoccado.  A  push  or  thrust  with  a 
rapier. 

Stock.  The  whole  of  the  wooden  part  of 
a  musket  or  pistol.  Also,  the  neck-gear  of  a 
soldier,  generally  of  black  leather,  answer- 
ing the  double  purpose  of  keeping  the  cpld 
out  and  the  soldier's  head  up. 

Stock.  See  Ordnance,  Carriages  for 
Caisson. 

Stockach.  A  town  of  Germany,  in  the 
southeast  of  Baden,  15  miles  northwest  of 
Constance.    Near  here  the  Austrians  under 


STOCKADE 


555 


STORMING-PARTY 


the  Archduke  Charles  defeated  the  French, 
3Iarch  *2."),  1709.  I 

Stockade.  A  work  in  which  a  palisade 
of  strong  and  closely-planted  timbers  consti-  I 
tutes  the  principal  defense.  The  stockades 
or  {licket-works  usually  employed  aj^ainst 
Indians  are  composed  of  rouj^h  trunks  of 
young  trees  cut  into  lengths  of  12  or  14  feet, 
and  averaging  10  or  12  Inches  in  diameter. 
They  should  be  firmly  planted  close  together. 
A  banquette  or  step  will  generally  be  re- 
quired, and  the  loop-holes  so  arranged  that 
they  cannot  be  used  from  the  outside.  If 
necessary,  such  a  work  can  be  strengthened 
by  ditch  and  abatis,  and  flanked  by  block- 
liouses. 

Stockholm.  The  capital  of  Sweden,  sit- 
uated at  the  junction  of  the  Lake  Malar 
with  an  inlet  of  the  Baltic,  320  miles  north- 
cast  from  Copenhagen.  Stockholm  sustained 
several  sieges.  One  of  the  most  memorable 
of  these  took  place  in  1501  and  1502,  when 
it  was  held  for  nearly  six  months  by  Queen 
Christina  of  Denmark  against  the  Swedish 
insurgents,  but  was  at  last  surrendered  after 
the  garrison  had  been  reduced  from  about 
1000  to  80  in  number.  A  still  more  noble 
defense  of  the  city  was  made  in  1520,  by 
Christina Gyllenstierna  against  Christian  II. 
of  Denmark.  It  was  surrendered  after  a 
siege  of  four  months ;  but  the  terms  of  the 
surrender  were  violated  soon  after  by  the 
conqueror  ordering  the  execution  of  ail  the 
most  distinguished  Swedes  in  the  town.  This  i 
and  similar  acts  of  treachery  and  cruelty  led  I 
to  the  final  expulsion  of  the  Danes  by  Gus-  ! 
tavus  Vasa.  A  peace  was  concluded  here,  I 
between  the  king  of  Great  Britain  and  the  [ 
queen  of  Sweden,  by  which  the  former  ac- 
quired the  duchies  of  Bremen  and  Verden  as 
elector  of  Brunswick,  November  20,  1719. 
A  treaty  took  place  here,  between  Sweden 
and  Russia,  in  favor  of  the  Duke  of  Hol- 
stein-Gottorp,  March  24,  1724;  another  be- 
tween England  and  Sweden  on  March  3, 
1813;  and  between  England,  France,  and 
Sweden,  November  21,  1855. 

Stockport.  A  town  of  England,  in  ; 
Cheshire,  on  the  borders  of  Lancashire,  at 
the  conlluence  of  the  ilersey  and  the  Tame, 
5  miles  southeast  of  Manchester.  The  castle, 
which  has  now  entirely  disappeared,  was 
lield  in  117:?,  by  GeotiVey  de  Constantin 
against  Henry  II.  During  the  civil  war  of 
the  17tli  century,  Stockport  was  the  scene  of 
some  fighting  ;  it  was  taken  from  the  Parlia- 
mentarians by  Rupert  in  1G44,  but  retaken 
by  Lesley  in  the  following  year.  In  1745, 
the  town  was  occupied  by  l*rince  Charles 
Edward.  At  this  place  the  Manchester 
Blanketeers  (which  see)  wero  dispersed, 
March  11,  1817. 

Stock-purse.  In  the  British  service,  is 
ft  certain  saving  which  is  made  in  a  corps 
for  regimental  jiurposes. 

Stockton-on-Tees.  A  town  of  Eng- 
land, in  Durham,  on  the  left  bank  of  tlie 
Tees,  11  mill's  east-northeast  of  Darlington. 
It  was    plundered    by   the  Scotch  in    1325; 


taken  for  the  Parliament  in  1G44,  and  totally 
destroyed  by  the  Roundheads  in  1052. 

Stceni.  A  Ligurian  people  in  the  Mari- 
time Alps,  conquered  by  Q-  Marcius  Rex, 
118  H.C.,  before  he  founded  the  colony  of 
Narbo  Martins. 

Stoke,  East.  A  parish  of  England, 
county  of  Notts,  4  miles  southwest  of  New- 
ark. Near  here,  on  June  l(j,  1487,  the  ad- 
herents of  Lambert  Simnel,  who  pers<mated 
Edward,  earl  of  Warwick,  and  claimed  the 
crown,  were  defeated  by  Henry  VII.  John 
de  la  Pole,  the  earl  of  Lincoln,  and  most  of 
the  leaders  were  slain  ;  and  Simnel,  whoso 
life  was  spared,  was  afterwards  employed  in 
the  king's  household. 

Stone  Arabia.     See  Palatine. 

Stone  Fougass.     See  Fougass,  Stone.' 

Stone  River,  Battle  of.     See  Murkkeks- 

BOUO'. 

Stone-bow.  A  cross-bow  formerly  used 
or  designed  for  throwing  stones. 

Stone-mortar.  Was  a  mortar  which  was 
used  to  throw  stones  a  short  distance,  from 
150  to  250  yards  ;  and  also  G-pounder  shells 
from  50  to  150  yards.  The  stones  which 
were  used  in  this  mortar  were  put  into  a 
basket  fitted  to  the  bore,  and  placed  on  a 
wooden  bottom  which  covers  the  mouth  of 
the  chamber. 

Stony  Point.  A  village  in  Orange  Co., 
N.  Y.,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson 
River,  at  the  head  of  Haverstraw  Bay,  42 
miles  north  of  New  York.  The  capture  of 
the  fort  at  this  place  by  Gen.  Wayne,  on 
July  IG,  1779,  is  justly  considered  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  exploits  performed  during  the 
Revolutionary  war.  The  fortifications  were- 
destroyed  and  abandoned  on  July  18. 

Stoppage  of  Pay.  Where  pay  is  stopped, 
on  account  of  arrears  to  the  United  States, 
the  party  whose  pay  is  stopped  may  demand! 
a  suit,  and  the  agent  of  the  treasury  is  re- 
quired to  institute  a  suit  within  sixty  days 
thereafter. 

Stoppages.  In  the  British  service,  are 
the  deductions  from  a  soldier's  pay,  the  bet- 
ter to  provide  him  with  nece.«saries,  etc. ; 
also  stoppage  for  the  sub.-islence  of  the  sick. 

Store-keeper,  Military.  An  offfcor  spe- 
cially appointed  for  the  care  of  military 
stores.  The  law  discontinues  this  grade  in 
the  V.  S.  service  by  casualties. 

Stores,  Military.'  The  arms,  ammunition, 
clothing,  provisions,  etc.,  pertaining  to  an 
army,  is  so  called.  In  the  United  States  all 
public  stores  taken  in  the  enemy's  camp, 
towns,  forts,  or  magazines,  shall  be  secured 
for  the  service  of  the  United  States  ;  for  the 
neglect  of  which  the  commanding  officer  is 
to  be  answerable. 

Storm.  A  violent  assault  on  a  fortified 
place;  a  furious  attempt  of  troops  to  enter 
and  take  a  fortified  place  by  scaling  the  walls, 
forcing  the  gates,  and  the  like.  Also,  to  as- 
sault :  to  attack  and  attempt  to  take  by 
scalini:  the  walls,  forcing  gates  or  broaches, 
and  the  like  :  as,  to  storm  a  fortified  town. 

Storming-party.     A  party  assigned  to  the 


STOUKTON 


556 


STRATEGOS 


duty  of  first  entering  the  breach  in  storming 
a  fortress. 

Stourton,  or  Stour  Head.  A  village  of 
England,  in  Wiltshire,  about  23  miles  west 
from  Salisbury.  The  Britons  were  defeated 
here  in  658  by  the  Saxons,  and  in  1010  and 
1025  the  Danes  also  encountered  the  Saxons 
near  this  place. 

Stragglers.  Are  individuals  who  wander 
from  the  line  of  march;  and  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  rear-guard  to  pick  up  all  such  strag- 
glers. 

Strains.     See  Ordnance,  Strains  Upon. 

Stralsund.  A  fortified  town  and  seaport 
of  Prussia,  province  of  Pomerania,  on  a 
narrow  strait  called  Strela  Sunda,  which 
divides  the  mainland  from  the  island  of 
Riigen.  It  was  founded  in  1209  by  Prince 
Jaromar  of  Riigen,  became  a  member  of 
the  Hanse,  and  rapidly  rose  into  importance. 
During  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  it  was  un- 
successfully besieged  (1628)  by  Wallenstein; 
and  after  being,  with  some  alternations  of 
fortune,  in  the  possession  of  Sweden  for 
about  200  years,  it  finally  passed  to  Prussia 
in  1815. 

Strappado.  A  punishment  formerly  in- 
flicted upon  foreign  soldiers  by  hoisting 
them  up  with  their  arms  tied  behind  them, 
and  then  suddenly  letting  them  down  with- 
in a  certain  distance  of  the  earth. 

Strapped  Ammunition.  See  Ordnance, 
Ammunition  for. 

Straps.  Are  decorations  made  of  worsted, 
silk,  gold,  or  silver,  and  worn  upon  the 
shoulders,  without  epaulette. 

Strasbourg,  or  Strassburg.  Formerly  a 
fortified  town  of  France,  and  capital  of  the 
department  of  Bas-Rhin,  but  in  1871  ceded 
to  Germany,  and  capital  of  the  province  of 
Alsace,  not  far  from  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  312  miles  east  from  Paris  by  railway. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  subject  to 
the  German  emperors,  and  was  the  capital 
of  Alsace,  but  along  with  that  province  it 
was  ceded  to  Louis  XIV.  in  1681.  Subse- 
quently its  defenses  were  greatly  improved 
under  the  direction  of  Vauban.  Strasbourg 
was  invested  by  the  Germans,  principally 
from  Baden,  during  the  Franco-Prussian 
war,  August  10,  1870.  Gen.  von  Werder 
assumed  the  command  of  the  besiegers,  and 
tlie  bombardment  began  August  14,  and  a 
vigorous  sally  was  repulsed  August  16. 
Gen.  Uhrich,  the  commander,  declared  that 
he  would  not  surrender  except  upon  a  heap 
of  ashes.  After  a  heroic  resistance,  and 
when  a  breach  had  been  made  and  an  as.sault 
was  impending,  notice  was  given  September 
27,  and  the  place  surrendered  at  2  a.m.,  Sep- 
tember 28;  at  8  a.m.  17,150  men  and  400 
officers  laid  down  their  arms.  The  German 
loss  was  said  to  be  906  men,  of  whom  43 
were  officers.  The  Germans  entered  Stras- 
bourg, September  30,  the  anniversary  of  its 
surrender  to  the  French  in  1681  by  a  sur- 
prise. Uhrich  received  the  grand  cross  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor,  October,  1870.  About 
400  houses  and  the  invaluable  library  were 


destroyed,  the  cathedral  injured,  and  8000 
persons  rendered  homeless. 

Stratagem.  In  war,  is  any  scheme  or 
plan  for  the  deceiving  and  surprising  an 
army,  or  any  body  of  men. 

Stratarithmetry.  The  art  of  drawing  up 
an  army,  or  any  given  number  of  men,  in 
any  geometrical  figure,  or  of  estimating  or 
expressing  the  number  of  men  in  such  a 
figure. 

Strategetics.  The  science  of  military 
movements  ;  generalship. 

Strategic,  or  Strategical.  Pertaining  to 
strategy  ;  effected  by  artifice. 

Strategic  Point.  Any  point  or  region  in 
the  theatre  of  warlike  operations  which 
affords  to  its  possessor  an  advantage  over  his 
opponent. 

Strategical  Fronts.  The  portion  of  the 
theatre  of  war  in  front  of  any  position  occu- 
pied by  an  army  as  it  advances,  is  termed 
the  front  of  operations.  That  part  which 
is  directly  in  front  of  an  army,  or  which 
can  be  reached  in  two  or  three  days,  forms 
simply  a  front.  When  the  whole  extent 
lying  between  the  two  hostile  armies  is  con- 
sidered, the  term  strategical  front  is  applied. 

Strategical  Lines.  See  Lines,  Strate- 
gical. 

Strategical  Points.  Every  point  of  the 
theatre  of  war,  the  possession  of  which  is 
of  great  importance  to  an  army  in  its  mili- 
tary operations,  is  a  strategical  point.  These 
are  points  which  an  army  acting  on  the 
off"ensive  strives  to  gain  and  the  army  on  the 
defensive  strives  to  retain. 

Strategist.  One  skilled  in  strategy,  or 
the  science  of  directing  great  military  move- 
ments. 

Strategos  (invented  by  Lieut.  C.  A.  L. 
Totten,  4th  U.  S.  Artillery).  The  American 
"game  of  war,"  which  takes  its  name  from 
the  Greek  word  strategos,  the  title  of  an 
Athenian  general  oflScer,  derived  in  turn 
from  stratos,  "an  army,"  and  a^ro,  "  I  lead;" 
the  secondary  meaning  of  this  term  being  a 
board  or  council  of  ten  Athenians  chosen 
annually  to  conduct  the  war  department  at 
home.  The  game  of  strategos  is  divided 
into  six  separate  ones,  or  studies,  of  gradu- 
ally increasing  importance,  and  is  far  more 
comprehensive  than  the  foreign  war  games, 
which  have  little  in  common  with  the  sub- 
altern and  the  student,  and  are  so  compli- 
cated as  to  excite  interest  only  among  the 
most  profound  and  advanced  scholars  of 
military  science.  The  six  parts  of  strategos 
are:  (1)  The  "  minor  tactical  game,"  which 
embraces  all  the  details  of  the  tactics  of  each 
of  the  three  arms.  (2)  "Grand  tactics," 
embracing  the  topographical  and  strategical 
game,  for  the  general  elucidation  of  the 
grand  principles  of  this  branch  of  military 
science.  (3)  The  "historical  game,"  for  the 
study  of  historical  battles  and  campaigns. 
(4)  "Text-book  illustration."  (5)  A  "  bat- 
tle game,"  based  upon  military  principles 
and  precepts,  which  is  calculated  to  instruct 
as  well  as  interest  without  fatiguing  that 


STRATEGUS 


557 


STRELITZ 


large  class  of  students  whose  patience  would 
not  stand  the  close  application  required  in  a 
more  advanced  game.  (tJ)  The  "advanced 
game,"  which  affords  to  the  professional 
military  student  every  opportunity  for  pur- 
suing studies  commenced  in  more  elementary 
fields  to  their  legitimate  termination.  It  is 
only  in  the  "advanced  game"  that  stmte- 
ffos  solves  the  same  problem  attempted  by 
the  Germans  in  kriefjspiel,  and  other  mili- 
tary nations  in  various  alterations  and  im- 
provements upon  the  great  original.  War 
games  are  by  no  means  of  such  modern  in- 
vention as  may  at  first  appear;  chess  is  a 
very  ancient  "battle  game,"  and  checkers 
one  in  which  decisive  concentration  plays  a 
most  important  part.  During  the  lust  cen- 
tury two  games,  the  jcu  de  la  (jucrre  and  the 
jeu  de  la  fortification,  appeared  in  France 
and  were  played  with  cards.  These  games 
differ,  however,  entirely  from  the  modern 
ones.  Kriegspiel,  the  father  of  modern  war 
games,  was  the  invention  of  a  civilian,  Herr 
von  Keitwitz,  the  details  of  which  his  son, 
a  Prussian  artillery  officer,  carefully  im- 
proved. It  rapidly  grew  into  military  favor, 
and  since  1824,  when  it  was  first  mentioned 
by  officers  of  note,  has  undergone  many 
niodifications  except  as  to  its  underlying 
principles.  Von  Moltke  himself  some 
twenty  years  ago  was  the  president  of  a  so- 
ciety whose  special  object  was  to  play  this 
game,  and  the  great  skill  of  Prussian  officers 
and  their  success  in  their  late  wars  is  in  no 
small  degree  to  be  attributed  to  this  game, 
familiarity  with  which  has  become  a  sort  of 
necessary  step  in  advancement  in  the  Prus- 
sian army.  The  American  game  possesses 
all  the  valuable  features  of  kriegspiel,  and 
some  noticeable  improvements  thereon  as  to 
method,  men,  tables,  etc.,  while  it  possesses 
the  peculiar  advantages  of  having  elemen- 
tary games  of  special  interest  to  all  classes  of 
military  men.  The  cost  of  this  game  is 
about  $50. 

Strategus  {Straiegos).  Any  Athenian 
general  officer  was  so  called. 

Strategy.  Is  defined  by  military  writers 
to  be  the  science  of  manwuvring  an  army 
out  of  fire  of  the  enemy,  as  tactics  is  the  art 
of  managing  it  in  battle  or  under  fire.  Strat- 
egy is  the  greater  science,  as  including  all 
those  vast  combinations  which  lead  to  the 
subsequent  available  displays  of  tactics. 

A  movement  of  the  army  is  said  to  be 
strategical  when  by  its  moans  there  are  con- 
centrated at  a  given  point  troops  superior  in 
numbers  to  those  of  the  enemy  ;  or,  at  this 
point,  there  is  gaii\ed  a  position  by  which 
the  enemy's  communications  with  his  base 
are  cut  or  threatened  while  those  of  the 
army  are  secure ;  or,  a  position  is  gained  by 
which  the  forces  of  the  enemy  are  separated, 
or  are  prevented  from  acting  in  concert. 
Strategical  operations  are  directed  to  attain 
one  or  more  of  these  objects;  and  the  lino 
followed  by  an  army  in  an  operation  of  this 
kind  is  called  a  strategical  line.  The  area  of 
country  or  territory  in  any  part  of  which 


the  hostile  forces  can  come  into  collision  is 
termed  the  theatre  of  war. 

There  may  be  employed  in  a  given  theatre 
of  war  several  armies  or  only  one.  If  there 
are  several  armies,  but  each  acting  inde- 
pendently of  the  others,  or  if  there  is  only 
one,  the  particular  portion  of  the  territory 
in  which  each  act  is  termed  the  theatre  of 
operations  for  that  army. 

A  theatre  of  ojierations  of  an  army  may 
be  defined  to  be  all  the  territory  it  may  de- 
sire to  invade,  and  all  that  it  may  have  to 
defend.  "Where  several  armies  are  employed, 
acting  in  concert,  the  theatre  of  operations  of 
each  army  depends  upon  the  movements  of 
the  other  armies,  and  the  theatres  of  opera- 
tions of  each  army  in  this  case  are  usually 
designated  as  zones  of  operations  ;  although 
this  term  is  also  applied  to  those  three  divis- 
ions of  a  theatre  of  operations  lying  directly 
in  advance  of  the  centre  and  flanks  of  a  front 
of  operations.  "Whatever  is  true  for  a  the- 
atre of  operations  of  an  army  acting  alone 
is  equally  true  for  the  theatre  of  operations 
of  several  armies  acting  separately,  and  is 
also  applicable  to  the  whole  theatre  of  war. 
To  make  the  above  statements  definite, 
suppose  a  single  army  acting  in  an  inde- 
pendent theatre  of  operations.  A  general 
with  such  an  army  under  his  command  pro- 
posing an  advance  towards  the  enemy  will 
have  three  things  to  consider,  viz.  :  (1)  The 
place  from  which  the  army  is  to  start ;  (2) 
The  point  to  which  the  army  is  to  go;  (3) 
The  roads  or  routes  by  which  the  army  is  to 
move  in  order  to  reach  this  point.  The  first, 
or  place  of  starting,  is  termed  the  base  of 
operations.  The  second,  the  point  to  be 
reached,  is  called  the  objective-point,  or 
simply  the  objective.  The  third,  the  roads 
or  routes  used  by  the  army  in  reaching  the 
objective-point,  is  termed  the  line  of  opera- 
tions. The  portion  of  the  theatre  of  opera- 
tions occupied  by  the  army  as  it  advances  is 
known  as  K\\c  front  of  operations. 

Stratton-Hill,  Battle  of.  In  Cornwall, 
England,  May  lO,  104.3,  between  the  royal 
army  under  Sir  Ralph  Hopton,  and  the 
forces  of  the  Parliament  under  the  Earl  of 
Stamford.  The  victory  was  gained  over  the 
Parliamentarians,  who  lost  heavily  in  killed 
and  wounded. 

Strelitz,   or    properly   Streltzi    ("arque- 
buzziers").      The  ancient    Russian  militia- 
guard,  first  raised  by  Ivan  Vatsilevitch  the 
Terrible,  in  the  second  half  of  the  lOth  cen- 
tury.   At  that  time  and  for  long  afterwards, 
they  were  the  only  standing  army  in  Russia, 
and  at  times  amounted  to  between    40,000 
and    50,000   men.      They    were   located    at 
Moscow  in   time  of  peace,  in   a  quarter  of 
the  Capitol  which  was  set  apart  for  them, 
and  being  the  bravest  and  most  trustworthy 
troops  in   the  army,   were  made  objects  of 
i  special  favor  and  distinctions.     But  like  all 
I  such   petted  corp>,  the  Roman  Prcrtorians, 
\  the  Turkish  Janissaries,  and  the  Egyptian 
■   Mamelukes,   their  general    turbulence,   fre- 
;  quent  revolts  against  the  government  (no- 


STRENGTH 


558 


STJABIA 


tably  during  the  Demetrian  insurrections), 
and  incessant  conspiracies,  rendered  them 
more  formidable  to  the  Kussian  govern- 
ment than  to  external  enemies.  The  Stre- 
litz  having,  at  the  instigation  of  the  Grand 
Duchess  Sophia  and  the  chiefs  of  the  Old 
Muscovite  party,  revolted  against  Peter  the 
Great,  that  iron-handed  ruler  caused  them 
to  he  decimated  (1698)  in  the  great  square  of 
Moscow,  and  the  remainder  to  be  banished 
to  Astrakhan.  The  feeble  remnant  still 
manifesting  their  characteristic  turbulence 
and  disloyalty,  Peter  exterminated  them 
almost  completely  in  1705.  Few  Russian 
families  at  present  can  claim  kindred  with 
the  old  Strelitz,  but  to  this  the  family  of 
Orlofl'  forms  a  prominent  exception,  being 
descended  from  a  Strelitz  who  was  pardoned 
by  Peter  the  Great  while  the  axe  was  being 
raised  over  him. 

Strength.  This  word  may  be  variously 
understood  in  military  matters.  It  means 
fortification  ;  strongholds,  etc.  It  likewise 
signifies  armament ;  power ;  force.  In  all 
returns  which  are  made  of  corps,  strength 
implies  the  number  of  men  that  are  borne 
upon  the  establishment,  in  contradistinction 
to  effective  force,  which  means  the  number 
fit  for  service. 

Stretcher.  A  litter  or  frame  for  carrying 
sick,  wounded,  or  dead  persons. 

Strict.  Exact,  severe,  rigorous  ;  the  con- 
trary to  mild,  indulgent.  Hence,  a  strict 
officer.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  a  bad  sense, 
to  signify  a  petulant,  troublesome  com- 
mander. 

Striegau.  A  town  of  Prussia  in  Silesia, 
29  miles  southwest  from  Breslau.  The 
Austrians  were  defeated  by  the  Prussians 
vinder  Frederick  the  Great  near  this  town 
in  1745. 

Strife.  Contention  in  battle;  contest; 
struggle  for  victory  ;  quarrel  of  war. 

Strike.  This  word  is  variously  used  in 
military  phraseology  ;  as,  to  strike  a  tent, 
is  to  loosen  the  cords  of  a  tent  which  has 
been  regularly  pitched,  and  to  have  it  readj', 
in  a  few  minutes,  to  throw  upon  a  baggage- 
wagon.  To  strike  terror  into  an  enemy,  is 
to  cause  alarm  and  apprehension  in  him;  to 
make  him  dread  the  efl'ects  of  superior  skill 
and  valor.  To  strike  a  blow,  to  make  some 
decisive  effort. 

Stripes.  The  chevrons  on  the  coats  of 
non-commissioned  oflicers  are  sometimes  so 
called. 

Strong.  Well  fortified  ;  able  to  sustain 
attacks  ;  not  easily  subdued  or  taken ;  as,  a 
strong  fortress  or  town.  Having  great  mili- 
tary or  naval  force  ;  powerful ;  as,  a  strong 
army  or  fleet ;  a  nation  strong  at  sea. 

Stronghold.  A  fastness ;  a  fort  or  fort- 
ress ;  a  fortified  place  ;  a  place  of  security. 

Struggle,  To.  To  make  extraordinary 
exertion  in  direct  contest  with  an  enemy,  or 
against  superior  forces. 

Stuhlweissenburg.  A  town  of  Austria, 
in  Hungary,  37  miles  southwest  from  Buda- 
Pesth.     It' was  besieged  and  taken  from  the 


Turks  by  the  Austrians  under  the  Duke  of 
Mercoeur,  in  September,  1601  ;  was  besieged 
and  captured  by  the  Turks  in  August,  1602; 
and  was  besieged  and  taken  by  assault  by 
the  Austrians  on  September  6,  1688. 

Stuhm.  A  town  of  West  Prussia,  13 
miles  north-northeast  of  Marienwerder.  Here 
a  battle  was  fought  between  the  Swedes  un- 
der Gustavus  Adolphus  and  the  Poles  under 
Gen.  Koniecpolski,  June  17,  1629. 

Stuttgart,  or  Stutgard.  The  capital  of 
Wiirtemberg,  Germany,  38  miles  east-south- 
east from  Carlsruhe.  During  the  wars  of 
Louis  XIV.,  Stuttgart  was  thrice  taken ; 
and  again  in  1796,  1800,  and  1801. 

Stylet.  A  small  poniard  or  dagger  ;  a 
stiletto. 

Styra  (now  Stiira).  A  town  in  Euboea, 
on  the  southwest  coast,  nearly  opposite  Mara- 
thon in  Attica.  The  inhabitants  took  an 
active  part  in  the  Persian  war,  and  fought 
at  Artemisium,  Salamis,  and  Platasse.  They 
afterwards  became  subject  to  the  Athenians. 
The  town  was  destroyed  in  the  Lamian  war 
by  the  Athenian  general  Phaadrus,  and  its 
territory  was  annexed  to  Eretia. 

Suabia,  Swabia,  or  Suevia  (Ger.  Schwa- 
hen).  An  ancient  duchy  in  the  southwest  of 
Germany,  so  named  from  a  horde  of  Suevi, 
who  spread  over  it  in  the  5th  century  ;  was 
a  great  duchy  of  the  Frank  empire  till  the 
8th  century.  In  918,  it  was  acknowledged 
a  ducal  fief  of  the  empire  ;  and  after  chang- 
ing hands  several  times,  it  was  bestowed 
upon  Count  Frederick  of  Hohenstaufen,  the 
founder  of  the  illustrious  house  of  that  name, 
also  known  as  the  house  of  Suabia.  Under 
the  rule  of  this  prince,  Suabia  became  the 
most  rich,  civilized,  and  powerful  country 
of  Germany ;  but  the  wars  of  the  Guelphs 
and  Ghibellines,  and  the  quarrel  with  the 
French  respecting  Naples,  put  an  end  to  the 
dj'nasty  in  1268.  The  ducal  vassals  of  Sua- 
bia rendered  themselves  almost  independent, 
and  professed  to  acknowledge  no  lord  but 
the  emperor.  During  these  dissensions  arose 
the  lordships  of  Wiirtemberg  and  Baden, 
with  numerous  lessor  states,  holding  direct 
of  the  crown,  and  opposed  to  them  the  cities, 
which  strove  also  for  an  equal  independence, 
and  obtained,  in  1347,  great  additional  privi- 
leges. A  number  of  them  united  to  make 
common  cause  against  the  neighboring  feudal 
lords  in  1376  (known  as  the  "  First  Suabian 
League");  an  opposite  league  was  formed 
between  Wiirtemberg,  Baden,  and  seventeen 
towns  in  1405,  called  the  "  League  of  Mar- 
bach";  and  both  took  part  in  the  war  of 
Swiss  independence,  the  former  in  support 
of  the  Swiss,  the  latter  of  the  Austrians.  At 
last  the  towns,  which  had  been  increasing  in 
power,  decided  at  Ulm,  in  1449,  to  form  a 
standing  army,  and  a  permanent  military 
commission,  for  the  forcible  preservation,  if 
necessary,  of  peace  and  order  ;  and  the  Count 
of  Wiirtemberg,  the  most  powerful  of  the 
opposite  party,  having  joined  them,  was  ap- 
pointed military  chief  of  the  league,  which 
ultimately  grew  up  into  the  "  Great  Suabian 


SUBADAR 


559 


SUCCESSION 


League,"  which  effectively  repressed  feudal 
quarrels.  In  1512,  Suabia  became  one  of 
the  ten  circles  into  which  Germany  was  now 
divided,  received  its  complete  organization 
in  15(>3,  and  retained  it  almost  without 
change  till  the  dissolution  of  the  empire  in 
180G.  But  during  this  period,  the  wars  of 
the  towns  with  Wiirtemberg,  the  Peasants' 
war,  of  which  Suabia  was  one  of  the  foci, 
the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  those  between 
France  and  the  empire,  destroyed  the  demo- 
cratic constitution  of  the  towns,  and  with  it 
their  energy,  and  then  their  prosperity  dis- 
appeared, leaving  now  no  relic  which  could 
suggest  their  former  great  importance. 

Subadar.  A  native  officer  in  a  native 
East  Indian  infantry  regiment  holding  a 
rank  corresponding  to  that  of  captain. 

Subadar-Major.  In  the  East  Indies,  is 
the  native  commandant  of  a  native  infantry 
regiment. 

Subaltern.  A  commissioned  officer  below 
the  rani<  of  captain.  But  strictly  speaking 
every  officer  is  a  subaltern  to  the  grades 
above  him,  as  the  captain  is  subaltern  to  the 
major,  and  so  upward. 

Sub-Brigadier.  An  officer  in  the  Horse 
Guards  wlio  ranks  as  cornet. 

Subdivision.  The  parts  of  a  regiment 
on  parade  distinguished  b)'  a  second  division. 
Thus,  a  company  divided  forms  two  subdi- 
visions. 

Subdue.  To  bring  under ;  to  conquer  by 
force  or  the  e.xertion  of  superior  power,  jind 
bring  into  permanent  subjection  ;  to  reduce 
under  dominion.  To  overpower  so  as  to 
disable  from  further  resistance;   to  crush. 

Subdur.  In  the  East  Indies  signiHes  a 
chief. 

Subjugate.  To  subdue  and  bring  under 
the  yoke  of  power  or  dominion  ;  to  conquer 
by  force,  and  compel  to  submit  to  the  gov- 
ernment or  absolute  control  of  another. 

Sub- Lieutenant.  In  the  British  service, 
is  the  lowest  commissioned  rank  in  infantry 
and  cavalry. 

Subordinary,  or  Subordinate  Ordinary. 
In  heraldry,  a  name  given  to  a  certain  class 
of  charges  mostly  formed  of  straight  or 
curved  lines.  Heralds  vary  a  little  in  their 
enumeration,  but  the  following  are  generally 
held  to  come  within  this  category:  the  Bor- 
dure,  the  Orlo,  the  Tressure,  the  Flanche, 
the  Pile,  the  Pall,  the  t^i^^^rter,  the  Canton, 
the  Gyron,  the  Fret,  the  Inescutcheon,  the 
Lozenge,  the  Fusil,  and  the  Mascle.  Some 
heraldic  writers  account  the  Pile  an  ordinary, 
and  the  diminutives  of  the  ordinaries  are 
sometimes  ranked  as  subordinaries. 

Subordination.  A  perfect  submission  to 
thenrdersof  siiperiors  ;  a  perfect  dependence, 
regulated  by  tlie  rights  and  duties  of  every 
military  man,  from  the  soldier  to  the  general. 
Subordination  should  sh.>w  the  spirit  of  the 
chief  in  all  the  members  ;  and  this  single 
idea,  which  is  manifest  to  the  dullest  appre- 
hension, suffices  to  show  its  importance. 
Without  subordination  it  is  impossible  that 
a  corps  can  support  iliclf ;   that  its  motions 


can  be  directed,  order  established,  or  the 
service  carried  on.  In  effect,  it  is  subor- 
dination that  gives  a  soul  and  harmony  to 
the  service ;  it  adds  strength  to  authority, 
and  merit  to  obedience  ;  and  while  it  secures 
tiie  efficacy  of  command,  reflects  honor  upon 
its  execution.  It  is  subordination  which 
prevents  every  disorder,  and  procures  every 
advantage  to  an  army. 

Subsidy.  A  stipulated  sum  of  money, 
paid  by  one  prince  to  another  in  pursuance 
of  a  treaty  of  alliance  for  offensive  or  de- 
fensive war.  Subsidiarr/  troops,  are  the  troops 
of  a  nation  assisting  those  of  another,  fur  a 
given  sum  or  subsidy. 

Subsist.  To  support  with  provisions; 
to  Iced  ;   to  maintain. 

Subsistence.  This  word  may  be  divided 
into  two  sorts,  namely,  that  species  of  sub- 
sistence which  is  found  in  an  adjacent  coun- 
try, such  as  forage,  and  frequently  corn ; 
and  that  which  is  provided  at  a  distance, 
and  regularly  supplied  by  means  of  a  well- 
conducted  commissary.  The  latter  consists 
chiefly  of  meat,  bread,  etc.  To  these  may 
be  added  wood  or  coals,  and  straw  ;  which 
are  always  wanted  in  an  army. 

Subsistence  Department.  A  department 
which  provides  subsistence  stores  for  the 
army,  either  by  contract  or  purchase.  The 
U.  S.  subsistence  department  consists  of  1 
brigadier-general,  2  colonels,  3  lieutenant- 
colonels,  8   majors,   and   12  captains.      See 

CoMMISS.VKIAT. 

Substitute,  Military.  In  nations  where 
conscription  is  resorted  to  for  the  supply  of 
soldiers  for  the  armv,  the  lot  often  falls  on 
those  unwilling  to  serve  in  person.  In  such 
a  case,  the  state  agrees  to  accept  the  services 
qf  a  substitute, — that  is,  of  a  person  of 
equally  good  physique.  Unless  the  levy  be 
very  extensive,  or  the  term  of  military  ser- 
vice very  long,  substitutes  are  readily  found 
among  military  men  who  have  already 
served  their  prescribed  period.  Of  course, 
tiie  substitute  must  be  paid  for  the  risk  he 
runs.  His  price  depends,  like  all  other  sal- 
able articles,  on  the  denuiiid  and  supply. 

Succeedant.  In  heraldry,  succeeding 
one  another,  following. 

Success  of  Arms.  The  good  luck,  or 
fortune,  which  attends  military  operations, 
and  upon  which  the  fate  of  a  nation  fre- 
quently depends.  Success  is  indispensable 
to  the  reputation  of  a  general.  It  often 
hallows  rash  anil  unauthorized  measures. 

Succession  of  Rank.  Kelative  gradation 
according  to  the  dates  of  commission. 

Succession  Wars.  These  wars  were  of 
frequent  occurrence  in  Europe,  b«'tween  the 
middle  of  the  17th  and  the  middle  of  the 
18th  centuries,  on  the  occasii>n  of  the  fail- 
ure of  a  sovereign  house.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  was  that  of  the  Orleans 
succession  to  the  Palatinate  ^168t)-97),  closed 
by  the  peace  of  Kyswick  ;  of  the  Spanish 
succession  (I7l>0-13i,  which  was  distin- 
guished by  the  achievements  of  the  Duke  of 
Marlborough  and  the  Earl  of  Peterborough, 


SUCCESSIVE 


560 


SUMATRA 


and  their  unprofitable  results,  arose  on  the 
question  whether  an  Austrian  prince  or  a 
French  prince  should  succeed  to  the  throne 
of  Spain  ;  of  the  Polish  succession  (1733-38), 
closed  by  the  peace  of  Vienna  ;  of  the  Aus- 
trian succession  (1740-48)  ;  and  of  the  Ba- 
varian succession  (1777-79),  called,  in  ridi- 
cule, the  Potato  war.  Of  these,  the  second 
and  fourth  were  by  far  the  most  important. 

Successive  Pontons.     See  Pontons. 

Sudbury.  A  town  in  Middlesex  Co., 
Mass.,  20  miles  west  by  north  from  Boston. 
A  battle  was  fought  here  on  April  18,  1776, 
in  which  Capt.  S.  Wadsworth  and  two- 
thirds  of  his  men  were  killed  by  the  Indians, 
in  King  Philip's  war. 

Suessiones,  or  Suessones.  A  powerful 
people  in  Gallia  Belgica,  who  were  reckoned 
the  bravest  of  all  the  Belgic  Gauls  after  the 
Bellovaci,  and  who  could" bring  50,000  men 
into  the  field  in  Csesar's  time.  Their  king 
Divitiacus,  shortly  before  Caesar's  arrival  in 
the  country,  was  reckoned  the  most  powerful 
chief  in  all  Gaul,  and  had  extended  his  sov- 
ereignty even  over  Britain.  The  Suessiones 
dwelt  in  an  extensive  and  fertile  country 
east  of  the  Bellovaci,  south  of  the  Vero- 
mandui,  and  west  of  the  Remi.  They  pos- 
sessed twelve  towns,  of  which  the  capital 
was  Noviodunum,  subsequently  Augusta 
Suessonum,  or  Suessones. 

Suevi.  One  of  the  greatest  and  most 
powerful  races  of  Germany,  or,  more  prop- 
erly speaking,  the  collective  name  of  a  great 
number  of  German  tribes,  who  were  grouped 
together  on  account  of  their  migratory  mode 
of  life,  and  spoken  of  in  opposition  to  the 
more  settled  tribes,  who  went  under  the  gen- 
eral name  of  Ingievones.  The  Suevi  are 
described  by  all  the  ancient  writers  as  occu- 
pying the  greater  half  of  all  Germany  ;  but 
the  accounts  vary  respecting  the  part  of  the 
country  which  they  inhabited.  At  a  later 
time  the  collective  name  of  the  Suevi  grad- 
ually disappeared.  In  the  second  half  of 
the  2d  century,  however,  we  again  find  a 
people  called  Suevi,  dwelling  between  the 
mouth  of  the  Main  and  the  Black  Forest, 
whose  name  is  still  preserved  in  the  modern 
Suabia;  but  this  people  was  only  a  body  of 
bold  adventurers  from  various  German 
tribes,  who  assumed  the  celebrated  name  of 
the  Suevi  in  consequence  of  their  not  pos- 
sessing any  distinguishing  appellation. 

Suisses  (Fr.).  The  Swiss  soldiers  who 
were  in  the  pay  of  France  previous  to  Au- 
gust 10,  1792,  were  generally  so  called.  It 
was  also  a  general  term  to  signify  stipendiary 
troops. 

Suliots.  A  people  in  and  around  the  val- 
ley of  Acheron,  the  southern  corner  of  the 
pashalic  of  Janina  (Epirus),  in  Turkey  in 
Europe,  are  a  mixed  race,  being  partly  of 
Hellenic  and  partly  of  Albanian  origin. 
They  are  the  descendants  of  a  number  of 
families  who  fled  from  the  Turkish  oppress- 
ors to  the  mountains  of  Suli  (whence  they 
derive  their  name)  during  the  17th  century. 
In  this  obscure  corner  of  the  Turkish  em- 


pire they  prospered,  and  towards  the  close  of 
the  IBtii  century  numbered  560  families. 
For  about  fifteen  years  they  heroically  re- 
sisted the  encroachments  of  Ali  Pasha  of 
Janina  upon  their  independence,  the  very 
women  taking  part  in  the  strife.  Van- 
quished in  1803,  they  retreated  to  Parga,  and 
afterwards  to  the  Ionian  Islands,  where  they 
remained  till  1820,  when  their  old  oppressor, 
Ali  Pasha,  finding  himself  hard  pressed  by 
the  Turks,  invoked  their  aid.  Eager  to  re- 
turn to  their  cherished  home,  they  accepted 
his  terms,  and  under  Marcos  Bozzaris  main- 
tained a  long  and  desperate  conflict  with  the 
Turks,  but  were  ultimately  forced  again  to 
flee  from  their  country,  and  take  refuge  to 
the  number  of  3000  in  Cephalonia,  though 
a  large  remnant  preferred  to  skulk  in  the 
neighboring  mountains.  Though,  after  this, 
they  took  an  active  and  glorious  part  in  the 
war  of  Greek  independence,  their  country 
was  not  included  by  the  treaty  of  1829  within 
the  Greek  boundary -line,  but  many  of  them, 
asBozzaris  (son  of  Marcos)  and  Tzavellas, 
have  since  been  raised  to  important  political 
offices  in  the  new  kingdom  of  Greece. 

Sulphur.  A  simple  mineral  substance,  of 
a  yellow  color,  brittle,  insoluble  in  water, 
easily  fusible  and  inflammable; — called  also 
brimstone, — that  is,  bHrri-stone,  from  its 
great  combustibility.  It  burns  with  a  blue 
flame  and  a  peculiar  suflTocating  odor.  It  is 
an  ingredient  of  gunpowder  (which  see). 

Sultan,  or  Sultaun.  An  Arabic  word 
signifying  the  "mighty  man,"  and  evidently 
closely  connected  with  the  Hebrew  word 
shnlal,  "  to  rule,"  is  in  the  East  an  ordinary 
title  of  Mohammedan  princes.  It  is  given, 
;)«;■  excellence,  to  the  supreme  head  of  the 
Ottoman  empire.  It  is  applied  in  Egypt  to 
the  ruler  of  that  country,  and  is  also  re- 
tained by  the  heir  of  the  former  reigning 
line  of  the  Crim-Tartars.  Sultana  is  the 
title  of  the  wife  of  a  sultan. 

Sumatra.  The  most  westerly  of  the  Sunda 
Islands,  lies  southwest  of  the  Malay  penin- 
sula, from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Strait 
of  Malacca.  When  the  Portuguese  landed 
here,  in  1.509,  they  found  that  the  ancient 
Malay  kingdom  of  Menangcabau  had  been 
dissolved  ;  but  there  was  a  powerful  monarch 
ruling  over  Acheen,  who  endeavored  to  ex- 
clude the  strangers  from  his  counti-y.  In 
1575,  the  Portuguese  shipping  in  the  harbor 
of  Acheen  was  destroyed  by  the  natives,  and 
in  1582,  an  attempt  which  they  made  to  gain 
possession  of  the  town  proved  quite  unsuc- 
cessful. In  1600,  the  Dutch  established  a 
factory  at  Pulo  Chinko,  on  the  west  coast. 
The  kingdom  of  Acheen  had  by  this  time 
begun  to  decline  in  power,  being  distracted 
by  internal  wars  and  discords:  The  Dutch 
rapidly  increased  the  number  of  their  facto- 
ries and  settlements,  founding  one  at  Padang 
in  1649,  at  Palembang  in  1664.  The  Eng- 
lish followed  the  Dutch  in  this  island,  and 
founded  a  colony  at  Bencoolen  in  1685.  In 
1811,  the  Dutch  settlements  in  the  East 
Indies  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British,  but 


SUMMON 


561 


SURAT 


were  restored  to  the  Dutch  by  the  peace  of 
1816.  A  singular  war  which  took  place  in 
Sumatra  led  to  a  material  extension  of  the 
Dutch  possession.  It  was  occasioned  by  a 
religious  sect  called  Padries.  About  1815  a 
society  of  this  sect  was  formed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  spreading  their  doctrines  and  prac- 
tices by  force;  and  this  speedily  roused 
resistance  and  opposition.  The  Malays  and 
Kattas  made  common  cause  against  the 
Padries,  and  for  a  long  time  a  fierce  struggle 
was  carried  on,  which  devastated  Menang- 
cabau  and  the  neigliboring  regions.  At 
length,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Dutch,  the 
sect  was  entirely  put  down.  The  indirect 
results  of  this  war  were  the  annexation  of 
Monangcabau  to  the  Dutch  possessions  in 
1835,  and  the  opening  up  to  them  of  the 
Batta  country,  from  which  foreigners  had 
previously  been  excluded.  In  IS'Jo,  an  ex- 
pedition was  sent  to  force  the  king  of  Asahan, 
one  of  the  small  states  on  the  northeast 
coast,  to  submit  to  the  Dutch  authority.  In 
1871  these  settlements  were  sold  to  Great 
IJritain. 

Summon.  To  call  upon  to  surrender ; 
as,  to  summon  a  fort. 

Summons.  A  call  or  invitation  to  sur- 
render. 

Sumpit.  An  arrow  blown  from  the  mnn- 
jntaii  in  Borneo.  The  sumpitan  is  about  7 
feet  long ;  the  arrow  has  been  driven  with 
some  force  at  130  yards.  Some  suppose  it  to 
be  poison. 

Sumter,  Fort.     See  Fort  Sumtkr. 

Suncion,  Treaty  of.  Between  Gen.  Ur- 
quiza,  director  of  the  Argentine  Confedera- 
tion, and  C.  A.  Lopez,  president  of  the 
republic  of  Paraguay,  recognizing  the  inde- 
pendence of  Paraguay,  July  15,  18-52. 

Superannuated.  Incapacitated  for  ser- 
vice, either  from  age  or  infirmity,  and  placed 
on  a  pension. 

Supercharge.  In  heraldry,  a  bearing  or 
figun;  phic'ctl  upon  another. 

Superintendent.  One  who  has  the  over- 
sight and  charge  of  something,  with  the 
power  of  direction  ;  as  the  superintendent  of 
recruiting  service;  superintendent  of  na- 
tional ccnietorios,  etc. 

Superior  Officer.  Any  officer  of  higher 
rank,  or  who  has  priority  in  the  same  rank, 
by  the  date  of  his  commission,  etc. 

Superior  Slope.  The  upper  surface  of  a 
parapet. 

Supernumerary.  Officers  or  men  in  ex- 
cess of  the  establishment,  but  borne  on  the 
rolls  of  the  corps  till  absorbed.  SupernH- 
meraries,  or  snpernumernry  rank,  also  sig- 
nifies the  officers  and  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers in  the  infantry,  cavalry,  etc.,  who  are 
not  included  among  rank  and  file,  and  stand 
in*the  third  rank  on  parade,  when  the  troops 
are  drawn  up  in  double  ranks. 

Supersede.  Is  to  deprive  an  officer  of 
rank  and  pay  for  any  otfense  or  neglect, 
or  to  place  one  officer  over  the  head  of 
another,  who  may  or  may  not  be  more 
deserving. 


Supply.  Relief  of  want;  making  up  de- 
ficiencies. A  fresh  supply  of  troops,  ammu- 
nition, etc.  To  supply,'  to  make  up  de- 
ficiencies. To  aid;  to  assist ;  to  relieve  with 
something  wanted.  To  fill  any  room  made 
vacant.  Thus,  covering  sergeants  supply 
the  places  of  officers  when  they  step  out  of 
the  ranks,  or  are  killed  in  action. 

Support.  To  aid,  to  assist ;  it  likewise 
signifies  to  preserve  untarnished  ;  as,  to  sup- 
port the  ancient  character  of  a  corps.  Well 
supported,  is  well  aided  or  assisted.  It  like- 
wise signifies  well  kejit  up;  as,  a  well  sup- 
ported fire  from  the  batteries ;  a  well  suj)- 
ported  fire  of  musketry. 

Support  Arms.  Is"  to  hold  the  musket 
vertically  on  the  left  shoulder,  supported  by 
having  the  hammer  rest  on  the  left  forearm, 
which  is  passed  acn^ss  the  breast. 

Supporters.  In  heraldry,  figures  placed 
on  each  side  of  an  armorial  shield,  as  it  were 
to  support  it.  They  seem  to  have  been,  in 
their  origin,  a  purely  decorative  invention  of 
mediieval  seal-engravers,  often,  however, 
bearing  allusion  to  the  arms  or  descent  of 
the  bearer;  but  in  the  course  of  time  their 
use  came  to  be  regulated  by  authority,  and 
they  were  considered  indicative  that  the 
bearer  was  the  head  of  a  family  of  eminence 
or  distinction.  The  most  usual  supporters  are 
animals,  real  or  fabulous  ;  but  men  in  armor 
are  also  frequent,  and  savages,  or  naked 
men,  often  represented  with  clubs,  and 
wreathed  about  the  head  and  middle.  There 
are  occasional  instances  of  inanimate  sup- 
porters. On  early  seals,  a  single  supporter 
is  not  unfrequent.and  instances  are  particu- 
larly common  of  the  escutcheon  being  placed 
on  the  breast  of  an  eagle  displayed.  The 
common  rule,  however,  has  been  to  have  a 
supporter  on  each  side  of  the  shield.  The 
dexter  supporter  is  very  often  repeated  on 
the  sinister  side  ;  but  the  two  supporters  are 
in  many  cases  different;  when  the  bearer 
represents  two  dift'erent  families,  it  is  not 
unusual  for  a  supporter  to  be  adopted  from 
the  achievement  of  each. 

Suppress.  To  overpower  and  crush ;  to 
subdue  ;  to  put  down  ;  to  quell ;  to  destroy  ; 
as,  the  troops  suppressed  the  rebellion. 

Surat.  A  large  but  declining  city  of 
British  India,  150  miles  north  of  the  city  of 
Bombay,  on  the  south  shore  of  the  Tapti, 
and  8  miles  from  its  mouth  in  the  Gulf  of 
Cambay.  Surat  was  sacked  in  1512  by  the 
Portuguese  soon  after  their  arrival  in  India. 
In  1612  an  English  force  arrived  herein  two 
vessels,  under  the  command  of  Capt.  Best, 
who  defeated  the  rorlugucse,  and  obtained 
a  firman  from  the  Mogul  emneror,  authoriz- 
ing the  residence  of  a  British  minister,  and 
established  a  factory.  An  attack  of  the 
Mahratta  chief  Si vaji'e  on  the  British  factory 
was  defeated  by  Sir  George  Oxenden,  1664. 
The  English  were  again  ottacked  in  1670 
and  1702,  and  often  suhsi>quently.  The  East 
India  Company,  in  1750,  fitted  out  an  arma- 
ment which  dispo>sessed  the  admiral  of  the 
castle  (the  Great  Mogul  had  here  an  officer 


SURCINGLE 


562 


SURREY 


who  was  styled  his  admiral) ;  and,  soon  after, 
the  possession  of  this  castle  was  confirmed 
to  them  by  the  court  of  Delhi.  Surat  was 
vested  in  the  British  by  treaty  in  1800  and 
1803. 

Surcingle.  A  belt,  band,  or  girth,  which 
passes  over  a  saddle,  or  over  anything  laid 
on  a  horse's  back,  to  bind  it  fast. 

Surcoat.  A  short  coat  worn  over  the 
other  garments ;  especially  the  long  and 
flowing  drapery  of  knights,  anterior  to  the 
introduction  of  plate-armor,  and  which  was 
frequently  emblazoned  with  the  arms  of  a 
family. 

Surface.  In  fortification,  that  part  of  the 
side  which  is  terminated  by  the  flank  pro- 
longed, and  the  angle  of  the  nearest  bastion  ; 
the  double  of  this  line  with  the  curtain  is 
equal  to  the  exterior  side. 

Surgeon.  A  staff-ofBcer  of  the  medical 
department.  He  has  the  rank  of  major,  but 
"  shall  not  in  virtue  of  such  rank  be  entitled 
to  command  in  the  line  or  other  staif  depart- 
ments of  the  army." 

Surgeon-General.  The  chief  of  the  med- 
ical department,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general,  but  subject  to  the  same  restriction 
of  command  as  other  officers  of  the  medical 
department. 

Surgeons,  Acting  Assistant-  (Contract). 
In  the  U.  S.  army,  are  physicians  employed 
from  civil  life,  at  a  certain  compensation,  to 
perform  the  duties  required  of  commissoned 
medical  officers,  when  the  number  of  the 
latter  is  insufficient.  While  they  have  no 
rank  they  still  have  the  allowances  of  an 
assistant-surgeon  (first  lieutenant).  A  phy- 
sician so  employed  cannot  displace  a  com- 
missioned officer  by  choice  of  quarters  ;  but 
to  obviate  being  displaced  by  a  commissioned 
officer,  the  commanding  officer  of  a  post  may 
assign  him  an  allowance  of  first  lieutenant's 
quarters  near  the  hospital,  under  the  provis- 
ions authorizing  the  commanding  officer  to 
assign  quarters  to  officers  convenient  to  their 
troops.  Acting  assistant-surgeons  are  enti- 
tled to  the  same  protection  and  respectful 
conduct  from  enlisted  men  as  commissioned 
officers  are,  so  far  as  relates  to  their  duties 
as  surgeons.  A  contract  physician  in  the 
army  is  regarded  as  a  "  quasi-officer." 

Surgery,  Military.  Restricted  to  its  rig- 
orous signification,  militarj'  surgery  is  the 
surgical  practice  in  armies  ;  but  in  its  broad 
and  ordinary  acceptation  embraces  many 
other  branches  of  art  comprehending  the 
practice  of  medicine,  sanitary  precautions, 
hospital  administration,  ambulances,  etc. 
The  military  surgeon  must  not  only  be  a 
skillful  physician  and  surgeon,  but  he  must 
have  a  constitution  sufficiently  strong  to  re- 
sist the  fatigues  of  war,  and  all  inclemencies 
of  weather;  a  solid  judgment  and  a  gener- 
ous activity  in  giving  prompt  assistance  to 
the  wounded  without  distinction  of  rank  or 
grade,  and  without  even  excluding  enemies. 
He  must  have  the  courage  to  face  dangers 
without  the  power,  in  all  cases,  of  combat- 
ing them ;  he  must  have  great  coolness  in 


order  to  act  and  operate  in  the  most  difficult 
positions,  whether  amidst  the  movement  of 
troops,  the  shock  of  arms,  the  cries  of  the 
wounded  when  crowded  together,  in  a  charge, 
in  a  retreat,  in  intrenchments,  under  the 
ramparts  of  a  besieged  place,  or  at  a  breach. 
He  must  have  inventive  ingenuity  which 
will  supply  the  wants  of  the  wounded  in 
extreme  cases,  and  a  compassionate  heart, 
with  strength  of  will  which  will  inspire  con- 
fidence in  those  with  whom  he  is  brought 
so  closely  in  contact.  The  military  surgeon, 
with  his  flying  ambulance,  throws  himself 
into  the  field  of  battle,  through  the  melee, 
under  the  fire  of  the  enemy,  runs  the  risk 
of  being  taken  prisoner,  being  wounded,  or 
being  killed,  and  is  worthy  of  all  the  honors 
that  should  be  bestowed  on  bravery  and  skill 
in  the  performance  of  his  high  functions. 
Additional  grades,  as  hospital-surgeons,  sur- 
geons of  divisions,  surgeons-in-chief,  and  in- 
spector-generals of  hospitals,  etc.,  are  re- 
quired for  every  army  in  the  field. 

Surinam,  or  Dutch  Guiana.  A  Dutch 
colony  in  South  America,  situated  between 
English  and  French  Guiana.  The  factories 
established  here  by  the  English  in  1640,  were 
occupied  by  the  Portuguese  in  1643  ;  by  the 
Dutch,  1654  ;  captured  by  the  English  in 
1804  ;  and  restored  to  the  Dutch  in  1814. 

Surmounted.  In  heraldry,  a  term  used 
to  indicate  that  one  charge  is  to  be  placed 
over  another  of  different  color  or  metal, 
which  may  respectively  be  blazoned:  sable, 
a  pile  argent  surmounted  by  a  chevron  gules  ; 
and,  argent,  a  cross  gules  surmounted  by  an- 
other or. 

Surprise.  In  war,  to  fall  on  an  enemy 
unexpectedly,  in  marching  through  narrow 
and  difficult  passes,  when  one  part  of  an 
army  has  passed,  and  is  not  able  to  come  at 
once  to  the  succor  of  the  other;  as  in  the 
passage  of  woods,  rivers,  inclosures,  etc.  A 
place  is  surprised  by  drains,  casements,  or 
the  issues  of  rivers  or  canals  ;  by  encumber- 
ing the  bridge  or  gate,  or  by  wagons  meeting 
and  stopping  each  other  ;  or  by  sending  sol- 
diers into  the  place,  under  pretense  of  being 
deserters,  who,  on  entering,  surprise  the 
guard,  being  sustained  by  troops  at  hand  in 
ambush,  to  whom  they  give  entrance,  and 
thereby  seize  the  place.  Military  history 
abounds  with  instances  of  successful  sur- 
prises. 

Surrender.  To  lay  down  your  arms,  and 
give  yourself  up  as  a  prisoner  of  war.  Also, 
the  act  of  giving  up,  as  the  surrender  of  a 
town  or  garrison. 

Surrey.  One  of  the  smallest  of  the  Eng- 
lish counties,  has  the  Thames  for  its  north- 
ern boundary,  Berkshire  and  Hampshire  on 
the  west,  Sussex  on  the  south,  and  Kent  on 
the  east.  Before  the  Roman  era,  Siiri^y 
formed  a  portion  of  the  dominions  of  a  Celtic 
tribe,  named  by  Ptolemy  the  Regni,  and 
after  the  Roman  conquest  was  merged  into 
the  pi'ovince  of  Britannica  Prima,  though, 
for  many  years,  it  retained  its  native  princes, 
or  subreguli.     Eventually  it  was  swallowed 


SURROUND 


563 


SWEDEN 


up  in  tlie  territory  of  the  South  Siixons,  and 
reduced  by  Kenulf,  king  of  Wessex,  ubout 
7C0,  into  that  prtjgressivo  kinjjdoin  which 
Alfred  broui^lit  into  constitutional  harmony 
and  national  cfunpleteness.  P'roin  tlie  period 
of  the  Norman  conquest,  Surrey  can  claim 
no  separate  annals.  At  Kintj.ston,  Surrey, 
in  1642,  took  place  the  first  military  move- 
ment of  the  great  civil  war;  a  body  of 
royalists  unsuccessfully  attempting  to  seize 
upon  its  magazine  of  arms.  And  there,  on 
July  7,  1VAH,  Lord  Francis  Villiers  (Dry- 
den's  "  Ziniri"),  mot  his  death  in  the  skir- 
mish which  closed  the  famous  struggle. 

Surround.  In  sieges,  to  invest ;  in  tac- 
tics, to  outflank  and  cut  off  the  means  of  re- 
treating. 

Surrounded.  Inclosed;  invested.  A  town 
is  said  to  be  surrounded  when  its  principal 
outlets  are  blocked  up;  and  an  army,  when 
its  flanks  are  turned,  and  its  retreat  cut  off. 

Surtout  (Fr.).  In  fortification,  is  the  ele- 
vation nf  the  parajiot  of  a  work  at  the  angles 
to  protect  from  enfilade  fire. 

Survey,  Boards  of.  Sec  Boakds  of  Sur- 
vey. 

Susa  fin  the  Old  Testament  Shushan; 
ruins  at  S/nis).  The  winter  residence  of  the 
Persian  kings,  stood  in  the  district  Cissia  of 
the  province  of  Susiana,  on  the  eastern  bank 
of  the  river  Choaspes.  It  was  conquered  by 
Antigonus  in  315  n.c.  It  was  once  more 
attacked  by  Molo  in  his  rebellion  against 
Antiochus  the  Great;  and  during  the  Ara- 
bian conquest  of  Persia  it  held  out  bravely 
for  a  long  time,  defended  by  Ilormuzan. 

Suspend.  To  delay,  to  protract ;  hence, 
to  suspend  hostilities.  It  is  likewise  used  to 
express  the  act  of  temporarily  depriving  an 
officer  of  rank  and  pay,  in  consequence  of 
some  ofl'ense.  See  Appendix,  Articles  of 
War,  101. 

Suspension  of  Arms.  A  short  truce 
which  contending  parties  agree  upon,  in 
order  to  bury  their  dead  without  danger  or 
molestation,  to  wait  for  succors,  or  to  receive 
instructions  from  a  superior  authority.  Sus- 
peyision  of  hosiiliiies,  to  cease  attacking  one 
another. 

Sussex.  A  maritime  county  in  the  south 
of  England.  ^Ella  and  his  sons  were  the 
first  Saxons  who  landed  on  the  Sussex  coast, 
477.  They  assaulted  and  captured  Witter- 
ing, near  Chichester,  s})reading  afterwards 
through  the  vast  Andrcdslms  with  tire  and 
sword,  and  finally  establishing  the  South- 
Sexe,  or  Sussex  kingdom.  The  sea-board 
of  Sussex  suftered  terribly  from  the  ravages 
of  the  Danish  jarls.  Within  its  limits  was 
fought  (October  14,  10H»>)  the  memorable 
battle  which  overthrow  the  Saxon  dvTuisty, 
and  eventually  resulted  in  that  union  of 
Saxon  solidity  and  Norman  enterprise  now 
recognized  as  distinctive  of  the  English 
character.  See  Lewes  for  important  battle 
in  V2C,4.  The  French  fleet,  under  D'Anne- 
baut,  made  an  attack  on  Brighton  in  1545, 
and  landed  a  body  of  troops,  who  were 
stoutly   resisted  by   the   natives,  and   com- 


pelled to  retire.  In  1043.  the  Parliamen- 
tarian forces,  under  Sir  William  Waller, 
besieged  Chichester,  which  after  ten  davs 
surrendered.  The  same  leader,  later  in  tLe 
jear,  beleaguered  Arundel  Castle  for  seven- 
teen days,  and  reduced  it  to  a  heap  of  ruins. 
For  naval  combat  off  the  Sussex  coast,  see 
Beachy  Head. 

Sustain.  To  sustain  is  to  aid,  succor,  or 
sujiport,  any  body  of  men  in  action  or  de- 
fense. 

Sutherland.  A  county  in  the  extreme 
north  of  Scotland.  Sutherland  received  its 
name  from  the  Northmen,  who  frequently 
descended  upon  and  pillaged  it  prior  to  the 
12th  century,  and  called  it  the  Southern 
Land,  as  being  the  limit  on  the  south  of 
their  settlements. 

Sutler.  A  camp-follower,  who  sells  drink 
and  provisions  to  the  troops.  See  Canteen, 
and  Post-trader. 

Swad,  or  Swadkin.  A  newly-raised  sol- 
dier. 

Swaddie.     A  discharged  soldier. 

Swallow's-tail.  In  fortification,  an  out- 
work, dirtering  from  a  single  tenaille,  as  its 
sides  are  not  parallel,  like  those  of  a  tenaille ; 
but  if  prolonged,  would  meet  and  form  an 
angle  on  the  middle  of  the  curtain  ;  and  its 
head,  or  front,  composed  of  faces,  forming 
a  re-entering  angle. 

Sway.  The  swing  or  sweep  of  a  weapon. 
"To  strike  with  huge  two-handed  sway." 

Sweaborg,  or  Sveaborg.  A  great  Rus- 
sian fortre-ss  and  seaport,  in  Finland,  gov- 
ernment of  Viborg,  sometimes  called  "  the 
Gibraltar  of  the  North."  In  1789  it  was 
taken  from  Sweden  by  Russia.  During  the 
Crimean  war  it  was  bombarded  by  the 
Anglo-French  fleet  in  the  Baltic  (on  August 
9-lb,  1855).  Twenty-one  mortar-vessels 
were  towed  to  within  about  2  miles  (3400 
metres)  of  the  centre  of  the  Russian  arsenal, 
while  the  gunboats  of  the  squadron,  keop- 
ing  in  constant  motion,  approached  to  a  dis- 
tance of  2000  or  3000  metres.  The  fire* was 
maintained  forty-five  hours,  during  which 
4150  projectiles  (2828  of  which  were  mortar- 
shells)  were  thrown  into  the  place,  killing 
and  wounding  2000  men,  and  destroying 
magazines,  supplies,  and  shipping. 

Sweden.  A  kingdom  in  the  north  of 
Europe,  and  forming  with  Norway  (with 
which  it  is  now  united  under  one  monarchy), 
the  whole  of  the  peninsula  known  by  the 
name  of  Scandinavia.  The  earliest  tradi- 
tions of  Sweden,  like  those  of  most  other 
countries,  present  only  a  mass  of  fables. 
The  dawn  of  Swedish  "history  (properly  so 
called)  now  begins,  and  we  find  the  Swedes 
constantly  at  war  with  tluir  neighlKjrs  of 
Norway  and  Denmark,  and  busily  engaged 
in  piratical  enterprises  against  the  eastern 
shores  of  the  Baltic.  In  1155,  Eric,  sur- 
named  the  Saint,  undert<x>k  a  crusade 
against  the  pagan  Finns,  compelled  them 
to  submit,  established  Swedish  settlements 
among  them,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
closer  union  of  Finland  with  Sweden.   Eric's 


SWEDEN- 


564 


SWITZERLAND 


defeat  and  murder,  in  1161,  by  the  ambi- 
tious young  Danish  prince  Magnus  Hen- 
riivsen,  who  had  made  an  unprovoked  attack 
upon  the  Swedish  king,  was  the  beginning 
of  a  long  series  of  troubles,  and  during  the 
following  200  years,  one  short  and  stormy 
reign  was  brought  to  a  violent  end  by  mur- 
der or  civil  war,  only  to  be  succeeded  by 
another  equally  short  and  disturbed;  until, 
at  length,  the  throne  was  offered  by  the 
Swedish  nobles  to  Margaret,  queen  of  Den- 
mark and  Norway,  who  threw  an  army  into 
Sweden,  defeated  the  Swedish  king,  Albert 
of  Mecklenburg,  and  by  the  union  of  Cal- 
mar,  in  1397,  brought  Sweden  under  one 
joint  sceptre  with  Denmark  and  Norway. 
Sweden  emancipated  itself  from  the  union 
with  Denmark  in  1523.  Gustavus  I.  (Gus- 
taf  Vasa)  on  his  death,  in  1500,  left  to  his 
successor  a  hereditary  and  well-organized 
kingdom,  a  full  exchequer,  a  standing  army, 
and  a  well-appointed  navy.  John,  brother 
of  Eric  XIV.,  ascended  the  throne  in  1568, 
which  he  occupied  for  nearly  a  quarter  of 
a  century,  dying  in  1592,  after  a  stormy 
reign,  stained  by  the  cruel  murder  of  his 
unfortunate  brother  Eric,  and  distracted  by 
the  internal  dissensions  arising  from  his  at- 
tempts to  force  Catholicism  on  the  people, 
and  the  disastrous  wars  with  the  Danes, 
Poles,  and  Russians.  John's  son  and  suc- 
cessor, Sigismund,  after  a  stormy  reign  of 
eight  years,  was  compelled  to  resign  the 
throne.  The  deposition  of  Sigismund  gave 
rise  to  the  Swedo-Polish  war  of  succession, 
which  continued  from  1604  to  1660  ;  and  on 
the  death  of  Charles  IX.  in  1611,  his  son 
and  successor,  the  great  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
found  himself  involved  in  hostilities  with 
Russia,  Poland,  and  Denmark.  With 
Charles  XII.  the  male  line  of  the  Vasas 
expired,  and  his  sister  and  her  husband, 
Frederick  of  Hesse-Cassel,  were  called  to 
the  throne  by  election,  but  were  the  mere 
puppets  of  the  nobles,  whose  rivalries  and 
partj^  dissensions  plunged  the  country  into 
calamitous  wars  and  almost  equally  disas- 
trous treaties  of  peace.  Gustavus  IV.  lacked 
the  ability  to  cope  with  the  difficulties  of  the 
times,  and  after  sutfering  in  turn  for  his 
alliance  with  France,  England,  and  Russia, 
was  forcibly  deposed  in  1809,  and  his  succes- 
sor, Charles  XIII.,  saw  himself  compelled 
at  once  to  conclude  a  humiliating  peace  with 
Russia  by  a  cession  of  nearly  a  fourth  part 
of  the  Swedish  territories,  with  1,500,000 
inhabitants  ;•  Gen.  Bernadotte  was  elected  to 
the  rank  of  crown-prince,  and  he  assumed 
the  reins  of  the  government,  and  by  his 
steady  support  of  the  allies  against  the 
French  emperor,  secured  to  Sweden,  at  the 
congress  of  Vienna,  the  possession  of  Nor- 
way, when  that  country  was  separated  from 
Denmark.  Under  the  able  administration 
of  Bernadotte,  who,  in  1818,  succeeded  to 
the  throne  as  Charles  XIV.,  the  united 
kingdoms  of  Sweden  and  Norway  made 
great  advances  in  material  prosperity  and 
political  and  intellectual  progress. 


Sweep.  To  clear  or  brush  away  ;  as,  the 
cannon  swept  everything  before  it. 

Swell  of  the  Muzzle.  In  gunnery,  is  the 
largest  part  of  the  gun  in  front  of  the  neck. 
See"  Ordnance,  Construction  of,  Mold- 
ing. 

Swiss  Guards.    See  Gardes  Suisses. 

Switzerland.  A  federal  republic  in  Cen- 
tral Europe;  bounded  on  the  north  by  Ba- 
den, northeast  by  Wiirtemberg  and  Bavaria, 
east  by  the  principality  of  Liechtenstein  and 
the  Tyrol,  south  by  Piedmont  and  Savoy, 
and  west  and  northwest  by  France.  Swit- 
zerland was  in  Roman  times  inhabited  by 
two  races, — the  Helvetii  on  the  northwest, 
and  the  Rhffitians  on  the  southeast.  When 
the  invasions  took  place,  the  Burgundians 
settled  in  Western  Switzerland,  while  the 
Alemanni  took  possession  of  the  country 
east  of  the  Aar.  The  Goths  entered  the 
country  from  Italy,  and  took  possession  of 
the  country  of  the  Rha;tians.  Switzerland 
in  the  early  part  of  the  Middle  Ages  formed 
part  of  the  German  empire,  and  feudalism 
sprang  up  in  the  Swiss  highlands  even  more 
vigorously  than  elsewhere.  During  the  11th 
and  12th  centuries,  the  greater  part  of  Swit- 
zerland was  ruled  on  behalf  of  the  emper- 
ors by  the  lords  of  Zahringen,  who  did  much 
to  check  civil  wars.  They,  however,  be- 
came extinct  in  1218,  and  then  the  country 
was  distracted  by  wars,  which  broke  out 
among  the  leading  families.  The  great 
towns  united  in  self-defense,  and  many  of 
them  obtained  imperial  charters.  Rudolph 
of  Habsburg,  who  became  emperor  in  1278, 
favored  the  independence  of  the  towns  ;  but 
his  son  Albert  I.  took  another  course.  He 
attacked  the  great  towns,  and  was  defeated. 
The  leading  men  of  the  Forest  Cantons  met 
on  the  Riitli  meadow,  on  November  7,  1307, 
and  resolved  to  expel  the  Austrian  bailiffs  or 
landvogte.  A  war  ensued  which  terminated 
in  favor  of  the  Swiss  at  Morgarten  (which 
see)  in  1315.  Schwyz,  Uri,  and  Unter- 
walden,  with  Lucerne,  Zurich,  Glarus,  Zug, 
and  Bern,  eight  cantons  in  all,  in  1852,  en- 
tered into  a  perpetual  league,  which  was  the 
foundation  of  the  Swiss  Confederation. 
Other  wars  with  Austria  followed,  which 
terminated  favorably  for  the  confederates  at 
Nafels  (which  see)  and  Sempach  (which  see). 
In  1415,  the  people  of  the  cantons  became 
the  aggressors.  They  invaded  Aargau  and 
Thurgau,  parts  of  the  Austrian  territory, 
and  annexed  them  ;  three  years  later,  they 
crossed  the  Alps,  and  annexed  Ticino,  and 
constituted  all  three  subject  states.  The 
Swiss  were  next  engaged  in  a  struggle  on 
the  French  frontier  with  Charles  the  Bold 
of  Burgundy.  They  entered  the  field  with 
34,000  men,  to  oppose  an  army  of  60,000, 
and  yet  they  were  successful,  gaining  the  fa- 
mous battles  of  Granson  and  Morat  (see  Mo- 
rat)  in  1476.  In  1499,  the  emperor  Maxi- 
milian I.  made  a  final  attempt  to  bring 
Switzerland  once  more  within  the  bounds  of 
the  empire.  He  sought  to  draw  men  and 
supplies  from  the  inhabitants  for  his  Turkislj 


SWIVEL 


565 


8YBARIS 


•war,  but  in  vain.  He  was  defeated  in  six 
desperate  engagements.  Basel  and  Scliafl- 
hausen  (1501),  and  Appenzoll  (1513),  were 
then  received  into  the  confederation,  and  its 
true  independence  began.  New  troubles 
sprang  up  with  the  Reformation.  War  broke 
out  in  1531  between  the  Catholics  and  Prot- 
estants, and  the  former  were  successful  at 
Cappel  (which  see),  where  Zwingli  was  slain. 
This  victory  to  some  extent  settled  the 
boundaries  of  the  two  creeds  ;  in  1530,  how- 
ever, Bern  wrested  the  Pays  de  Vaud  from 
the  dukes  of  Savoy.  During  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  Bern  aiid  Ziirieh  contrived  to 
nuiintain  with  great  skill  the  neutrality  of 
Switzerland,  and  in  the  treaty  of  Westpha- 
lia, in  1G48,  it  was  acknowledged  by  the 
great  powers  as  a  separate  and  independent 
state.  At  this  period,  the  Swiss,  in  immense 
numbers,  were  employed  as  soldiers  in  for- 
eign service,  and  the  record  of  their  exploits 
{i,ives  ample  evidence  of  their  courage  and 
hardihood.  In  1708,  Switzerland  was  seized 
by  the  French.  At  the  peace  of  1815,  its 
independence  was  again  acknowledged.  In 
183i>,  at  Zurich,  a  mob  of  peasants,  headed 
by  the  Protestant  clergy,  overturned  the 
government.  In  Valais,  where  universal 
sutlVage  had  put  power  into  the  hands  of  the 
reactionary  party,  a  war  took  place  in  which 
the  latter  were  victorious.  In  1844,  a  pro- 
posal was  made  in  the  Diet  to  expel  the 
Jesuits ;  but  that  body  declined  to  act.  The 
radical  party  then  organized  bodies  of  armed 
men,  called  the  Free  Corps,  which  invaded 
the  Catholic  cantons;  but  they  were  de- 
feated. The  Catholic  cantons  then  formed 
a  league,  named  the  Sonderbund,  for  defense 
against  the  Free  Corps.  A  majority  in  the 
Diet,  in  1847,  declared  the  illegality  of  the 
Sonderbund,  and  decreed  the  expulsion  of 
the  Jesuits.  In  the  war  which  ensued  be- 
tween the  federal  army  and  the  forces  of  the 
Sonderbund,  the  former  were  victorious  at 
Freiburg  and  Lucerne.  The  leagued  can- 
tons were  made  liable  in  all  the  expenses  of 
the  war,  the  Jesuits  were  expelled,  and  the 
monasteries  were  suppressed.  Since  then, 
the  most  important  event  which  has  occurred 
was  a  rebellion  against  the  king  of  Prussia, 
as  prince  of  Neufch&tel.  The  canton  was 
declared  a  republic,  with  a  constitution 
similar  to  that  of  the  other  Swiss  states. 

Swivel.  A  small  piece  of  ordnance,  turn- 
ing on  a  point  or  swivel. 

Sword.  A  well-known  weapon  of  war, 
the  introduction  of  which  dates  beyond  the 
ken  f>f  history.  It  may  be  defined  as  a  blade 
of  steel,  having  one  or  two  edges,  set  in  a 
hilt,  and  used  with  a  motion  of  the  whole 
arm.  Damascus  and  Toledo  blades  have 
been  brought  to  such  perfection,  that  the 
point  can  be  made  to  touch  the  hilt  and  to 
fly  back  to  its  fornicr  position.  In  the  last 
century  every  gentleman  wore  a  sword  ;  now 
the  use  of  the  weapon  is  almost  confined  to 
jiurposes  of  war.  Among  the  forms  of  the 
sword  are  the  rapier,  cutlass,  broadsword, 
scimiter,  sabre,  etc. 


Sword  Law.  When  a  thing  is  enforced, 
without  a  due  regard  being  paid  to  estab- 
lished rules  and  regulations,  it  is  said  to  be 
carried  by  sword  law,  or  by  the  will  of  the 
strongest. 

Sword,  Order  of  the.  A  Swedish  mili- 
tary order  of  knightho<jd,  instituted  by  Gus- 
tavus  Vasa. 

Sword-arm.     The  right  arm. 

Sword-bayonet.  Short  arms,  as  carbines, 
arc  sometimes  furnished  with  a  bayonet 
made  in  the  form  of  a  sword.  The  back  of 
the  handle  has  a  groove,  which  fits  upon  a 
stud  upon  the  barrel,  and  the  cross-piece  has 
a  hole  which  fits  the  barrel.  The  bayonet 
is  prevented  from  slipping  off  by  a  spring- 
catch.  The  sword-bayonet  is  ordinarily  car- 
ried as  a  side-arm,  for  which  purpose  it  is 
well  adapted,  having  a  curved  cutting  edge 
as  well  as  sharp  point. 

Sword-bearer.  In  monarchical  countries, 
is  the  title  given  to  the  public  oflScer  who 
bears  the  sword  of  state. 

Sword-bearers,  Knights.  A  community 
similar  to,  though  nnich  less  distinguished 
than,  the  Teutonic  Knights. 

Sword-belt.  A  belt  made  of  leather,  that 
hung  over  the  right  shoulder  of  an  officer, 
by  which  his  sword  was  suspended  on  the 
left  side.  This  belt  is  no  longer  used,  as 
the  sword  is  now  suspended  from  the  waist- 
belt. 

Sword-blade.  The  blade  or  cutting  part 
of  a  sword. 

Sword-cane.    A  cane  containing  a  sword. 

Sword-cutler.    One  who  makes  swords. 

Sworded.     Girded  with  a  sword. 

Sword-fight.  Fencing  ;  a  combat  or  trial 
of  skill  witli  swords. 

Sword-knot.  A  ribbon  tied  to  the  hilt  of 
a  sword.  In  the  United  States,  all  general 
officers  wear  a  gold  cord  with  acorn  ends, 
and  all  other  officers,  a  gold  lace  strap,  with 
gold  bullion  tassel ;  the  enlisted  men  of  cav- 
alry wear  a  leathern  strap  with  a  bullion 
tassel  of  the  same  material. 

Sword-player.  A  fencer ;  a  gladiator ; 
one  who  exhibits  his  skill  in  the  use  of  the 
sword. 

Swordsman.  A  soldier;  a  fighting  man. 
One  ^killed  in  the  use  of  the  sword  ;  a  pro- 
fessor of  the  science  of  fencing. 

Swordsmanship.  The  state  of  being  a 
swordsman  ;   skilled  in  the  use  of  the  sw^ord. 

Sybaris.  A  celebrated  (ireek  town  in 
Lueaiiia,  was  situated  between  the  rivers 
Sybaris  and  Crathis,  and  a  slmrt  distance 
from  the  Tarentine  Gulf,  and  near  the  con- 
fines of  Bruttium.  It  was  founded  by 
Achaeans  and  Trcezenians  in  7"J0  H.c,  and 
soon  attained  an  extraordinary  degree  of 
prosperity  and  wealth,  exercising  dominion 
over  twentv-five  towns,  and,  it  is  said,  was 
able  to  bring  300,(KK)  men  into  the  field. 
B»it  its  prosperity  was  of  short  duration. 
The  Achfcans  having  exnellod  theTroczcnian 
part  of  the  p>pulation,  the  latter  took  refuge 
at  the  neighboring  city  of  Croton,  the  in- 
habitants of  which  espoused  their  cause.    In 


SYEF 


566 


SYRIA 


the  war  which  ensued  between  the  two  states, 
the  Sybarites  were  completely  conquered  by 
tlie  Crotoniats,  who  followed  up  their  vic- 
tory by  the  capture  of  Sybaris,  which  they 
destroyed  by  turning  the  waters  of  the  river 
Crathis  against  the  town,  510  B.C. 

Syef  [Ind.).     A  long  sword. 

Syef-ul  Mulk  {Ind:).  The  sword  of  the 
kingdom. 

Sygambri,  Sugambri,  Sigambri,  Sycam- 
bri,  or  Sicambri.  One  of  the  most  powerful 
tribes  of  Germany  at  an  early  time,  belonged 
to  the  Ista?vones,  and  dwelt  originally  north 
of  the  Ubii  on  the  Rhine,  whence  they  spread 
toward  the  north  as  far  as  the  Lippe.  The 
territory  of  the  Sygambri  was  invaded  by 
CiBsar.  They  were  conquered  by  Tiberius 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  them  were  transplanted  to  Gaul,  where 
they  received  settlements  between  the  Maas 
and  the  Rhine  as  Roman  subjects.  At  a 
later  period  we  And  them  forming  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  confederacy  known  un- 
der the  name  of  Franci. 

Symbol.  In  a  military  sense,  a  badge. 
Every  regiment  in  the  British  service  has 
its  badge. 

Syracuse  (It.  Siracusa).  Anciently  the 
most  famous  and  powerful  city  of  Sicily, 
.situated  on  the  southeast  coast  of  the  island, 
80  miles  south-southwest  from  Messina;  was 
founded  by  a  body  of  Corinthian  settlers  un- 
der Archias,  one  of  the  Bacchiadaj,  734  B.C. 
In  486  a  revolution  took  place  and  the 
oligarchic  families — Geomori,  or  Gamori, 
"land-owners" — were  expelled,  and  the 
sovereign  power  was  transferred  to  the  citi- 
zens at  large.  Before  a  year  passed,  how- 
ever, Gelon,  "despot"  of  Gela,  had  restored 
the  exiles,  and  at  the  same  time  made  him- 
self master  of  Syracuse.  Hieron,  brother  of 
Gelon,  raised  Syracuse  to  an  unexampled  de- 
gree of  prosperity.  Hieron  died  in  467,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Thrasybulus  ; 
but  the  rapacity  and  cruelty  of  the  latter 
soon  provoked  a  revolt  among  his  subjects, 
which  led  to  his  deposition  and  the  establish- 
ment of  a  democratical  form  of  government. 
The  next  most  important  event  in  the  history 
of  Syracuse  was  the  siege  of  the  city  by  the 
Athenians,  which  ended  in  the  total  destruc- 
tion of  the  great  Athenian  armament  in  413  ; 
and  Syracuse's  renown  at  once  spread  over 
the  whole  Greek  world.  Dionysius  restored 
the  "tyranny"  of  Gelon,  and  his  fierce  and 
victorious  war  with  Carthage  (397  B.C.) 
raised  the  renown  of  Syracuse  still  higher. 
On  the  death  of  Hieron  II.,  his  grandson 
Hieronymus,  who  succeeded  him,  espoused 
the  side  of  the  Carthaginians.  A  Roman 
army  under  Marcellus  was  sent  against 
Syracuse,  and  after  a  siege  of  two  years, 
during  which  Archimedes  assisted  his  fel- 
low-citizens by  the  construction  of  various 
engines  of  war,  the  city  was  taken  by  Mar- 
cellus in  212.  Under  the  Romans,  Syracuse 
slowly  but  surely  declined.  Captured,  pil- 
laged, and  burned  by  the  Saracens  (878)  it 
sunk  into  complete  decay,  so  that  very  few 


traces  of  its  ancient  grandeur  are  now  to  be 
seen.  It  was  taken  by  Count  Roger,  the 
Norman,  1088;  in  the  insurrection,  Syracuse 
surrendered  to  the  Neapolitan  troops,  April 
8,  1849. 

Syria.  At  present,  forming  together  with 
Palestine,  a  division  of  Asiatic  Turkey ; 
extends  between  lat.  31°  and  37°  20^  N.  along 
the  Mediterranean  from  the  Gulf  of  Iskan- 
deroon  to  the  Isthmus  of  Suez.  The  oldest 
inhabitants  of  Syria  were  all  of  Shemitic 
descent ;  the  Canaanites,  like  the  Jews  them- 
selves, and  the  Phoenicians  (who  inhabited 
the  coast-regions)  were  Shemites.  So  were 
also  the  Aramieans,  who  occupied  Damascus 
and  extended  eastward  towards  the  Euphra- 
tes. This  territory,  Syria  proper,  became 
subject  to  the  Hebrew  monarchy  in  the  time 
of  David  ;  but  after  Solomon's  death  Rezin 
made  himself  independent  in  Damascus,  and 
while  the  Jewish  empire  was  divided  into 
two  kingdoms,  the  Aramiean  kings  of  Da- 
mascus conquered  and  incorporated  the 
whole  northern  and  central  part  of  the 
country.  In  740  B.C.  the  Assyrian  king, 
Tiglath-Pileser,  conquered  Damascus,  and 
in  720  B.C.  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  In  587 
B.C.  the  kingdom  of  Judah  was  conquered 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon,  and 
Syria,  with  Palestine,  was  now  successively 
handed  over  from  the  Assyrians  to  the 
Babylonians,  from  the  Babylonians  to  the 
Med'es,  and  from  the  Modes  to  the  Persians. 
After  the  battle  of  the  Issus  (333  B.C.)  Alex- 
ander the  Great  conquered  the  country,  and 
with  him  came  the  Greeks.  After  his 
death  they  formed  here  a  flourishing  em- 
pire under  the  Seleucidae,  who  reigned  from 
312  to  64  B.C.  After  the  victories  over  An- 
tigonusat  Ipsus  in  301  B.C.,  and  over  Lysim- 
achus  at  Cyropedion  in  282  B.C.,  the  em- 
pire of  Seleucus  I.  actually  comprised  the 
whole  empire  of  Alexander  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Egj'pt.  But  his  son,  Antiochus  I., 
Soter  (281-260),  lost  Pergamum,  and  failed 
in  his  attempts  against  the  Gauls  who  in- 
vaded Asia  Minor,  and  Antiochus  II.,  Theos 
(260-247),  lost  Parthia  and  Bactria.  Anti- 
ochus the  Great  (223-187)  conquered  Pales- 
tine, which  by  the  division  of  Alexander's 
empire  had  fallen  to  the  Ptolemies  of  Egypt ; 
but  under  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (174-164) 
the  Jews  revolted,  and  after  a  contest  of 
twenty-five  years  they  made  themselves  in- 
dependent. Under  Antiochus  XIII.  (69- 
64)  Pompey  conquered  the  country  and 
made  it  a  Roman  province,  governed  by  a 
Roman  proconsul.  After  the  conquest  of 
Jerusalem  (70)  Palestine  was  added  to  this 
province.  By  the  division  of  the  Roman 
empire  Syria  fell  to  the  Eastern  or  Byzan- 
tine part.  In  638  the  country  was  conquered 
by  the  Saracens.  In  654  Damascus  was 
made  the  capital  of  Syria,  and  in  661  of  the 
whole  Mohammedan  empire.  When  the 
Abbassides  ^removed  their  residence  to  Bag- 
dad, Syria  sank  into  a  mere  province.  In 
the  lith  century  the  Seljuk  Turks  con- 
quered the  country.  ^The  establishment  of 


SYSTEM 


567 


SYSTEMS 


the  Latin  kingdom  l)y  the  Crusaders  in  1099 
was  of  sliort  duration  and  of  little  advan- 
tage. They  held  Jerusalem  till  1187,  Acre 
till  1291,  but  they  proved  more  rapacious 
and  more  cruel  than  the  Turks.  When  in 
1291  the  Mameluke  rulers  of  Egypt  finally 
drove  the  Christian  knights  out  of  the  coun- 
try, its  cities  were  in  ruins,  its  fields  devas- 
tated, and  its  population  degraded.  Still 
worse  things  were  in  waiting, — the  invasion 
of  Tamerlane  and  his  succes.sors,  which  ac- 
tually transformed  large  regions  into  deserts 
and  the  inhabitants  into  savages.  In  1517, 
Sultan  Seliin  I.  ct)nquered  the  country,  and 
since  that  time  it  has  formed  part  of  the 
Turkish  empire,  with  the  exception  of  the 
short  period  from  1832  to  1841,  when  Ibra- 
him Pasha  (who  defeated  the  army  of  the 
grand  seignior  at  Konieh,  December  21, 
1832)  governed  it  under  the  authority  of  his 
father,  Mehemet  AH  (who  had  captured 
Acre,  and  overrun  the  whole  of  Syria). 
The  Druses  are  said  to  have  destroyed  151 
Christian  villages  and  killed  1000  persons, 
May  29  to  July  1,  ISHO.  The  Mahom- 
medans  massacred  Christians  at  Damascus  ; 
about  3300  were  slain,  but  many  were  saved 
by  Abd-el-Kader,  July,  1800;  the  French 
and  English  governments  intervened;  4000 
French  soldiers  under  Gen.  Hautpoul  landed 
at  Bcyrout,  August  22,  1800.  The  French 
and  Turks  advanced  against  Lebanon,  and 
fourteen  emirs  surrendered,  October,  18t>0. 
The  pacification  of  the  country  was  elfected, 
November,  1860;  and  the  French  occupa- 
tion ceased  June  5,  1861.  The  insurrection 
of  Joseph  Karaman,  a  Maronite,  in  Leb- 
anon, was  suppressed,  March,  1866;  another 
Wiis  suppressed,  and  Karaman  fled  to  Al- 
geria, January  31,  1807. 

System.  In  fortification,  is  a  particular 
arrangement  and  mode  of  constructing  the 
different  works  surrounding  a  fortified  place. 
The  principal  systems  now  studied  are  those 
of  Marshal  Vauban,  and  the  imjiroved 
method  invented  by  Cormontaigne,  the  cel- 
ebrated French  engineer. 

System.  A  scheme  which  reduces  many 
things  to  regular  dependence  or  co-opera- 
tion. This  word  is  frequently  applied  to 
some  particular  mode  of  drilling  and  exer- 
cising men  to  fit  them  for  manoeuvres  and 
evolutions.  Hence,  the  Prussian  system,  the 
Austrian  system,  etc. 

System,  Military.  Specific  rules  and  reg- 
ulations for  the  government  of  an  army  in 
till'  field  or  in  i)uartors,  etc. 

Systems  of  Artillery.  The  character  and 
arraiigciuoiit  of  the  material  of  artillery,  as 
adopted  by  a  nation  at  atiy  particular  epoch. 
The  American  systems  of  field  and  siege  ar- 
tillery are  chiefly  derived  from  those  of 
France.  The  principal  qualities  sought  to 
be  observed  in  establishing  a  system  of  ar- 
tillery are,  simplicity,  mobility,  and  power. 
The  first  system  adopted  in  France  was  about 
the  middle  of  the  ItUh  century,  at  which 
time  the  various  guns  of  the  French  artil- 
lery were  reduced  to  six.     The  weights  of 


the  balls  corresponding  to  these  calibers 
ranging  from  33 J  to  f  pounds.  This  range 
of  calibers  was  thought  to  be  necessary,  for 
the  reason  that  it  required  guns  of  large 
caliber  to  destnjy  resisting  objects,  while 
guns  of  small  caliber  were  necessary  to  keep 
up  with  the  nKJvement  of  troops.  Each  of 
the  five  principal  calibers  was  mounted  on 
a  ditterent  carriage,  and  the  ammunition, 
stores,  and  to(ds  were  carried  on  difterent 
store-carts.  Three  kinds  of  powder  were 
used,  viz. :  large-grain,  small-grain,  and 
priming,  which  were  carried  in  barrels  of 
three  sizes.  The  axle-trees,  which  were  of 
wood,  varied  for  the  diflerent  wheels,  as 
well  as  for  the  difterent  guns.  The  gun- 
carriages  were  without  limbers,  and  had 
only  two  wheels,  the  shafts  being  attached 
to  the  trails,  which  often  dragged  along  the 
ground.  No  spare  wheels  were  used,  except 
for  pieces  of  large  caliber;  and  for  facility 
of  transportati<m  these  were  put  on  an  axle- 
tree,  so  as  to  form  a  carriage.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  replacing  injured  wheels,  all  re- 
pairs were  made  on  the  spot,  from  the 
resources  of  the  country,  and  no  spare  arti- 
cles were  carried  with  the  train.  There  was 
no  established  charge  of  powder  for  the 
guns  ;  although  a  weight  equal  to  that  <»f 
the  shot  was  generally  used.  Such  was  the 
character  of  the  artillery  which  accompa- 
nied the  French  armies  up  to  the  middle  of 
the  17th  century.  In  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV.,  the  calibers  of  cannon  were  gradu- 
ally changed  by  the  introduction  of  several 
foreign  pieces.  There  were  48-,  32-,  24-, 
16-,  12-,  8-,  and  4-pounders  ;  and  those  of 
the  same  caliber  varied  in  weight,  length, 
and  shape.  Uniformity  existed  in  general 
in  each  district  commanded  by  a  lieutenant- 
general  of  artillery,  but  the  canni>n  of  one 
district  dift'ered  from  another.  Each  dis- 
trict had  (for  the  six  kinds  of  cannon)  six 
carriages,  with  difterent  wheels,  and  three 
kinds  of  limbers,  with  different  wheels, 
making  nine  patterns  of  wheels,  without 
counting  those  for  the  platform-wagons  used 
to  transport  heavy  guns,  the  ammunition- 
carts,  the  trucks,  and  the  wagons  for  small 
stores  and  tools.  Spare  carriages  were  car- 
ried into  the  field,  but  those  of  one  district 
would  not  fit  the  guns  of  another.  There 
was  but  one  kind  of  powder,  and  this  was 
carried  in  barrels.  The  charge  was  usually 
two-thirds  the  weight  of  the  projectile, 
roughly  measured.  Hesides  this,  the  pow- 
der often  varied  in  strength  according  to  the 
district  from  which  it  came. 

Vnliii-e's  Svstn?}.— In  1735,  Gen.  Valiere 
abolished  the  32-pounder,  as  being  heavy 
and  useless,  and  gave  uniformity  to  the  five 
remaining  calibers.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
18th  century,  mortars,  or  Dutch  howitzers, 
were  sometimes  attached  to  the  field-trains ; 
for  the  latter,  a  small  charge,  and  caliber  of 
8  inches,  were  adopted.  There  were  also 
light  4-p<iunder  guns  attached  to  each  regi- 
ment. Up  to  tliat  time  an  army  always 
carried  with  it  heavy  guns   (24-pounders), 


SYSTEMS 


568 


SZEGEDIN 


and  light  guns  (4-pounders),  which  were 
combined  in  the  same  parlv.  Valiere  estab- 
lished a  system  of  uniformity  for  cannon 
throughout  France  ;  but  such  was  not  the 
case  with  the  carriages  and  wagons  used 
with  them.  Great  exactness  was  not  then 
sought  for,  and  there  existed  as  many  plans 
for  constructing  gun-carriages  as  there  were 
arsenals  of  construction.  The  axle-trees 
were  of  wood,  the  limbers  were  very  low, 
and  the  horses  were  attached  in  single  file. 

Gribeauval's  System.  —  In  1765,  Gen. 
Gribeauval  founded  a  new  system,  by  sep- 
arating the  field  from  the  siege  artillery. 
He  diminished  the  charge  of  field-guns 
from  a  half  to  a  third  the  weight  of  the 
shot,  but  as  he  diminished  the  windage  of 
the  projectile  at  the  same  time,  he  was 
enabled  to  shorten  them  and  render  them 
lighter,  without  sensibly  diminishing  their 
range.  Field  artillery  then  consisted  of 
12-,  8-,  and  4-pounder  guns,  to  which  was 
added  a  6-inch  howitzer,  still  retaining  a 
small  charge,  but  larger  in  proportion  to 
that  before  used.  For  draught,  the  horses 
were  disposed  in  double  files,  which  was 
much  more  favorable  to  rapid  gaits.  Iron 
axle-trees,  higher  limbers,  and  traveling 
trunnion-holes  rendered  the  draught  easier. 
The  adoption  of  cartridges,  elevating  screws, 
and  tangent  scales,  increased  the  rapidity 
and  regularity  of  the  fire.  Stronger  car- 
riages were  made  for  the  lighter  guns,  and 
the  different  parts  of  all  were  made  with 
more  care,  and  strengthened  with  iron- 
work. Uniformity  was  established  in  all 
the  new  constructions,  by  compelling  all 
the  arsenals  to  make  every  part  of  the  car- 
riages, wagons,  and  limbers  according  to 
certain  fixed  dimensions.  ^j  this  exact 
correspondence  of  all  the  parts  of  a  car- 
riage, spare  parts  could  be  carried  into  the 
field  ready  made,  to  refit.  Thus  an  equip- 
ment was  obtained  which  could  be  easily 
repaired,  and  could  be  moved  with  a  fa- 
cility hitherto  unknown.  In  order  to  re- 
duce the  number  of  spare  articles  necessary 
for  repairs,  Gribeauval  gave,  as  far  as  prac- 
ticable, the  same  dimensions  to  those  things 
which  were  of  the  same  nature.  The  ex- 
cellence of  this  system  was  tested  in  the 
wars  of  the  French  republic  and  empire,  in 
which  it  played  an  important  part.  In 
1827,  the  system  of  Gribeauval  was  changed 
by  introducing  the  24-  and  32-pounder  how- 
itzers, lengthened  to  correspond  with  the  8- 
and  12-pounder  guns,  and  abolishing  the  4- 
pounder  gun  and  6-inch  howitzer.  After- 
wards some  important  improvements  were 
made  in  the  carriages,  chiefly  copied  from 
the  English  system  ;  the  number  for  all 
field-cannon  was  reduced  to  two,  the  wheels 
of  the  carriage  and  limber  were  made  of 


the  same  size;  the  weight  of  the  limber  was 
reduced,  and  an  ammunition-chest  placed 
on  it ;  the  method  of  connecting  the  car- 
riage and  limber  was  simplified,  and  the 
operations  of  limbering  and  unlimbering 
greatly  facilitated  ;  and  the  two  flasks  which 
formed  the  trail  were  replaced  by  a  single 
piece  called  the  stocky  which  arrangement 
allowed  the  new  pieces  to  turn  in  a  smaller 
space  than  that  required  by  the  old  ones. 

Louis  Napoleon's  System. — In  1850,  Louis 
Napoleon,  emperor  of  the  French,  caused  a 
series  of  experiments  to  be  made  at  the  prin- 
cipal artillery  schools  of  France  to  test  the 
merits  of  a  new  system  of  field  artillery 
proposed  by  himself.  The  principal  idea 
involved  in  this  system  was,  to  substitute  a 
single  gun  of  medium  weight  and  caliber, 
capable  of  firing  shot  and  shells,  for  the 
8-  and  12-pounder  guns,  and  24-  and 
32-pounder  howitzers,  then  in  use.  The 
caliber  selected  was  the  12-pounder.  The 
favorable  results  of  all  these  experiments, 
and  the  simplicity  of  the  system,  led  to  the 
adoption  of  this,  the  Napoleon  gun,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  into  the  French  service  ; 
and  others  of  similar  principle  were  intro- 
duced into  various  European  services,  and 
also  into  our  own.  As  this  piece  unites  the 
properties  of  gun  and  howitzer,  it  is  called 
canon-obusicr ,  or  gun-howitzer. 

At  no  time  since  the  discovery  of  gun- 
powder have  such  important  improvements 
been  made  in  fire-arms  as  within  the  past 
few  years.  These  improvements  may  be 
summed  up  as  follows,  viz. :  (1)  Improve- 
ment in  the  quality  of  cast  iron,  and  the 
consequent  increase  in  the  caliber  of  sea- 
coast  cannon.  In  1820,  the  heaviest  gun 
mounted  in  the  United  States  on  sea-coast 
batteries  was  the  24-pounder  ;  at  present  the 
heaviest  is  a  20-inch  gun,  carrying  a  shell 
weighing  1080  pounds.  (2)  The  use  of 
wrought  and  chilled  iron  and  steel  as  a 
material  for  fortress  carriages,  and  for  cov- 
ering ships  of  war.  (3)  The  extensive  in- 
troduction of  shells  in  sea-coast  defenses 
and  naval  warfare  ;  and  spherical  case-shot 
into  the  field  service.  (4)  The  introduction 
of  rifling  for  both  small-arms  and  cannon. 
(5)  The  successful  application  of  the  breech- 
loading  principle  to  cannon  and  small-arms 
of  every  description,  and  the  great  improve- 
ment made  of  late  in  steel,  as  well  as  the 
power  to  manipulate  masses  sufficiently 
large  for  the  construction  of  the  immense 
cannon  now  employed  in  naval  warfare  and 
for  sea-coast  defense. 

Szegedin.  The  second  largest  town  in 
Hungary,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Theiss.  Szegedin  is  fortified,  and  here, 
on  August  3,  1849,  the  Austrians  defeated 
the  Hungarians. 


TACTICS 


Tab.    The  arming  of  an  archer's  gauntlet  ] 
or  glove. 

Tabard.  A  military  garment  in  general 
use  in  the  latter  half  of  the  loth,  and  begin-  ! 
ning  of  the  IGth  century,  which  succeeded  1 
th(ijiij)on  and  ri/clas.  It  titled  closely  to  the  j 
body,  was  open  at  the  sides,  had  wide  sleeves  | 
or  flaps  reaching  to  the  elbow,  and  displayed  i 
the  armorial  ensigns  of  the  wearer  on  the  I 
hack  and  front,  as  well  as  on  the  sleeves,  i 
About  the  middle  of  the  ICth  century  the 
tabard  ceased  to  be  used  except  by  the  offi-  | 
cers-of-arms,  who  have  down  to  the  present  i 
time  continued  to  wear  tabards  embroidered  1 
with  the  arms  of  the  sovereign.  | 

Table-money.  In  the  British  army  and 
navy,  is  an  allowance  sometimes  made  to 
officers  over  and  above  their  pay,  for  table 
expenses.  | 

Tablctte.      Is   a   flat  coping-stone,   gen- 
erally 2  feet  wide  and  8  inclies  thick,  placed 
at  the  top  of  the  revetment  of  the  escarp,  fur 
the  purpose  of  protecting  the  masonry  from 
the  eflTects  of  the  weather,  and  also  to  serve 
as  an  obstacle  to  the  besiegers  when  apply- 
ing the  scaling-ladders.     It  is  always  con-  , 
sidered  a  matter  of  importance  that  the  tab-  , 
lette  should  be  concealed  from  the  enemy's  ; 
view,  as  he  would  otherwise  be  able  to  direct 
his  artillery  against  it ;  therefore,  the  escarp 
of  all  the  works  inclosed  within  the  covered 
way  is  submitted  at  least  G  inches   to  the 
crest  of  the  glacis. 

Tabor.  A  fortified  town  of  Bohemia,  48  ; 
miles  south-southeast  of  Prague.  Its  castle 
was  originally  built  in  774,  destroyed  in 
12t;8,  but  restored  in  1420,  when  the  Hus- 
sites under  Ziska  took  possession  of  the 
town.  ! 

Taborite.     A  Roman  soldier  armed  with  i 
a  doulilc-cdged  axe.  | 

Tabors  (/•>.).  Intrenchment  of  baggage 
for  defense  against  cavalry.  ' 

Tabour.  A  small  drum,  played  with  one 
stick,  in  combination  with  a  fife.  It  was 
formerly  used  in  war,  but  has  now  given 
jdace  to  the  kctlb'-drum. 

Tabriz,  or  Tabreez  (written  also  Tauris  . 
and  Tehriz).     A  city  of  North  Persia,  capi- 
U\\  of  the  province  of  A/.erbaijan.     It  was 
taken  and  sacked  by  Timur  in  1:592,  and  was 
soon  after  seized  by  the  Turkomans,  from  , 
whom  it  was  taken  by  the  Persians  in  1500. 
It  has  been  several  times  in  the  hands  of  the 
Turks,  but  was  finally  taken  from  them  by   , 
Nadir  Shah  in  1730.  "  1 

Tactician.     One  versed  in  tactics.  | 

Tactics,    Grand.     See    Tactics,    Mili-  | 

TARY.  I 

Tactics,    Military.      Is   the   science   and 


art  of  disposing  military  forces  in  order 
for  battle,  and  performing  military  evolu- 
tions in  the  presence  of  an  enemy.  It  is 
divided  into  grand  tacdcn,  or  the  tactics  of 
battle,  and  elementary/  tactics,  or  the  tactics 
of  instruction.  Tactics  is  the  strategy  of  the 
battle-field  ;  the  science  of  maiujcuvring  and 
combining  those  military  units  which  drill, 
discipline,  and  the  regimental  system  have 
brought  to  the  perfection  of  machines.  It 
was  admirably  described  by  Napoleon  as  the 
art  of  being  the  stronger, — that  is,  of  bring- 
ing an  overwhelming  force  to  bear  on  any 
given  point,  whatever  may  be  the  relative 
strength  of  the  entire  armies  opposed.  The 
earliest  records  of  battles  are  those  of  mere 
single  combats,  in  which  the  chiefs,  fighting 
either  on  foot  or  in  chariots,  performed  great 
deeds  ;  and  the  commonalty,  who  apparently 
were  without  discipline,  were  held  in  pro- 
found contempt.  With  the  growth  of  democ- 
racy arose  the  organization  of  the  phalanx 
(which  sec),  the  advance  of  which  was  irre- 
sistible, and  its  firmness  equally  so,  if  charged 
in  front.  It,  however,  changed  front  with 
great  difliculty  ;  was  much  deranged  by 
broken  ground,  and  failed  entirely  in  pursuit, 
or  if  attacked  in  flank.  Far  lighter  and 
more  mobile  was  the  Koman  legion.  (See 
Lkuiox.)  Among  Roman  tactics  was  also 
the  admirable  intrenchment,  which  they 
scarcely  ever  omitted  as  an  additional  source 
of  strength  for  their  position.  '*  Events  re- 
produce themselves  in  cjcles  ;"  and  with  the 
decay  of  Roman  civilization  came  again  the 
mail-clad  heroes  and  cavaliers — mounted 
this  time  on  horses — who  monopolizeti  the 
honors  of  battle,  while  the  undisciplined 
footmen  had  an  undue  share  of  the  dangers. 
Later  in  the  feudal  period,  this  disparity 
between  knight  and  footman  was  diminished 
by  the  employment  of  bodies  of  archers, 
whose  shafts  carried  instant  death.  The 
adoption  of  gunpowder  for  small-arms  alto- 
gether neutralized  the  superiority  of  the 
armored  knight.  This  change  brouijht  in- 
fantry into  the  front  place  in  battle,  and 
threw  cavalry  into  the  status  of  an  au.viliary. 
The  French  revolutionary  wars  tended  much 
to  the  development  of  artillery  as  a  field- 
weapon,  ajid  Napoleon  employed  this  terrible 
weapon  to  its  fullest  extent,  a  practice  fol- 
lowed by  the  best  modern  generals,  who  never 
risk  a  man  where  a  cannon-ball  can  do  the 
work.  Frederick  the  (Jreat  was  considered 
an  innovator  for  fightini;  with  infantry  four 
deep.  During  the  French  war,  the  forma- 
tion of  three  deep  InK-ame  general,  and  still 
obtains  in  several  Eurojiean  armies.  Before 
the  battle  of  Waterloo,  the  British  leaders 


TACTICS 


570 


TAE-PINGS 


had  acquired  sufBcient  confidence  in  their 
troops  to  marshal  them  in  a  double  line.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  the  advance  in  arms  of 
precision  will  not  soon  necessitate  the  forma- 
tion in  a  single  line,  or  even  in  a  single  line 
in  open  order.  Wo  will  now  notice  briefly 
a  few  of  the  more  important  principles,  as 
our  space  will  not  permit  us  to  go  into  that 
intricate  science,  modern  tactics.  As  to  the 
art  of  being  stronger,  which  is  undoubtedly 
the  highest  recommendation  in  a  general,  we 
may  cite  the  example  of  the  battle  of  Rivoli. 
In  1796,  Napoleon  was  besieging  Mantua 
with  a  small  force,  while  a  very  much  smaller 
army  of  observation  watched  the  Austrians. 
The  Austrian  commander  had  collected  at 
Trent  a  force  powerful  enough  to  crush  com- 
pletely the  French  army,  with  which  he  was 
marching  south.  Parallel  with  his  course 
lay  the  Lake  of  Garda,  and  to  prevent  the 
enemy  escaping  up  one  side  as  he  marched 
down  the  other,  the  Austrian  leader  divided 
his  army  into  two  powerful  corps,  and 
marched  one  down  each  side  of  the  lake. 
The  instant  the  young  French  general  knew 
of  this  division  he  abandoned  the  siege  of 
Mantua,  collected  every  available  man,  and 
marched  against  one  body  of  the  enemy. 
Though  far  inferior  on  the  whole,  he  was 
thus  superior  at  the  point  of  attack,  and  the 
victory  of  Eivoli  decided  virtually  the  whole 
campaign.  This  corresponded  in  principle 
with  Napoleon's  general  plan  in  battle.  He 
formed  his  attack  into  column,  tried  to 
break  through  the  centre  of  the  enemy's 
line  ;  and  if  he  succeeded,  then  doubled  back 
to  one  side,  so  as  to  concentrate  the  whole 
of  his  own  force  against  one-half  of  the 
enemy's,  which  was  usually  routed  before 
the  other  half  of  the  line  could  come  up  to 
the  rescue. 

Taken  collectively,  the  tactics  of  the  three 
arms  may  thus  be  summarized  :  The  infan- 
try form  the  line  of  battle,  and  probably  de- 
cide the  day  by  a  general  advance  over  the 
enemy's  ground.  The  cavalry  seek  to  break 
the  opposing  infantry  by  frequent  charges  in 
front,  or  on  any  flank  which  may  be  left  ex- 
posed. If  a  part  of  the  line  wavers,  a  charge 
of  horse  should  complete  the  disarray.  When 
the  rout  commences,  the  cavalry  should  turn 
it  by  furious  onslaught  into  utter  discom- 
fiture. The  province  of  the  artillery  is  to 
cannonade  any  portion  of  the  line  where  men 
are  massed,  or  where  a  charge  is  about  to  be 
made  ;  to  demoralize  cavalry,  and  generally 
to  carry  destruction  wherever  it  can  best  dis- 
concert the  enemy.  Adverting  now  very 
briefly  to  the  tactics  of  the  several  arms 
individually,  we  have — 

Infantry. — This  force  has  four  formations, 
— skirmishers,  line,  colun)n,  and  square. 
The  skirmishers  precede  and  flank  an  ad- 
vancing line  or  column,  picking  ofl:'  the 
enemy,  whose  masses  offer  good  mark,  while 
their  own  extended  order  gives  them  com- 
parative impunity.  If  resistance  be  encoun- 
tered in  force,  the  skirmishers  retreat  behind 
their  massed  supports.     The  line  is  a  double 


or  treble  line  of  men,  firing  or  charging. 
For  musketry  purposes,  it  is  the  most  for- 
midable formation,  and  is  the  favorite  Eng- 
lish tactic  in  every  case  where  the  officers 
can  depend  on  the  steadiness  of  their  men. 
For  bursting  through  a  line,  the  deep  col- 
umn is  the  most  effective.  It  is  the  favorite 
French  formation,  and  during  the  revoly- 
tionary  and  Napoleonic  wars,  the  British 
and  liussians  alone  succeeded  in  resisting  it. 
The  column  is  the  best  formation  on  a 
march  ;  and  the  line,  when  in  actual  col- 
lision with  the  enemy.  The  formation  in 
echelon  to  a  great  extent  combines  these  ad- 
vantages. 

Cavalry. — The  function  of  heavy  cavalry 
is  limited  to  the  charge  in  line.  The  light 
cavalry  form  in  small  sections,  to  scour  the 
country,  collect  supplies,  and  cut  off  strag- 
glers. 

Artillery, — No  distinct  tactics  exist  for 
this  arm  beyond  the  fact  that  a  concentrated 
fire  is  vastly  the  most  effective,  and  that  the 
artillery  should  always  have  a  support  of 
infantry  at  hand,  to  protect  it  from  a  sudden 
incursion  of  hostile  cavalry. 

Tactics  of  position  depend  on  the  moral 
energy  of  the  commander-in-chief.  Few 
would  dare,  as  Caesar  did,  an  invasion  in 
which  there  was  no  retreat  if  defeated.  It 
is  a  military  maxim  not  to  fight  with  the 
rear  on  a  river,  unless  many  bridges  be  pro- 
vided for  retreat,  in  case  of  disaster.  A 
convex  front  is  better  than  a  concave  front, 
because  internal  communication  is  more 
easy.  The  flank  should  be  protected  by 
cavalry,  or  preferably  by  natural  obstacles. 
In  battle,  a  long  march  from  one  position  to 
another,  which  exposes  the  flank  to  the 
enemy,  is  a  fatal  error.  By  such,  the  French 
won  Austerlitz,  and  lost  Talavera.  In  a 
pursuit,  a  parallel  line  is  better  than  the 
immediate  route  the  retreating  enorny  has 
taken,  as  supplies  will  be  more  readily  pro- 
cured, and  he  may  by  celerity  be  attacked 
in  flank.  This  was  strikingly  exemplified 
in  the  Russian  pursuit  of  Napoleon's  army 
retreating  from  Moscow. 

Tae-pings,  or  Tai-pings.  The  name 
given  to  the  Chinese  rebels  who  made  their 
appearance  in  1850,  and  desolated  some  of 
the  best  provinces  of  China.  Peking  was 
taken  by  the  English  and  French  on  Octo- 
ber 12,  1860.  Its  capture  was  followed  by 
the  ratification  of  the  treaty  of  Tien-tsin, 
which,  granting  important  privileges  to 
European  merchants,  made  it  the  direct  in- 
terest of  the  English,  French,  and  American 
governments  to  re-establish  order  in  China. 
The  repulse  of  the  rebels  at  Shanghai  in  Au- 
gust, 1860,  had  been  followed  by  several  en- 
gagements between  them  and  the  imperial- 
ists, in  which  they  were  defeated.  Ward, 
an  American,  who  had  taken  service  under 
the  emperor,  and  who  showed  a  remarkable 
talent  for  organizing  irregular  troops,  had 
wrought  a  wonderful  improvement  in  the 
imperialist  army,  and  he  was  the  chief 
means  of  their  success.     In  the  beginning 


TAGANROG 


571 


TANG 


of  18G2,  the  Tae-ping?  again  advanced  on 
Shanghai,  and  were  twice  defeated.  In  the 
autumn  of  the  same  year,  Ward  was  killed  ; 
Ward's  force  was  handed  over  to  an  Eng- 
lish officer,  and  took  the  name  of  Gordon's 
brigade.  Gordon's  brigade  rendered  essen- 
tial service  to  the  imperial  government. 
The  rebels  were  defeated  in  upwards  of  six- 
teen engagements;  and  in  18<J4,  almost 
every  important  city  was  taken  from  them. 
The  conduct  of  tlie  imperial  authorities  at 
Su-chow,  where  a  horrible  massacre  took 
place,  led  to  the  withdrawal  of  the  English 
military  force;  but  the  rebellion  had  been 
effectually  checked.  Toward  the  end  of 
1804,  the  Tae-pings,  however,  still  otl'ered 
an  opposition  to  the  imperialists  in  Kiang- 
tsu,  all  the  more  formidable  in  consequence 
of  the  prevalence  of  brigandage  and  insur- 
rectionary movements  in  parts  of  the  em- 
pire not  affected  by  the  Tao-ping  rebellion. 
In  January,  I860,  the  Mohammedan  Tar- 
tars of  Songaria,  on  the  Siberian  frontier, 
assisted  by  the  free  Kirghis  tribes,  took  the 
town  of  Tarbagatai,  and  afterwards  Kouldja. 
In  the  following  June,  a  still  more  serious 
insurrection  broke  out  in  China  proper,  that 
of  the  Nien-fei,  or  rebels  of  the  north,  whose 
special  object  was  to  overturn  the  reigning 
dynasty.  One  body  of  them,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  1866,  caused  serious  alarm  in  Han- 
kow, and  would  have  attacked  the  European 
settlement  but  for  the  arrival  of  some  Eng- 
lish gunboats.  It  is  believed  that  the  last 
embers  of  the  Tae-ping  rebellion  were  trod- 
den out  in  February,  1866,  when  from  30,000 
to  50,000  rebels  were  routed  by  the  imperial 
army  at  Kia-ying-chou  in  Kwan-tung.  The 
victorious  general  then  set  out  to  attack  the 
Nien-fei,  or  northern  rebels,  at  Hankow, 
and  the  imperial  troops  were  several  times 
defeated  by  them  in  1867;  but  late  in  1868, 
their  operations  became  unimportant. 

Taganrog.  A  town  of  Russia  in  Europe, 
in  the  government  of  Ekaterinoslav,  near 
the  northwest  extremity  of  the  Sea  of  Azov, 
172  miles  northeast  from  Kertch.  The  town 
was  bombarded  by  a  fleet  of  French  and 
British  gunboats  in  18''>5. 

Tagliacozzo.  A  town  of  Southern  Italy, 
in  the  Aleruzzi  Mountains,  where  on  Au- 
gust 23,  1268,  Charles  of  Anjou,  the  usurp- 
ing king  of  Naples,  defeated  and  made  pris- 
oner the  rightful  UKmarch,  young  Conra- 
din,  who  had  been  invited  into  Italy  by 
the  Ghibelliiie  {>arty ;  their  opponents,  the 
Guelphs,  or  papal  party,  supporting  Charles. 

Tagliamento.  A  river  in  Lombardy, 
NortiuTti  Italy,  near  which  the  Austrians, 
under  the  Arcliduke  Charles,  were  defeated 
by  Honaparte,  .March  16,  17'.t7. 

Tail  of  the  Trenches.  The  post  where 
the  besiegers  begin  to  break  ground,  and 
cover  themselves  from  the  tire  of  the  place, 
in  advancing  the  lines  of  approach. 

Taishes.     Armor  for  the  thighs. 

Take.  To  lay  hold  of;  to  seize.  To  ob- 
tain )>ossession  of  by  force  or  artifice;  to 
capture;  to  make  prisoner.     To  attack;  to 


seize ;  as,  to  take  an  army,  a  city,  or  a  ship. 
To  take  aim,  to  direct  the  eye  or  weapon  ;  to 
aim.  To  take  arws,  to  commence  war  or 
hostilities.  To  take  advantaf)e  o/,  to  avail 
one's  self  of  any  peculiar  event  or  opening, 
whereby  an  army  may  be  overcome.  To  take 
ground  to  the  right  or  left,  is  to  extend  a  line, 
or  to  move  troops  in  either  of  those  direc- 
tions. To  take  dotcn,  is  to  commit  to  paper 
that  which  is  spoken  by  another.  To  take  071, 
an  expression  in  familiar  use  among  soldiers 
that  have  enlisted  for  a  limited  j)eriod,  to 
signify  an  extension  of  service  by  re-enlist- 
ing. To  take  the  field,  is  to  encamp,  to  com- 
mence the  operations  of  a  campaign.  To 
take  np,  to  seize ;  to  catch  ;  to  arrest ;  as, 
to  take  up  a  deserter.  To  take  up  quarters, 
to  occupy  locally;  to  go  into  cantonments, 
barracks,  etc.  ;  to  become  sUitionary  for 
more  or  less  time.  To  take  up  the  gai'intlet, 
is  to  accept  a  challenge. 

Takel  (Anr/lo-Saron).     The  arrows  which 
used  to  be  supplied  to  the  fleet. 
j       Talavera  de  la  Reyna.    A  town  of  Spain 
I  in   New  Castile,  in  the  modern  province  of 
j  Toledo,  on   the  Tagus,  75  miles  southwest 
I  from    Madrid.     Here  on   July  27  and   28, 
I  1809,   Sir  Arthur   Wellesley,   with    19,000 
I  English    and    German    troops,    and    about 
;  84.000  Spaniards,  who,  however,  with  very 
trifling   exceptions,  were   not  engaged,  de- 
feated  upwards  of  50,000  veteran   French 
troops  under  Joseph  Bonaparte   and  Mar- 
shals Jourdan  and  Victor. 

Talk.  Among  the  Indians  of  North 
America,  a  public  conference,  as  respecting 
peace  or  war.  negotiation,  and  the  like;  or 
an  official  verbal  communication  made  from 
them  to  another  nation  or  its  agents,  or 
made  to  them  by  the  same. 
j  Talus.  The  old  word  in  fortification  for 
!  a  slope. 

I  Tambour.  In  fortification,  is  a  small 
I  work,  usually  a  timber  stockade,  about  6 
I  feet  high",  anil  loop-holed.  Its  object  is  to 
defend  a  gateway,  the  road  into  a  village,  or 
to  afford  flanking  fire  on  a  bridge,  etc.  The 
tambour  on  the  covered  way  is  the  traverse 
which  closes  an  entrance  from  the  glacis. 

Tampion,  or  Tompion.  The  wooden  plug 

placed  in  the  mf>uth  of  a  jiiece  of  ordnance 

to   preserve  it   from    dust   and   damp.      In 

naval  gunnery,  the  tampion  is  the  wooden 

bottom  for  a  charge  of  grape-shot. 

I       Tam-tam  (Hind.  ^ow"-^om).    A  drum  used 

'  by  the  Hindoos,  made  of  an  alloy  of  copper 

I  and  tin,  and  very  sonorous. 

Tanagra  (now  Grimndhn,  or  Grimnda). 
A  celebrated  town  of  Bneotia,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Asonus,  200  stadia  from  Plftta>a?, 
in  the  district  ranagra[>a.  Bring  near  the 
frontiers  of  Attica,  it  was  frequently  exp<»sed 
to  the  attacks  of  the  Athenians ;  near  it  the 
I  Spartans  defeated  the  Athenians,  457  H.C., 
but  were  defeated  by  them  in  426,  when  Agis 
II.  headed  the  Spartans,  and  Nicias  the 
Athenians. 

Tang.     The  tang  of  the  breech  of  a  mus- 
ket, is  the  projecting  part  by  which  the  barrel 


TANGENT 


572 


TAKGET 


is  secured  to  the  stock.     Also,  that  part  of  a 
sword-blade  to  which  the  hilt  is  riveted. 

Tangent  Scale.  In  gunnery,  a  brass 
plate,  the  lower  edge  of  which  is  cut  to  fit 
the  base-ring  or  base-line  of  the  piece,  and 
the  upper  edge  cut  into  notches  for  each 
one-fourth  degree  elevation.  It  is  used  in 
pointing,  by  placing  the  lower  edge  on  the 
base-ring,  or  base-line,  with  the  radius  of 
the  notch  corresponding  with  the  highest 
point  of  the  base-ring  or  line  ;  and  sighting 
over  the  centre  of  the  notch  ;  and  the  highest 
point  of  the  muzzle,  or  top  of  the  muzzle- 
sight. 

Tangier.  A  seaport  of  Morocco,  on  a 
small  bay  or  inlet  of  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar. 
Tangier  was  taken  by  the  Portuguese  in 
1471,  and  ceded  to  the  English  in  1662,  and 
held  by  them  for  twenty-two  years.  It  was 
bombarded  by  the  French  in  1844. 

Tanjore.  A  town  of  British  India,  capi- 
tal of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  in  the 
presidency  of  Madras.  In  1678  Tanjore  was 
conquered  by  the  Mahratta  chief,  Vencajeo, 
brother  of  Sevajee.  In  the  reign  of  the  rajah 
Tooljajee,  the  nabob  of  Arcot,  supported  by 
the  Madras  government,  laid  claim  to  tribute 
from  Tanjore,  and  the  rajah  was  deposed, 
but  was  subsequently  restored. 

Tannadar.  In  the  East  Indies,  a  com- 
mander of  a  small  fort  or  custom-house. 

Tannenberg  (East  Prussia).  Here  Lad- 
islaus  v.,  Jagellon  of  Poland,  defeated  the 
Teutonic  Knights  with  great  slaughter,  the 
grand  master  being  among  the  slain,  July 
15,  1410.  The  order  never  recovered  from 
this  calamity. 

Tap.     A  gentle  blow  on  the  drum. 

Taps.  A  sound  of  drum  or  trumpet  which 
takes  place  usually  about  a  quarter  of  an 
hour  after  tattoo,  and  is  an  indication  that 
all  lights  in  the  soldiers'  quarters  will  be 
extinguished,  and  the  men  retire  to  bed. 

Tapuri.  A  powerful  people,  apparently 
of  Scythian  origin,  who  dwelt  in  Media,  on 
the  borders  of  Parthia,  south  of  Mount 
Coronus.  They  also  extended  into  Margiana, 
and  probably  farther  north  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Caspian,  where  their  original 
abodes  seem  to  have  been  in  the  mountains 
called  by  their  name. 

Tara.  A  hill  in  Meath,  Ireland,  where 
it  is  said  a  conference  was  held  between  the 
English  and  Irish  in  1173.  Near  here,  on 
May  26,  1798,  the  royalist  troops,  400  in 
number,  defeated  the  insurgent  Irish  4000 
strong. 

Taranto  (anc.  TareniurrC\.  A  town  of 
Southern  Italy,  province  of  Terra  d'Otranto, 
is  situated  on  a  rocky  islet  formerly  an  isth- 
mus between  the  Mare  Piccolo  (Little  Sea), 
and  the  Mare  Grande  (Great  Sea),  or  Gulf 
of  Taranto,  on  the  west.  Ancient  Tarentum 
was  a  far  more  splendid  city  than  its  modern 
representative.  Its  greatness  dates  from  708 
B.C.,  when  the  original  inhabitants  were  ex- 
pelled, and  the  town  was  taken  possession  of 
by  a  strong  body  of  Lacediemonian  Par- 
theniaj  under  the  guidance  of  Phalanthus. 


It  soon  became  the  most  powerful  city  in 
the  whole  of  Magna  Grajcia,  and  exercised 
a  kind  of  supremacy  over  the  other  Greek 
cities  in  Italy.  It  possessed  a  considerable 
fleet  of  ships  of  war,  and  was  able  to  bring 
into  the  field,  with  the  assistance  of  its  allies, 
an  army  of  30,000  foot  and  3000  horse.  The 
people  of  Tarentum,  assisted  by  Pyrrhus, 
king  of  Epirus,  supported  a  war  which  had 
been  undertaken  *in  281  B.C.  by  the  Komans, 
to  avenge  the  insults  the  Tarentines  had 
off'ered  to  their  ships  when  near  their  har- 
bors ;  it  was  terminated  after  ten  years ; 
300,000  prisoners  were  taken,  and  Tarentum 
became  subject  to  Kome.  Except  the  cita- 
del, Tarentum  was  captured  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians, 212,  but  recovered  by  Fabius,  209 
B  c.  Tarentum  has  shared  in  the  revolu- 
tions of  Southern  Italy. 

Tarazona.  A  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Zaragoza,  on  the  Queyles,  a 
tributary  of  the  Ebro.  It  is  the  ancient 
Turiaso,  and  here  a  few  Koman  troops 
routed  a  Celtibcrian  army.  It  became  a 
municlpiuni  under  the  Komans. 

Tarbes.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Hautes  Pyrenees,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Adour.  For  a  long  time  it  be- 
longed to  the  English  monarchs,  and  it  was 
the  residence  of  the  Black  Prince.  On 
March  20,  1814,  a  combat  took  place  here 
between  the  British  under  Wellington  and 
the  French  under  Soult,  in  which  the  former 
gained  the  victory. 

Tar-bucket.     See  Implements. 

Tard-venus,  or  Malandrins  (Fr.).  Free- 
booters, banditti,  who  elected  their  own 
chief,  and  appeared  first  in  France  in  1360. 

Tarentum.     See  Taranto. 

Target.  In  its  modern  sense,  is  the  mark 
for  aiming  at  in  practicing  with  the  cannon, 
rifle,  or  bow  and  arrow.  In  its  more  ancient 
meaning,  a  target,  or  targe,  was  a  shield, 
circular  in  form,  cut  out  of  ox-hide,  mounted 
on  light  but  strong  wood,  and  strengthened 
by  bosses,  spikes,  etc.  Of  modern  targets, 
the  simplest  is  that  used  for  archery.  "With 
regard  to  rifle-targets,  the  numerous  rifle- 
matches  have  caused  ranges  to  be  constructed 
over  the  whole  country.  The  necessities  are : 
a  butt,  artificially  constructed  or  cut  in  the 
face  of  a  hill,  to  prevent  wide  balls  from 
scattering  ;  a  marker's  shot-proof  cell,  near 
the  targets  ;  and  a  range  of  such  length  as 
can  be  procured.  The  targets  used  at  the 
Creedmoor  range  on  Long  Island,  and  by 
the  U.  S.  army,  are  divided  into  three  classes 
and  are  of  the  following  sizes :  The  thir-d 
clas.^,  to  be  used  at  all  distances  up  to  and 
including  300  yards,  is  a  rectangle  6  feet 
high  and  4  feet  wide.  Three  concentric  cir- 
cles are  described,  with  the  middle  point  as 
a  centre  and  radii  of  4,  13,  and  23  inches 
respectively.  The  inner  circle  is  black,  and 
so  are  the  lines  marking  the  circumference 
of  the  middle  and  outer  circles  ;  the  rest  of 
the  target  is  white.  The  second  class  is  a 
square,  6  feet  high.  Three  concentric  cir- 
cles are  drawn,  with  the  middle  point  as  a 


TARGETED 


573 


TARTART 


centre  and  radii  of  11,  19,  and  27  inches 
respectively.  The  inner  circle  is  black,  as 
well  as  the  circumferences  of  the  other  cir- 
cles ;  the  rest  of  the  tartlet  is  white.  This 
tari^et  is  used  at  all  distances  over  300,  to, 
and  including,  (500  yards.  The  first  clatis, 
to  be  used  at  all  distances  over  <)(X)  yards,  is 
a  rectangle,  6  feet  liigh  and  12  feet  wide. 
It  lias  two  concentric  circles,  described  with 
a  radii  of  18  and  27  inches  respectively,  the 
centre  being  at  the  middle  point  of  the  tar- 
get, and  two  lines  drawn  parallel  to,  and  3 
feet  from,  each  end  (leaving  the  inner,  square, 
C  feet  by  tJ  feet).  The  target  is  white,  ex- 
cept the  lines  just  indicated  and  the  inner 
circle,  which  are  black.  The  smallest  circle, 
always  painted  black,  is  called  iha  bull's-eye, 
and  when  struck,  counts  5  for  the  marks- 
num  ;  the  ring  embraced  between  the  bull's- 
eye  and  the  circumference  of  the  ne.\t  larger 
circle  is  called  the  centre,  which  counts  4; 
and  the  ring  between  the  second  and  third 
circles  is  called  the  i)iner,  which  scores  3  ; 
and  the  space  outside  of  the  larger  circle  is 
called  the  outer,  and  scores  2.  In  the  first- 
class  target  the  space  between  the  second 
circle  and  the  vertical  lines  is  the  inner,  and 
the  space  outside  the  vertical  lines  is  the 
Older. 

In  artillery  practice,  targets  of  consider- 
able size  are  used  at  long  ranges.  The  usual 
practice  is  over  the  sea ;  targets  are  then 
painted  on  the  sides  of  old  vessels,  or  are 
floated  by  buoys.  For  trying  the  power  of 
ordnance,  solid  targets  are  constructed  to  re- 
semble the  sides  of  iron-plated  ships,  portions 
of  fortification,  etc. 

Targeted.  Furnished  or  armed  with  a 
tars^ct. 

Targeteer,  or  Targetier.  One  armed  with 
a  target  or  shield. 

Tariere  (Fr.).  A  machine  of  war  similar 
to  the  battering-ram  (which  it  preceded), 
excepting  that  the  head  was  pointed.  It 
made  the  first  opening  in  the  wall,  which 
was  increased  by  the  belier. 

Tarifa.  A  seaport  town  of  Spain,  20 
miles  southwest  from  Gibraltar.  It  was 
successfully  defended  in  1811  by  Col.  (rough, 
with  a  body  of  2500  British"  and  Spani.^h 
troops  against  a  French  force  of  10,000  men, 
undtr  \'ictor  and  Laval. 

Tarquinii.  An  ancient  city  of  Etruria, 
on  tlu-  left  bank  of  the  Marta,  about  4  miles 
from  the  Mediterranean.  In  308  ii.c,  while 
the  Romans  were  at  war  with  the  Veii.they 
were  attacked  by  the  Tarquinians,  who  seem 
from  this  time  to  have  been  frequently  united 
with  the  other  Etru.<can  cities  against  Rome. 
AVar  was  carried  on  with  varying  success 
and  st>me  intermissions  till  3-^1,  when  a  truce 
of  forty  years  was  agreed  upon.  After  its 
expiration,  hostilities  were  again  for  a  short 
time  renewed  ;  but  in  309  another  truce  was 
concluded,  in  the  course  of  which  Tarquinii 
seems  to  have  gradually  become  subject  to 
Rome.  It  continued  to  be  a  flourishing 
town  under  the  empire,  and  after  its  fall, 
until  it  was  destroved  bv  the  Saracens. 


Tarragona  (anc.  Tarraco).  A  seaport 
city  of  Sfiain,  capital  of  the  province  t>f  the 
same  natne.at  the  mouth  of  the  Francoli,  in 
the  Mediterranean,  />2  miles  west-southwest 
fnirn  Barcelona.  The  ancient  Tarraco  was 
originally  a  Phoenician  settlement ;  it  after- 
wards became  the  capital  of  the  Roman 
province  called  by  its  name.  After  the  fall 
of  the  empire,  it  was  taken  by  the  CJoths ; 
and  at  a  later  period  was  laid  in  ruins  by  the 
Moors.  In  the  11th  century  tlie  niodern 
town  was  founded  on  the  site  of  the  former. 
In  1705,  it  was  captured  by  the  English,  but 
was  afterwards  abandoned;  and  in  1811  it 
was  taken  and  sacked  by  the  French  under 
Suchet. 

Tarred-links.     See  Pybotechnv. 

Tarsus  (now  Terstts).  Anciently  the 
chief  city  of  Cilicia,  and  one  of  the  most 
importjint  in  all  Asia  Minor,  situated  on 
both  sides  of  the  navigable  river  Cydnus, 
about  18  miles  from  the  sea.  In  the  time  of 
Xenophon,  who  gives  us  the  first  historical 
notice  of  Tarsus,  it  was  taken  by  Cyrus.  At 
the  time  of  the  Macedonian  invasion,  it  was 
held  by  the  Persian  troops,  who  were  pre- 
vented from  burning  it  by  Alexander's  ar- 
rival. It  played  an  important  part  as  a 
military  post  in  the  wars  of  the  successors  of 
Alexander,  and  under  the  Syrian  kings.  As 
the  power  of  the  Seleucidie  declined,  it  suf- 
fered much  from  the  oppression  of  its  gov- 
ernors, and  from  the  wars  between  the 
members  of  the  royal  family.  At  the  time 
of  the  Mithridatic  war,  it  suffered,  on  the 
one  band,  from  Tigranes,  who  overran  Cili- 
cia, and,  on  the  other,  from  the  pirates,  who 
had  their  strongholds  in  the  mountains  of 
Cilicia  Aspera,  and  made  frequent  incursions 
into  the  level  country.  From  both  these 
enemies  it  was  rescued  by  Pompey,  GG  n.c. 
In  the  civil  war  it  took  part  with  Cwsar. 
For  this  the  inhabitants  were  severely  pun- 
ished by  Cassius,  but  were  recompensed  by 
Antony,  who  made  Tarsus  a  free  city.  It 
was  the  scene  of  important  events  in  the 
wars  with  the  Persians,  the  Arabs,  and  the 
Turks,  and  also  in  the  Crusades. 

Tartares  (Fr.).  A  word  used  in  the 
French  army  to  distinguish  officers'  servants 
and  batmenfrom  the"si>ldiers  who  .serve  in 
the  ranks.      Tai-tnre  likewise  means  a  groom. 

Tartary  (properly  Totnrif).  Is  the  name 
undir  whicli,  in  the  Middle  Age5,  was  com- 
prised the  whole  central  belt  of  Central  Asia 
and  Eii.<tern  Europe,  fmm  the  Sea  of  Jajmn 
to  the  Dnieper,  including  Mantchuria,  Mon- 
golia, Eastern  Turkestan.  I ndopendent  Tur- 
kestan, the  Kalmuck  and  the  Kirghis  step}>es, 
and  the  old  khanates  of  Kasan.  Astrakhan, 
and  the  Crimea,  and  even  the  Cossack  coun- 
tries ;  and  hence  ari>se  a  distinction  of  Tar- 
tary into  European  and  Asiatic.  But  latterly 
the"  name  Tartary  had  a  much  more  lim- 
ited signification,  including  only  that  tract 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Sil>eriR,  and  on  the 
south  by  China  and  Thibet,  along  with  Inde- 
pendent" Turkestan  :  and  at  the  present  day, 
many  writers  apply   it   as  a  synonym  for 


TASA 


574 


TEPLIS 


Turkestan.  The  Tartars  (or,  more  properly, 
Tatars)  was  originally  a  name  of  the  Mon- 
golic  races,  but  came  to  be  extended  to  all 
the  tribes  brought  under  Mongolic  sway  by 
Genghis  Khan  and  his  successors,  including 
Tungusic  and  Turkic  races.  The  term  is 
therefore  not  to  be  considered  as  ethnolog- 
ical, though  all,  or  almost  all,  the  peoples  in- 
cluded under  it,  in  its  widest  sense,  belong 
to  the  Turanian  family,  but  is  rather  to  be 
understood  in  the  same  sense  as  the  term 
"  Franks"  used  by  the  Mohammedans.  Dur- 
ing the  decline  of  the  Eoman  empire,  these 
tribes  began  to  seek  more  fertile  regions; 
and  the  first  who  reached  the  frontier  of 
Italy  were  the  Huns,  the  ancestors  of  the 
modern  Mongols.  The  first  acknowledged 
sovereign  of  this  vast  country  was  the  famous 
Genghis  Khan.  His  empire  b}' the  conquest 
of  China,  Persia,  and  all  Central  Asia  (1206- 
27),  became  one  of  the  most  formidable  ever 
established  ;  but  it  was  split  into  parts  in  a 
few  reigns.  Timur,  or  Tamerlane,  again 
conquered  Persia,  broke  the  power  of  the 
Turks  in  Asia  Minor  (1370-1400),  and 
founded  the  Mogul  dynasty  in  India,  which 
began  with  Baber  in  1525,  and  formed  the 
most  splendid  court  in  Asia,  till  the  close  of 
the  18th  century.  The  Calmucks,  a  branch  of 
the  Tartars,  expelled  from  China,  settled  on 
the  banks  of  the  Volga  in  1672,  but  returned 
in  1771,  and  thousands  perished  on  the  jour- 
ney. 

Tasa.  In  the  East  Indies,  a  kind  of 
drum,  formed  of  a  hemisphere  of  copper, 
hollowed  out  and  covered  with  goat-skin. 
It  is  hung  before  from  the  shoulders,  and 
beat  with  two  rattans. 

Taslet.  A  piece  of  armor  formerly  worn 
on  the  thigh. 

Tasse.  Formerly  a  piece  of  armor  for 
the  thighs ;  an  appendage  to  the  ancient 
corselet,  consisting  of  skirts  of  iron  that  cov- 
ered the  thighs,  fastened  to  the  cuirass  with 
hooks. 

Tattoo.  The  evening  sound  of  drum  or 
trumpet,  after  which  the  roll  is  called,  and 
all  soldiers  not  on  leave  of  absence  should 
be  in  their  quarters. 

Tau,  Cross.  In  heraldry,  a  cross  of  a 
form  somewhat  resembling  the  Greek  letter 
Tail.  St.  Anthony  is  generally  represented 
with  a  cross  of  this  description,  embroidered 
on  the  left  side  of  his  garment. 

Taulantii.  A  people  of  Illyria,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Epidamnus.  One  of  their 
most  powerful  kings  was  Glaueias,  who 
fought  against  Alexander  the  Great. 

Taunton.  A  town  of  England,  county  of 
Somerset,  on  the  river  Tone.  It  was  taken 
by  Perkin  Warbeck,  September,  1497  ;  and 
here  he  was  surrendered  to  Henry  VII. 
October  5  following.  The  Duke  of  Mon- 
mouth was  proclaimed  king  of  Taunton, 
June  20,  1685 ;  and  it  was  the  scene  of  the 
"bloody  assize"  held  by  Jeifreys  upon  the 
rebels  in  August. 

Taupins,  or  Francs-Taupins  {Fr.).  A 
name  which  was  formerly  given  to  a  body 


of  free-arches,  or  francs-archers,  in  France. 
This  body  consisted  chiefly  of  countrymen 
and  rustics. 

Tauromenium.  An  ancient  Greek  city 
in  Sicily,  on  the  east  coast  of  the  island, 
about  half-way  between  Messina  and  Ca- 
tania. In  394,  Dionj'sius  besieged  the  new 
city,  and  spent  the  greater  part  of  a  winter 
in  an  unsuccessful  etfort  to  take  it.  A  peace 
was  concluded  in  392,  in  terms  of  which 
Tauromenium  became  subject  to  Dionysius, 
who  immediately  expelled  the  former  in- 
habitants, and  supplied  their  place  by  mer- 
cenaries of  his  own.  In  358,  Andromachus 
collected  the  survivors  of  the  original  in- 
habitants of  Naxos,  and  settled  them  at 
Tauromenium.  Under  Andromachus  the 
city  made  rapid  progress.  He  assisted  Timo- 
leon  in  his  expedition  to  Sicily.  At  a  later 
period  the  city  was  conquered  by  Hiero  of 
Syracuse,  and  it  remained  subject  to  that 
city  until,  with  the  whole  of  Sicily,  it  passed 
into  the  power  of  the  Romans.  In  the  Ser- 
vile war  in  Sicily  (134-32  B.C.),  it  was  cap- 
tured by  the  insurgent  slaves,  and  held  by 
them  till  the  last  extremity,  suffering  the 
utmost  calamities,  until  the  citadel  was  be- 
trayed to  the  Romans.  It  was  taken  and 
destroyed  by  the  Saracens  after  a  siege  of 
two  years,  in  906. 

Taxiarchs.  In  the  Athenian  army,  were 
ten  in  number  (every  tribe  having  the  privi- 
lege of  electing  one),  and  commanded  next 
under  the  straiegeoi.  Their  business  was  to 
marshal  the  army,  give  orders  for  their 
marches,  and  appoint  what  provisions  each 
soldier  should  furnish  himself  with.  They 
had  also  power  to  cashier  any  of  the  com- 
mon soldiers,  if  convicted  of  a  misdemeanor  ; 
but  their  jurisdiction  was  only  over  the  foot. 

Tchernaya.  A  river  in  the  Crimea.  On 
August  16,  1855,  the  lines  of  the  allied  army 
at  this  place  were  attacked  by  50,000  Rus- 
sians under  Prince  GortschakofF  without 
success,  being  repulsed  with  the  loss  of  3329 
slain,  1658  wounded,  and  600  prisoners. 
The  brunt  of  the  attack  was  borne  by  two 
French  regiments  under  Gen.  d'Herbillon. 
The  loss  of  the  allies  was  about  1200;  200  of 
these  were  from  the  Sardinian  contingent, 
which  behaved  with  great  gallantry,  under 
the  command  of  Gen.  La  Marmora.  The 
Russian  general  Read,  and  the  Sardinian, 
general  Montevecchio,  were  killed.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  attack  was  the  relief  of  Sebasto- 
pol,  then  closely  besieged  by  the  English 
and  French. 

Tearless  Victory.  In. 367  B.C.  Archida- 
mus,  king  of  Sparta,  defeated  the  Arcadians 
and  Argives  in  the  "Tearless  Battle,"  so 
called  because  he  had  won  it  without  losing 
a  man. 

Tebet  {Fr.).  A  kind  of  axe  which  the 
Turks  carry  at  their  saddle-bow  during  war. 

Teepe.     See  Wigwam. 

Teflis,  or  Tiflis.  A  city  of  Russia  in  Asia, 
in  Transcaucasia,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Georgia.  It  was  founded  about  the  middle 
of  the  5th  centur}',  by  a  powerful  monarch 


TEFTERDAR 


575 


TELEGRAPH 


called  Waktang ;  and  afterwards  rose  to 
{jroiit  importance.  It  was  taken  by  Gcntjhis 
Kliiiii  in  the  12th  century,  and  by  Mustapha 
Pasha,  loir,.  In  1723  it  was  tiiken  by  the 
Turks,  in  1734  by  Kouli  Klian,  and  it  was 
destroyed  by  Aga  Mohamined  in  1795.  It 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  Russians  in 
1801.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded 
here  between  Russia  and  Persia,  October  12, 
1813. 

Tefterdar  Effendi.  The  commissary-gen- 
eral is  so  called  among  the  Turks. 

Tegea.  An  ancient  city  of  Greece,  form- 
ing one  of  the  most  powerful  states  in  Ar- 
cadia. Tlie  Tegeata;  long  resisted  the  su- 
premacy of  Sparta,  and  it  was  not  till  the 
Spartans  discovered  the  bones  of  Orestes  that 
thcv  were  enabled  to  conquer  this  people. 
The  Tegeata;  sent  3000  men  to  the  battle  of 
Plata-a',  in  which  they  were  distinguished 
for  their  bravery.  They  remained  faithful 
to  Sparta  in  the  Peloponnesian  war;  but 
after  the  battle  of  Leuctra  they  joined  the 
rest  of  the  Arcadians  in  establishing  their 
independence.  During  the  wars  of  the 
Acluean  league,  Tegea  was  taken  both  by 
Cleomenes,  king  of  Sparta,  and  Antigonus 
Doson,  king  of  Macedonia,  and  the  ally  of 
the  Achicans. 

Tekrit  (anc.  Bh-fhn).  A  town  situated 
on  the  Euphrates,  in  Afcsopotamia.  It  was 
unsuccessfully  besieged  by  Sapor  I.,  king 
of  lVT>ia,  in2tiO. 

Telegraph,  Field  or  Flying.  During  the 
civil  war  (I8OI-O0)  in  the  United  States  a 
signal  corps  was  organized,  whose  duties  ex- 
tended to  the  management  of  field  tele- 
graphs, and  light  lines,  when  the  formation 
of  the  country  was  such  that  aerial  signals 
could  not  be  used,  or  it  wjis  for  any  reason 
desirable  that  short  electric  lines  be  ex- 
tended. It  has  been  demonstrated  that 
electric  instruments  may  be  of  the  most 
simple  construction  ;  and  electric  lines  can 
Le  set  up,  and  be  utilized  in  places  where  a 
few  years  ago  it  was  deemed  impracticable 
to  eni))lny  tliem  ;  and  can  be  worked  with- 
out otlier  skilled  labor  than  that  of  the  sol- 
diers attached  to  the  posts,  and  with  no  ap- 
paratus but  such  as  can  be  had  at  a  trivial 
expense.  There  is  no  reason  why,  with 
properly  drilled  parties,  electric  lines  may 
not  be  thrown  out  in  the  moments  which 
precede,  or  even  during  the  progress  of,  a 
tattle,  and  be  so  worked  as  to  lessen  infi- 
nitely that  difficulty  of  rapid  communication 
which  has  so  often  caused  disaster.  AVith  a 
corps  well  organized  and  well  equipped,  the 
connection  betwe<'n  the  corps  of  an  army, 
and  between  the  corps  headquarters  and 
general  headquarters,  ought  to  1m^  perfected 
in  a  very  few  hours  after  the  halt  of  the 
army.  The  field  lines  of  the  Signal  Corps 
consist  of  rolls  of  wire  carrie<l  in  light- 
wheeled  vehicles,  and  light  "lance  poles," 
as  they  are  called,  on  which  the  wire  is 
stretched  when  necessary.  The  wire  made 
for  the  purpose  is  of  small  strands  of  iron 
and  copper  twisted,  to  give  it  strength  and 


flexibility.  It  is  insulated  with  prepared 
india-rubber,  or  other  material,  and  wound 
on  reels  which,  in  an  emergency,  can  be 
carried  anywhere  by  hand,  while  the  wire 
reeling  out  can  be  raised  upon  fences,  fas- 
tened to  trees,  or  laid  along  the  ground.  The 
instruments  used  at  first  were  of  a  kind 
known  as  the  Beardslce  instrument.  These 
instruments  are  worked  without  batteries, 
the  electric  current  being  generated  by  re- 
volving magnets.  They  were  "  indicating," 
an  index  upon  a  dial  pointing,  at  the  receiv- 
ing station,  to  whatever  letter  was  desig- 
nated by  the  index  handle  inion  a  similar 
dial  at  the  sending  station.  There  were  as 
!  advantages  attaching  to  this  instrument, 
I  that  it  was  portable  and  compact,  could  be 
I  set  at  work  anywhere,  required  no  batteries, 
j  acids,  or  fluids;  and  what  was  thought  of 
I  importance  in  the  early  days  of  the  civil 
war,  and  while  the  corps  was  a  temporary 
I  organization,  it  could  be  worked  by  soldiers 
without  skill  as  operators.  The  defects  were, 
that  messages  could  not  be  sent  as  rapidly 
or  as  far  as  by  .some  other  instruments.  Nor 
could  several  instruments  work  easily  upon 
i  a  single  circuit.  For  some  uses  on  the  field 
of  battle,  or  under  fire,  where  the  attention 
of  the  reader  is  disturbed,  it  is,  perhaps,  as 
good  an  instrument  as  has  been  devised. 
With  a  permanent  corps,  or  at  .secure  sta- 
tions, i  t  gi  ves  place  to  some  of  the  forms  of  sig- 
nal or  of  sound  instruments.  The  instruments 
upon  field  lines  may  be  of  very  simple  struc- 
ture. The  signal  instruments,  either  the 
needle  or  the  letter  instruments,  can  be  used 
in  actual  conflict,  if  the  reports  of  heavy 
guns  or  other  disturbances  of  action  render 
reading  by  sound  unreliable.  The  manu- 
facture of  both  instruments  and  batteries 
has  been  improved,  until  there  is  now  no 
trouble  in  carrying  either  in  the  field  in  the 
roughest  campaigns.  The  difficultv  in  read- 
ing from  telegraphic  instruments  W  sound, 
which  has  been  the  greatest  obstacle  to  their 
use,  can  be  almost  done  away  with  by  using 
them  with  codes  of  easy  signals.  In  the 
Prussian  army,  also,  the  electric  telegraph  is 
applied  for  field  purposes.  Morse's  system 
is  used.  Each  headquarters  of  an  army 
and  each  army  corps,  has  a  telegraphic  di- 
vision of  3  officers,  137  men,  73  horses,  and 
10  wagons.  Two  of  the  latter  are  fitted  up 
as  operating-rooms,  and  the  other  8  are  used 
for  carrying  poles  and  other  material,  in- 
cluding 5  miles  of  wire  to  each  wagon, 
which' can  be  reeled  oft'  by  the  moving  of 
'  the  vehicle.  Of  the  whole'  40  miles,  5  are 
I  insulated,  and  can  be  run  along  the  ground. 
I  It  will  bo  seen  that  each  army  corps  can 
'  put  out  40  miles  of  line  without  recourse  to 
i  other  wires,  but  use  is  always  made  of  lines 
I  found  in  the  country,  in  case  they  will  an- 
swer. Single  poles"  of  light  material  are 
used,  witho^ut  joints,  and  alx»ut  10  feet  long, 
and  only  every  third  polo  is  nut  in  the 
ground.  The /)^7-.«i.M»i('/ is  Imuight  into  the 
army  from  the  civil  telegraphic  service  at 
home.     "While  in  the  field,  the  operators  as- 


TELEMETER 


576 


TELEMETER 


sume  military  rank,  and,  like  agents  of  the 
Post-office  Department,  are  known  as  "  mili- 
tary officials,"  not  as  "  military  officers." 
The  men  are  on  a  footing  with  train-sol- 
diers. The  operating-wagons  are  a  little 
larger  than  the  Rucker  ambulances  of  the 
U.  S.  service,  but  much  heavier.  Just  in  the 
rear  of  the  driver  is  a  partition  shutting  ofi' 
the  rear  portion  of  the  carriage.  At  his  back, 
and  under  his  seat,  is  a  capacious  box,  in 
which  are  carried  tools,  and  the  material 
necessary  in  telegraphing.  On  one  side  of 
the  rear  closed  portion  is  a  neat  table  with 
a  compact  operating  instrument  on  it,  and 
a  battery  under  it ;  and  on  the  opposite  side 
is  the  operator's  bench,  the  space  under- 
neath it  being  also  economized.  On  the 
outside  near  the  table  are  sockets,  with 
thumb-screws  connected  with  the  battery, 
to  receive  the  wires.  During  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war,  besides  keeping  the  king  in 
telegraphic  communication  with  his  minis- 
ters, lines  were  run  from  Gen.  von  Moltke's 
headquarters  to  all  the  different  corps  in  the 
field.  The  telegraph  corps  always  evinced 
admirable  promptness  in  keeping  the  lines 
closed  up  as  the  army  moved  forward.  In 
Great  Britain,  the  system  of  military  teleg- 
raphy forms  part  of  the  duties  of  the  Royal 
Engineers. 

Telemeter.  An  instrument  for  deter- 
mining long  distances.  (See  Range- 
finder.)  One  of  the  best-known  telemeters 
is  the  invention  of  Capt.  A.  Gautier  of  the 
French  army.  It  consists  of  a  short  tube 
containing  two  mirrors  set  at  an  angle  of  45° 
with  each  other,  one  of  which  is  fixed ;  the 
other  admits  of  a  slight  rotation.  A  hole  in 
the  side  of  the  tube  allows  the  image  of  a 
secondary  distant  object  on  the  prolonga- 
tion of  the  base-line  to  be  brought  in  line 
with  that  of  the  distant  object  whose  dis- 
tance is  to  be  measured.  An  observation  is 
next  taken  from  the  other  end  of  the  short 
base-line,  and  the  image  of  the  secondary 
object  again  brought  in  contact  with  that  of 
the  principal  object  by  rotating  a  ring  on 
the  front  of  the  tube.  The  extent  of  this 
rotation  (as  denoted  by  a  scale),  gives  a  fac- 
tor which,  multiplied  by  the  base-line,  gives 
the  required  distance. 

The  Boulonge  telemeter  is  an  instrument 
devised  for  ascertaining  the  distance  to  a 
point  by  means  of  sound  proceeding  from  the 
point  to  the  place  of  observation.  The  one 
used  for  artillery  consists  of  a  glass  tube  about 
6  inches  in  length,  filled  with  a  transparent 
liquid  that  does  not  freeze  except  with  in- 
tense cold.  In  the  liquid  is  a  metallic  disk, 
which  moves  freely  from  one  end  of  the 
tube  to  the  other.  It  is  so  adjusted  that  the 
motion  will  be  uniform  and  comparatively 
slow.  The  tube  is  inclosed  in  a  brass  case, 
to  which  is  attached  a  scale,  after  the  fashion 
of  a  thermometer.  This  scale  is  marked  for 
each  hundred  yards  up  to  4000.  The  di- 
visions on  the  scale  show  the  distance,  in 
yards,  through  which  sound  will  travel  in 
air  during  the  time  required  for  the  disk  to 


descend  over  the  space  on  the  scale  marked 
by  the  corresponding  number  of  yards. 
The  instrument  must  be  held  vertically,  or 
as  nearly  so  as  possible.  To  arrest  the  mo- 
tion of  the  disk  at  anj'  point,  the  instrument 
is  quickly  turned  to  a  horizontal  position. 

To  use  it  for  determining  the  time  of  flight 
of  shells  it  is  held  in  the  right  hand,  back  of 
the  hand  up,  with  the  zero  of  the  instru- 
ment to  the  left ;  a  turn  of  the  wrist  to  the 
right  brings  the  instrument  vertical,  with 
the  zero  end  uppermost ;  the  disk  then  de- 
scends, and  a  turn  of  the  wrist  to  the  left 
arrests  its  motion.  The  observer,  holding 
the  instrument  as  described,  watches  for  the 
flash  of  the  shell,  and  upon  seeing  it  in- 
stantly brings  the  instrument  to  a  vertical 
position ;  upon  hearing  the  report  from  the 
shell  he  instantly  turns  it  back  again.  The 
position  of  the  disk  indicates  the  number  of 
yards  from  the  observer  to  where  the  shell 
exploded. 

To  ascertain  the  distance  to  an  enemy's 
battery,  the  instrument  is  held  and  turned 
in  the  same  manner.  The  observer  watches 
for  the  flash  of  a  gun  ;  observing  which,  he 
turns  the  instrument,  and  when  he  hears 
the  report  turns  it  back  and  reads  off  the 
distance.  Each  hundred  yards  on  the  scale 
is  subdivided  into  quarters. 

The  telemeter  invented  by  Capt.  A.  Gau- 
tier of  the  French  army  is  an  instrument  for 
measuring,  with  a  great  degree  of  approxi- 
mation, any  difference,  not  exceeding  three 
degrees,  which  may  be  exhibited  in  the 
bearing  of  a  distant  object  by  viewing  it 
from  di9"erent  points  of  a  base-line  trans- 
verse to  its  general  direction  from  the  ob- 
server. The  instrument,  in  its  simplicity, 
accuracy,  and  portability,  recommends  itself 
in  all  cases  where  a  knowledge  of  distances 
is  desired  at  any  moment  and  with  the  least 
possible  delay  ;  such,  for  instance,  as  range- 
finding,  river-crossing,  reconnoitring,  and 
the  like.  A  slight  acquaintance  with  its 
use  on  such  occasions  enables  the  observer  to 
estimate,  with  more  than  ordinary  prompti- 
tude and  precision,  the  distance  which  it 
might  be  all-important  to  obtain. 

The  instrument  resembles  in  shape  and 
size  one  barrel  of  an  ordinary  reconnoitring- 
or  field-glass.  The  case  in  which  it  is  car^ 
ried  is  fashioned  so  as  to  answer  as  a  handle 
for  holding  the  instrument  when  making 
observations.  Within  the  barrel  of  the  in- 
strument are  placed  two  mirrors  at  an  angle 
of  45°  with  each  other;  this  angle  can  be 
varied  within  certain  limits  by  means  of  a 
milled-headed  screw  acting  on  one  of  them. 
The  mirrors  are  thus  made  to  operate  upon 
the  principle  of  the  sextant.  A  slot  on  one 
side  of  the  barrel  permits  the  rays  of  light 
from  an  object  to  fall  upon  one  of  the  mir- 
rors, from  whence  they  are  reflected  upon 
the  other  mirror,  and  the  image  is  seen 
through  the  eye-glass  at  the  small  end  of  the 
instrument.  At  the  front  or  large  end  is 
fixed,  in  a  ring  surrounding  the  barrel,  a 
prism,  whose  displacement  modifies  the  di- 


TELEPHONE 


577 


TENAILLOXS 


rection  of  an  object  seen  through  it.  At  the 
rear  of  the  instrument  is  a  small  eye-glass, 
by  means  of  which  the  observer  sees,  over 
the  mirrors  and  through  the  ])ri.sm,  the  ob- 
ject which  is  before  him,  and  by  double  re- 
flection in  the  mirrors  the  object  to  the  side 
of  him. 

The  American  general *Berdan  has  in- 
vented a  large  telemeter  for  garrison  and 
sea-coast  service  which  has  been  tested  in 
Germany  in  1875  and  187t>  and  found  to  be 
very  exact  in  the  determination  of  distances. 
He  has  also  constructed  a  new  model  for 
field  and  mountain  artillery  which  can  be 
packed  up  and  transported  on  horseback. 

Telephone.  An  instrument  for  repro- 
ducing s(»unds,  e>j)ocially  articulate  speech, 
at  a  distance,  by  the  aid  of  electricity  or 
electro-nuignetism.  It  consists  essentially 
of  a  device  by  which  currents  of  electricity, 
produced  by  the  sounds,  and  exactly  corre- 
sponding in  duration  and  intensity  to  the 
vibrations  of  the  air  which  attend  them,  are 
transmitted  to  a  distant  station,  and  there, 
acting  on  suitable  mechanism,  reproduce 
similar  sounds  by  repeating  the  vibrations. 
Telephones  were  recently  used  by  Sir  Garnet 
"Wolseley  in  the  war  in  Zuliiland,  and  are 
being  rapidly  adopted  in  European  armies. 

Tell  Off.  A  military  term,  expressing  the 
dividing  and  j)racticing  a  regiment  or  com- 
pany in  the  several  formations,  preparatory 
to  marching  to  the  general  parade  for  field 
exercise. 

Tellenon  (Fr.).  An  ancient  machine  used 
at  sieges.     See  Tolenon. 

Teilevas  (Fr.).  A  large  shield  formerly 
used,  similar  to  iho  pavois. 

Tembu,  Abatempu,  or  Tambookie.  Is 
the  name  <>f  an  important  tribe  of  Kaffirs, 
occupying  the  region  east  of  the  present 
boundary  of  the  Cape  Colony.  In  the  earl- 
ier Kaffir  wars,  and  even  in  the  great  one 
of  1835-36,  the  Tambookie  Kaffirs  remained 
neutral,  and  even  friendly  to  the  colonists; 
but  in  the  war  of  1848-49,  they  were  in- 
duced to  join  the  other  tribes,  and  were  de- 
feated with  great  loss  by  a  small  colonial 
force.  In  the  war  of  1851,  they  were  much 
broken  and  scattered ;  but  eventually  sub- 
mitting to  the  British  authority,  they  have 
quietly  located  themselves  in  the  unoccupied 
country  east  of  the  White  Kei  and  Tsomo 
Rivers. 

Temesvar,  or  Temeswar.  A  town  of  the 
Austrian  ompin>,  capital  of  a  circle  of  the 
same  name,  and  of  the  crowniand  of  lianat. 
It  is  strongly  fortified  with  walls,  moats,  and 
outworks.  Temesvar  has  played  an  impor- 
tant part  in  modern  hi.story.  It  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  Turks  from  its  capture  in  1552 
till  1718,  when  it  was  regained  by  Prince 
Eugene,  and  strongly  fortified.  Iri  1849,  it 
was  besieged  for  107  days  by  the  Hungarian 
insurgents,  but  it  held  "out  until  it  was  re- 
lieved by  (ien.  Haynau. 

Templar,  Knights.  A  celebrated  reli- 
gious and  military  order,  founded  at  Jorusa- 
lem  in  the  beginning  of  the  12th  century, 


by  Hugues  de  Pagancs,  Geoffroy  de  St. 
Omer,  and  seven  other  French  knights,  for 
j  the  protection  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  and  of 
pilgrims  resorting  thither.  The  knightd 
were  bound  by  their  rule  to  hear  the  holy 
office  every  day,  or  if  prevented  by  their 
militar}'  duties,  to  say  a  certain  luimber  of 
paternosters  instead,  and  were  conipelled  to 
abstain  from  certain  articles  of  food  on  cer- 
tain days  of  the  week.  They  might  havo 
three  horses  and  an  esquire  each,  but  wero 
forbidden  to  bunt  or  fowl.  After  the  con- 
quest of  Jerusalem  by  the  Saracens,  the 
Templars  spread  over  Europe;  their  valor 
became  everywhere  celebrated  ;  immense  do- 
nations in  money  and  land  were  showered  on 
them,  and  members  of  the  most  distinguished 
families  thought  themselves  honored  by  en- 
rollment in  the  order.  As  the  power  and 
prosperity  of  the  Templars  increased,  so  did 
their  luxury,  arrogance,  and  other  vices, 
which  gave  the  French  kings  a  pretext  for 
endeavoring  to  supj)ress  them,  and  lay  hold 
of  their  possessions.  Their  principal  enemy 
was  Philippe  IV.  of  France,  who  induced 
P(jpe  Clement  V.  to  accede  to  a  scheme  by 
which  the  whole  members  of  the  order  were 
seized  and  imprisoned,  their  lands  confis- 
cated, and  many  of  them  tried,  convicted, 
and  executed  for  capital  crimes.  The  English 
Templars  were  arrested  by  command  of  Ed- 
ward II.  In  1312,  the  whole  order  through- 
out Europe  was  suppressed  by  the  Council 
of  Vicnne,  and  its  property  bestowed  on  the 
Knights  of  St.  John.  The"habit  of  the  Tem- 
plars was  white,  with  a  red  cross  of  eight 
points  of  the  Maltese  form  worn  on  the  left 
shoulder.  Their  war-cry  was  "  Beau  seant' ; 
and  their  banner,  which  bore  the  same  name, 
was  parted  per  fess  sable  and  argent.  They 
also  displayed  above  their  lances  a  white 
banner  charged  with  the  cross  of  the  order. 
Their  badges  were  the  Aijnus  Dei,  and  a  rep- 
resentation of  two  knights  mounted  on  one 
horse, — indicative  of  the  original  poverty  of 
the  order. 

Ten  Thousand,  Retreat  of  the.     See  Re- 

TKKAT    OK    TIIK    TkN    TllolSANI)    GREKK.S. 

Tenable.  Such  as  may  be  maintained 
against  opposition;  such  "as  may  be  held 
against  attack. 

Tenaille.  In  fortification,  is  a  low  work, 
constructed  in  the  main  ditch,  upon  tho 
lines  of  defense,  between  the  bastions,  before 
the  curtain,  composed  of  two  faces,  and 
sometimes  of  two  flanks  and  a  small  curtain. 

Tenaillons.  In  fortification,  are  works 
sometimes  found  ccmstructed  in  an  old  for- 
tress, on  each  side  of  the  ravelin. — the  short 
faces  being  traced,  on  the  prolongations  of 
the  faces  of  the  ravelin,  from  the  counter- 
scarp of  its  ditch  ;  the  long  faces  are  directed 
for  flanking  defense,  to  about  the  middle  of 
the  faces  of  the  bastions. 

Dirtni-tenaillnns  are  very  similar  to  tenail- 
lons, excepting  that  their  short  faces  are 
directed,  perpendicular  to  the  faces  of  the 
ravelin,  ammt  one-third  or  one-half  down 
from  the  flanked  angle. 


TENCTERI 


578 


TENT-PINS 


Tencteri,  or  Tenctheri.  A  people  of  Ger- 
many, dwelling  on  the  Rhine  between  the 
Ruh  and  Sieg,  south  of  the  Usipetes,  in  con- 
junction with  whom  their  name  usually  oc- 
curs. They  crossed  the  Rhine  together  with 
the  Usipetes,  with  the  intention  of  settling 
in  Gaul ;  but  they  were  defeated  by  Cajsar 
with  great  slaughter,  and  those  who  escaped 
took  refuge  in  the  territories  of  their  south- 
ern neighbors,  the  Sygambri.  The  Tencteri 
afterward  belonged  to  the  league  of  the 
Cherusci,  and  at  a  still  later  period  they  are 
mentioned  as  a  portion  of  the  confederacy  of 
the  Franks. 

Tenedos.  A  small  island  belonging  to 
Turkey,  in  the  northeast  of  the  ^gean  Sea, 
off  the  coast  of  the  Troad.  It  appears  in  the 
legend  of  the  Trojan  war,  as  the  station  to 
which  the  Greeks  withdrew  their  ileet  in 
order  to  induce  the  Trojans  to  think  they 
had  departed,  and  to  receive  the  wooden 
horse.  In  the  Persian  war  it  was  used  by 
Xerxes  as  a  naval  station.  It  afterward  be- 
came a  tributary  ally  of  Athens,  and  adhered 
to  her  during  the  whole  of  the  Peloponne- 
sian  war,  and  down  to  the  peace  of  Antalci- 
das,  by  which  it  was  surrendered  to  the 
Persians.  At  the  Macedonian  conquest,  the 
Tenedians  regained  their  liberty.  In  the 
war  against  Philip  III.,  Attains  and  the 
Romans  used  Tenedos  as  a  naval  station,  and 
in  the  Mithridatic  war,  Lucullus  gained  a 
naval  victory  over  Mithridates  off  the  island. 
About  this  time  the  Tenedians  placed  them- 
selves under  the  protection  of  Alexandrea 
Troas. 

Tennessee.  A  Central  State  of  the 
American  Union,  and  third  admitted  under 
the  Federal  Constitution.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Kentucky  and  Virginia,  and 
on  the  south  by  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Mis- 
sissippi. The  early  settlers  of  Tennessee 
were  slaughtered  by  Cherokee  Indians  in 
1754;  but  in  1756  a  settlement  was  formed 
near  Knoxville,  then  a  part  of  North  Caro- 
lina. Nashville  was  settled  near  the  close 
of  the  Revolution;  in  1790,  Tennessee  was 
organized  as  a  Territory  with  Kentucky,  and 
in  1796  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a 
separate  State.  In  January,  1861,  a  propo- 
sal to  secede  from  the  Union  was  defeated, 
but  in  June  it  was  carried  by  a  majority  of 
57,667.  In  ten  months  the  State  raised  50 
regiments  for  the  Confederacy  ;  5  or  6  were 
also  raised  for  the  Union.  The  State  was 
the  scene,  at  Knoxville  and  Chattanooga,  of 
some  of  the  most  important  operations  of  the 
war,  and  eventuall}^  almost  the  whole  State 
became  a  battle-gi-ound.  The  State  was  re- 
admitted into  the  Union  in  1866. 

Tenney.  In  heraldry,  orange  color,  one 
of  the  tinctures  enumerated  by  heralds,  but 
not  of  frequent  occurrence  in  coat-armor. 
It  is  indicated  in  engravings  by  lines  in 
bend  sinister,  crossed  by  others  barways. 

Tent  (Lat.  tentoruim,  from  tenhis, 
"  stretched").  A  pavilion  or  portable  lodge 
consisting  of  canvas  or  other  coarse  cloth, 
stretched  and  sustained  by  poles ;  used  for 


sheltering  persons  from  the  weather,  es- 
pecially soldiers  in  camp.  The  early  Greek, 
and  afterward  the  Macedonian  tents,  were 
small  coverings  of  skin,  under  each  of  which 
two  soldiers  slept.  Alexander  the  Great  is 
said  to  have  had  a  pavilion  of  extraordinary 
magniticence,  which  could  contain  100  beds. 
The  Roman  soldiers  seem  to  have  used  two 
sorts  of  tents, — one,  a  tent  proper,  of  canvas 
or  some  analogous  material,  and  constructed 
with  two  solid  upright  poles,  and  a  roof-piece 
between  them  ;  the  other  more  resembling  a 
light  hut,  of  a  wooden  skeleton,  covered  by 
bark,  hides,  mud,  straw,  or  any  material 
which  afforded  warmth.  The  Roman  tent 
held  10  soldiers,  with  their  decanus,  or  cor- 
poral. Modern  military  tents  are  all  made 
of  linen  or  cotton  canvas,  supported  by  one 
or  more  poles,  according  to  shape,  and  held 
extended  by  pegs  driven  into  the  ground. 
The  tents  used  in  the  military  service  of  the 
United  States  comprise  the  following  : 

Common,  or  A  tent,  for  the  use  of  enlisted 
men,  is  6  feet  10  inches  in  height,  8  feet  4 
inches  in  width,  and  6  feet  10  inches  long; 
it  holds  6  men. 

The  officers' tents  are  somewhat  larger  than 
the  common  tents,  and  are  supplied  with  low 
side-walls  of  canvas ;  they  are  generally  called 
wall-tents. 

The  tente-d'abri,  which  was  introduced 
into  the  American  from  the  French  service, 
with  some  modifications,  consists  of  a  tissue 
of  cotton-cloth  impregnated  with  caoutchouc, 
and  thus  made  water-proof.  Every  man 
carries  a  square  of  this  cloth,  with  buttons 
and  button-holes  around,  by  which  it  is  at- 
tached to  the  squares  carried  by  his  com- 
rades ;  3  men  generally  sleep  together  in  a 
tent  made  of  those  pieces. 

The  Sibley  tent  (invented  by  Maj.  Sibley, 
2d  Dragoons)  is  conical,  light,  easily  pitched, 
erected  on  a  tripod  holding  a  single  pole, 
and  will  comfortably  accommodate  12  sol- 
diers with  their  accoutrements.  A  fire  can 
be  made  in  the  centre  of  this  tent,  and  all 
soldiers  sleep  with  their  feet  to  the  fire. 
This  tent  is  hardly  ever  used. 

There  is  also  a  hospital  tent,  which  is 
made  of  heavy  cotton-duck.  In  length  it  is 
14  feet;  in  width,  15  feet ;  in  height  (centre), 
11  feet ;  with  a  wall  4 J  feet,  and  a  "  fly"  of 
appropriate  size  ;  the  ridge-pole  is  made  in 
two  sections,  and  measures  14  feet  when 
joined.  This  tent  accommodates  from  8  to 
10  persons  comfortably. 

Tent.  To  cover  with  tents  ;  to  pitch  tents 
upon  ;  as,  a  tented  plain. 

Tent,  Laboratory.  In  artillery,  is  a 
large  tent,  which  is  sometimes  carried  to  the 
field  for  the  conveniences  of  the  laboratory 
men. 

Tent-bedstead.    See  Camp-bedstead. 

Tentful.  As  much  or  as  many  as  a  tent 
will  hold. 

Tent-pins.  Are  pieces  of  wood,  which 
are  indented  at  the  top,  and  made  sharp  at 
the  bottom,  to  keep  the  cords  of  a  tent  firm 
to  the  earth. 


TENT-POLES 


579 


TEUTONIC 


Tent-poles.  The  poles  upon  which  a  tent 
is  stipportcd. 

Teramo  (nnc.  hiterammn).  A  town  of 
Southi-rri  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Abnizzo 
Ultra  I.,  at  tlie  junction  of  the  Tordiiui  and 
Vezzola,  28  miles  northeast  of  Aquila.  In 
the  plain  below  Teramo  took  |)lace,July  27, 
H(iO,  between  the  army  of  John,  duke  of 
Anjou,  and  the  ^lilanese  allies  of  Ferdinand 
I.  of  Arufjon,  one  of  the  most  sanguinary 
buttles  ever  fonijht  in  Italy.  After  the  con- 
test at  Casteltidardo  (18(J0),  Teramo  was  the 
first  Neapolitan  city  that  opened  its  i;ates 
and  gave  joyful  welcome  to  King  Victor 
Emmanuel. 

Termini  (anc.  Thcrma-  Ilimcnreiises).  A 
seaport  town  on  the  north  coast  of  Sicily,  21 
miles  east-southeast  from  Palermo,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Termini.  The  ancient 
Thcrvun  was  founded  408  ii.c.  Here  the 
Carthaginians  defeated  the  Romans  with 
heavy  loss  (2G0  B.C.)  during  the  tirst  Punic 
Avar. 

Ternate.  The  northernmost  of  a  chain 
of  islands,  on  the  west  coast  of  Gilolo,  and 
formerly  the  seat  of  sovereignty  over  all  the 
adjacent  Molucca  Islands.  It  was  taken 
from  the  Dutch  by  the  English  in  1797,  but 
it  was  restored  at  the  peace  of  Amiens.  It 
was  again  taken  in  August,  1810,  and  once 
more  restored  to  the  Dutch,  with  their  other 
posse.ssions  in  India  and  the  East,  by  the 
treaty  of  Paris  in  1814. 

Terre-plein.  In  tiokl  fortification,  the 
plane  of  site  or  level  country  around  a  work. 
The  terre-plein  of  the  rampart  in  permanent 
fortification,  is  the  broad  surface  which  re- 
mains after  constructing  the  parapet  and 
banquette. 

Terror,  Reign  of.   See  Keign  of  Terror. 

Terliate.  In  gunnery,  is  to  examine  the 
thickness  of  the  metal  of  a  piece  of  artil- 
lery, in  order  to  judge  of  its  strength.  This 
is  usually  done  with  u  pair  of  caliper  com- 
passes. To  tertiate  a  piece  of  ordnance,  is  to 
examine  the  thickness  of  the  metal,  in  order 
to  judge  of  its  strength,  the  position  of  the 
trunnions,  etc. 

Teschen.  A  town  of  Austrian  Silesia, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Olsa,  38  miles  east- 
southeast  of  Troppau.  Here,  in  1779,  a 
treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  between  Ma- 
ria Theresa  and  Frederick  II.,  by  which  the 
dispute  of  the  Bavarian  Succession  was 
brought  to  an  end. 

Testri  (Northern  France).  Pepin  d'Her- 
istal,  in\ited  by  malcontents,  here  defeated 
and  captured  Thierry  III.,  king  of  Aus- 
trasia,  and  established  himself  as  duke,  (587. 

Testudo  (Testude).  In  ancient  warfare, 
was  a  defensive  arrangement  of  the  shields, 
by  means  of  which  a  body  of  men  advancing 
against  a  wall  for  assault  or  mining,  sought 
to  protect  themselves  from  the  darts  and 
weapons  of  the  defenders.  The  men  stand- 
ing in  close  order,  joined  their  shields  above 
their  heads,  the  edges  overlapping,  until  the 
whole  resembled  the  shell  of  a  tortoise  (tes- 
tudo).    The  name  was  also  applied  to  a  ma- 


chine moving  on  wheels,  and  roofed  over, 
under  wiiieh  soldiers  worked  in  undermin- 
ing or  otherwise  destroying  the  walls  in  u 
siege. 

TSte-de-pont  (Fr.).  A  field  fortification 
in_  front  of  a  bridge,  to  cover  the  retreat  of 
an  army  across  a  river.  They  are  generally 
formed  in  the  shape  of  a  redan,  a  system  of 
cremailleres,  horn-  or  crown-work.s'  or  por- 
tions of  star-and-bastioned  forts.  In  order 
to  add  to  the  defense  of  ti'tes-dr-poiit,  reduits 
have  been  constructed  within  them,  and  the 
dimensions  of  their  parapets  are  in  general 
made  larger  than  those  of  any  other  field- 
work,  on  account  of  their  great  importance. 
Sometimes  the  area  inclosed  by  a  tite-de-pont 
is  temporarily  made  use  of  as  a  depot  for  the 
stores  necessary  for  the  troops,  in  which  case 
its  tracing  should  present  a  strong  point  of 
defense,  well  provided  with  artillery,  and 
afl'ording  in  several  points  egress.  The 
tracing  which  has  been  found  the  best  for 
the  passage  of  extensive  trains  of  wagons 
and  artillery,  as  well  as  columns  of  troops, 
is  formed  of  cremailleres,  extending  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  inclose  a  large  area,  and 
leaving  behind  each  a  passage  well  guarded 
and  secured  by  second  cremailleres,  fronting 
the  passage,  and  forming  a  second  line. 
Additional  strength  will  be  given  to  iites 
of  every  kind  by  constructing  small  redans 
or  batteries  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river, 
the  fire  from  which  may  defend  the  ground 
in  front  of  the  salient,  and  flank  the  faces  of 
the  tcte-de-pant. 

Tettenhall  (Staflbrdshire).  It  was  prob- 
ably at  this  place,  then  named  Testcnheal, 
that  the  Danes  were  defeated  by  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  sent  against  them  by  Edward  the 
Elder,  August^G,  910. 

Tetuan.  A  seaport  town  on  the  north 
coast  of  Africa,  22  miles  south  of  Ceuta.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  under  O'Don- 
nell,  February,  1860;  and  the  treaty  of 
Madrid,  by  winch  the  city  was  evacuated  in 
favor  of  the  Spaniards,  was  concluded  Octo- 
ber 30,  18(;i. 

Teutoburg  Forest.  Probably  situated 
between  Dctmold  and  Paderborn,  in  North 
Germany,  where  Hermann,  or  Arminins, 
and  the  Germans  defeated  the  Romans  under 
Varus  with  great  slaughter  in  the  year  9. 
This  defeat  was  regarded  at  liome  as  a  na- 
tional calamity. 

Teutonic.  A  term  applied  to  a  group  of 
nations,  as  well  as  languages,  forming  an 
important  division  or  stem  of  tiie  Aryan 
family.  Of  the  various  tribes  and  nations 
spoken  of  as  inhabiting  Northern  Europe 
in  ancient  times,  it  is  often  ditticult  to  de- 
termine which  were  really  of  (iernuinic  race, 
and  which  Celtic  or  Slavic.  Of  undoubted 
German  nations  who  took  part  in  the  de- 
struction of  the  Roman  empire  the  most 
prominent  were  the  (ioths  (which  see),  Lom- 
Dards  (which  see),  Vandals  (which  see),  and 
Franks  (which  sec).  The  term  Teutonic  is 
derived  from  Teutnnrs,  the  name  of  a  nation 
or   tribe  tirst  mentioned   by  Pylhoas,  who 


TEUTONIC 


580 


THASOS 


wrote  about  320  B.C.,  as  then  inhabiting  a 
part  of  the  Cinibric  Chersonesus,  or  Juthind. 
For  the  next  200  years  there  is  no  further 
mention  of  the  Teutones,  that  is,  not  until 
113  B.C.,  when  they  appear  in  history  as  rav- 
aging Gaul,  and  in  conjunction  with  the 
Cinibri  and  Ainbrones,  threatening  the  very 
existence  of  the  llonian  republic.  The 
Cimbri  having  gone  into  Spain,  the  Teutones 
and  Ambrones  were  at  length  defeated  by 
C.  Marius  in  a  great  battle  at  Aqua  SextiiB, 
in  Gaul,  102  B.C.  A  similar  victory  was 
gained  by  Marius  in  the  following  year  over 
the  Cimbri  in  the  plains  of  Lombardy. 

Teutonic  Knights.  One  of  the  more  cele- 
brated of  the  military  and  religious  orders 
to  which  the  Crusades  gave  birth.  The  suf- 
ferings of  the  Christian  soldiers  at  the  siege 
of  Acre  excited  the  sympathy  of  certain 
merchants  of  Bremen  and  Lubeck,  who  ren- 
dered such  important  services  b}^  the  erection 
of  hospitals  and  otherwise,  that  Duke  Fred- 
erick of  Suabia,  with  the  sanction  of  Pope 
Clement  III.  and  the  emperor  Henry  VI., 
enrolled  them  in  an  order  of  knighthood. 
The  habit  of  the  order  was  a  white  mantle 
with  a  black  cross ;  and  the  knights  took 
vows  of  poverty  and  chastity,  which  in  later 
times  were  not  very  strictly  interpreted.  In 
the  course  of  the  13th  century,  they  were, 
with  the  sanction  of  the  pope,  engaged  in  a 
bloody  war  to  enforce  Christianity  on  the 
heathen  nations  inhabiting  the  southern 
shores  of  the  Baltic,  which  resulted  in  the 
acquisition  by  the  order  of  Prussia,  Livonia, 
Courland,  and  other  adjoining  territories. 
"Warriors  from  all  parts  of  Europe  in  that 
and  the  following  century  joined  their  stan- 
dard, including  Henry  IV.  of  England, 
accompanied  by  300  attendant  knights  and 
men-at-arms.  The  conquests  of  the  order 
raised  it  to  the  rank  of  a  sovereign  order, 
with  a  territory  extending  from  the  Oder  to 
the  Baltic,  and  embracing  a  population  of 
between  2,000,000,  and  3,000,000,  the  grand 
master  having  his  seat  at  Marienburg,  Prus- 
sia. The  decline  of  the  order  began  in  the 
15th  century,  and  its  fall  was  brought  about 
partly  by  internal  dissensions,  and  partly  by 
the  attacks  of  neighboring  states.  At  the 
peace  of  Presburg  in  1805,  the  emperor  of 
Austria  obtained  the  rights  and  revenues 
of  the  grand  master,  but  in  1809  the  order 
was  abolished  by  Napoleon,  its  lands  passing 
to  the  sovereigns  in  whose  dominions  they 
lay.  The  Teutonic  order,  however,  still 
continues  to  preserve  a  titular  existence  in 
Austria. 

Tewkesbury.  A  town  of  England,  in 
Gloucestershire,  on  the  Avon,  and  near  its 
confluence  with  the  Severn,  10  miles  north- 
east from  Gloucester.  It  is  a  very  ancient 
town.  Within  a  mile  of  it  was  fought  (May 
14,  1471)  the  famous  battle  of  Tewkesbury, 
in  which  the  Yorkists  under  Edward  IV. 
and  Richard  III.  inflicted  a  signal  defeat  on 
the  Lancastrians. 

Texas.  One  of  the  southwestern  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  is  bounded  on 


the  southwest  by  Mexico,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  Kio  Grande,  and  on  the 
east  by  Arkansas  and  Louisiana.  La  Salle, 
the  French  explorer,  erected  a  fort  on  Mata- 
gorda Bay,  1687.  A  Spanish  settlement 
and  mission  was  formed  in  1690,  but  soon 
abandoned.  In  1715,  the  country  was  set- 
tled by  the  Spaniards  under  the  name  of 
New  Philippines,  and  several  missions  es- 
tablished;  but  the  Camanche  and  Apache 
Indians,  among  the  most  warlike  in  America, 
and  still  the  terror  of  the  border  settlements, 
hindered  the  progress  of  the  country.  In 
1803,  when  Louisiana  was  ceded  by  France 
to  the  United  States,  Texas,  claimed  by  both 
Spain  and  the  United  States,  became  a  dis- 
puted territory.  From  1806  to  1816,  settle- 
ments were  formed,  and  several  attempts 
made  to  wrest  the  country  from  Spain.  In 
one  of  these,  in  1813,  2500  Americans  and 
Mexicans  and  700  inhabitants  of  San  An- 
tonio were  killed.  Mina,  a  Spanish  refugee, 
gained  some  successes,  but  was  defeated  and 
shot.  Lafitte,  a  Gulf  pirate,  made  a  settle- 
ment at  Galveston  in  1815,  but  it  was  broken 
up  in  1821.  In  1820,  Moses  Austin,  an 
American,  got  a  large  tract  of  land  from  the 
Mexican  government,  and  began  a  settle- 
ment, which  rapidly  increased ;  but  many 
of  the  settlers  were  of  so  lawless  a  character, 
that  in  1830  the  government  forbade  any 
more  Americans  coming  into  Texas.  In 
1833,  a  convention  of  settlers,  20,000  in 
number,  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
form  an  independent  Mexican  state;  and  in 
1835  a  provisional  government  was  formed, 
Sam  Houston  chosen  commander-in-chief, 
and  the  Mexicans  driven  out  of  Texas. 
Santa  Anna,  president  of  Mexico,  invaded 
the  country  with  an  army  of  7500,  but  after 
some  successes  was  entirely  routed  at  San 
Jacinto,  April  21,  and  Texas  beciune  an  in- 
dependent republic,  acknowledged  in  1837 
by  the  United  States,  and  in  1840  by  Eng- 
land, France,  and  Belgium.  In  December, 
1845,  Texas  was  annexed  to  the  United 
States,  but  was  invaded  by  Mexico,  which 
had  never  acknowledged  its  independence. 
A  war  followed  (1846-48)  in  which  Mexico 
was  defeated.  In  February,  1861,  Texas 
joined  the  Secession,  and  furnished  many 
soldiers  and  immense  supplies  to  the  Con- 
federate armies.  In  February,  1866,  the 
ordinance  of  secession  was  annulled,  and  in 
1870  the  reconstruction  was  completed,  and 
regular  civil  government  restored. 

Thanks.  Public  acknowledgments  for 
gallant  actions. 

Thapsus  (ruins  at  Demas).  A  city  on 
the  east  coast  of  Bycazena,  in  Africa 
Propria,  where  Cajsar  finally  defeated  the 
Pompeian  army,  and  finished  the  civil  war, 
46  B.C. 

Thasos  (now  T/iaso,  or  Tasso).  An 
island  in  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  belong- 
ing to  Turkey,  oflfthe  coast  of  Eoumelia,  30 
miles  north-northeast  of  Mount  Athos.  It 
was  at  a  very  early  period  taken  possession 
of  by  the  Phoenicians  on  account  of  its  gold 


THAULACHE 


5S1 


THERMOPYL^ 


mines.  Tlmsos  was  afterwards  colonized  by 
the  Parians,  708  B.C.  Before  the  Persian 
conquest,  the  Thasians  were  one  of  the  rich- 
est and  most  powerful  tribes  in  the  north  of 
the  -^gean.  They  were  subdued  by  the 
Persians  under  Mardonius,  and  subsequently 
became  part  of  the  Athenian  maritime  em- 
pire. They  revolted,  however,  from  Athens 
in  405  n.c,  and  after  sustainintj  a  siege  of 
three  years  were  subdued  by  Cimon  in  4(53. 
They  were  obliged  to  surrender  to  the 
Athenians  all  their  possessions  in  Thrace,  to 
destroy  their  fortifications,  to  give  up  their 
ships,  and  to  pay  a  large  tribute  for  the  fu- 
ture. They  again  revolted  from  Athens  in 
411,  and  called  in  the  Spartans,  but  the 
island  was  again  restored  to  the  Athenians 
by  Thrasybulus  in  407. 

Thaulache  (Fr.).  Armor  and  weapons 
of  the  ancient  French,  consisting  of  small 
shields  {rotulelles),  and  halberd  or  spear. 

Theatre  of  Operations.     See  Stkatkoy. 

Theatre  of  War.  The  term  for  any  ex- 
tent of  country  in  which  war  is  carried  on. 
It  is  synonymous  with  "seat  of  war." 

Theban  Legion.  According  to  tradition, 
was  totally  composed  of  Christians,  and  con- 
sequently submitted  to  martyrdom  rather 
than  attack  their  brethren  during  the  per- 
secution of  the  emperor  Maximin,  or  sacri- 
fice to  the  gods,  about  280.  Their  leader 
was  canonized. 

Thebes.  The  name  of  a  celebrated  city  ; 
it  was  formerly  the  ca})ital  of  Upper  Egypt; 
it  is  now  in  ruins.  It  revolted  against 
Ptolemy  Lathyrus,  and  was  captured  after 
a  siege  of  three  v^ars,  in  82  u.c. 

Thebes  {now' TAchn).  The  chief  city  of 
Bceotia,  in  ancient  Greece,  was  situated  in  a 
plain  southeast  of  the  Lake  Helice,  and 
northeast  of  Plata;ae.  The  territory  of 
Thebes  was  called  Thehnis,  and  extended 
eastward  as  far  as  the  Euboean  Sea.  It  was 
the  scene  of  one  of  the  most  celebrated  wars 
in  the  mythical  annals  of  Greece.  Poly- 
nices,  who  had  been  expelled  from  Thebes 
by  his  brother  Eteocles,  induced  six  other 
heroes  to  espouse  his  cause,  and  marched 
against  the  city  ;  but  they  were  all  defeated 
and  slain  by  the  Thebans.  This  is  usually 
called  the  war  of  the  -'Seven  against  Thebes." 
A  few  years  afterward,  "the  Epigoni,"  or 
descendants  of  the  seven  heroes,  marched 
against  Thebes  to  revenge  their  fathers' 
death  ;  they  took  the  city  and  razed  it  to  the 
ground.  It  appears,  however,  at  the  earliest 
historical  period  as  a  large  and  flourishing 
city.  The  Thebans  were  from  an  early 
jieriod  inveterate  enemies  of  their  neighbors, 
the  Athenians.  Their  hatred  of  the  latter 
people  was  probably  one  of  the  reasons  which 
induced  them  to  desert  the  cause  of  GretMan 
liberty  in  the  great  struggle  against  the  Per- 
sian power,  in  the  Peloponnesian  war  the 
Thebans  naturally  espoused  the  Spartan 
side,  and  contributed  not  a  little  to  the 
downfall  of  Athens;  but  they  joined  the 
confederacy  formed  against  Sparta  in  304 
B.C.     The  peace  of  Antalcidas  in  387  put  an 


end  to  hostilities  in  Greece;  but  the  treach- 
erous seizure  of  the  Cadmea  by  the  Lace- 
daemonian general  Pha-bidas  in  382,  and  its 
recovery  by  the  Theban  exiles  in  379,  led  to 
a  war  between  Thebes  and  Sparta,  in  which 
the  former  not  only  recovered  its  independ- 
ence, but  forever  destroyed  the  La<ediemo- 
nian  supremacy.  This  was  the  most  glori- 
ous period  in  the  Theban  annals  ;  and  the 
decisive  defeat  of  the  Spartans  at  the  battle 
of  Leuctra  in  371  made  Thebes  the  first 
power  in  Greece.  Her  greatness,  however, 
was  mainly  due  to  the  pre-eminent  abilities 
of  her  citizens,  Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas  ; 
and  with  the  death  of  the  former  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Mantinea  in  302,  she  lost  the  supremacy 
which  she  had  so  recently  gained.  The 
Thebans  joined  the  Athenians  in  protecting 
the  liberties  of  Greece;  but  their  united 
forces  were  defeated  by  Philip  of  Maccdon, 
at  the  battle  of  Ghieronea,  in  338.  Soon 
after  the  death  of  Philip  and  the  accession 
of  Alexander,  the  Thebans  made  a  last  at- 
tempt to  recover  their  liberty,  but  were 
cruelly  punished  by  the  young  king.  The 
city  was  taken  by  Alexander  in  33G,  and 
was  almost  entirely  destroyed  ;  0000  inhabit- 
ants were  slain,  and  3O,0C»O  sold  as  slaves. 
In  310  the  city  was  rebuilt  by  Cassander, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  Athenians.  In 
2!iO  it  was  taken  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes, 
and  again  suffered  greatly. 

Theodolite.  An  instrument,  variously 
constructed,  used,  especially  in  trigonomet- 
rical surveying,  for  the  accurate  measure- 
ment of  horizontal  angles,  and  also  usually 
of  vertical  angles.  The  theodolite  consists 
principally  of  a  telescope,  with  cross-wires 
in  its  focus,  mounted  so  as  to  turn  both  on 
vertical  and  horizontal  axes,  the  former 
carrying  a  horizontal  vernier-plate  over  a 
graduated  plate  or  circle  for  aximuthal 
angles,  and  the  latter  a  vertical,  graduated 
arc  or  semicircle  for  altitudes, — the  whole 
furnished  with  leveling-screws  and  levels 
for  adjustrng  to  the  horizon,  and  mounted 
on  a  tripod.  It  is  usually  so  constructed 
that  a  horizontal  angle  may  be  repeated 
indefinitely  around  the  liriili,  and  thus  a 
large  number  of  repetitions  added  mechanic- 
ally, to  secure  greater  accuracy  in  the  re- 
sulting mean. 

Thermidor  (i.e.,  the  "  Hot  Month"). 
Formed  in  the  calendar  of  the  first  French 
republic  the  eleventh  month,  and  lasted 
from  July  10  to  August  IS.  The  0th  Ther- 
midor of  the  Republican  year  2  (.luly  27, 
1704)  is  memorable  as  the  date  of  Robes- 
pierre's fall,  and  the  termination  of  the 
"  Reign  of  Terror."  The  name  of  Thermi- 
dorians  was  given  to  all  those  who  tmik  part 
in  this  fortunate  coup  d'tiat,  but  more  par- 
ticularly to  those  who  were  desirous  of  re- 
storing the  monarchy. 

Thermopylae  (literally,  "the  hot  gates"). 
A  famous  pa.^s  leading  from  Thessaly  into 
Locris,  and  the  only  n>ad  by  which  an  in- 
vading army  can  penetrate  iVoni  Northern 
into  Southern  Greece.    Leonidas,  at  the  head 


THERMUM 


582 


THIRTY 


of  300  Spartans  and  700  Thespians,  at  this 
pass  withstood  the  whole  force  of  the  Per- 
sians during  three  days,  August  7,  8,  and  9, 
480  B.C.,  when  Ephialtes,  a  Trachinian,  per- 
fidiously leading  the  enemy  by  a  secret  path 
up  the  mountains,  brought  them  to  the  rear 
of  the  Greeks,  who,  thus  placed  between  two 
assailants,  perished  gloriou.sly  on  heaps  of 
their  slaughtered  foes.  One  Greek  only  re- 
turned home,  and  he  was  received  with  re- 
proaches for  having  fled.  Here  also,  Antio- 
chus  the  Great,  king  of  Syria,  was  defeated 
by  the  Romans,  191  B.C. 

Thermum,  Thermus,  or  Therma.  A 
strong  city,  the  acropolis  of  JEtolia,  North- 
ern Greece,  was  captured  and  ravaged  by 
Philip  V.  of  Macedon,  218  and  206  B.C.,  on 
account  of  its  favoring  the  Romans. 

Thespise.  A  city  of  Bceotia,  Northern 
Greece;  700  of  its  citizens  perished  with 
Leonidas  at  Thermopylae,  August,  480  B.C. 
It  suffered  much  through  the  jealousy  of  the 
Thebans,  who  destroyed  its  walls  in  372  B.C. 

Thessalonica  (now  Saloniki,  more  an- 
ciently Thenna).  An  ancient  city  of  Mace- 
donia, situated  at  the  northeast  extremity  of 
the  Sinus  Thermaicus.  It  was  taken  and 
occupied  by  the  Athenians  a  short  time  be- 
fore the  commencement  of  the  Peloponne- 
sian  war  (432  B.C.),  but  was  soon  afterward 
restored  by  them  to  Perdiccas.  At  a  later 
time,  it  became  the  capital  of  the  lllyrian 
provinces.  It  is  celebrated  at  this  period  on 
account  of  the  fearful  massacre  of  its  in- 
habitants by  order  of  Theodosius,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  riot  in  which  some  of  the  Roman 
otBcers  had  been  assassinated  by  the  popu- 
lace. 

Thessaly.  The  largest  division  of  ancient 
Greece,  lay  to  the  south  of  Macedonia,  and 
to  the  east  of  Epirus.  Thessaly  was  origi- 
nally inhabited  by  ^olians,  who,  however, 
were  either  expelled  or  reduced  to  slavery 
by  immigrants  from  Epirus  about  1000  B.C. 
The  inhabitants  of  Thessaly  have  been  di- 
vided into  three  classes  :  (1)  There  were  the 
Epirote  conquerors ;  (2)  those  descendants 
of  the  original  inhabitants,  who,  although 
dependent  on  the  nobles,  yet  po.ssessed  a  few 
privileges  ;  and  (3)  the  Penestte,  or  those  of 
the  original  inhabitants  who  had  been  re- 
duced to  serfdom.  Thessaly  never  played 
an  important  part  in  Grecian  history ;  it 
was  only  after  the  Peloponnesian  war  it  ex- 
ercised any  influence  on  the  affairs  of  Greece. 
The  Penestse  frequently  rebelled  against 
their  masters,  who  were  very  frequently  at 
war  among  themselves.  Jason  caused  him- 
self to  be  elected  Tagus  of  all  Thessaly  about 
374  B.C.  ;  was  assassinated  in  370  B.C.  The 
rule  of  Jason's  successors  became  so  unbear- 
able that,  in  353  B.C.,  the  old  families  called 
in  the  aid  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  who,  in 
344,  subjected  the  country  to  Macedonia. 
In  197  B.C.,  it  was  restored  to  freedom  under 
the  protection  of  Rome. 

Thetford.  A  town  of  England,  in  Nor- 
folk, 95  miles  north-northeast  of  London. 
It  was  taken  and  sacked  by  the  Danes  in  870. 


Thin,  To.  To  make  less  numerous  ;  as, 
to  thin  the  ranks  by  a  heavy  discharge  of 
musketry. 

Thionville.  A  fortified  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  the  Moselle,  situated 
on  the  Moselle,  which  is  crossed  here  by  a 
splendid  bridge.  This  place  was  a  residence 
of  the  Merovingian  and  Carlovingian  kings, 
and  was  repeatedly  besieged  during  the  vari- 
ous wars  between  Austria  and  France.  It 
was  invested  by  the  Germans  in  August, 
1870,  and  after  bombardment,  being  in 
flames,  surrendered  November  24  following. 

Thirty,  Battle  of  (Fr.  Combat  desTr elites). 
A  name  given,  in  English  and  French  his- 
tory, to  a  celebrated  engagement  which  took 
place  at  a  spot  known  as  Midway  Oak,  half- 
way between  the  castles  of  Josselin  and 
Ploermel,  France,  March  27,  1351.  The 
French  general  Beaumanoir,  commanding 
the  former  post,  being  enraged  at  the  depre- 
dations committed  by  Bemborough,  the  Eng- 
lish general,  challenged  him  to  fight.  Upon 
this  it  was  agreed  that  thirty  knights  of  each 
party  should  meet  and  decide  the  contest. 
The  two  chiefs  presented  themselves  at  the 
head  of  their  best  soldiers  and  the  battle 
began  in  earnest.  At  the  first  onset  the 
English  were  successful ;  but  Bemborough 
having  been  killed,  the  French  renewed  the 
struggle  with  redoubled  courage  and  finally 
won  the  victory.  This  was  one  of  the  most 
heroic  exploits  of  the  age,  and  gained  such 
popularity  that  more  than  one  hundred 
years  later,  when  speaking  of  a  hard  con- 
test, it  was  usual  to  say,  "  There  never  was 
such  hard  fighting  since  the  battle  of  the 
Thirty." 

Thirty  Tyrants,  A  body  of  thirty  magis- 
trates in  Athens  (404-403  B.C.).  They  were 
appointed  from  the  aristocratic  party,  by  the 
Spartans,  victorious  in  the  Peloponnesian 
war.  The  "tyrants"  were  guilty  of  the 
most  cruel  and  shameless  acts,  and  after  one 
year  were  expelled  by  Thrasybulus. 

Thirty  "Tyrants  of  Rome.  A  set  of  mili- 
tary adventurers  who  from  253  to  268  at- 
tempted to  establish  their  own  power  in 
various  parts  of  the  empire  during  the  reigns 
of  Valerianus  and  Gallienus.  The  number 
thirty  is  borrowed  from  that  of  the  famous 
Athenian  tyrants.  The  names  of  only  nine- 
teen of  these  adventurers  have  come  down 
to  us. 

Thirty  Years'  War.  Was  not  properly 
one  war,  but  rather  an  uninterrupted  suc- 
cession of  wars  (1618-1648)  in  Germany,  in 
which  Austria,  the  most  of  the  Catholic 
princes  of  Germany,  and  Spain,  were  en- 
gaged on  one  side  throughout,  but  against 
different  antagonists.  This  long-continued 
strife  had  its  origin  in  the  quarrels  between 
the  Catholics  and  Protestants  of  Germany, 
and  the  attempts  of  the  former,  who  were 
the  more  powerful  body,  to  deprive  the 
latter  of  what  liberty  of  worship  they  had 
obtained.  The  severe  measures  taken  by  the 
emperor,  the  head  of  the  Catholic  party, 
against  the  Protestant  religion,  led  also  to 


THIRTY 


583 


THIRTY 


strictures  on  their  civil  rights  ;  nnd  it  wus  to 
protect  their  political  as  well  h»  their  reli- 
gious lihertii's,  that  the  Protestants  formed 
a  union,  May  4,  1008,  with  Frederick  IV., 
the  Elector  Palatinate,  at  its  head.  The  rival 
union  of  the  Catholic  powers,  under  the 
leadership  of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria,  followed 
July  11,  l(iO;>.  In  Bohemia,  the  immense 
prejionderance  in  numbers  (two  out  of  three) 
and  influtnceof  the  Protcstant-s,  had  forced 
from  their  Austrian  king  an  edict  of  toler- 
ation (July  11,  1009),  which  was  at  first 
faithfully  ohsserved;  but  during  the  reign  of 
^latthias,  sundry  violations  of  it  were  made 
with  impunity  ;  and  as  the  influence  of  Fer- 
dinand of  Styria,  his  successor,  began  to  be 
felt  in  more  flagrant  partiality  to  the  Cath- 
olics, the  kingdom  became  a  scene  of  wild 
excitement ;  three  of  the  Catholic  party  were 
thrown  from  the  window  of  the  Bohemian 
council-chamber  at  Prague,  and  ultimately 
Ferdinand  was  deposed,  and  Frederick  V., 
the  Elector  Palatinate,  chosen  in  his  stead 
(1619) ;  and  Count  Thurn,  at  the  head  of  an 
insurgent  army,  repeatedly  routed  the  im- 
perial troops,  and  actually  besieged  the  em- 
peror in  Vienna.  The  Catholic  princes, 
though  as  apprehensive  as  their  opponents  of 
the  encroaching  policy  of  Austria,  crowded 
to  the  emperor's  aid ;  and  while  the  Protest- 
ant union  and  James  I.  of  Great  Britain 
held  aloof  from  Frederick,  whose  sole  allies 
•were  Bohemians  (under  Thurn),  Moravians, 
Hungarians,  and  a  Piedmontese  contingent 
of  3000  (under  Count  Mansfield),  a  well- 
appointed  army  of  30,000,  under  Duke  Max- 
imilian, advanced  to  support  the  Austrians, 
and  totally  routed  Frederick's  motley  array 
at  Weissenberg  (November  8,  1620),  near 
Prague,  afterwards  reducing  the  Upi>er, 
while  an  army  of  Spaniards-  under  Spinola 
ravaged  the  Lower,  Palatinate,  and  the  Sax- 
ons (in  alliance  with  the  emperor)  occupied 
Lusatia.  The  Bohemians  were  now  sub- 
jected to  the  mo.>t  frightful  tyranny  and 
persecution  ;  a  similar  policy,  though  of  a 
more  modern  character,  was  adopted  towards 
the  people  of  the  Palatinate, — the  Protestant 
union  standing  aloof,  and  subsequently  dis- 
solving, through  sheer  terror.  But  the  in- 
domitable pertinacity  and  excellent  leader- 
ship of  Count  Mansfield  and  Christian  of 
Brunswick,  two  famous  partisan  leaders,  who 
ravaged  the  territories  of  the  Catholic  league, 
and  the  forced  cession  to  Bethlem  Gabor  of 
large  portions  of  Hungary  and  Transylva- 
nia, did  much  to  equalize  the  success  of  the 
antagonistic  parties.  Here  the  war  might 
have  ended  ;  b\it  the  fearful  tyranny  of  Fer- 
dinand over  all  the  Protestants  in  his  do- 
minions (Hungary  excepted)  drove  them  to 
despair,  and  the  war  advanced  to  its  second 
phase.  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark,  smart- 
ing under  some  injuries  inflicted  on  him  by 
the  emperor,  and  aided  by  a  British  sub^sidy, 
came  to  the  aid  of  his  German  ctvreligionists 
in  1624,  and  being  joined  by  Mansfield  and 
Christian  of  Brunswick,  advanced  into 
Lower  Saxony,  while  the  emperor,  hampered 


by  the  political  jealousy  of  the  Catholic 
league,  was  unable  to  oppose  him.  But 
when,  by  the  aid  of  Wallenstein,  a  powerful 
and  effective  army  had  been  obtained,  and 
the  leaguers  under  Tilly,  in  co-operation 
with  it,  had  marched  northwards,  the  rout 
of  the  Danes  by  Tilly  at  Lutter  (August  17, 
1626),  and  of  Mansfield  by  Wallenstein  at 
Dessau  (April  1,  11,  und'2o,  1626),  again 
prostrated  the  Protestants'  hopes  in  tliedust ; 
yet  a  gleam  of  comfort  was  obtained  from  the 
victorious  raid  of  Mansfield  through  Silesia, 
Moravia,  and  Hungary,  though  his  scheme 
for  an  insurrection  in  Hungary  failed,  and 
his  death  soon  after,  at  Zara,  freed  the  em- 
peror from  a  formidable  and  irreconcilable 
enemy.  The  combined  Imperialists  and  leag- 
uers mean  time  had  overrun  North  Germany 
and  continental  Denmark,  and  ultimately 
cimipelled  King  Christian  to  conclude  tho 
humiliating  peace  of  Liibeck  (May  12,  1629). 
This  second  great  success  seems  to  have 
turned  Ferdinands  head,  for,  not  content 
with  still  more  rigorous  treatment  of  the 
Protestants,  and  the  promulgation  of  the 
Restitution  Edicts  which  seriously  otl'ended 
even  the  Catholics,  he  stirred  up  Poland 
against  Sweden,  and  insulted  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  both  personally  and  in  the  per- 
sons of  his  ambassadors, — insolent  imperti- 
nences which  he  soon  saw  bitter  reason  to 
regret.  The  Catholic  league  now  forced  him 
to  reduce  his  army,  and  supplant  Wallenstein 
by  Tilly  ;  while  France  was  inciting  Gusta- 
vus to  the  willing  task  of  aiding  tlie  Prot- 
estants in  Germany.  The  war  entered  its 
third  phase  by  the  landing  of  the  Swedes  at 
Usedom  (June,  1630),  and  their  conquest  of 
Pomerania  and  Mecklenburg.  Gustavus,  by 
the  exercise  of  a  little  wholesome  pressure, 
induced  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  to  aid 
him  ;  and  though  unable  to  save  Magdeburg, 
he  marched  to  join  the  Saxons,  completely 
routed  by  Tilly  at  Breitenfeld  (September 
17,  1631);  victoriously  traversed  the  Main 
and  Rhine  valleys;  again  routed  Tilly  on 
the  Lech  (April  5,  1632),  and  entered  Mu- 
nich. By  the  judicious  strategy  of  Wallen- 
stein, he  was  compelled  to  return  to  Saxony, 
where  he  gained  the  great  victory  of  Liitzen  ; 
but  his  death,  depriving  the  Protestants  of 
the  only  man  who  could  force  the  confederate 
powers  to  preserve  unity  of  action,  was  a 
severe  blow  to  their  cause  ;  tlniugh  the  genius 
and  indefatigable  zeal  of  his  chancellor, 
Oxenstiern,  and  the  brilliant  talents  of  the 
Swedish  generals,  preserved  the  advantages 
they  had  gained,  till  the  crushing  defeat  of 
Bernard  of  Weinuir  at  Nordling<'n  (Septem- 
ber 6,  1634)  again  restored  to  the  emperor  a 
preponderating  influence  in  Germany.  Sax- 
ony now  made  peace  at  Prague  (May  30, 
1635),  obtaining  such  satisfactory  terms  for 
the  Lutherans  that  the  treaty  was  within 
three  months  adheretl  to  by  all  the  German 
princes  of  that  sect,  and  the  Calvinists  were 
lef\  to  their  fate.  Final  success  now  appeared 
to  demand  only  one  more  strenuous  etlbrt  on 
the  part  of  Austria  ;  but  Oxenstiern  resolved 


THISTLE 


584 


THUG 


to  preserve  to  Sweden  her  German  acquisi- 
tions, propitiated  Richelieu,  by  resigning  to 
him  the  direction  of  the  war,  and  the  con- 
flict advanced  "into  its  final  and  most  ex- 
tended phase.  The  emperor,  allied  for  offense 
and  defense  with  the  Lutherans,  was  now 
also  assailed  through  his  ally,  Spain,  who  was 
attacked  on  her  own  frontier,  in  the  Nether- 
lands, and  in  Italy ;  Bernard  of  Weimar 
fighting  independently,  with  the  view  of 
obtaining  Alsace  for  himself,  opposed  the 
leaguers  ;  while  the  Swedes  under  Baner  held 
North  Germany,  and  by  frequent  flying 
marches  into  Silesia  and  Bohemia  distracted 
their  opponents,  and  prevented  them,  after 
successes  over  Duke  Bernard,  from  proceed- 
ing with  the  invasion  of  France.  The  great 
victory  of  Baner  over  the  Austrians  and 
Saxons  at  Wittstock  (October  4,  1636)  re- 
stored to  Sweden  the  victor's  wreath  she  had 
lost  two  years  before ;  and  from  this  time, 
especially  under  Torstenson  and  Konigs- 
mark,  the  Swedes  were  always  successful, 
adding  a  second  victory  of  Breitenfeld  (No- 
vember 2,  1642),  one  at  Yankowitz  (Feb- 
ruary 14,  1645),  and  numberless  ones  of 
less  note,  to  their  already  long  list  of  suc- 
cesses, carrying  devastation  and  ruin  into 
the  hereditary  territories,  even  to  the  gates 
of  Vienna,  defeating  the  best  generals  of  the 
empire,  till,  from  a  profound  feeling  of 
inability  to  check  them,  the  Austrians  hardly 
dared  appear  to  the  north  of  the  Danube. 
On  the  Khine,  the  leaguers  at  first  had  great 
success, — the  Weimar  troops,  now  in  French 
pay,  were  almost  exterminated  at  Duttlingen 
(November  24,  1643) ;  but  after  the  Spanish 
power  had  been  thoroughly  broken  in  the 
Netherlands  by  Conde,  the  French  were  re- 
inforced on  the  Rhine,  and  under  Conde  and 
Turenne,  rolled  back  the  leaguers  through 
the  Palatinate  and  Bavaria,  and  revenged 
at  Nordlingen  (August  3,  1645)  the  former 
defeat  of  the  Swedes.  The  emperor  was 
now  deserted  by  all  his  allies  except  the 
Duke  of  Bavaria,  whose  territories  were 
already  mostly  in  the  hands  of  Turenne 
and  Wrangel ;  and  a  combined  invasion  of 
Austria  from  the  west  and  north  was  on 
the  point  of  being  executed,  when,  after 
seven  years  of  diplomatic  shuifling,  with  an 
eye  to  the  changing  fortunes  of  the  contest, 
the  peace  of  Westphalia  put  an  end  to  this 
terrible  struggle. 

Thistle,  Order  of  the.     See  Axdrew,  St. 

Thomas,  St.  The  principal  of  the  Vir- 
gin Islands  in  the  West  Indies,  belonging 
to  Denmark.  In  March,  1801,  it  was  taken 
by  the  British,  but  given  up  at  the  peace  of 
Amiens;  it  was  again  taken  in  the  course 
of  the  subsequent  war,  and  restored  to  Den- 
mark at  the  peace  of  Paris  in  1814. 

Thorn.  A  fortified  town  of  the  kingdom 
of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  West  Prussia, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Vistula.  It  is  de- 
fended by  walls,  bastions,  and  two  forts. 
This  to^wn  was  founded  by  the  Teutonic 
Knights  in  1232,  and  admitted  into  the 
Hanseatic  League  in  the  beginning  of  the 


14th  century.  It  was  taken  by  Charles  XII, 
of  Sweden  in  1703,  after  a  siege  of  four 
months. 

Thrace.  Anciently  the  name  of  an  ex- 
tensive country  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Danube,  on  the  east  by  the  Euxine,  on 
the  south  by  the  -^gean  and  Macedonia, 
and  on  the  west  by  Macedonia  and  lUyria. 
War  and  robbery  were  the  only  honorable 
occupations  of  the  Thracians.  They  lived 
to  steal,  either  from  each  other  or  from 
neighboring  peoples.  When  not  fighting 
or  plundering,  they  spent  their  days  in  sav- 
age idleness,  or  in  quarreling  over  their  cups. 
Courageous,  or  rather  ferocious,  after  the 
fashion  of  barbarous  peoples,  they  yet  lacked 
the  steady  valor  and  endurance  of  disciplined 
troops  ;  at  all  times,  their  warfare  displayed 
more  fierceness  and  irnpetuosity  than  forti- 
tude. In  513  B.C.,  Darius,  king  of  Persia, 
marched  through  Thrace  on  his  way  to  pun- 
ish the  European  Scythians,  and  on  his  re- 
turn left  Megabazus  with  80,000  men  to 
subdue  the  country.  In  this  he  partially 
succeeded,  but  new  disturbances  and  com- 
plications arose  between  the  Persians  and 
Greeks,  which  resulted  (480  B.C.)  in  the 
famous  expedition  of  Xerxes.  The  conse- 
quence of  the  expulsion  of  the  Persians 
from  Europe  was  the  resumption  of  liberty 
and  the  revival  of  prosperity  among  the 
Greek  colonies  in  Thrace.  Shortly  before 
the  Peloponnesian  war,  a  native  Thracian 
state — the  Odrysian — had  attained  to  great 
power  and  eminence  under  a  ruler  named 
Sitalces,  who  joined  the  Athenian  alliance, 
but  could  not,  in  spite  of  his  resources,  pre- 
vent the  triumph  of  Sparta  in  the  north  as 
well  as  in  the  south.  The  rise  of  the  Mace- 
donian kingdom,  under  Philip  IL  (359  B.C.), 
destroyed  the  independence  of  a  great  part 
of  Thrace.  Under  the  government  of  Ly- 
simachus,  the  subjugation  of  Thrace  became 
complete.  On  the  fall  of  the  Macedonian 
kingdom  (168  B.C.)  it  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  Romans,  and  subsequently  shared  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  Roman  empire.  In  334 
a  colony  of  Sarinatians,  and  in  376  another 
of  Goths,  was  planted  in  Thrace.  In  395  it 
was  overrun  by  Alaric,  arid  in  447  by  Attila. 
In  1353,  Amurath  obtained  possession  of  all 
its  fortresses,  except  Constantinople,  and  it 
has  ever  since  remained  in  the  possession  of 
the  Turks. 

Thrasimenus  Lacus.  See  Trasimenus 
Lacus. 

Throw,  To.  To  force  anything  from  one 
place  to  another ;  thus,  artillerists  say,  to 
throw  a  shot  or  shell,  or  so  many  shells  were 
thrown. 

Thrust.  Hostile  attack  with  any  pointed 
weapon,  as  in  fencing.  When  one  party 
makes  a  push  with  his  sword  to  wound  his 
adversary  with  the  point,  it  is  called  a  thrust. 

Thud.  The  sound  of  a  bullet  on  hitting 
the  intended  object. 

Thug.  One  of  an  association  of  robbers 
and  murderers  in  India,  who  practiced 
murder  not  by  open  assault,  but  by  stealthy 


THUMB-STALL 


585 


TILSIT 


approaches,  and  from  religious  motives. 
Tlicy  have  been  nearly  externiinutcd  by  the 
Lriti.-li  Lcoverntnent. 

Thumb-stall.     Sec  Implkments. 

Thunderbolt.  In  heraldry,  a  bearing 
borrowed  i'rom  classical  niythulogy,  which 
may  be  described  as  a  twisted  bar  in  pale 
inllamed  at  each  end  giirniounting  two  jag- 
ged darts  in  saltire  between  two  wings  dis- 
jjlayed  with  streams  of  tire. 

Thundering  Legion.  During  a  contest 
with  the  invading  Marconianni,  the  prayers 
of  some  Christians  in  a  Roman  legion  are 
said  to  have  been  followed  by  a  storm  of 
thunder,  lightning,  and  rain,  which  tended 
greatly  to  disconitit  the  enemy;  and  hence 
the  legion  received  the  name  in  174. 

Thurii,  or  Thurium.  A  Greek  city  in  the 
south  of  Italy,  on  the  north  shore  of  the 
Tarentine  Gulf,  was  founded  in  452  B.C., 
by  a  body  of  Sybarite  exiles,  near  the  spot 
where  their  ancient  city  had  stood  till  it 
was  destroyed  by  the  Crotonians  fifty-eight 
years  before.  The  rise  of  a  new  colony 
re-awakened  the  anger  of  the  Crotonians, 
and  after  five  years  they  expelled  the  Syba- 
rites. These  after  an  unsuccessful  appeal  to 
Sparta  for  assistance,  applied  to  the  Athe- 
nians, who  resolved  to  send  out  a  colony 
along  with  the  persecuted  Sybarites.  The 
leaders  of  this  colony  were  Lampon  and 
Xenocritus.  A  war  subsecjuently  occurred 
between  Thurii  and  Tarentum,  but  was  ter- 
minated by  a  compromise.  In  300  n.c.  the 
city  received  a  severe  blow  from  a  total  de- 
feat of  their  army  by  the  Lucanians.  From 
tins  period  it  began  to  decline,  and  was  at 
length  obliged  to  submit  to  the  Koman 
power,  in  order  to  escape  the  continued  at- 
tacks of  the  Lucanians. 

Thuringia.  An  early  Gothic  kingdom  in 
Central  (iermany,  was  overrun  by  Attila 
and  the  Huns,  451  ;  the  last  king,  Herman- 
fried,  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Thierry, 
king  of  the  Franks,  who  annexed  it  to  his 
dominions,  530.  It  was  after  various  changes 
and  many  conflicts,  absorbed  in  Saxony  in 
the  15th  century.  In  1815  it  was  surren- 
dered tt>  Prussia. 

Thyatira.  In  Asia  Minor  ;  was  the  place 
ft.ssigned  for  the  buttle  at  which  the  rebel 
Proct)pins  was  defeated  by  the  army  of  the 
cniperiir  Valens  in  3()t). 

Thymbra.  In  Asia  Minor,  where  Cyrus 
the  (ireat  defeated  the  confederate  army 
aiding  Croesus,  and  obtained  supremacy  in 
Asia,  548. 

Tiberias.  A  city  in  Palestine,  built  by 
Herod  Antipas,  and  named  after  the  em- 
peror Tiberias  in  39.  Near  it  Guy  de  Lu- 
signan,  king  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  Cru- 
saders, were  defeated  by  Saladin  ;  and  Jeru- 
salem fell  into  his  hands,  1187. 

Ticino,  or  Tessin.  A  Swiss  canton  south 
of  the  Alj)S  ;  it  was  conquered  by  the  Swiss 
early  in  the  IGth  century,  and  made  a  sepa- 
rate canton  in  1815.  It  sutfered  by  internal 
disputes  in  1839  and  1841. 

Ticinus    (now    Tessino).     An    important 
88 


river  in  Northern  Italy.  It  was  upon  the 
bank  of  this  river  that  Hannibal  gained  his 
first  victurv  over  the  Romans  by  the  defeat 
of  P.  Scipio,  218  u.c. 

Ticonderoga.  A  town  in  Essex  Co., 
N.  Y.,  95  miles  north  by  east  of  Albany. 
Two  or  three  miles  beluw  this  village  are  the 
ruins  of  old  Fort  Ticonderoga,  on  the  west 
shore  of  Lake  Chumplain.  The  fort  waa 
surprised  by  Col.  Ethan  Allen  in  the  Revo- 
lutionary war. 

Tien  Tsin.  A  city  of  China,  situated  70 
miles  southeast  from  Pekin.  A  treaty  of 
amity  and  conunerce  was  signed  here  be- 
tween the  French  and  English  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  Chinese  on  the  other,  in  1858. 
The  violation  of  this  treaty,  which  was  fa- 
vorable to  British  interests  in  China,  by  the 
Chinese,  was  the  cause  of  the  subsequent 
Chinese  war. 

Tierce.  A  thrust  in  fencing,  delivered  at 
the  outside  of  the  body  over  tlie  arm. 

Tierce,  Tierce.  In  heraldry,  a  term  of 
blazon  used  to  indicate  that  the  field  is  di- 
vided by  lines  into  three  equal  parts.  A 
shield  may  be  tierce  in  pale,  in  fcss,  in  bend, 
in  bend  sinister,  or  in  pall ;  all  which,  with 
other  arrangements  in  tierce,  are  common 
in  French  heraldry.  Tierce  in  pale,  in 
English  heraldry,  is  an  occasional  mode  of 
mai-shaling  three  coats  in  one  escutcheon 
under  special  circumstances. 

Tier-shot.  Grape-shot  is  sometimes  so 
called. 

Tiflis.     See  Tefli-s. 

Tige-arms.  Sometimes  called  pillar 
brcech-arnis.  Arms  with  a  stem  of  steel, 
screwed  into  the  middle  of  the  breech-pin, 
around  which  the  charge  of  powder  is 
placed.  The  ball  enters  free  and  rests  upon 
the  top  of  the  pin,  which  is  tempered,  and 
a  few  blows  with  a  heavy  ramrod  force  the 
ball  to  fill  the  grooves  of  the  rifled  arm. 
This  invention  was  an  improvement  by 
Capt.  Thouvenin  on  Delvignes'  plan  of 
having  a  chamber  for  the  powder  smaller 
than  the  bore.  Capt.  Minies  invention  su- 
perseded the  tige-arms,  by  means  of  a  bul- 
let which  is  forced  to  till  the  grooves  by  the 
action  of  the  charge  itself  at  the  insUmt  of 
the  explosion. 

Tigranocerta  (ruins  at  Serf).  The  later 
capital  of  Armenia,  built  by  Tig(>nes.  It 
was  taken  by  Lucullus  and  the  Romans, 
after  a  great  Victory  over  Tigranes,  in  C/J  B.C. 

Tigurini.  A  tribe  of  the  Helvetii,  who 
joincfd  the  Cimbri  in  invading  the  country 
of  the  Allobroges  in  Gaul,  where  they  de- 
feated the  consul  L.  Cassius  Longinus,  107 
B.C.  They  formed  in  the  time  of  Caesar  the 
mo^t  important  of  the  four  cantons  into 
which  the  Helvetii  were  divided. 

Tilsit.  A  town  of  East  Prussia,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Niemen,  or  Memel,  <J0  miles 
northeast  from  Konigsberg.  Tilsit  will  be 
ever  memorable  in  history  for  the  treaties 
which  were  there  signed  l>etween  Franco 
and  Russia  on  July  7,  and  France  anct  Prus- 
sia on  July  9,  18U7.     By  the  former  of  these 


TILT 


586 


TINCTUKE 


Napoleon  agreed  to  restore  to  the  king  of 
Prussia  a  great  portion  of  his  dominions, 
his  Polish  acquisitions  being  joined  to  Sax- 
ony, and  his  possessions  west  of  the  Elbe 
formed  into  the  nucleus  of  the  new  kingdom 
of  Westphalia;  Danzig  was  declared  an  in- 
dependent city ;  the  Prussian  province  of 
Bialystock  was  ceded  to  Russia ;  the  dukes 
of  Oldenberg  and  Mecklenburg,  the  czar's 
relatives,  were  reinstated  by  Napoleon,  and 
in  return  the  Bonapartist  kings  of  Naples 
and  Holland  were  recognized  by  the  czar, 
etc.  By  the  latter,  the  king  of  Prussia  rec- 
ognized the  kings  of  Holland,  Naples,  and 
Westphalia,  and  the  Confederation  of  the 
Ehine  ;  agreed  to  the  cessions  laid  down  in 
the  Russian  treaty,  and  to  other  minor 
alienations  and  concessions  to  Saxony, 
amounting  in  all  to  nearly  one-half  of  his 
dominions  ;  to  the  exclusion  from  his  har- 
bors of  the  commerce  of  Great  Britain,  and 
to  the  occupation  of  the  Prussian  fortresses 
by  the  French,  till  the  payment  of  an  enor- 
mous ransom.  The  weighty  importance  of 
the  alterations  eti'ected  by  this  treaty  is, 
however,  dwarfed  before  the  startling  mag- 
nitude of  the  secret  provisions  signed  be- 
tween France  and  Russia.  By  these  were 
arranged  the  resignation  of  the  empire  of 
the  East  to  Russia,  Roumelia  and  Constan- 
tinople being  specially  excepted  by  Napo- 
leon, and  the  acquisition  of  the  Spanish  pe- 
ninsula by  France ;  the  two  powers  were  to 
make  common  cause  against  Great  Britain, 
and  were  to  force  the  three  courts  of  Stock- 
holm, Copenhagen,  and  Lisbon  to  join 
them  ;  and  Napoleon  agreed  to  increase  no 
further  the  power  of  the  duchy  of  Warsaw, 
and  to  do  nothing  which  might  lead  to  the 
re-establishment  of  the  Polish  monarchy. 
By  a  further  agreement,  not  put  formally 
into  writing,  the  mouths  of  the  Cattaro,  the 
Ionian  Isles,  Sicily,  Malta,  Egypt,  and  the 
papal  dominions  were  to  be  taken  by 
France  ;  and  Greece,  Macedonia,  Dalmatia, 
and  the  Adriatic  coasts,  as  the  portion  of 
Turkey  ;  while  on  the  other  hand,  Russia 
was  to  obtain  the  rest  of  Turkey,  and  was 
allowed  to  seize  Finland.  These  secret  arti- 
cles are  given  on  most  excellent  authorit_y, 
and  their  correctness  is  further  vouched  for 
by  the  conduct  of  France  and  Russia  for  the 
next  few-years. 

Tilt.  A  thrust,  or  fight  with  rapiers  ; 
also,  an  old  military  game. 

Tilted  Steel.  See  Ordnance,  Metals 
FOR,  Steel. 

Tilter.  One  who  fights  or  contests  in  a 
tournament. 

Tilting-helmet.  A  helmet  of  large  size 
often  worn  over  another  at  tilts.  , 

Tilt-yard.  Formerly  a  place  or  yard  for 
tilting. 

Timariot.  A  Turkishcavalry  soldier  who 
has  a  certain  allowance  made  him,  for  which 
he  is  not  only  obliged  to  arm,  clothe,  and 
accoutre  himself,  but  he  must  likewise  pro- 
vide a  certain  number  of  militia-men.  The 
;&llowance  is  called  t'miar. 


Timars.  Certain  revenues,  in  Turkey, 
growing  out  of  lands  which  originally  be- 
longed lo  Christian  clergy  and  nobility,  and 
which  the  sultans  seized  when  they  con- 
quered the  countries  they  inhabited.  By 
this  means  the  sultan  is  enabled  to  support 
the  timariots. 

Timber.  In  heraldry,  a  rank  or  row,  as 
of  ermine,  in  a  nobleman's  coat;  also  a  crest. 
This  word  is  also  written  timbre. 

Timber  Rafts.  See  Rafts,  Timber. 
Timbuctoo.  A  celebrated  city  in  the 
interior  of  Africa,  on  the  slope  of  a  hill 
about  8  miles  south  of  the  Niger.  It  is  said 
to  have  been  built  by  Mansa  Suleiman,  a 
Mohammedan,  about  1214,  and  was  fre- 
quently subjugated  by  the  sovereigns  of 
Morocco.  Since  1727  it  has  been  partially 
independent. 

Time.  The  measure  of  duration  by 
which  soldiers  regulate  the  cadence  of  the 
march.  Common  time,  the  ordinar}'  time 
of  marching,  in  which  90  steps,  each  28 
inches  in  length,  are  taken  in  one  minute. 
See  Double-quick,  and  Quick  Time. 

Time.  That  necessary  interval  between 
each  motion  in  the  manual  exercise,  as  well 
as  in  every  movement  the  army  or  any  body 
of  men  maj^  make.  In  fencing  there  are 
three  kinds  of  time  :  that  of  the  sword,  that 
of  the  foot,  and  that  of  the  whole  body. 

Time.  A  particular  period  or  part  of  du- 
ration, whether  past,  present,  or  future. 

Apparent  time,  the  time  of  day  reckoned 
by  the  sun,  or  so  that  12  o'clock  at  the  place 
is  the  instant  of  the  transit  of  the  sun's 
centre  over  the  meridian. 

Mean  solar  time,  or  meati  time,  time  regu- 
lated by  the  average,  or  mean,  instead  of 
the  unequal  or  apparent,  motion  of  the  sun  ; 
time  as  indicated  by  a  uniformly-going 
clock,  once  rightly  adjusted,  and  diflering 
from  apparent  time  at  any  instant  by  a 
small  quantity  called  the  equation  of  time. 

Sidereal  time,  time  regulated  by  the  tran- 
sit, over  the  meridian  of  a  place,  of  the  first 
point  of  Aries,  or  vernal  equinox,  and  chiefly 
used  in  astronomical  observations. 
Solar  time.     See  Mean  Solar  Time. 
Time  of  Flight.     See  Flight. 
Time  Thrust.    In  fencing,  a  thrust  given 
upon  any  opening  which  may  occur  by  an 
inaccurate  or  wide  motion  of  your   adver- 
sary, when  changing  his  guard,  etc. 
Time-fuze.     See  Fuze,  Time-. 
Timing.     In  fencing,  is  the  accurate  and 
critical  throwing  in  of  a  cut  or  thrust  upon 
any  opening  that  may  occur  as  your  adver- 
sary changes  his  position. 

Tin-case  Shot.  See  Canister-shot. 
Tinchebrai.  A  town  of  France,  depart- 
ment of  the  Arne,  34  miles  northwest  from 
Alen^on.  Here  Robert  of  Normandy  was 
finally  defeated  by  his  brother,  Henry  I.  of 
England,  on  September  28,  1106,  and  Nor- 
mandy was  annexed  to  the  crown  of  Eng- 
land. 

Tincture.  In  heraldry,  one  of  the  metals, 
colors,  or  furs  used  in  armory. 


TINDAL 


587 


TOLOSA 


Tindal.  An  attendant  on  the  army  in 
India. 

Tinker.  A  small  mortar  formerly  used 
on  tho  Olid  of  a  staff,  now  superseded  by  the 
Cofhorri. 

Tippecanoe.  A  river  of  Indiana,  United 
States,  which  rises  in  a  lake  of  the  same 
name  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State.  It 
is  famous  for  the  battle  fought  on  it«  hanks, 
November  5,  1811,  in  which  the  Indians, 
under  Tecumseh's  brother,  the  Prophet,  were 
defeated  by  Gen.  Harrison. 

Tipperary.  An  ii\land  county  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Minister,  Ireland.  Sub.sequently  to 
the  year  1172,  Henry  II.  obtained  possession 
of  it  after  several  sanguinary  contests.  The 
county  suffered  greatly  during  the  civil  wars 
of  1041,  in  the  course  of  which  the  town  of 
Clonmol,  after  a  gallant  resistance,  obtained 
honorable  terms  from  Cromwell,  who  con- 
ducted the  siege  in  person. 

Tipperary.  A  town  of  the  county  of  the 
same  ikuuc.  on  the  river  Arra,  111  miles 
southwest  irom  Dublin.  The  town  is  of 
very  ancient  foundation,  and  soon  after  the 
invasion  was  occupied  as  a  strong  place  by 
the  English,  who  built  a  castle  in  it  during 
the  Irish  expedition  of  King  John.  This 
castle,  however,  fell  soon  afterward  into  the 
liands  of  the  Irish  under  the  Prince  of 
Thomoiul. 

Tippermuir,  or  Tibbermore.  A  town  of 
Scotland,  near  Perth.  Here  the  Marquis  of 
Jlontrose  defeated  the  Covenanters  under 
Lord  Klcho,  September  1,  1044. 

Tirailleur.  A  skirmisher,  often  put  in 
front  of  the  line  to  annoy  the  enemy,  and 
draw  off  his  attention;  or  they  are  left  be- 
hind to  amuse  and  stop  his  progress  in  the 
pursuit ;  a  rifleman. 

Tire.  Are  great  guns,  shot,  shells,  etc., 
jilaced  ill  a  regular  form. 

Tirlemont.  A  town  of  Belgium,  province 
of  Brabant,  25  miles  eivst  of  Brussels.  It 
was  taken  by  the  French  in  1035;  was  rav- 
aged by  ^larlborough  in  1705;  taken  by  the 
French  in  1792;  here  the  French,  under 
Dumouriez,  defeated  the  Austrians  in  1793; 
taken  by  the  French  in  1794.  Its  fortifica- 
tions were  dismantled  in  1804. 

Tiryns.  An  ancient  town  of  Argolis, 
southeast  of  Argos,  and  one  of  the  most 
ancient  in  all  Greece.  Homer  represents 
Tiryns  as  subject  to  Argos ;  the  town  was 
at  a  later  time  destroyed  by  the  Argives, 
and  most  of  the  inhabitants  were  removed 
to  Argos. 

Titles,  Military.  See  military  titles  un- 
der appropriate  headings  throughout  this 
volume. 

Tivoli.  A  town  of  Central  Italy,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Teverone,  18  miles  east- 
northeast  from  Home.  In  the  Middle  Ages, 
Tivoli  was  an  imperial  city,  independent  of 
Rome,  and  was  the  occasion  of  many  con- 
tentions between  the  emperors  and  the  popes  ; 
in  the  course  of  which  it  was  frequentlj- 
taken  and  retaken  as  either  party  gained  the 
ascendant. 


Tlemsen,  or  Tlcmecen.  A  town  of  Al- 
geria, in  the  province  of  Gran,  G7  miles 
southwest  from  Gran.  It  was  once  an  im- 
portant place;  but  in  consequence  of  a  re- 
volt of  the  inhabitants  against  his  authority, 
Hassan,  the  dey  of  Algiers,  laid  it  in  ruins. 
It  was  occupied  by  the  French  in  1830  and 
1842. 

Tobago.  One  of  the  British  islands  in 
the  West  Indies,  belonging  to  the  Wind- 
ward group.  This  island  was  first  colonized 
by  the  Dutch,  who  were  expelled  by  the 
Spaniards.  It  was  then  settled  by  the  Eng- 
lish, to  whom  it  was  ceded  by  the  peace  of 
1703.  In  1781  it  was  taken  by  the  French, 
and  in  1793  was  retaken  by  the  British,  by 
whom  it  was  retained  at  the  peace  of  Amiens. 

Tobitschau  (Moravia).  In  a  sharp  ac- 
tion, on  July  15,  1860,  the  Austrians  were 
defeated  by  the  army  of  the  crown-prince  of 
Prussia,  with  the  loss  of  500  killed  and 
wounded,  and  500  prisoners  and  17  guns. 

Tocsin.  An  alarm-drum;  a  bell.  It 
was  formerly  used  in  an  army  as  a  signal 
for  charging,  on  the  approach  of  an  enemy. 

Toga  Picta.  Was  an  outer  garment, 
worn  by  Koman  generals  in  triumphs,  by 
consuls  under  the  emjiire,  and  by  praetors 
when  they  celebrated  games ;  and  was  em- 
bellished with  Phrygian  embri>idery.  In 
war  the  toga  was  laid  aside  for  the  sagutn  or 
pnludaingatuH,  or  some  le.ss  cunibrous  style 
of  attire. 

Toggle  and  Chain.     See  ORDyxKCE. 

Toise.  A  measure  derived  from  the 
French,  containing  0  feet,  and  a  term  of 
frequent  use  in  fortification  and  military 
surveving. 

Toison  d'Or  (Fr.).     SeeGoi.DKN  Flekce. 

Toledo  (anc.  Toletnm).  A  city  of  Spain, 
capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name, 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  Tagus,  55  miles 
south-southwest  from  Madrid.  It  was  con- 
quered by  the  Komans  under  M.  Fulvius, 
192  n.c.  (193  H.c);  was  captured  by  the 
Goths,  407  ;  possessed  by  the  Moors  from  714 
to  1085.  Alfonso  VI.  of  Castile  and  Leon 
recovered  it  from  the  Moors. 

Toledo.  An  esteemed  Spani.«h  sword,  so 
called  from  the  place  of  manufacture. 

Tolenon  (/•>.).  An  ancient  machine  of 
war,  having  a  long  lever  moving  on  a  jiivot, 
suspended  from  an  upright  higher  than  the 
rampart,  having  at  one  end  a  box  to  contain 
20  men,  who,  by  drawing  down  the  other 
end,  might  be  raised  high  enough  to  fire  into 
the  loop-holes,  or  even  to  get  upon  the  wall. 

Tolentino.  A  town  of  Italy,  province  of 
Macerata.  12  miles  from  Macerattt.  It  was 
here,  in  February,  1797.  that  the  pope  ceded 
the  Bomagna  to  the  French  republic  by 
treaty,  and  in  May,  1815.  Murat  retired  to 
this  place  with  his  troops  before  the  Aus- 
trians, and  was  defeated. 

Tolosa.  A  town  of  Spain,  province  of 
Guipu/.coa,  on  the  Oria,  35  miles  southwest 
from  Bayonne.  Near  here,  Alfonso,  king  of 
Castile,  "aided  by  the  kings  of  Anigon  and 
Navarre,  gained  a   great  victory  over  the 


TOMAHAWK 


588 


TOKPEDO 


Moors,  July  16, 1212.  This  conflict  is  some- 
times termed  the  battle  of  Muradal.  It  was 
occupied  by  the  French  from  1808  till  1813. 

Tomahawk.  A  light  war-hatchet  of  the 
North  American  Indians.  The  early  ones 
were  rudely  made  of  stone,  ingeniously  fast- 
ened to  their  handles  by  animal  sinews,  or 
cords  of  skin.  Traders  supplied  hatchets  of 
steel,  the  heads  of  which  were  made  hollow, 
for  a  tobacco-pipe;  the  handle  of  ash,  with 
the  pith  removed,  being  the  stem.  These 
hatchets  are  used  in  the  chase  and  in  battle, 
not  only  in  close  combat,  but  by  being 
thrown  with  a  wonderful  skill,  so  as  always 
to  strike  the  object  aimed  at  with  the  edge 
of  the  instrument.  The  handles  are  curi- 
ously ornamented.  In  the  figurative  lan- 
guage of  the  Indians,  to  make  peace,  is  to 
bury  the  tomahawk  ;  to  make  war,  is  to  dig 
it  up. 

Toman.  In  the  East  Indies,  signifies 
10,000  men. 

Tom-tom.  A  large,  flat  drum,  used  by 
the  Hindoos  ;  a  tam-tam. 

Tongue.     The  pole  of  an  ox-cart  (local). 

Tongue  of  a  Sword.  That  part  of  the 
blade  on  which  the  gripe,  shell,  and  pummel 
are  fixed.  The  bayonet  is  figuratively  called 
a  triangular  tongue,  from  its  shape. 

Tonnelon  (Fr.).  An  ancient  drawbridge, 
used  nearly  in  the  same  manner  and  for  simi- 
lar purposes  as  the  harpe  and  exostrc. 

Tonquin,  or  Tonkin.  The  northernmost 
province  of  Anam,  Southeast  Asia.  Tonquin 
was  conquered  by  the  Chinese  in  1406,  and 
by  the  Anamese  in  1790. 

Tooksowars  {hid.).  The  vizier's  body  of 
cavalry. 

Top'ekhana  (Tnd.).  The  place  where  guns 
are  kept;  the  arsenal. 

Topeys,  or  Topgis.  Turkish  artillery- 
men or  gunners. 

Topgi-Bachi.  Master-general  of  the 
Turkish  artillery. 

Topikhannah  ( Ind.).  A  house  for  keeping 
guns  ;  an  arsenal ;  an  armory. 

Tbplitz.  A  town  of  Bohemia.  Here  were 
signed,  in  1813,  two  treaties, — one  between 
Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia,  September  9 ; 
and  one  between  Great  Britain  and  Austria, 
October  3. 

Topographical  Engineers,  The  duties  of 
this  corps  consist  in  surveys  for  the  defense 
of  the  frontiers  and  of  positions  for  fortifica- 
tions ;  in  reconnoissances  of  the  country 
through  which  an  army  has  to  pass,  or  in 
which  it  has  to  operate  ;  in  the  examination 
of  all  routes  of  communication  by  land  or 
by  water,  both  for  supplies  and  military 
movements  ;  in  the  construction  of  military 
roads  and  permanent  bridges  connected  with 
them  ;  and  the  charge  of  the  construction 
of  all  civil  works  authorized  by  acts  of  Con- 
gress, not  specially  assigned  by  law  to  some 
other  branch  of  the  service.  The  U.  S. 
Corps  of  Topographical  Engineers  was 
merged  into  the  Corps  of  Engineers  in  1863. 

Topography.  Is  the  art  of  representing 
and  describing  in  all  its  details  the  physical 


constitution,  natural  or  artificial,  of  any  de- 
termined portion  of  a  country  ;  in  making 
maps  and  giving  a  descriptive  memoir. 
Military  topography  differs  from  geography 
in  seeking  to  imitate  sinuosities  of  ground  : 
it  represents  graphically  and  describes  tech- 
nicallj'  commanding  heights,  water-courses, 
preferable  sites  for  camps,  different  kinds  of 
roads,  the  position  of  fords,  and  extent  of 
woods.  It  enumerates  the  resources  that  a 
country  oflers  to  troops  and  the  difficulties 
which  are  interposed.  By  means  of  colored 
maps  and  other  conventional  signs,  military 
topography  presents  before  the  eyes  of  a  gen- 
eral much  that  is  necessary  to  guide  his  op- 
erations. 

Torce,  or  Wreath.  In  heraldry,  a  gar- 
land of  twisted  silk,  by  which  the  crest  is 
joined  to  the  helmet.  A  crest  is  always  un- 
derstood to  be  placed  on  a  torce,  unless  where 
it  is  expressly  stated  to  issue  out  of  a  coronet 
or  chapeau. 

Torches.     See  Pyrotechnt. 

Tordesillas.  A  town  of  Spain,  province 
of  Valladolid.  Here  was  signed,  in  1494,  a 
treaty  modifying  the,  boundary-line  which 
Pope  Alexander  VI.  had  assigned,  in  1493, 
in  his  division  of  the  New  World  between 
Spain  and  Portugal. 

Torgau.  A  fortified  town  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe,  70 
miles  south-southwest  from  Berlin.  Here  a 
battle  was  fought  between  Frederick  II.  of 
Prussia  and  the  Austrians,  in  which  the 
former  obtained  a  signal  victory,  the  Aus- 
trian general,  Count  Daun,  a  renowned  war- 
rior, being  wounded,  November  3,  1760.  It 
was  besieged  and  taken  by  the  allied  Prus- 
sians and  Saxons  in  January,  1814  ;  the  be- 
sieged lost  about  30,000  men. 

Tormentum.  A  pistol ;  a  gun  ;  a  piece  of 
ordnance. 

Tormes.  A  river  of  Spain,  falls  into  the 
Douro,  on  the  borders  of  Portugal.  Its  banks 
were  the  scene  of  many  conflicts  between  the 
French  and  Spaniards  during  the  Peninsular 
war,  from  1808  to  1814. 

Toro.  A  city  of  Spain,  province  of  Leon, 
on  the  Douro,  20  miles  east  from  Zamora. 
Ferdinand  the  Catholic  defeated  Alonzo  V. 
of  Portugal  near  this  place  in  1476,  and 
gained  the  kingdom  of  Castile  for  himself 
and  his  wife  Isabella. 

Toronto.  The  capital  of  the  province  of 
Ontario,  Canada,  on  the  north  shore  of  Lake 
Ontario,  165  miles  from  Kingston,  and  328 
miles  from  Montreal.  Its  harbor  or  bay  is 
capable  of  accommodating  the  largest  ves- 
sels that  navigate  the  lakes,  and  is  defended 
at  the  entrance  by  a  fort,  which  was  thor- 
oughly repaired  in  1864  by  the  imperial 
government,  and  mounted  with  the  most  ef- 
ficient modern  ordnance.  The  town  was 
founded  in  1794,  by  Gov.  Simcoe.  It  was 
burned  by  the  Americans  in  1813,  and  suf- 
fered severel}'  in  the  insurrection  of  1837,  on 
which  occasion  it  was  the  headquarters  of 
the  rebellion. 

Torpedo.     During  the  war  between  Great 


TORQUE 


589 


TOULON 


Britain  and  the  United  States  in  1812-14, 
this  name  was  applied  to  certain  mysterious 
boats  invented  by  Fulton  and  otlier  Ameri- 
cans for  the  purpose  of  navij^atinp  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  water,  and  injuring  the 
bottom  of  hostile  vessels.  In  those  days  of 
hand-to-hand  naval  war,  these  desi<<;ns 
(which,  by  the  way,  were  failures)  were 
looked  upon  as  little  less  than  diabolical. 
The  progress  of  destructive  weapons  during 
half  a  century  has  removed  this  aversion, 
and  nations  do  not  scruple  now  to  employ 
similar  unseen  agents  for  offense  and  defense. 
The  modern  torpedo  is  really  a  stationary 
bomb-shell,  intended  to  explode  under  the 
bottom  of  an  enemy's  ship.  The  weapon 
was  first  used  by  the  Russians  in  the  Baltic 
in  1854;  and  in  the  American  war  of  Seces- 
sion, 1861-65,  it  was  employed  extensively, 
and  often  successfully.  The  damage  effected 
by  a  torpedo  exploding  beneath  a  ship  is 
very  great ;  and  although  the  failures  are 
frequent  by  the  explosion  liappening  at  a 
wrong  moment,  the  danger  from  torpedoes 
is  considerable  in  fact,  and  far  more  in  ap- 
prehension, for  sailors  naturally  dread  navi- 
gating waters  where  destruction  lurks  at  un- 
known points  concealed  from  view.  There 
are  several  varieties  of  torpedoes,  but  they 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes, — those 
which  arc  self-explosive  on  a  ship  touching 
them,  and  those  which  are  dependent  on  an 
electric  current  supplied  from  the  shore. 
The  second  are  the  safest  for  friendly  ves- 
sels ;  but  they  arc  rather  uncertain  in  action, 
and  can  only  be  employed  at  a  moderate  dis- 
tance from  the  shore.  The  first  are  more 
certain  in  action,  as  they  can  only  explode 
on  a  ship,  being  somewhere  in  contact,  but 
they  attack  indiscriminately  friend  and  foe. 

Torque  (/*>.).  A  metal  collar  formerly 
bestowed  upon  a  Roman  soldier  who  liad 
killed  his  adversary  in  a  single  combat. 

Torqued.  In  heraldry,  twisted  ;  bent  ; — 
said  of  a  dolphin  haurient,  which  forms  a 
figure  like  the  letter  .V. 

Torre  di  Mare.  A  village  of  Naples,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Bassento,  in  the  Gulf  of 
Taranto.  Its  prosperity  received  a  fearful 
blow  when,  after  the  battle  of  the  Metaurus 
(207  no.),  Hannibal  was  compelled  to  give 
up  this  part  of  Italy,  and  carried  with  him 
all  the  citizens  of  Megapontum,  in  order  to 
defend  them  from  the  vengeance  of  the  Ro- 
mans. In  the  time  of  Cicero  the  city  still 
existed,  but  in  a  state  of  rapid  decay. 

Torres-Vedras.  A  town  of  Estremadura, 
kingdom  of  Portugal,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Sizandro,  about  30  miles  north  of  Lisbon. 
It  derives  its  reputation  solely  from  having 
given  name  to  tnosc  famous  lines  of  defense 
within  which  Wellington  took  refuge  in 
1810,  when  he  found  it  impossible  to  defend 
the  frontier  of  Portugal  against  the  French 
armies  ;  and  from  which,  in  the  year  follow- 
ing, he  issued  on  that  career  of  slow  and 
hard-won  victory  which  ended  in  the  expul- 
sion of  the  French  from  the  Peninsula.  The 
Jirst,  or  outermost  of  these  lines,  extending 


from  Alhandra,  on  the  Tagus,  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Sizandro,  on  the  sea-coast,  and  follow- 
ing the  windings  of  the  hills,  was  29  miles 
long;  the  second  (and  by  far  the  most  for- 
midable) lay  from  6  to  iO  miles  behind  the 
first,  stretching  from  (juintella,  on  the  Ta- 
gus, to  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lorenza,  a  dis- 
tance of  24  miles  ;  the  third,  situated  to  the 
southwest  of  Lisbon,  at  the  very  mouth  of 
the  Tagus,  was  very  shojt,  being  intended  to 
cover  a  forced  embarkation,  if  that  had  be- 
come necessary.  The  entire  ground  thus 
fortified  was  equal  to  500  square  mile.s. 

Torrington.  A  town  of  England,  county 
of  Devon,  10  miles  south-southwest  of  Barn- 
staple. The  name  of  Torrington  emerges 
frequently  during  the  great  civil  war;  and 
the  capture  of  the  town  by  Fairfax  in  1646, 
on  which  occasion  the  church,  with  2(X)  pris- 
oners, and  those  who  guarded  them,  were 
blown  into  the  air  by  gunpowder,  proved 
fatal  to  the  king's  cause  in  the  west. 

Torse,  or  Torce.     In  heraldry,  a  wreath. 

Tortona.  A  town  of  Italy,  province  of 
Alessandria,  on  a  hill  nearly  900  feet  above 
the  sea.  Tortona  was  once  a  strongly  forti- 
fied citj',  but  its  last  defenses  were  destroyed 
by  order  of  Napoleon,  after  the  battle  of 
Marengo. 

Tortosa.  A  town  of  Spain,  in  Catalonia, 
on  the  Ebro,  42  miles  southwest  from  Tar- 
ragona. It  was  taken  by  the  French  under 
Sucbet  in  ISU. 

Tortu  d'Hommes  (Fr.).  A  particular 
formation  which  was  formerly  adopted  by 
the  besieged  when  they  made  a  sortie. 

Tory.  The  word  tnry  first  occurs  in  Eng- 
lish history  in  1679,  during  the  struggle  in 
Parliament  occasioned  by  the  introduction 
of  the  bill  for  the  exchision  of  the  Duke  of 
York  from  the  line  of  succession,  and  was 
applied  by  the  advocates  of  the  bill  to  its 
opponents  as  a  title  of  obloquy  or  contempt. 
The  name  has,  however,  cea.sed  to  designate 
any  existing  party ;  the  political  successors 
of  the  tories  are  now  commonly  known  as 
conservatives.  In  the  Revolutit)nary  war  of 
the  United  States,  the  loyalists  were  called 

Touch-box.  A  box  containing  lighted 
tinder,  formerly  carried  by  soldiers  who  used 
matchlocks,  to  kindle  the  match. 

Touch-hole.  The  vent  of  a  cannon  or 
other  species  of  fire-arms,  by  which  fire  is 
communicated  to  the  powder  of  the  charge. 

Toula,  or  Tula.  An  important  town  of 
Great  Russia,  capital  of  the  government  of 
the  same  name,  on  the  Upa,  110  miles  south 
of  Moscow.  It  is  an  ancient  town,  and  has 
Buffered  severely  from  Tartar  invasion,  and 
during  the  wars  of  the  commencement  of  the 
17th  century.  The  Russian  army  is  largely 
supplied  with  muskets  and  small-arms  from 
the  works  of  this  town. 

Toulon.  A  great  seaport  and  naval 
arsenal  of  France,  department  of  Var.  It 
stands  at  the  hesid  of  a  deeply-penetrating 
inlet  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  a  fortress 
of  immense  strength,  and  is  surrounded  by 


TOULOUSE 


590 


TOWTON 


a  double  rampart,  and  by  a  wide  and  deep 
fosse.  Toulon  was  destroyed  by  the  Sara- 
cens in  889,  and  again  by  them  about  the 
close  of  the  12th  century.  It  was  only  at 
the  end  of  the  IGth  century  that  Toulon 
came  to  be  important  as  a  naval  and  military 
stronghold.  In  1707,  it  was  assailed  without 
success  by  the  Duke  of  Savoy  by  land,  and 
the  English  and  Dutch  by  sea.  It  was  taken 
by  the  English  and^Spaniards  in  1793;  but 
the  allies  were  obliged  to  evacuate  the  town 
in  December  of  the  same  year,  after  being 
fiercely  attacked  by  the  republicans,  whose 
guns  were  commanded  by  Napoleon, — then 
a  simple  officer  of  artillery,  —  who  here 
evinced  for  the  first  time  his  genius  and 
self-reliance. 

Toulouse  (anc.  Tolosa).  An  important 
city  of  France,  capital  of  the  department  of 
Haute-Garonne,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river  Garonne,  160  miles  southeast  of  Bor- 
deaux. The  ancient  Tolosa  and  its  temple 
were  plundered  by  the  consul  Q.  Servilius 
Caepio  in  106  B.C.  It  was  ravaged  by  the 
Visigoths  and  Franks,  who  successively 
overran  and  possessed  the  country.  A  bat- 
tle was  fought  here  in  1814,  between  Wel- 
lington and  Soult,  in  which  the  latter  was 
defeated,  and  obliged  to  evacuate  the  town. 

Tour,  or  Turn.  That  which  is  done  by 
succession.  Tour  of  duty,  turn  to  go  on 
duty. 

Tourbillon.     See  Pyrotechny. 

Tournament,  or  Tournay.  A  military 
sport  of  the  Middle  Ages,  in  which  com- 
batants engaged  one  another  with  the  object 
of  exhibiting  their  courage,  prowess,  and 
skill  in  the  use  of  arms,  or  for  the  honor  of 
the  ladies  attending.  According  to  Du- 
cange,  the  diflerence  between  a  tournament 
and  a  joust  is,  that  the  latter  is  a  single  com- 
bat, while  in  the  former  a  troop  of  com- 
batants encounter  each  other  on  either  side. 
But  this  distinction  has  not  been  always 
observed. 

Tournay  (anc.  Tornacum,  or  Turris  Ner- 
viorum,  "  Fort  of  the  Nervii").  A  fortified 
town  of  Belgium,  province  of  Hainault,  on 
both  sides  of  the  Scheldt,  near  the  French 
frontier.  It  was  in  the  5th  and  beginning 
of  the  6th  centuries  the  seat  of  the  Merovin- 
gian kings,  subsequently  belonged  to  France, 
but  at  the  peace  of  Madrid  was  included  in 
the  Spanish  Netherlands.  Subsequently  it 
was  oftener  than  once  taken  by  France,  but 
again  restored  by  treaty.  During  the  month 
of  May,  1794,  it  was  the  scene  of  several 
hotly  contested  fights  between  the  French 
and  Austro-English  armies,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  was  that  of  May  19,  in 
which  Pichegru  beat  the  Duke  of  York. 

Tours.  A  city  of  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Indre-et-Loire,  146  miles 
southwest  from  Paris.  Near  it  Charles 
Martel  gained  a  great  victory  over  the 
Saracens,  and  saved  Europe,  October  10, 
732.  This  conflict  was  also  called  the  battle 
of  Poitiers.  The  church  was  pillaged  by 
the  Huguenots  and  utterly  destroyed,  with 


the  exception  of  two  towers,  at  the  revo- 
lution. 

Tower.  A  citadel ;  a  fortress  ;  hence,  a 
defender. 

Tower  Bastion.  In  fortification,  is  one 
which  is  constructed  of  masonry,  at  the  an- 
gles of  the  interior  polygon  of  some  works  ; 
and  has  usually  vaults  or  casemates  under 
its  terre-plein,  to  contain  artillery,  stores, 
etc. 

Tower  of  London.  In  feudal  days,  a 
powerful  fortress  ;  then,  and  long  after,  a 
state  prison  of  gloomy  memories ;  now  a 
government  store-house  and  armory,  and 
still  in  some  sense  a  stronghold  ;  is  an  ir- 
regvilar  quadrilateral  collection  of  buildings 
on  rising  ground  adjoining  the  Thames,  and 
immediately  to  the  east  of  the  city  of  Lon- 
don. The  kings  frequently  resided  there, 
holding  their  courts,  and  not  unfrequently 
sustaining  sieges  and  blockades  from  their 
rebellious  subjects.  At  present,  the  Tower 
of  London  is  a  great  military  store-house  in 
charge  of  the  war  department,  containing 
arms  and  accoutrements  for  the  complete 
equipment  of  a  large  army.  It  is  needless 
to  say  that,  viewed  as  a  fortress,  the  Tower 
would  be  useless  against  modern  arms.  The 
government  is  vested  in  a  constable,  who  has 
great  privileges,  and  is  usually  a  military 
officer  of  long  service  and  distinguished 
mark  ;  the  deputy-constable,  also  a  general 
officer  of  repute,  is  the  actual  governor.  He 
has  a  small  stafi^  under  him,  and  the  corps 
of  Yeomen  of  the  Guard,  more  commonly 
known  as  Beef-eaters. 

Towered.  Adorned  or  defended  by  tow- 
ers. 

Towers,  Movable.  The  purgi  of  the 
Greeks,  and  the  turves  mobiles  of  the  Ro- 
mans, consisted  of  several  stories,  furnished 
with  engines,  ladders,  casting-bridges,  etc., 
and  moving  on  wheels,  for  the  purpose  of 
being  brought  near  the  walls.  They  were 
usually  of  a  round  form,  though  sometimes 
square  or  polygonal.  Before  the  invention 
of  guns,  they  used  to  fortify  places  with 
towers,  and  to  attack  them  with  movable 
towers  of  wood,  mounted  on  wheels,  to  set 
the  besiegers  on  a  level  with  the  walls,  and 
drive  the  besieged  from  under  the  same. 
These  towers  were  sometimes  20  stories,  and 
30  fathoms  high.     They  were  covered  with  Ji 

raw  skins,  and  100  men  wei-e  employed  to  f 

move  them. 

Tow-hooks.     See  Implements. 

Town-Adjutant,  Town-Major.  In  Great 
Britain,  officers  on  the  staflT  of  a  garrison. 
They  are  often  veteran  officers,  too  much 
worn  for  field  service.  The  pay  depends  on 
the  magnitude  of  the  trust.  The  town-  ' 
major  ranks  as  a  captain;  the  adjutant  as  a 
lieutenant.  The  duties  of  these  officers  con- 
sist in  maintaining  discipline,  and  looking 
after  the  finding  of  the  batteries,  etc. 

Towton.  A  township  of  England,  county 
of  York,  "West  Riding.  Here  a  sanguinary 
battle  was  fought,  March  29,  1461,  between 
the  houses  of  York  (Edward  IV.)  and  Lun- 


TRABAND 


591 


TRANSFERS 


caster  (Ilenry  VI.),  to  the  latlor  of  whom  it 
WHS  fatal,  and  on  whoso  side  more  than 
37,00<)  fell.  Edward  issued  orders  to  jrive 
no  quarter,  and  the  most  meniless  shiu^hter 
ensued.  Henry  was  made  prisoner,  and 
confined  in  tlie  Tower;  hi.s  queen,  Mar- 
garet, fled  to  Flanders. 

Traband.  A  trusty  hrave  soldier  in  the 
Swiss  infantry,  whose  particular  duty  was 
to  guard  the  colors  and  the  eaptain  who  led 
them.  lie  was  armed  with  a  sword  and  a 
halbert,  the  blade  of  which  was  sharpened 
like  a  pertuisan.  He  generally  wore  the 
colonel's  livery,  and  was  excused  from  all 
the  duties  of  a  sentinel. 

Tracing,  or  Outline.  Is  the  succession 
of  lines  that  show  the  figure  of  the  works, 
and  indicate  the  direction  in  which  the  de- 
fensive mivsses  are  laid  out,  in  order  to  ob- 
tain u  proper  defense. 

Tracing-pickets.  Those  are  .short  pick- 
ets, liS  inches  long,  and  about  1  inch  in 
diameter,  which  are  useful  in  marking  out 
the  details  of  field-works.  They  are  made 
rather  more  expeditiously  than  fascine-pick- 
ets, and  should  be  tied  up  in  bundles  of  25 
each.  Every  bundle  weighs  about  8  pounds 
when  the  wood  is  dry. 

Track.  In  gunnery,  by  track  is  under- 
stood the  distance  between  the  furrows 
formed  by  the  wheels  of  artillery  carriages 
in  the  ground.  It  is  important  that  the 
track  should  be  the  same  for  all  carriages 
likely  to  travel  the  same  road,  in  order  that 
the  wheels  of  one  carriage  nuiy  follow  in  the 
furrows  formed  by  those  of  its  predecessor, 
and  thereby  prevent  a  lo.ss  of  tractile  force. 
The  track  of  artillery  carriages  is  5  feet,  and 
the  extreme  length  of  the  axle-tree  is  Gi  feet 
for  field-,  and  6^  feet  for  siege-carriages. 

Trail.  In  tactics,  to  carry,  as  a  tire-arm, 
with  the  butt  near  the  ground,  and  the  muz- 
zle inclined  forward,  the  piece  being  held  by 
the  right  hand  near  the  middle. 

Trail.  In  gunnery,  the  end  of  a  travel- 
ing-carriage, opposite  to  the  wheels,  and 
upon  which  the  carriage  slides  when  unlim- 
bered.     See  Okdnance,  Carriages  for. 

Trail  Hand-spike.     See  Hand-spike. 

Trail-handles.      See    Ordnance,    Car- 

RIAOKS   Kl>U. 

Trail-plate.     See  Ordnance,  Carriages 

FOR. 

Trail-bridge.     See  Pontons. 

Train.  To  teach  and  form  by  practice ; 
to  exercise;  to  discipline;  as,  to  train  the 
militia  to  the  manual  exercise;  to  train  sol- 
diers to  the  use  of  arms. 

Train.  A  line  of  gunpowder,  laid  to  lead 
fire  to  a  charge,  or  to  a  quantity  intended 
for  execution. 

Train,  Artillery-.  See  Artillkrt-train. 

Train,  Ponton-.  See  Pontons,  Bridge 
EQUir.\(iE. 

Train-Bands  (or  more  properly.  Trained 
Bands).  A  force  of  militia,  and  not  ditl'er- 
ing  essentially  from  that  force  substituted  by 
James  I.for  tlieold  English  Fyrd,or  national 
militia.     The  train-bands  of   London  were 


chiefly  composed  of  apprentices ;  and  their 
unruly  doings  formed  the  subject  for  many 
facetious  plays  and  tales.  In  the  civil  wars, 
the  train-bands  sided  with  the  Parliament; 
and  Charles  II.  restored  the  militia  on  its 
old  l(»cal  footing. 

Trainer.  In  the  United  States,  a  militia- 
man when  called  out  for  exercise  or  disci- 
pline. 

Training-day.  In  the  United  States,  a 
day  on  which  a  military  company  assembles 
for  drill,  especially  in  public. 

Traitor.  One  who  violates  his  allegiance 
and  betrays  his  country ;  one  guilty  of 
treason  ;  one  who,  in  breach  of  trust,  de- 
livers his  country  to  its  enemy,  or  any  fort 
or  place  intrusted  to  its  defense,  or  who  sur- 
renders an  army  or  body  of  troops  to  the 
enemy,  unless  when  vanquished ;  or  one 
who  takes  arms  and  levies  war  against  his 
country  ;  or  one  who  aids  an  enemy  in  con- 
quering his  country. 

Traitorous.  Giiilty  of  treason  ;  treacher- 
ous ;  perfidious ;  faithless ;  as,  a  traitorous 
officer  or  subject.  Also,  consisting  of  treason ; 
partaking  of  treason  ;  implying  breach  of 
allegiance ;  as,  a  traitorous  scheme  or  con- 
spiracy. 

Trajan's  Wall.  A  line  of  fortifications 
stretching  across  the  Dobrudscha  from  CV.er- 
navoda,  where  the  Danube  bends  north- 
wards, to  a  point  of  the  Black  Sea  cosist  near 
Kustendji.  It  consists  of  a  double,  and  in 
some  places  a  triple,  line  of  ramparts  of 
earth,  from  8J  to  11  feet  in  height  on  the 
average  (though  occasionally  it  attains  an 
altitude  of  19A  feet),  bounded  along  its  north 
side  by  a  valley,  which  being  generally 
marshy,  and  abounding  in  small  lakes  and 
pools,  serves  admirably  the  purpose  of  a 
fosse.  During  the  war  of  1854,  Trajan's 
wall  became  an  inij>i>rtant  line  of  defense  on 
the  invasion  of  the  Dobrudscha  by  the  Rus- 
sians, and  the  invaders  were  twice  defeated 
in  their  attempts  to  pass  it, — at  Kostelli, 
(April  10),  and  Czernavoda  (April  20-22). 

Trajectory.  The  increasing  curve  de- 
scribed by  a  projectile  in  its  flight  through 
the  air.  See  Projectile,  Projectiles, 
Theory  of. 

Tralee.  A  town  of  Ireland,  chief  town 
of  the  county  of  Kerry,  on  the  river  Lea,  69 
miles  northwest  from  Cork.  Tralee  WM 
destroyed  in  the  rebellion  of  1G41. 

Trani.  A  maritime  city  of  Southern 
Italv,  in  the  province  of  Terra  di  Bari,  25 
miles  northwest  of  the  town  of  Bari.  Trani 
submitted  to  the  Normans  in  1053.  It  was 
then  the  chief  town  of  a  vast  country,  and 
was  an  important  harbor  in  the  time  of  the 
crusades. 

Transfers.  Soldiers  taken  out  of  one 
troop,  or  company,  and  placed  in  another 
are  so  called.  Non-commissionetl  officers  or 
soldiers  will  not  be  transferred  from  one  regi- 
ment to  another  without  the  avithority  of  tne 
commanding  general.  The  colonel  of  a  regi- 
ment may,  upon  the  application  of  the  cap- 
tains, transfer  a  non-commissioned  officer  or 


TEANSFIXED 


592 


TRANSYLVANIA 


soldier  from  one  company  to  another  of  his 
regiment, — with  consent  of  the  department 
commander  in  case  of  a  change  of  post. 
The  transfer  of  officers  from  one  regiment 
or  corps  to  another  will  be  made  only  by 
the  war  department,  on  the  mutual  applica- 
tion  of  the  parties  desiring  the  exchange. 

Transfixed.  An  ancient  term  used  to  ex^ 
press  the  state  of  being  desperately  wounded 
by  some  pointed  instrument,  as  being  run 
through  by  a  spear,  javelin,  or  bayonet; 
pierced  through  so  that  the  weapon  is  fixed 
in  another  body. 

Transfluent.  In  heraldry,  passing  or 
flowing  through  a  bridge, — said  of  water. 

Transfuge.  A  turncoat,  a  deserter,  a  run- 
away ;  one  who  abandons  his  party  in  time 
of  war,  and  goes  over  to  the  enemy. 

Transit-compass.  A  species  of  theodo- 
lite, consisting  of  a  telescope  revolving  in  a 
vertical  plane  on  a  horizontal  axis,  as  in  a 
transit-instrunlent,  combined  with  a  com- 
pass, a  graduated  horizontal  limb,  etc.,  used 
for  running  lines,  observing  bearings,  hori- 
zontal angles,  and  the  like ;  called  also  su?-- 
veyor^s  transit. 

Transoms.  In  gunnery,  are  pieces  of 
wood  or  iron  which  join  the  cheeks  of  gun- 
carriages  and  hold  them  together ;  they  are 
known  as  the  front  and  rear  transoms. 

Transportation.  The  act  of  transporting, 
carrying,  or  conveying  from  one  place  to 
another ;  as,  the  transportation  of  troops, 
munitions  of  war,  etc. 

Transportation  of  Artillery.  In  trans- 
porting artillery  by  sea,  divide  the  total 
quantity  to  be  transported  among  the  ves- 
sels, and  place  in  each  vessel  everything  ne- 
cessary for  the  service  required  at  the  mo- 
ment of  disembarkation,  so  that  there  will 
be  no  inconvenience  should  other  vessels  be 
delayed.  If  a  siege  is  to  be  undertaken, 
place  in  each  vessel  with  each  piece  of  artil- 
lery its  implements,  ammunition,  and  the 
carriages  necessary  to  transport  the  whole  or 
a  part ;  the  platforms,  tools,  instruments, 
and  materials  for  constructing  batteries ; 
skids,  rollers,  scantling,  and  plank.  If  a 
particular  caliber  of  gun  is  necessary  for  any 
operation,  do  not  place  all  of  one  kind  in 
one  vessel,  to  avoid  being  entirely  deprived 
of  them  by  accident.  Dismount  the  car- 
riages, wagons,  and  limbers,  by  taking  off 
the  wheels  and  boxes,  and,  if  absolutely  ne- 
cessary, the  axle-trees.  Place  in  the  boxes 
the  linch-pins,  washers,  etc.,  with  the  tools 
required  for  putting  the  carriages  together 
again.  Number  each  carriage,  and  mark 
each  detached  article  with  the  number  of 
the  carriage  to  which  it  belongs.  The  con- 
tents of  each  box,  barrel,  or  bundle,  should 
be  marked  distinctly  upon  it.  The  boxes 
should  be  made  small  for  the  convenience  of 
handling,  and  have  rope  handles  to  lift  them 
by.  Place  the  heaviest  articles  below,  be- 
ginning with  the  shot  and  shells  (empty), 
then  the  guns,  platforms,  carriages,  wagons, 
limbers,  ammunition,  boxes,  etc.  ;  boxes  of 
small-arms  and  ammunition  in  the  dryest 


and  least  exposed  part  of  the  vessel.  Arti- 
cles required  to  be  disembarked  first  should 
be  put  in  last,  or  so  placed  that  they  can  be 
readily  got  at.  If  the  disembarkation  is  to 
be  performed  in  front  of  the  enemy,  some  of 
the  field-pieces  should  be  so  placed  that  they 
can  be  disembarked  immediately,  with  their 
carriages,  implements,  and  ammunition ; 
also  the  tools  and  materials  for  throwing  up 
temporary  intrenchments  on  landing.  Some 
vessels  should  be  laden  solely  with  such 
powder  and  ammunition  as  may  not  be  re- 
quired for  the  immediate  service  of  the 
pieces.  On  a  smooth  sandy  beacli,  heavy 
pieces,  etc.,  may  be  landed  by  rolling  them 
overboard  as  soon  as  the  boats  ground,  and 
hauling  them  up  with  sling-carts. 

Transylvania.  Is  the  most  easterly 
crownland  of  Austria,  and  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Hungary  and  Galicia,  east  by 
Bukovina  and  Moldavia,  south  by  AVal- 
lachia,  and  west  by  the  Military  Frontier, 
the  Banat,  and  Hungary.  Transylvania  is 
little  noticed  in  history  till  the  Christian 
era,  when  part  of  it  was  occupied  by  the 
warlike  Dacians,  soon  after  whom  the  Sar- 
matian  tribes  of  the  Jazyges  and  Carpi  set- 
tled in  it.  The  conquest  of  the  Dacians  by 
Trajan,  however,  did  not  include  that  of  the 
other  two  peoples,  who  proved  very  trouble- 
some to  the  Eoman  settlers  along  the  Dan- 
ube, till  they  were  conquered  by  Diocletian, 
and  the  Carpi  carried  away  to  Pannonia  and 
other  districts.  In  the  middle  of  the  4th 
century,  the  Goths  overran  the  country,  de- 
feating the  Sarmatians  in  a  great  battle  on  the 
Maros,  in  which  the  monarch  and  the  chief 
of  his  nobility  perished  ;  and  they  in  their  turn 
were  forced  in  375  to  retire  before  the  Huns 
and  their  confederates.  The  Gepidaj  next 
took  possession  of  Transylvania,  till  their 
almost  complete  extirpation,  in  566,  by  the 
Lombards  and  Avars.  It  was  conquered  by 
the  Hungarians  about  1000,  and  was  gov- 
erned by  woivodes  till  1526,  when  the  death 
of  the  Hungarian  monarch  at  Mohacs  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  "union  of  the  two 
countries  under  the  woivode  John  Zapolya  ; 
but  the  war  which  thence  arose  with  the 
Austrians  caused  their  complete  severance, 
and  Zapolya's  sway  was,  in  1535,  confined 
to  Transylvania,  of  which  he  became  sov- 
ereign lord,  under  the  protection  of  the 
Turks.  The  Saxons  were  summoned  by  the 
Hungarian  monarchs  to  act  as  a  counter- 
poise to  the  increasing  power  of  the  nobles ; 
the  firm  protection  and  generous  treatment 
accorded  to  the  Saxons  by  the  Hungarian 
monarchs  were  rewarded  by  steadfast  loy- 
alty and  succor  in  men  and  money  whenever 
required.  During  the  rest  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury the  country  was  distracted  by  the  bitter 
strife  between  the  Catholic  party,  who  were 
supported  by  Austria,  and  the  Protestant 
party,  who  were  allied  with  the  Turks  ;  the 
latter  part}',  headed  successively  by  princes 
of  the  houses  of  Zapolya  and  Bathory,  gen- 
erally maintaining  the  superiority.  The 
next'  chief  of  the  Protestant  party  was  the 


TRAPANI 


593 


TRAVELING 


celebrated  Botskay,  whose  successes  against 
Austria  extorted  from  the  emperor  an  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  independence  of  Tran- 
sylvania in  ItJOO.  To  him  succeeded  Beth- 
lem  Gabor,  thedotcrmincd  foe  of  Catholicism 
and  Austria,  wlio  did  important  service 
during  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  Between 
liis  son  and  successor,  Stephen,  and  Ra- 
gotski  arose  a  contest  for  the  crown,  in 
which  the  latter  prevailed  ;  but  on  Ragot- 
Kki's  death,  the  civil  war  was  resumed,  till 
the  complete  rout  of  the  Austrians  by  the 
Turks,  under  Kiupruli,  placed  the  sceptre 
in  the  hands  of  Michael  Abaffi,  who  reigned 
till  his  death,  in  1(5'J0,  as  a  vassal  of  the 
Porte.  The  Austrians  now  again  possessed 
themselves  of  Transylvania,  despite  the  he- 
roic resistance  of  Ragotski ;  and  though  Te- 
keli  succeeded  for  a  brief  period  in  rolling 
back  the  invaders,  the  peace  of  Carlowitz, 
in  1099,  again  put  them  in  possession  ;  and 
in  1713  Transylvania  was  completely  incor- 
porated with  Hungary.  During  the  insur- 
rection in  1848  the  Hungarians  and  Szeklers 
(one  of  the  races  inhabiting  Transylvania) 
joined  the  insurgents  and  forced  Transylva- 
nia to  reunite  with  Hungary,  despite  the 
opposition  of  the  Saxons  ;  andthe  AVallachs, 
still  little  better  than  a  horde  of  savages, 
were  let  loose  over  the  land,  to  burn,  plun- 
der, and  murder  indiscriminately  ;  the  pros- 
tration of  the  country  being  completed  in 
the  following  year  during  the  bloody  con- 
flict which  took  place  here  between  Bern 
and  the  Russian  troops.  In  the  same  year 
Transylvania  was  again  separated  from  its 
turbulent  neighbor  and  made  a  crownland, 
the  portions  of  it  which  had,  in  1835,  been 
annexed  to  Hungary  being  restored,  as  well 
as  the  Transylvanian  Military  Frontier,  in 
18.')1. 

Trapani.     See  Drepanum. 

Trapezus  (now  Tnrabosan,  Trahezun,  or 
Ti-ebizoiid).  A  colony  of  Sinope,  at  almost 
the  extreme  cast  of  the  northern  shore  of 
Asia  Minor.  It  was  strongly  fortified.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Goths  in  the  reign  of  Va- 
lerian. 

Trappings.     See  Housinq. 

Trasimenus  Lacus.  The  ancient  name 
of  an  Itiiliim  lake  [Laf/n  Trasimeno,  or  Lapo 
di  Perii(/in),  lying  between  the  towns  of 
Cortona  and  Perugia.  Trasimenus  Lacus 
is  memorable  chiefly  for  the  great  victory 
obtained  by  Hannibal  in  217  BC,  during 
the  second  Punic  war,  over  the  Romans, 
under  their  consul,  C.  Flaminius.  Han- 
nibal leaving  Ta?suhe  passed  close  by  the 
camp  of  Flaminius  at  Arrctium,  laying 
waste  the  country  as  ho  proceeded  in  the 
direction  of  Rome.  This,  as  the  Cartha- 
ginian general  intended,  induced  the  consul 
to  break  up  his  encampment  and  follow  in 
pursuit,  Hannibal  in  the  mean  time  taking 
up  a  strong  position  on  the  hills  on  the  north 
side  of  the  lake,  along  which  he  was  passing. 
The  consul,  coming  up  early  next  morning, 
when  the  whole  place  was  enveloped  in  mist, 
saw  only  the  troops  in  front  on  the  hill  of 


Ttioro,  with  whom  he  was  preparing  to  en- 
gage, when  he  found  himself  surrounded 
and  attacked  on  all  sides.  The  Cartha- 
ginians thus  had  the  Romans  completely  in 
their  power,  and  took  such  advantage  of  the 
opportunity,  that  lt;,000  Roman  troops  are 
saiii  to  have  been  either  massacred  or  drowned 
in  the  lake  ;  Flaminius  himself  being  among 
the  first  who  fell ;  f30O0  troops  who  had  forced 
their  way  through  the  enenjy,  surrenderf-d 
next  day  to  Maliarbal.  It  is"  said  both  by 
Livy  and  Pliny  that  the  fury  on  both  sides 
was  so  great  as  to  render  the  combatants  un- 
conscious of  the  shock  of  an  earthquake 
which  occurred  during  the  battle. 

Trautenau.  A  town  of  Bohemia,  25 
miles  north-northeast  from  Koniggratz.  On 
June  27,  18(Jt},  the  1st  Corps  of  the  army  of 
the  crown-prince  of  Prussia  seized  Trau- 
tenau, but  was  defeated  and  repulsed  by  the 
Austrians  under  Gablenz  ;  on  the  28th,  the 
Prussians  defeated  the  Austrians  with  great 
loss. 

Traveling  Allowance.  Is  an  allowance 
made  to  officers  when  traveling  under  proper 
orders.  An  officer  who  travels  not  less  than 
10  miles  from  his  station,  without  troops, 
escort  of  military  stores,  and  under  special 
orders  in  the  case  from  a  superior,  or  sum- 
mons to  attend  a  military  court,  shall  receive 
8  cents  per  mile.  "Whenever  a  soldier  shall 
be  discharged  from  the  service,  except  by 
way  of  punishment  for  any  otfense,  or  on 
his  own  application,  or  ft)r  disability  prior 
to  three  months'  service,  he  shall  be  allowed 
his  pay  and  rations,  or  an  equivalent  in 
money,  for  such  term  of  time  as  shall  be 
sufficient  for  him  to  travel  from  the  place  of 
his  discharge  to  the  place  of  his  residence, 
computing  at  the  rate  of  twenty  miles  to  a 
day. 

Traveling  Forge.  See  Ordxaxce,  Car- 
riages FOR. 

Traveling  Kitchen.  Marshal  Saxe,  it  is 
believed,  first  suggested  the  idea  of  cooking 
while  marching,  so  as  to  economize  the 
strength  of  soldiers,  have  their  food  well 
cooked  in  all  weather,  and  avoid  the  nu- 
merous diseases  caused  by  bad  cooking  and 
want  of  rest.  Col.  Cavalli,  of  the  Sardinian 
artillery,  has  with  the  same  laudable  motive 
embraced  a  kitchen-cart  in  the  improve- 
ments suggested  by  him  to  replace  the 
wagons  now  in  use,  and  an  attempt  is  here 
made  to  elaborate  the  same  idea  of  a  trnrel- 
ing-kitchen,  designed  for  baking,  making 
soup,  and  other  cooking,  while  on  a  march. 
The  cart  is  12i  feet  long,  mounted  on  two 
6-feet  wheels  covered  with  a  very  light  can- 
vas roof  with  leather-cloth  curUiins.  A 
large  range  or  stove  forms  the  bmlv  of  the 
vehicle;  its  grate  is  below  the  floor,  its  doors 
opening  on  a  level  with  it.  A  I'apin's  di~ 
gesier  is  inclosed  above  the  grate,  in  a  flue 
whence  the  heat  may  pass  around  the  double 
oven  in  the  rear,  or  straight  up  the  chim- 
ney, as  regulated  by  dampers.  At  the  side 
of  the  digester,  over  the  grate,  is  a  range, 
suited  to  various  cooking  vessels.     The  top 


TRAVELING 


594 


TREATY 


of  the  oven  forms  a  table  nearly  5  feet 
square,  at  which  three  cooks  may  work, 
standing  upon  the  rear  platform.  A  foot- 
board passes  from  this  platform  to  the  front 
platform,  where  the  driver  and  cook  may 
stand.  Stores  may  be  placed  in  the  lockers 
at  the  side  of  the  range,  and  under  the  rear 
foot-board.  The  chimney  may  be  turned 
down  above  the  roof,  to  pass  under  trees, 
etc.,  and  may  be  of  any  height  to  secure  a 
good  draught.  By  bending  the  axle  like 
that  of  an  omnibus,  the  vehicle  may  be  hung 
without  danger  of  top-heaviness.  Cooking 
vessels  more  bulky  than  heavy  may  be  sus- 
pended from  the  roof,  over  the  range,  when 
not  in  use.  The  digester  may  have  a  ca- 
pacity of  100  gallons,  and  an  oven  of  60  to 
75  cubic  feet  would  be  quite  adequate  to 
the  cooking  for  250  men  ;  or  the  dimensions 
of  the  cart  may  be  smaller,  and  each  com- 
pany of  100  men  might  have  its  own  travel- 
ing-kitchen, which  would  also  furnish  oven 
and  cooking  utensils  for  a  camp. 

Traveling  Trunnion-beds.  See  Ord- 
nance, Carriages  for.  Siege-carriages. 

Traverse.  The  turning  a  gun  so  as  to 
make  it  point  in  any  desired  direction. 

Traverse  Circles.  In  gunnery,  are  cir- 
cular plates  of  iron,  fastened  to  a  bed  of 
solid  masonry,  on  which  the  traverse  wheels, 
which  support  the  chassis,  roll. 

Traverses.  In  fortifications,  are  mounds 
of  earth,  above  the  height  of  a  man,  and  18 
feet  thick,  placed  at  frequent  intervals  on  a 
rampart,  to  stop  shot  which  may  enfilade 
the  face  of  such  rampart.  A  fire  of  this 
nature,  in  the  absence  of  traverses,  would 
dismount  the  guns,  and  prove  altogether 
ruinous.  The  traverses  also  give  means  of 
disputing  the  progress  of  an  assailant  who 
has  gained  a  footing  on  the  wall,  for  each 
traverse  becomes  a  defensible  parapet,  only 
to  be  taken  by  storm. 

Traversing-plates.  In  gun-carriages,  are 
two  thin  iron  plates,  nailed  on  the  hind  part 
of  a  truck-carriage  of  guns,  where  the  hand- 
spike is  used  to  traverse  the  gun. 

Traversing-platform.  An  elevation  on 
which  the  guns  are  mounted  for  the  defense 
of  the  coast,  and  generally  for  all  sea-bat- 
teries, as  affording  greater  facility  of  traver- 
sing the  gun,  so  as  to  follow,  without  loss  of 
time,  any  quick-moving  object  on  the  water. 

Travois.  A  rude  but  etficient  mode  of 
transportation  for  conveying  the  wounded 
over  a  level  or  rolling  country,  when  ambu- 
lances are  not  at  hand.  It  consists  of  two 
poles  about  16  feet  long  and  4  inches  in  diam- 
eter ;  two  stretcher  bars  or  poles,  2j  inches  in 
diameter  and  3  feet  long ;  and  a  canvas  or 
rawhide  bottom,  5i  feet  long  and  2.}  feet 
broad  ;  and  if  of  canvas,  with  eyelet-holes 
at  the  sides  and  ends,  which  are  to  be  lashed 
to  the  poles  with  rope.  The  rear  ends  of 
the  travois-poles  rest  on  the  ground,  while 
the  front  ends  are  attached  to  each  side  of  a 
mule,  which  draws  the  travois.  The  littej-  is 
better  adapted  to  a  rough  country.  (See 
Litter.)      The   ordinary  tcepe-poles   with 


which  the  Indians  pitch  their  tents  when  in 
villages  are  also  used  in  constructing  the 
travois.  The  Dakota  and  Montana  Sioux, 
who  use  mountain-pine  or  ash-poles,  select 
straight,  well-proportioned  saplings  of  those 
woods,  trim  them  down  to  the  proper  size 
and  taper,  and  lay  them  aside  to  season. 
The  dressed  poles  are  about  30  feet  long,  2 
to  2^  inches  at  the  butt,  and  1^  inches  at  the 
other  extremity.  The  couch  is  oval,  and  the 
rim  is  made  exclusively  of  ash,  bent  into 
the  desired  shape  when  the  wood  is  green. 
A  net-work  of  rawhide  is  afterwards  lashed 
to  the  rim  and  completes  the  bed.  The  bed 
is  3J  to  4  feet  in  its  transverse,  and  2^  to  3 
feet  in  its  conjugate  diameter.  Two  or 
three  of  the  teepe-poles  are  lashed  together, 
butts  to  butts,  with  rawhide,  and  then 
lashed  to  the  pack-saddle  on  the  mule,  the 
small  ends  of  the  poles  trailing  the  ground. 
The  bed  with  the  longer  diameter  is  then 
laid  transversely  on  the  poles  and  lashed 
about  1  foot  in  rear  of  the  animal.  A 
blanket,  piece  of  canvas,  or  buflfalo-robe 
lashed  to  the  lower  half  of  the  oval  rim  of 
the  bed  completes  the  outfit.  This  latter 
travois  is  claimed  by  some  ofiicers  of  the 
army  to  be  well  adapted  for  transporting 
wounded  even  over  a  rough  country. 

Tread.  In  fortification,  the  tread  of  a 
banquette  is  the  upper  and  flat  surface  on 
which  the  soldier  stands  whilst  firing  over 
the  parapet. 

Treason.  A  general  appellation  to  denote 
not  only  offenses  against  the  king  and  gov- 
ernment, but  also  that  accumulation  of  guilt 
which  arises  whenever  a  superior  reposes 
confidence  in  a  subject  or  inferior,  between 
whom  and  himself  there  subsists  a  natural, 
a  civil,  or  even  a  spiritual  relation ;  and  the 
inferior  so  abuses  that  confidence,  so  forgets 
the  obligations  of  duty,  subjection,  and  al- 
legiance, as  to  destroy  the  life  of  any  such 
superior  or  lord.  It  is,  according  to  Eng- 
lish law,  a  general  name,  in  short,  for 
treachery  against  the  sovereign  or  liege 
lord.  High  treason  (the  crimen  Icesce  mqjes- 
tatis  of  the  Romans)  is  an  offense  committed 
against  the  security  of  the  king  or  kingdom, 
whether  by  imagination,  word,  or  deed.  In 
the  United  States,  treason  is  confined  to  the 
actual  levying  of  war  against  the  United 
States ;  or  an  adhering  to  their  enemies, 
giving  them  aid  and  comfort. 

Treaty,  An  agreement,  league,  or  con- 
tract, between  two  or  more  nations  or  sover- 
eigns, formally  signed  by  commissioners 
properly  authorized,  and  solemnly  ratified 
by  the  several  sovereigns  or  the  supreme 
power  of  each  state  ;  an  agreement  between 
two  or  more  independent  states. 

A  treaty  of  guaranty  is  an  engagement  by 
which  one  state  promises  to  aid  another 
when  it  is  disturbed,  or  threatened  to  be 
disturbed,  in  the  peaceable  enjoyments  of 
its  rights  by  a  third  power.  Treaties  of 
alliance  may  be  ofiensive  or  defensive  ;  in 
the  former  the  ally  engages  generally  to 
co-operate  in  hostilities  against  a  specified 


TREBBIA 


595 


TRESTLES 


power,  or  against  any  power  with  which 
the  other  may  be  at  war ;  in  tlio  hitter,  tlie 
engagements  of  the  ally  extend  only  to  a 
war  of  aggression  eoinnicneed  against  the 
other  contracting  party.  Tiie  execution  of 
a  treaty  is  occasionally  secured  by  hostages; 
as  at  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chajielle,  in  1748, 
■when  several  peers  were  sent  to  Paris  as 
hostages  for  the  restoration  of  Cape  Hreton 
by  Great  Britain  to  France.  For  celebrated 
treaties,  see  appropriate  headings  in  this 
work. 

Trebbia.  A  small  but  famous  stream  of 
Northern  Italy,  which  joins  the  Po  2  miles 
west  of  Piacenza.  On  its  banks  Hannibal 
decisively  defeated  the  Koman  consul  Sem- 
pronius,*218  n.c.  ;  the  French  were  also  de- 
feated here  by  .Suwarrow  in  1799. 

Trebuchet,  or  Trebucket.  A  machine 
used  in  the  Middle  Ages  lor  throwing  stones, 
etc.,  acting  by  means  of  a  great  weight  fast- 
ened to  the  short  arm  of  a  lever,  which, 
being  let  fall,  raised  the  end  of  the  long  arm 
with  great  velocity,  and  hurled  stones  with 
much  force. 

Trefle  (Trefoil).  A  term  used  in  mining, 
from  the  similarity  of  the  figure  to  trefoil. 
The  simple  tretle  "has  only  two  lodgments; 
the  double  trefle,  four ;  and  the  triple  one, 
six. 

Trefoil.  In  heraldry,  is  a  frequent  charge, 
representing  the  clover-leaf,  and  is  always 
depicted  as  slipped, — i.e.,  furnished  with  a 
stalk. 

Trench-cavalier.  In  fortification,  an  ele- 
vation constructed,  by  a  besieger,  of  gabions, 
fascines,  earth,  and  the  like,  about  half-way 
up  the  glacis,  in  order  to  discover  and  enfi- 
lade the  covert  way. 

Trenches.  The  communications,  boyaux, 
or  zigzags,  as  well  as  the  parallels  or  places 
of  arms  opened  by  besiegers  against  a  forti- 
fication are  trenches.  They  are  from  6  to 
10  feet  wide  and  about  3  feet  deep.  (See 
Parallels,  and  Sikoe.)  To  mount  the 
trenches,  is  to  mount  guard  in  the  trenches, 
which  is  generally  done  in  the  night.  To 
relieve  the  trenches,  is  to  relieve  the  guard 
of  the  trenches.  To  scour  the  trenches,  is 
to  make  a  vigorous  sally  upon  the  guard  of 
the  trenches,  force  them  to  give  way,  and 
quit  their  ground,  drive  away  the  workmen, 
break  down  the  ]wrapet,  fill  up  the  trenches, 
and  spike  their  cannon. 

Trenches,  Opening  of.  See  OrEXiNG  of 
Trentiiks. 

Trench-shelter.  A  trench  hastily  thrown 
up  to  give  cover  to  troops  on  a  field  of  bat- 
tle, it  is  always  1  foot  3  inches  deep,  and 
the  parapet  is  "from  \\  to  U  feet  high.  A 
trench  'J  feet  brond  can  be  made  in  from  10 
to  20  minutes;  one  4  feet  wide  in  from  20 
to  40  minutes  ;  and  one  7  feet  broad  in  from 
80  to  GO  minutes.  There  are  also  small 
trenches  in  rear  for  the  supernumeraries. 

Trenton.  The  capital  citv  of  the  State 
of  NiW  .lorsey,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Del- 
aware River,  at  the  confiuence  of  Assunpink 
t'reek.     In  the  war  of  the  Kevolution,  Tren- 


ton was  the  scene  of  a  night  attack  by  AWsh- 
ington  upon  the  British  troops — chiefly  Iles- 
sians — whom  he  surprised  by  crossing  the 
Delaware,  wlien  the  floating  ice  was  sup- 
posed to  have  rendered  it  im])assable,  on  the 
night  of  December  25  and  morning  of  the 
2tith,  1776. 

Trepied.  In  ancient  times,  a  ballista  was 
so  (ill led  when  supyiorted  on  three  legs. 

Tressure.  In  heraldry,  a  subordinary, 
generally  said  to  be  half  the  breadth  of  the 
orle,  and  usually  borne  double,  and  flouered 
and  counterflowered  with  fleurs-de-lis.  It 
forms  part  of  the  royal  insignia  of  Scot- 
land. The  tressure  is  held  in  great  honor 
in  Scottish  heraldry. 

Trestles.  A  trestle  is  composed  of  a  cap 
about  15  feet  by  9  inches  by  9  inches,  of  four 
legs,  of  two  upper  and  two  lower  traverses, 
and  of  four  braces.  The  cap  is  notched 
18  inches  from  the  end,  to  receive  the  legs  ; 
the  notch  is  5  inches  wide  and  1  deep.  The 
legs  should  be  from  5  to  6  inches  square  ;  a 
shoulder  is  made  to  fit  the  notch  in  the  cap  ; 
the  spread  is  quarter  the  height.  The  incli- 
nation in  the  other  direction  about  one-six- 
teenth. The  leg  is  sjiiked,  pinned,  or  bolted 
to  the  cap.  The  lower  traverse  is  5  inches 
by  U  inches,  and  is  dovetailed  into  the  legs 
at  about  one-quarter  their  height  from  the 
ground.  The  upper  traverse,  which  is  nailed 
on  the  outside  of  the  legs  and  against  the 
cap,  is  6  inches  wide  and  U  inches  thick. 
The  braces  are  4  inches  wide  by  U  inches 
thick,  and  are  spiked  to  the  cap  and  legs. 
"When  trestles  are  to  be  placed  on  a  soft  bot- 
tom, a  flat  sill  may  be  spiked  under  the  legs 
of  each  side. 

Trestle  Bridge.— When  the  water  is  less 
than  4  feet  deep,  the  trestles  may  be  carried 
to  their  places  by  men  wading  in  the 
stream  ;  an  abutment  is  formed  as  for  an 
ordinary  bridge;  the  trestles  are  placed 
with  their  caps  parallel  to  the  abutment  sill 
and  about  13  feet  apart.  "When  the  water 
is  too  deep  or  too  cold  to  allow  this  method 
to  be  pursued,  the  bridge  may  be  constructed 
as  follows : 

The  abutment  sill  being  placed,  the  first 
trestle  can  usually  be  placed  by  hand  ;  the 
balks  are  laid  anil  covered  with  chesses  to 
within  1  foot  of  the  trestle,  a  roller  is  laid 
on  the  bridge  ;  on  this  are  laid  two  beams, 
from  30  to  "^40  feet  long  and  (J     "  "  =""»•"" 


inches 


square.  The  trestle  is  placed  upright,  with 
its  cap  resting  on  these  beams,  to  which  it  is 
firmlv  lashed.  The  pontoniers  bear  down  on 
the  other  ends  of  the  beams,  at  the  same 
time  pushing  until  the  trestle  is  rolled  out  to 
the  proper  distance  ;  then  they  suddenly  re- 
lease the  beams,  dropping  the  tre-<tle  into  iu 
place.  The  flooring  balks  are  slid  out  on 
the  two  beams,  adjusted,  and  covered  with 
chesses.  ,  ,     . 

"When  ft  boat  or  raft  can  be  procured,  the 
trestles  are  placed  with  much  less  labor. 
The  boat  is  brought  alongside  the  last  trestle 
placed  ;  two  balks  are  laid  from  the  bridge, 
resting  on  a  saddle,  or  the  outer  gunwale  of 


TREVES 


596 


TRIAL 


the  boat ;  the  side  of  the  trestle-cap  is  laid 
on  the  balks,  the  legs  extendinaj  over  the 
outer  gunwale  of  the  boat.  The  boat  is 
pushed  otf  by  means  of  the  balks  until  it 
arrives  at  the  proper  position  for  placing  the 
trestle,  which  is  then  righted.  If  it  has  not 
good  bearing  on  the  bottom,  it  is  hauled  into 
the  boat  and  the  legs  are  cut  to  the  proper 
length. 

The  bridge  may  be  entirely  built  of  round 
timber.  The  caps  should  be  from  10  to  12 
inches  in  diameter,  the  legs  at  least  6  inches, 
the  balks  7  or  8  inches,  and  faced  on  the 
lower  side  where  they  rest  on  the  trestles,  so 
as  to  bring  their  upper  surfaces  on  the  same 
plane.  The  covering  may  be  of  strong  hur- 
dles. 

Treves,  or  Trier  (anc.  Augusta  Trevi- 
rorum).  A  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Moselle,  65  miles 
southwest  from  Coblentz.  Treves  derives 
its  name  from  the  Trcvii-i,  or  Trcveri  (which 
see).  Their  capital,  Augusta  Trevirorum, 
became  a  Roman  colony  in  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus, and  ultimately  became  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Roman  commanders  on  the 
Rhine,  and  a  frequent  residence  of  the  em- 
perors. Under  the  Franks,  into  whose  hands 
it  fell  in  463,  it  continued  to  flourish.  In 
843  it  passed  to  Lorraine  ;  in  870  to  Ger- 
many;  in  895  back  to  Lorraine,  and  finally 
was  united  to  Germany  by  the  emperor 
Henry  I.  Since  1814,  Treves  has  belonged 
to  Prussia. 

Treviri,  or  Treveri.  A  powerful  people 
in  Gallia  Belgica,  who  were  faithful  allies  of 
the  Romans,  and  whose  cavalry  was  the  best 
in  all  Gaul. 

Treviso.  A  fortified  town  of  Italy,  in 
Venice,  17  miles  northwest  from  Venice. 
Treviso,  the  ancient  Trevisium ,  was  a  free 
town  under  the  Romans  ;  and  after  the  fall 
of  the  empire  was  conquered  in  turn  by  the 
Huns,  Ostrogoths,  and  Lombards.  There- 
after it  was  for  a  time  independent,  and  at 
length,  in  1344,  voluntarily  submitted  itself 
to  the  republic  of  A^enice. 

Tria  Juncta  in  Uno  (three  joined  in  one). 
The  motto  of  the  knights  of  the  military 
order  of  the  Bath,  signifying  "faith,  hope, 
and  charity." 

Trial.  The  formal  examination  of  the 
matter  in  issue  in  a  cause  before  a  compe- 
tent tribunal ;  the  mode  of  determining  a 
question  of  fact  in  a  court  of  law ;  the  ex- 
amination, in  legal  form,  of  the  facts  in 
issue  in  a  cause  pending  before  a  competent 
tribunal,  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
such  issue.  Military  trials  shall  be  carried  on 
only  between  the  hours  of  eight  in  the  morn- 
ing and  three  in  the  afternoon,  except  in 
cases  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  otficer 
ordering  the  court,  require  immediate  ex- 
ample (Art.  94).  No  officer,  non-commis- 
sioned oflioer,  or  soldier  shall  be  tried  a 
second  time  for  the  same  off"ense  (Art.  102) ; 
and  no  person  shall  be  liable  to  be  tried  and 
punished  by  a  general  court-martial  for  any 
offense  which  shall  appear  to  have  been  com- 


mitted more  than  two  years  before  the  issu- 
ing of  the  order  for  such  trial,  unless  the 
person,  by  reason  of  having  absented  him- 
self, or  some  other  manifest  impediment, 
shall  not  have  been  amenable  to  justice 
within  that  period  (Art.  103).  All  trials 
before  courts-martial,  like  those  in  civil 
courts,  are  conducted  publicly  ;  and  in 
order  that  this  publicity  may  in  no  case 
be  attended  with  tumult  or  indecorum  of 
any  kind,  the  court  is  authorized,  by  the 
Rules  and  Articles  of  War,  to  punish,  at 
its  discretion,  all  riotous  and  disorderly  pro- 
ceedings or  menacing  words,  signs,  or  ges- 
tures, used  in  its  presence  (Art.  86).  The 
day  and  place  of  meeting  of  a  general  court- 
martial  having  been  published  in  orders, 
the  oflScers  appointed  as  members,  and 
parties  and  witnesses,  must  attend  accord- 
ingly. The  judge-advocate,  at  the  opening, 
calls  over  the  names  of  the  members,  who 
arrange  themselves  on  the  right  or  left  of 
the  president,  according  to  rank.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  court  having  taken  their  seats 
and  disposed  of  any  preliminary  matter,  the 
prisoner,  prosecutor,  and  witnesses  are  called 
into  court.  The  prisoner  is  attended  by  a 
guard,  or  by  an  officer,  as  his  rank  or  the 
nature  of  the  charge  may  dictate  ;  but  dur- 
ing the  trial  should  be  unfettered  and  free 
from  any  bonds  or  shackles,  unless  there  be 
danger  of  escape  or  rescue.  Accommodation 
is  usually  aff"orded  at  detached  tables  for  the 
prosecutor  and  prisoner ;  also  for  any  friend 
or  legal  adviser  of  the  prisoner  or  prosecutor, 
whose  assistance  has  been  desired  during  the 
trial ;  but  the  prisoner  only  can  address  the 
court,  it  being  an  admitted  maxim,  that 
counsel  are  not  to  interfere  in  the  proceed- 
ings, or  to  off"er  the  slightest  remark,  much 
less  to  plead  or  argue.  The  judge-advocate, 
by  direction  of  the  president,  first  reads,  in 
an  audible  voice,  the  order  for  holding  the 
court.  He  then  calls  over  the  names  of  the 
members,  commencing  with  the  president, 
who  is  always  the  highest  in  rank.  He  then 
demands  of  the  prisoner  whether  he  has  any 
exception  or  cause  of  challenge  against  any 
of  the  members  present,  and  if  he  have,  he 
is  required  to  state  his  cause  of  challenge, 
confining  his  challenge  to  one  member  at  a 
time  (Art.  88).  After  hearing  the  prisoner's 
objections,  the  president  must  order  the 
court  to  be  cleared,  when  the  members  will 
deliberate  on  and  determine  the  relevancy  or 
validity  of  the  objection  ;  the  member  chal- 
lenged retiringduringthediscussion.  When 
the  prisoner  and  prosecutor  decline  to  chal- 
lenge any  of  the  members,  or  where  the 
causes  of  challenge  have  been  disallowed, 
the  judge-advocate  proceeds  to  administer  to 
the  members  of  the  court  the  oath  pre- 
scribed by  the  84th  Article  of  War.  The 
oath  is  taken  by  each  member  holding  up 
his  right  hand  and  repeating  the  words  after 
the  judge-advocate.  After  the  oath  has  been 
administered  to  all  the  members,  the  presi- 
dent administers  to  the  judge-advocate  the 
particular  oath  of  secrecy  to  be  observed  by 


TRIAL 


697 


TRIAL 


him,  as  prescribed  by  the  85th  Article  of 
War.  No  sentence  of  a  general  court-mar- 
tial is  complete  or  final  until  it  has  been 
duly  approved.  Until  that  period  it  is, 
strictly  speaking,  no  more  than  an  opinion, 
wliich  is  subject  to  alteration  or  revival.  In 
this  interval,  the  communication  of  that 
opinion  could  answer  no  ends  of  justice,  but 
might,  in  many  cases,  tend  to  frustrate  them. 
The  obligation  to  perpetual  secrecy,  with  re- 
gard to  the  votes  or  opinions  of  the  particular 
members  of  the  court,  is  likewise  founded 
on  the  wisest  policy.  The  officers  who  com- 
pose a  military  tribunal  are,  in  a  great  de- 
gree, dependent  for  their  preferment  on 
the  President.  They  are  even,  in  some 
measure,  under  the  influence  of  their 
commander-in-chief, — considerations  which 
might  impair  justice.  This  danger  is, 
therefore,  best  obviated  by  the  confidence 
and  security  which  every  member  possesses, 
that  his  particular  opinion  is  never  to  be 
divulged.  Another  reason  is,  that  the  indi- 
vidual members  of  the  court  may  not  be 
e.xposed  to  the  resentment  of  parties  and 
their  connections,  which  can  hardly  fail  to 
be  excited  by  these  sentences  which  courts- 
martial  are  obliged  to  award.  It  may  be 
necessary  for  oflicers,  in  the  course  of  their 
duty,  daily,  to  associate  and  frequently  to 
be  sent  on  the  same  command  or  service, 
with  a  person  against  whom  they  have  given 
an  unfavorable  vote  or  opinion  on  a  court- 
martial.  The  publicity  of  these  votes  or 
opinions  would  create  the  most  dangerous 
animosities,  equally  fatal  to  the  peace  and 
security  of  individuals,  and  prejudicial  to 
the  public  service.  The  court  being  regu- 
larly constituted,  and  every  preliminary  form 
gone  through,  the  judge-advocate,  as  prose- 
cutor for  the  United  States,  desires  the  pris- 
oner to  listen  to  the  charge  or  charges  brought 
against  him,  which  he  reads  with  an  audible 
voice,  and  then  the  prisoner  is  asked  whether 
he  is  guilty  or  not  guilty  of  the  matter  of 
accusation.  The  charge  being  suflicient,  or 
not  objected  to,  the  prisoner  must  plead 
either:  (1st)  Guilty;  or  (2d)  Specially  to  the 
jurisdiction,  or  in  bar;  or  (Hd)  The  general 
plea  of  not  pu'dty,  which  is  the  usual  course 
where  the  prisoner  makes  a  defense.  If  from 
obstinacy  and  design  the  prisoner  stands 
mute,  or  answer  foreign  to  the  purpose,  the 
court  may  proceed  to  trial  and  judgment,  as 
if  the  prisoner  had  regularly  j)leaded  not 
(juitti/  (Art.  89);  but  if  the  j)risoner  plead 
gnlltv,  the  court  will  proceed  to  determine 
what  punishment  shall  be  awarded,  and  to 
pronounce  sentence  thereon.  Preparatory  to 
this,  in  all  cases  where  the  punishment  of  the 
oftense  charged  is  discretionary,  and  espe- 
cially where  the  discretion  includes  a  wide 
range  and  great  variety  of  punishment,  and 
the  specifications  do  not  show  all  the  circum- 
stances attending  the  ott'ense,  the  court  should 
receive  and  report,  in  \is  proceedings,  any 
evidence  the  judge-advocate  may  oti'er,  for 
the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  actual  char- 
acter of  the  otfense,  notwithstanding  the 


party  accused  may  have  pleaded  guilty ;  such 
evidence  being  necessary  to  an  enlightened 
exercise  of  the  discretion  of  the  court,  in 
measuring  the  punishment,  as  well  as  for  the 
approving  authority.  If  there  be  any  excep- 
tion to  this  rule,  it  is  where  the  snecification 
is  so  full  and  precise  as  to  disclose  all  the 
circumstances  of  mitigation  or  aggravation 
which  accompany  the  olfense.  \Vhen  that 
is  the  case,  or  when  the  punishment  is  fixed, 
and  no  discretion  is  allowed,  explanatory 
testimony  cannot  be  needed.  Special  pleas 
are  either  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court  or 
in  bar  of  the  charge.  If  an  officer  or  soldier 
be  arraigned  by  a  court  not  legally  consti- 
tuted, either  as  to  the  authority  by  which  it 
is  assembled,  or  as  to  the  number  and  rank 
of  its  members,  or  other  similar  causes,  a 
prisoner  may  except  to  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  court-martial.  Special  pleas  in  bar  go 
to  the  merits  of  the  case,  and  set  forth  a 
reason  why,  even  admitting  the  charge  to  bo 
true,  it  should  be  dismissed,  and  the  pris- 
oner discharged.  A  former  acquittal  or  con- 
viction of  the  same  oti'ense  would  obviously 
be  a  valid  bar,  except  in  case  of  appeal  from 
a  regimental  to  a  general  court-martial. 
Though  the  facts  in  issue  should  be  charged 
to  have  happened  more  than  two  years  prior 
to  the  date  of  the  order  for  the  assembling  of 
the  court-martial,  yet  it  is  not  the  province 
of  the  court,  unless  objection  be  made,  to 
inquire  into  the  cause  of  the  impediment  in 
the  outset.  It  would  be  to  presume  the  ille- 
gality of  the  court,  whereas  the  court  should 
assume  that  manifest  impediment  to  earlier 
trial  did  exist,  and  leave  the  facts  to  be  de- 
veloped by  witnesses  in  the  ordinary  course. 
A  pardon  may  be  pleaded  in  bar.  If  full,  it 
at  once  destrtiys  the  end  and  jiurpose  of  the 
charge,  by  remitting  that  punishment  which 
the  prosecution  seeks  to  inflict;  if  condi- 
tional, the  performance  of  the  condition 
must  be  known  ;  thus  a  soldier  arraigned 
for  desertion,  mvist  plead  a  general  pardon, 
and  prove  that  he  surrendered  himself 
within  the  stipulated  period.  No  officer  or 
soldier,  being  acquitted  or  convicted  of  an 
ofl'ense,  is  liable  to  be  tried  a  second  time  for 
the  same.  But  this  jirovision  applies  solely 
to  trials  for  the  same  incidental  act  and 
crime,  and  to  such  persons  as  have,  in  the 
first  instance,  been  legally  tried.  If  any  ir- 
regularity take  place  on  the  trial  rendering 
it  illegal  and  void,  the  prisoner  must  bo  dis- 
charged, and  be  regarded  as  standing  in  the 
same  situation  as  before  the  commencement 
of  these  illegal  ])roccedings.  The  same 
charge  may,  therefore,  be  again  preferred 
against  the  prisoner  who  cannot  plead  the 
previous  illegal  trial  in  bar.  A  prisoner 
cannot  plead  in  bar  that  he  has  not  been 
furnished  with  a  copy  of  the  charges,  or  that 
the  copv  furnished  him  differed  from  that  on 
which  lie  had  been  arraigned.  It  is  cus- 
tomary and  proper  to  furnish  him  with  a 
correct  copy,  but  the  omission  sliall  not 
make  void,  though  it  may  postpone  the 
trial.     If   the  special  plea   in   bar  be  such 


TRIAL 


598 


TEIAL 


that,  if  true,  the  charge  should  be  dismissed 
and  the  prisoner  discharged,  the  judge- 
advocate  should  be  called  on  to  answer  it. 
If  he  does  not  admit  it  to  be  true,  the  pris- 
oner must  produce  evidence  to  the  points 
alleged  therein;  and  if,  on  deliberation,  the 
plea  be  found  true,  the  facts  being  recorded, 
the  court  will  adjourn  and  the  president 
submit  the  proceedings  to  the  officer  by 
whose  order  the  court  was  convened,  with  a 
view  to  the  immediate  discharge  of  the  pris- 
oner. The  ordinary  plea  is  7iot  guilty^  in 
which  case  the  trial  proceeds.  The  judge- 
advocate  cautions  all  witnesses  on  the  trial 
to  withdraw,  and  to  return  to  court  only  on 
being  called.  He  then  proceeds  to  the  ex- 
amination of  witnesses,  and  to  the  reading 
and  proof  of  any  written  evidence  he  may 
liave  to  bring  forward.  After  a  prisoner  has 
been  arraigned  on  specific  charges,  it  is  ir- 
regular for  a  court-martial  to  admit  any  ad- 
ditional charge  against  him,  even  though  he 
may  not  have  entered  on  his  defense.  The 
trial  on  the  charges  first  preferred  must  be 
regularly  concluded,  when,  if  necessary,  the 
prisoner  may  be  tried  on  any  further  accusa- 
tion brought  against  him.  On  the  trial  of 
cases  not  capital,  before  courts-martial,  the 
deposition  of  witnesses  not  in  the  line  or  staff 
of  the  army  may  be  taken  before  some  jus- 
tice of  the  peace,  and  read  in  evidence,  pro- 
vided the  prosecutor  and  person  accused  are 
present  at  the  same,  or  are  duly  notified 
thereof.  The  examination  of  witnesses  is  in- 
variably in  the  presence  of  the  court ;  be- 
cause the  countenance,  looks,  and  gestures 
of  a  witness  add  to,  or  take  away  from,  the 
weight  of  his  testimony.  It  is  usually  by 
interrogation,  sometimes  by  narration;  in 
either  case,  the  judge-advocate  records  the 
evidence,  as  nearly  as  possible,  in  the  express 
words  of  the  witness.  All  evidence,  what- 
ever, should  be  recorded  on  the  proceedings, 
in  the  order  in  which  it  is  received  by  the 
court.  A  question  to  a  witness  is  registered 
before  enunciation  ;  when  once  entered,  it 
cannot  be  expunged,  except  by  the  consent 
of  the  parties  before  the  court ;  if  not  per- 
mitted to  be  put  to  the  witness,  it  still 
appears  on  the  proceedings  accompanied 
by  the  decision  of  the  court.  The  exam- 
ination-in-chief of  each  particular  witness 
being  ended,  the  cross-examination  usu- 
ally follows,  though  it  is  optional  with 
the  prisoner  to  defer  it  to  the  final  close 
of  the  examination-in-chief.  The  re-ex- 
amination by  the  prosecutor,  on  such  new 
points  as  the  prisoner  may  have  made, 
succeeds  the  cross-examination,  and  finally, 
the  court  puts  such  questions  as  in  its  judg- 
ment may  tend  to  elicit  the  truth.  It  is 
customary,  when  deemed  necessary  by  the 
court,  or  desired  bj'  a  witness,  to  read  over 
to  him,  immediately  before  he  leaves  the 
court,  the  record  of  his  evidence,  which  he 
is  desired  to  correct  if  erroneous,  and,  with 
this  view,  any  remark  or  explanation  is  en- 
tered upon  the  proceedings.  No  erasure  or 
obliteration  is,  however,  admitted,  as  it  is 


essentially  necessary  that  the  authority  which 
has  to  review  the  sentence  should  have  the 
most  ample  means  of  judging,  not  only  of 
any  discrepancy  in  the  statements  of  a  wit- 
ness, but  of  any  incident  which  may  be  made 
the  subject  of  remark,  by  either  party  in  ad- 
dressing the  court.  Although  a  list  of  wit- 
nesses, summoned  by  the  judge-advocate,  is 
furnished  to  the  court  on  assembling,  it  is  not 
held  imperative  on  the  prosecutor  to  exam- 
ine such  witnesses;  if  he  should  not  do  so, 
however,  the  prisoner  has  a  right  to  call  any 
of  them.  Should  the  prisoner,  having  closed 
his  cross-examination,  think  proper  subse- 
quently to  recall  a  prosecutor's  witness  in  his 
defense,  the  examination  is  held  to  be  in 
chief,  and  the  witness  is  subject  to  cross- 
examination  by  the  prosecutor.  Although 
either  party  may  have  concluded  his  case,  or 
the  regular  examination  of  a  witness,  yet 
should  a  material  question  have  been  omitted, 
it  is  usually  submitted  by  the  party  to  the 
president,  for  the  consideration  of  the  court, 
Avhich  generallj'  permits  it  to  be  put.  The 
prisoner  being  placed  on  his  defense,  may 
proceed  at  once  to  the  examination  of  wit- 
nesses :  firstly,  to  meet  the  charge  ;  and,  sec- 
ondly, to  speak  as  to  character,  reserving  his 
address  to  the  court  until  the  conclusion  of 
such  examination.  The  prisoner  having 
finished  the  examination-in-chief  of  each 
witness,  the  prosecution  cross-examines  ;  the 
prisoner  re-examines  to  the  extent  allowed 
to  the  prosecutor,  that  is,  on  such  new  points 
as  the  cross-examination  may  have  touched 
on,  and  the  court  puts  any  questions  deemed 
necessary.  The  prisoner  having  finally  closed 
his  examination  of  witnesses,  and  selecting 
this  period  to  address  the  court,  offers  such 
statement  or  argument  as  he  may  deem  con- 
ducive to  weaken  the  force  of  the  prosecu- 
tion, by  placing  his  conduct  in  the  most 
favorable  light,  accounting  for  or  palliating 
facts,  confuting  or  removing  any  imputation 
as  to  motives  ;  answering  the  arguments  of 
the  prosecutor,  contrasting,  comparing,  and 
commenting  on  any  contradictory  evidence; 
summing  up  the  evidence  on  both  sides 
where  the  result  promises  to  favor  the  defense, 
and  finally,  presenting  his  deductions  there- 
from. The  utmost  liberty  consistent  with  the 
interest  of  parties  not  before  the  court  and 
with  the  respect  due  to  the  court  itself  should, 
at  all  times,  be  allowed  a  prisoner.  As  he 
has  an  undoubted  right  to  impeach,  by  evi- 
dence, the  character  of  the  witnesses  brought 
against  him,  so  he  is  justified  in  contrasting 
and  remarking  on  their  testimony,  and  on 
the  motives  by  which  they,  or  the  prose- 
cutor, may  have  been  influenced.  All  coarse 
and  insulting  language  is-,  however,  to  be 
avoided,  nor  ought  invective  to  be  indulged 
in,  as  the  most  pointed  evidence  may  be 
couched  in  the  most  decorous  language.  The 
court  will  prevent  the  prisoner  from  adverting 
to  parties  not  before  the  court,  or  only  al- 
luded to  in  evidence,  further  than  may  be 
actually  necessary  to  his  own  exculpation. 
It  may  sometimes  happen  that  the  party  ac- 


I 


TRIAL 


699 


TRIBUTE 


cused  may  find  it  absolutely  necessary,  in 
defense  of  himself,  to  throw  hliime  and 
even  criminality  on  others,  who  are  no  pur- 
ties  to  the  trial ;  nor  can  a  prisi)ner  be  re- 
fused that  liberty,  which  is  essential  to  his  own 
justilication.  It  is  sufficient  for  the  party 
aj^grieved  that  the  law  can  furnish  ample 
redress  against  all  calumnious  or  unjust  ac- 
cusations. The  court  is  bound  to  hear 
whatever  address,  in  his  defense,  the  ac- 
cused may  thinit  tit  to  offer,  not  being  in 
itself  contemptuous  or  disrespectful.  It  is 
competent  to  a  court,  if  it  think  proper,  to 
caution  the  prisoner  as  he  proceeds,  that,  in 
its  opinion,  such  a  line  of  defense  as  he  may 
bo  pursuing  would  probably  not  weigh 
with  the  court,  nor  operate  in  his  favor  ; 
but,  to  decide  against  hearing  him  state  ar- 
guments, which,  notwithstanding  such  cau- 
tion, lie  might  persist  in  putting  forward, 
as  grounds  of  justification,  or  extenuation 
(such  arguments  not  being  illegal  in  them- 
selves), is  going  beyond  what  any  court 
would  be  warranted  in  doing.  It  occasion- 
ally happens  that,  on  presenting  to  the  court 
a  written  address,  the  prisoner  is  unequal  to 
the  task  of  reading  it,  from  indisposition  or 
nervous  excitement;  on  such  occasions,  the 
judge-advocate  is  sometimes  requested  by  the 
president  to  read  it ;  but,  as  the  impression 
which  might  be  anticipated  to  be  made  by  it 
may,  in  the  judgment  of  the  prisoner,  bo 
effected  more  or  less  by  the  manner  of  its 
delivery,  courts-martial  generally  feel  dis- 
posed to  concede  to  the  accused  the  indul- 
gence of  permitting  it  to  be  read  by  any 
friend  named  by  him,  {)articular!y  if  that 
friend  be  a  military  man,  or  if  the  judge- 
advocate  be  the  actual  prosecutor.  Courts- 
martial  are  particularly  guarded  in  adher- 
ing to  the  custom  of  resisting  every  attempt 
on  the  part  of  counsel  to  address  thenj.  A 
lawyer  is  not  recognized  by  a  court-mar- 
tial, though  his  presence  is  tolerated,  as 
a  friend  of  the  prisoner,  to  assist  him  by 
advice  in  preparing  questions  for  witnesses, 
in  taking  notes  and  shaping  his  defense. 
The  prisoner  having  closed  his  defense, 
the  prosecutor  is  entitled  to  reply,  when 
witnesses  have  been  examined  on  the  de- 
fense, or  where  new  facts  are  opened  in  the 
address.  Thus,  though  no  evidence  may  be 
brought  forward  by  the  prisoner,  yet  should 
he  advert  to  any  case,  and,  by  drawing  a 
parallel,  attempt  to  draw  his  justiHcation 
from  it,  the  prosecutor  will  be  permitted 
to  observe  on  the  case  so  cited.  When  the 
court  allows  the  prosecutor  to  reply,  it  gen- 
erally grants  him  a  reasonable  time  to  pre- 
pare it ;  and,  upon  his  reading  it,  the  trial 
ceases.  Should  the  prisoner  have  examined 
witnesses  to  points  not  touched  on  in  the 
prosecution,  or  should  he  have  entered  on  an 
examination  impeaching  the  credibility  of 
the  prosecutor's  evidence,  the  prt^ecutor  is 
allowed  to  examine  witnesses  to  the  new 
matter;  the  court  being  careful  to  confine 
him  within  the  limits  of  this  rule,  which 
extends  to  the  re-establishing  the  character 


of  his  witnesses,  to  impeaching  those  of  the 
defense,  and  to  rebutting  the  new  matter 
brought  forward  by  the  prisoner,  supjwrted 
bj;  evidence.  He  cannot  be  allowed  to  ex- 
amine on  any  points  which,  in  their  nature, 
he  might  have  foreseen  previously  to  the  de- 
fense of  the  prisoner.  The  prosecutor  will 
not  be  permitted  to  bring  forward  evidence 
to  rebut  or  counteract  the  effect  of  matter 
elicited  by  his  own  cnjss-examination  ;  but 
is  strictly  confined  to  new  matter  introduced 
by  the  prisoner,  and  supported  by  his  ex- 
amination-in-chief. A  defense  resting  on 
motives,  or  qualifying  the  imputation  at- 
taching to  facts,  generally  lets  in  evidence 
in  reply  ;  as,  in  such  cases,  the  prisoner  usu- 
ally adverts,  by  evidence,  to  matter  which 
it  would  have  been  impossible  for  the  pros- 
ecutor to  anticipate.  The  admis.sibility  of 
evidence,  in  reply,  may  generally  be  deter- 
mined by  the  answer  to  the  questions  :  Could 
the  prosecutor  have  foreseen  this  ?  Is  it 
evidently  new  matter?  Is  the  object  of  the 
further  inquiry  to  re-establish  the  charac- 
ter of  the  witnesses  impeached  by  evidence 
(not  by  declamation)  in  the  course  of  the  de- 
fense, or  is  it  to  impeach  the  character  of  the 
prisoner's  witnesses  ?  Cross-examination  of 
such  new  witnesses,  to  an  extent  limited  by 
the  examination-in-chief,  that  is,  confined  to 
such  points  or  matter  as  the  prosecutor  shall 
have  examined  on,  is  allowed  on  the  part  of 
the  prisoner. 

Triangles.  A  wooden  instrument  con- 
sisting of  three  poles  so  fastened  at  the  top 
that  they  may  spread  at  bottom  in  a  trian- 
gular form,  and  by  means  of  spikes  aflixed  to 
each  pole,  remain  firm  in  the  earth.  An 
iron  bar,  breast-high,  goes  across  one  side  of 
the  triangle.  *  The  triangles  were  used  in 
some  regiments  for  the  purpose  of  infiicting 
military  punishment  when  corporeal  chas- 
tisement was  much  in  vogue. 

Triarii.  In  the  Roman  legions,  consisted 
of  veteran  soldiers,  who  formed  the  third 
line  in  the  order  of  battle. 

Triballi.  A  powerful  people  in  Thrace, 
a  branch  of  the  Geta^  dwelling  along  the 
Danube,  who  were  defeated  by  Alexander 
the  Great  in  335  B.C.,  and  obliged  to  sue  for 
peace. 

Tribune.  In  Roman  antiquity,  an  officer 
or  magistrate  chosen  by  the  people,  to  pro- 
tect them  from  the  t>ppression  of  the  patri- 
cians or  nobles,  and  to  defend  their  liberties 
against  any  attempts  that  might  be  nutde 
upon  them  by  the  senate  and  consuls.  Tiie 
tribunes  were  at  first  two,  but  their  number 
was  increased  ultimately  to  ten.  There 
were  also  military  tribunes,  officers  of  the 
army,  of  whom  there  were  from  four  to  six 
in  each  legion. 

Tribute.  An  annual  or  stated  sum  of 
money  or  other  valuable  thing,  paid  by  one 
prince  or  nation  to  another,  either  «us  an  ac- 
knowledgment of  submission,  or  as  the  price 
of  peace  and  protection,  or  by  virtue  of  some 
treaty  ;  as  the  Romans  made  their  conquered 
countries  pay  tribute. 


TKICHINOPOLY 


GOO 


TEIPOLI 


Trichinopoly.  Capital  of  the  district  of 
the  same  name,  of  British  India  ;  in  the 
presidency  of  Madras.  It  is  pretty  strongly 
fortified  by  walls  about  2  miles  in  circuit, 
lofty,  thick,  and  in  some  places  double. 
There  is  also  a  fort  built  on  a  sienite  rock 
about  600  feet  high.  Two  or  3  miles  south- 
west of  the  town  is  a  large  cantonment,  con- 
taining barracks  for  a  large  number  of 
troops.  Trichinopoly  was  subject  to  a  Hin- 
doo rajah  until  1732,  when  the  nabob  of 
Arcot  gained  possession  of  it ;  and  in  1741  he 
was  in  turn  dispossessed  by  the  Mahrattas. 
During  the  wars  between  the  French  and 
English,  the  place  was  much  contested  ;  and 
in  1757,  when  besieged  by  the  former,  it  was 
relieved  by  the  rapid  march  of  an  English 
force  under  Capt.  Calliaud. 

Trick.  A  term  used  in  heraldry  to  denote 
a  mode  of  representing  arms  by  sketching 
them  in  outline,  and  appending  letters  to 
express  the  tinctures,  and  sometimes  nu- 
merals to  indicate  the  repetition  of  changes. 

Trident.  In  Roman  antiquity,  a  three- 
pronged  spear  used  in  the  contests  of  gladi- 
ators by  the  retiarius. 

Triest,  or  Trieste  (anc.  Tergeste,  or  Ter- 
gestuni).  The  principal  seaport  city  of  the 
Austrian  empire,  in  lUyria,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Triest  at  the  northeast  extremity  of  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  73  miles  east-northeast  of 
Venice.  The  ancient  Tergeste  first  received 
historical  mention  in  51  B.C.,  when  it  was 
overrun  and  plundered  by  neighboring 
tribes.  It  owes  its  prosperity  chiefly  to  the 
emperor  Charles  VI.,  who  constituted  it  a 
free  port,  and  to  Maria  Theresa.  In  1797 
and  in  1805,  it  was  taken  by  the  French. 

Trigger.  A  steel  catch,  which  being 
pulled  disengages  the  cock  of  a  gunlock,  and 
causes  the  hammer  to  strike  the  nipple  in 
percussion-muskets,  and  the  firing-pin  in 
breech-loaders.  The  difference  between  a 
hair  and  common  trigger  is  this:  the  hair- 
trigger,  when  set,  lets"  off  the  cock  at  the 
slightest  touch,  whereas  the  common  trigger 
requires  a  greater  degree  of  force,  and  con- 
sequently its  operation  is  retarded. 

Trim.  The  chief  town  of  the  county  of 
Meath,  Ireland,  on  the  Boy  no,  27  miles 
northwest  from  Dublin.  It  was  taken  by 
Cromwell  in  1G49. 

Trincomalee.  A  seaport  town  and  mag- 
nificent harbor  on  the  northeast  coast  of 
Ceylon.  It  is  a  place  of  great  antiquity  ;  it 
was  here  that  the  Malabar  invaders  of  Cey- 
Icni  built  one  of  their  most  sacred  shrines, — 
the  "Temple  of  a  Thousand  Columns," 
which  was  demolished  by  the  Portuguese, 
who  fortified  the  heights  with  the  materials 
derived  from  its  destruction,  1622.  It  was 
next  held  hy  the  Dutch ;  but  in  1672,  dur- 
ing the  rupture  between  Louis  XIV.  and 
the  United  Provinces,  the  French  took 
Trincomalee,  which  was  abandoned  by  the 
Dutch  in  a  panic.  In  1782,  the  French  ad- 
miral Suftrein,  in  the  absence  of  the  British 
commander,  took  possession  of  the  fort,  and 
the  English  garrison  retired  to  Madras.     It 


was  restored  to  the  Dutch  in  the  following 
year,  and  they  retained  it  till  the  capture  of 
Ceylon  by  the  British  in  1795.  It  was 
finally  ceded  to  Great  Britain,  by  the  treaty 
of  Amiens,  in  1802. 

Trinidad.  An  island  belonging  to  Great 
Britain,  and  the  most  southerly  of  the  West 
India  Islands.  It  is  separated  from  the 
mainland  (Venezuela)  by  the  Gulfof  Paria. 
Trinidad  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in 
1498  ;  and  first  colonized  by  the  Spaniards, 
in  1588.  In  1676,  the  French  possessed  it 
for  a  short  time,  but  it  was  speedily  restored 
to  Spain  •,  and  in  1797,  it  was  captured  by 
the  British,  who  have  retained  it  ever  since. 

Trinobantes.  A  British  tribe,  which  oc- 
cupied Middlesex  and  Essex,  and  joined  in 
opposing  the  invasion  of  Julius  Caesar,  54 
B.C. ;  but  they  soon  came  to  terms  with  the 
Romans. 

Trinomalee,  A  town  and  fortress  of  In- 
dia, in  the  Carnatic,  where  Col.  Smith 
greatly  distinguished  himself  against  the 
united  forces  of  Hyder  Ali  and  Nizam  Ali, 
subahdars  of  the  Deccan,  with  an  army  of 
43,000  horse  and  28,000  foot;  while  the 
British  commander  had  only  10,000  foot  and 
1000  horse.  The  result  of  this  victory  was 
that  the  Nizam  detached  himself  from  Hj'- 
der,  and  in  February,  1768,  concluded  a 
treaty  with  the  British. 

Triparted.  In  heraldry,  parted  in  three 
pieces  ;  having  three  parts  or  pieces  ;  as,  a 
cross  triparted. 

Tripartite.  Being  of  three  parts,  or  three 
parties  being  concerned ;  hence,  tripartite 
alliance,  or  treaty. 

Triple  Alliance.  The  name  by  which  two 
different  treaties  are  known  in  history,  viz. : 
(1)  A  treaty  concluded  in  1668  at  the  Hague, 
between  England,  Holland,  and  Sweden, 
having  for  its  object  the  protection  of  the 
Spanish  Netherlands,  and  the  checking  of 
the  conquests  of  Louis  XIV.  (2)  An  alli- 
ance concluded  in  1717  between  Britain, 
France,  and  Holland,  against  Spain,  which 
included  among  its  stipulations  that  the  Pre- 
tender should  quit  France,  and  that  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht  should  be  carried  into  ef- 
fect as  regards  the  demolition  of  Dunkirk. 
The  Protestant  succession  was  guaranteed 
by  this  treaty  in  England,  and  that  of  the 
Duke  of  Orleans  in  France. 

Tripoli,  or  Tripolis  (in  its  modern  Arabic 
form,  Tarabulus).  A  seaport  and  one  of  the 
chief  commercial  towns  of  S^'ria,  near  the 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  on  both  sides  of 
the  river  Kadisha.  On  the  left  side  stands 
the  castle  built  by  Count  Raymond  of  Tou- 
louse, in  the  12th  century,  when  the  city 
was  taken  by  the  Crusaders.  It  was  con- 
quered by  the  Egyptians  in  1832  ;  restored 
to  the  Porte,  1835,  and  it  surrendered  to  the 
British  in  1841. 

Tripoli.  A  regency  of  the  Ottoman  em- 
pire, and  the  most  easterly-  of  the  Barbary 
States,  North  Africa.  The  governor-gen- 
eral has  the  title,  rank,  and  authority  of  a 
pasha  of  the  Ottoman  empire.     The  military 


TRIPOLITZA 


601 


TROPHY 


force  of  the  country  consists  of  a  body  of 
Turkish  soldiers,  some  10,000  in  number, 
whi)<o  business  is  to  keep  down  insurrections, 
but  who  were  formerly  wont  to  vary  it  by 
creiiting  them.  In  ancient  times,  Tripoli 
seems  to  have  been  tributary  to  the  (>yrena!- 
ans,  from  whom,  however,  it  was  wrested 
by  the  CarlhaEfinians.  It  next  passed  to  the 
Itomans.  Like  the  rest  of  Northern  Africa, 
it  was  conquered  by  the  Arabs,  and  the 
feeble  Christianity  of  the  natives  was  sup- 
planted by  a  vigorous  and  fanatical  Moham- 
medanism". In  1552  (1551),  the  Turks  got 
possession  of  it,  and  have  ever  since  been 
the  rulers  of  the  country,  though  the  au- 
thority of  the  sultan,  up  "till  1885,  had  been 
virtually  at  zero  for  more  than  a  century. 
In  that  year,  however,  an  expedition  was 
dispatched  fr<jni  Constantinople;  the  ruling 
dey,  Karamanli,  was  overthrown  and  im- 
prisoned; a  new  Turkish  pasha,  with  vice- 
regal powers,  was  appointed,  and  the  state 
made  an  eyalet  of  the  Ottoman  empire. 
Several  rebellions  have  since  taken  })lace 
(notably  in  1842  and  1844),  but  they  have 
always  been  suppressed. 

Tripolitza  ("three  cities'").  A  town  of 
Greece  under  the  Turkish  rule,  39  miles 
southwest  from  Corinth.  In  1821  it  was 
stormed  by  the  Greek  insurgents ;  and  in 
1828  razed  to  the  ground  by  the  troops  of 
Ibrahim  Pasha;  it  has  since,  however,  been 
rebuilt. 

Tripping.  In  heraldry,  having  the  right 
fore  foot  lifted,  the  others  remaining  on  the 
ground,  as  if  he  were  trotting; — said  of  an 
animal,  as  a  hart,  buck,  and  the  like,  repre- 
sented in  an  escutcheon. 

Triumph  (Lat.  triumphus).  Was  the 
name  given  in  ancient  Kome  to  the  public 
honor  bestowed  on  a  general  who  had  been 
successful  in  war.  It  consisted  in  a  solemn 
procession  along  the  Via  S<ic?-a  up  to  the 
Capitol,  where  sacrifice  was  oft'tTcd  Jupiter. 
The  victor  sat  in  a  chariot,  drawn  by  four 
horses, — his  captives  marching  before,  his 
troops  following  behind.  Certain  conditions 
had  to  be  fulfilled  before  a  triumph  could 
be  enjoyed,  and  it  was  the  business  of  the 
senate  to  see  that  these  were  enforced.  Un- 
der the  empire,  generals  .serving  abroad  were 
considered  to  be  the  emperor's  lieutenants, 
and  therefore,  however  successful  in  their 
wars,  they  had  no  claim  to  a  triumph.  They 
received  instead  iriumphnl  decorations,  and 
other  rewards.  The  ordtion,  or  lesser  tri- 
umph, ditlers  from  the  greater  chieflv  in  these 
respects  ;  that  the  imperator  entered  the  city 
on  foot,  clad  in  the  simple  fo(fa  prcetcxta  of 
a  miigistrate,  that  he  bore  no  sceptre,  was 
not  preceded  by  the  senate  and  a  flourish  of 
trumpets,  nor  followed  by  victorious  troops, 
but  only  by  the  equites  and  the  populace, 
and  that  the  ceremonies  wete  concluded  by 
the  sacrifice  of  a  sheep  instead  of  a  bull. 
The  oration,  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add, 
was  granted  when  the  success,  though  con- 
siderable, did  not  fulfill  the  conditions  speci- 
fied for  a  triumph. 
39 


Triumph.     To   obtain   victory ;    to   meet 

with  success. 

Triumphal.  Of  or  pertaining  to  triumph  ; 
used  in  triumph  ;  indicating,  or  in  honor 
of,  a  triumph  or  victory;  as,  a  triumphal 
crown  ;   a  triumphal  arch. 

Triumphal  Column.     See  CoLUMX,  Tri- 

UMI'UAI.. 

Triumphal   Crown.      See   Crown,   Tri- 

U.Ml'HAL. 

Triumphant.  Celebrating  victory ;  ex- 
pressive of  joy  for  success  ;  as,  a  triumphant 
song. 

Triumpher.  One  who  was  honored  with 
a  triumph  in  ancient  Kome.  One  who  tri- 
umphs or  rejoices  for  victory  ;  one  who  van- 
quishes. 

Trojae  Ludus.  Among  the  Romans  was 
a  species  of  mock  fight,  similar  to  the  tour- 
naments of  the  Middle  Ages,  jK-rformed  by 
young  noblemen  on  horseback,  who  were 
furnished  with  arms  suitable  to  their  age. 

Trojan  War.  In  classical  history,  a  cele- 
brated epoch,  which  occurred  nearly  thirteen 
centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  and  which 
has  formed  the  subject  of  the  two  finest 
poems  in  the  world, — Homer's  "  Iliad''  and 
Virgil's  "  yEneid."  This  war  was  under- 
taken by  the  states  of  Greece  to  recover 
Helen,  whom  Paris,  the  son  of  Priam,  king 
of  Troy,  had  carried  away  from  the  bouse 
of  Menelaus.     (See  Troy.) 

Tromblon.  A  fire-arm  which  was  for- 
merly fired  from  a  rest,  and  from  which 
several  balls  and  slugs  were  discharged.  An 
ancient  wall-piece. 

Trombone.  Formerlj'  a  species  of  blun- 
derbuss for  boat-service,  taking  its  name 
from  its  unseemly  trumpet  mouth. 

Troop.  A  company  of  cavalry.  It  is 
the  same,  with  respect  to  formation,  as  a 
coniiiaiiy  in  the  infantry. 

Troop  Corporal- Major.     The  chief  non-» 
comiiiissioiied    othcer    of    a    troop    in    the 
British  Household  Cavalry. 

Troop  Sergeant-Major.  In  the  British 
service,  is  the  chief  sergeant  of  a  troop. 

Trooper.  A  private  or  soldier  in  a  body 
of  cavalry  ;  a  horse-soldier. 

Trooping  the  Colors.  Is  a  ceremony 
performed  in  the  IJritish  service,  at  the  pub- 
lic mounting  of  garrison  guards. 

Troop-ship.  A  merclumt  ship  "taken 
up,  "  as  it  is  called,  for  the  conveyance  of 
soldiers  by  sea. 

Trophy.  Was  a  memorial  of  victory 
erected  on  the  spot  where  the  enemy  had 
turned  to  flight.  Among  the  Greeks  (with 
the  exception  of  the  Macedonians,  who 
erected  no  trophies)  one  or  two  shields  and 
helmets  of  the  routed  enemy  placed  upon 
the  trunk  of  a  tree  served  as  the  sign  and 
memorial  of  victory.  After  a  sea-fight  the 
trophy  consisted  of  the  beaks  and  stern- 
ormiments  of  the  captured  vessels,  .«et  up  on 
the  nearest  coast.  It  was  considered  wrong 
to  destroy  such  a  trophy,  and  equally  wrong 
to  repairit  when  it  had  "fallen  down  through 
time,  for  animosity  ought  not  to  be  perpetual. 


TEOPHY-MONET 


602 


TRUMPET 


In  early  times  the  Romans  never  erected  tro- 
phies on  the  field,  but  decorated  the  buildings 
at  Rome  with  the  spoils  of  the  vanquished. 
In  later  times  pillars  and  triumphal  arches 
■were  employed  to  commemorate  victories. 
Besides  these,  in  modern  times,  the  humilia- 
tion of  an  enemy  is  rendered  lasting  by  such 
devices  as  the  bridge  of  Jena,  of  Waterloo, 
and  by  the  distribution  of  captured  cannon. 
Morally  considered,  this  practice  is  no  im- 
provement upon  the  simple  and  perishable 
trophies  of  the  ancient  Greeks. 

Trophy-money.  Was  certain  money  for- 
merly raised  in  the  several  counties  of  the 
kingdom  of  Great  Britain,  towards  pro- 
viding harness  and  maintaining  the  militia. 

Trossulum  (now  Trusso).  A  town  in 
Etruria,  9  miles  from  Volsinii,  which  is  said 
to  have  been  taken  by  some  Roman  equites 
without  the  aid  of  foot-soldiers  ;  whence  the 
Roman  equites  obtained  the  name  of  Tros- 
suli.  Some  writers  identify  this  town  with 
Troilium,  which  was  taken  by  the  Romans 
293  B.C. ;  but  they  appear  to  have  been  dif- 
ferent places. 

Trou  de  Loup  (Wolf-hole).  In  field  for- 
tification, is  a  round  hole,  about  6  feet  deep, 
and  pointed  at  the  bottom,  like  an  inverted 
cone,  with  a  stake  placed  in  the  middle. 
Troics  de  loup  are  frequently  dug  round  a 
redoubt  to  obstruct  the  enemy's  approach. 
They  are  circular  at  the  top,  of  about  4^  feet 
in  diameter. 

Trou  de  Rat  (Fr.).  Literally,  a  rat-hole, 
or  rat-catch  ;  figuratively,  any  disadvanta- 
geous position  into  which  troops  are  rashly 
driven. 

Trowel  Bayonet.  So  called  from  its 
shape.  A  bayonet  intended  to  serve  also  as 
an  intrenching  tool  ;  invented  by  Lieut. 
Rice,  ftth  U.  S.  Infantry.  It  is  used  by  part  of 
the  U.  S.  troops  at  the  present  time  (1880). 
►  Troy.  The  earliest  traditions  of  the  Greek 
people  represent  the  country  on  both  sides 
of  the  yEgean  as  peopled  by  various  races, 
either  of  genuine  Hellenic,  or  of  closely 
affiliated  tribes.  Among  those  who  peopled 
the  eastern  Asiatic  coast  were  the  Trojans. 
The  story  of  the  Trojan  war  is  extremely 
simple.  The  Trojans,  in  the  person  of  Paris, 
or  Alexander,  the  son  of  the  reigning  mon- 
arch, Priam,  are  represented  as  having  had 
certain  dealings  with  the  Achajans,  or  Greeks 
of  the  Peloponnesus,  in  the  course  of  which 
the  gay  young  prince  carries  oflf  from  the 
palace  of  Menelaus,  king  of  Sparta,  his 
spouse  Helen,  the  greatest  beauty  of  her  age. 
To  revenge  this  insult,  the  Greeks  banded 
themselves  together  and  sailed  against  Troy 
with  a  large  fleet.  The  most  notable  of  the 
tribes  who  took  part  in  this  expedition  were 
the  Argives,  or  Achasans,  the  Spartans,  the 
Boeotians,  and  the  Thessalians.  Of  the 
Thessalians,  the  most  prominent  captain  was 
Achilles;  and  the  general  command  of  the 
whole  expedition  was  committed  to  Aga- 
memnon, king  of  Mycenffi.  This  well-ap- 
pointed European  army  is  represented  as 
having  spent  nine  years  in  besieging   the 


god-built  walls  of  the  city  of  Priam  without 
making  any  impression  on  its  strength.  A 
violent  quarrel  between  Achilles  and  Aga- 
memnon, breaking  out  in  the  tenth  year,  so 
weakened  the  invading  force  that  the  Tro- 
jans, under  Hector,  pushed  the  Greeks  back 
to  the  very  verge  of  the  sea,  and  almost  set 
their  ships  on  fire.  At  the  critical  moment, 
however,  the  Thessalian  captain  was  recon- 
ciled to  the  head  of  the  expedition  ;  and  with 
his  return  to  the  field  the  fortune  of  war 
changed ;  Hector,  the  champion  of  Troy, 
fell,  and  the  impending  doom  of  the  city 
was  darkly  foreshadowed ;  it  was  finally 
captured  and  sacked,  1184  B.C.  (the  date 
generally  accepted). 

Troyes.  A  town  of  France,  capital  of 
the  department  of  Aube,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Seine.  It  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Augustobono,  the  chief  town  of  the  Tricas- 
ses.  It  suffered  severely  in  the  civil  wars  of 
the  15th  century,  and  was  taken  by  Joan  of 
Arc  in  1429.  A  treaty  was  concluded  here 
between  England,  France,  and  Burgundy, 
May  21,  1420,  whereby  it  was  stipulated 
that  Henry  V.  should  marry  Catherine, 
daughter  of  Charles  VI.,  be  appointed  re- 
gent of  France,  and  after  the  death  of 
Charles  should  inherit  the  crown.  Troyes 
was  taken  by  the  allied  armies  February  7 ; 
retaken  by  Napoleon  February  23 ;  and 
again  taken  by  the  allies  March  4,  1814. 

Truce.  An  agreement  between  bellig- 
erent parties,  by  which  they  mutually  en- 
gage to  forbear  all  acts  of  hostility  against 
each  other  for  some  time,  the  war  still  con- 
tinuing. Truces  are  of  several  kinds  :  gen- 
eral^ extending  to  all  the  territories  and 
dominions  of  both  parties  ;  and  2:iarticularly , 
restrained  to  particular  places ;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, by  sea,  and  not  by  land.  They  are 
also  absolute,  indeterminate,  and  general ; 
or  limited  and  determined  to  certain  things, 
for  example,  to  bury  the  dead.  During  a 
truce,  it  is  dishonorable  to  occupy  more  ad- 
vanced ground,  or  to  resort  to  any  act  which 
would  confer  advantage.  A  truce  requires  or- 
dinarily  to  be  confirmed  by  the  commander- 
in-chief  to  become  binding.  It  is  lawful  to 
break  it  before  the  prescribed  period,  on 
notice  previously  agreed  on  being  given  to 
the  opposite  party.  This  is  called  denoun- 
cing a  truce. 

Truce,  Flag  of.     See  Flag  of  Truce. 

Truce  of  God.  A  suspension  of  arms, 
which  occasionally  took  place  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  putting  a  stop  to  private  hostilities,  at 
or  within  certain  periods. 

Truck.  Wooden  wheels  for  the  carriage 
of  cannon,  etc.  The  trucks  of  garrison- 
carriages  are  generally  made  of  cast  iron. 
Trucks  of  a  ship-carriage  are  wheels  made 
of  one  piece  of  wood,  from  12  to  19  inches 
in  diameter,  and  their  thickness  is  always 
equal  to  the  caliber  of  the  gun. 

Truck,  Casemate.     See  Implements. 

Trumpet,  or  Trump.  A  wind  instru- 
ment, made  of  brass  or  silver,  used  in  the 
cavalry  and  mounted  artillery. 


TRUMPET-CALL 


603 


TUNIS 


Trumpet-call.     A  call  by  the  sound  of 

the  truiii{)ft. 

Trumpeter.  A  soldier  whose  duty  it  is  to 
sound  the  trumpet. 

Trumpet-Major.  The  non-commissioned 
officer  ill  tliariie  of  the  trumpeters  of  a  regi- 
ment of  fiiviiiry. 

Truncheon.  A  club ;  a  cuds;el ;  also,  a 
statl"  of  toinmand.  The  truncheon  was  for 
several  ages  the  sign  of  office.  Generals 
were  presented  witii  the  truncheon  as  the 
sign  of  investiture  with  command ;  and  all 
tiiose  officers  who  belonged  to  the  suite  of 
the  general,  and  were  not  atlacliecjT  to  regi- 
ments, carried  a  truncheon,  or  stall",  whence 
tiie  name  of  officers  of  the  stall*. 

Trunnion-gauge.  See  Inspkction  of 
Can.von. 

Trunnion-plate.  In  gunnery,  is  a  plate 
in  the  carriage  of  a  gun,  mortar,  or  howit- 
zer, wliiiii  covers  the  upper  part  of  the 
cheek,  and  goes  under  the  trunnion. 

Trunnions.  In  gunnery,  are  two  cylin- 
ders at  or  near  the  centre  of  gravity  of  a 
gun,  by  which  it  is  supported  on  its  carriage. 
The  axes  are  in  a  line  perpendicular  to  the 
axis  of  the  bore,  and,  in  our  guns,  in  the 
same  plane  with  that  axis.  By  means  of 
the  trunnions  the  piece  is  attached  to  its 
carriage  ;  and  by  being  placed  at  or  near 
the  centre  of  gravity,  it  is  easily  elevated 
or  depressed. 

Trunnion-square.  See  Inspection  of 
Cannon. 

Truxillo.  A  town  of  the  republic  of 
Venezuela,  capital  of  a  province  of  the 
t-ame  name.  Though  now  a  poor,  mean 
}iUice,  it  is  said  to  have  been,  previously  to 
]tJ78,  when  it  was  pillaged  by  the  buccaneer 
Grammont,  one  of  the  finest  and  wealthiest 
cities  of  America. 

Tubantes.  A  people  of  Germany,  allies 
of  the  Cherusci,  originally  dwelt  between 
the  Khine  and  the  Yssel.  They  are  subse- 
quently mentioned  as  a  part  of  the  great 
league  of  the  Franci. 

Tube-pouch.     See  Implkments. 

Tuberated.  In  heraldry,  knotted  or 
swelled  out. 

Tuck.     A  long,  narrow  sword. 

Tudela  lanc.  Tniella).  A  city  of  Spain, 
province  of  Navarre,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Ebro,  52  miles  northwest  from  Sarngossa. 
Here  the  French  under  ^larshal  Lannes 
totallv  defeated  the  Spaniards,  on  November 
23,  1808. 

Tugenbund  ("  League  of  Virtue").  This 
league  was  formed  in  Prussia  soon  after  the 
jieace  of  Tilsit,  June,  1807,  for  relieving  the 
sutferers  by  the  late  wars,  and  for  the  revival 
of  morality  and  patriotism,  gradually  be- 
came a  formidable  secret  political  society, 
opposed  to  the  French  predominance  in  Ger- 
many. It  excited  the  jealousy  of  Napoleon, 
who  demanded  its  suppression  in  1809.  It 
was  dissolved  at  the  ])eace  in  181  "i. 

Tuileries,  Palace  and  Gardens  of  the. 
Are  situated  in  the  miildle  of  Paris,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Seine.     In  1793,  the  Na- 


tional Convention  held  its  sittings  in  the 
Tuileries  ;  and  when  Bonaparte  became  First 
Ccmsul,  he  chose  it  for  his  official  residence. 
It  was  the  imperial  residence  of  Napoleon 
III.  ;  but  was  burned  down  by  the  Commune 
in  1871. 

Tulwar.  In  the  East  Indies  means  a 
sword. 

Tumbril.  A  covered  cart  on  two  wheels, 
for  the  carriag(!  of  ammunition,  tools,  etc., 
belonging  to  tlie  artillery.  The  name  ob- 
tained a  melancholy  celebrity  from  being 
applied  to  the  carts  which  served  to  carry 
the  unfortunate  victims  of  the  French  revo- 
lution to  the  guillotine. 

Tunic.  A  close-fitting  coat,  with  short 
sleeves,  worn  in  ancitnt  times  by  the  Ro- 
mans. This  sort  of  clothing  was  j»revalent 
among  the  French  after  their  return  from 
the  Crusades  to  the  Holy  Land.  They 
adopted  it  from  the  Saracens,  and  seemed 
ambitious  of  appearing  in  a  garb  which  bore 
testimony  to  their  feats  of  valor.  These 
tunics,  which  were  converted  into  a  sort  of 
uniform,  obtained  the  name  of  salatiines 
among  the  French,  in  compliment  to  the 
emj)eror  Saladin. 

Tunis.  One  of  the  Barbary  States  form- 
ing a  considerable  territory  or  regency  of 
the  Ottoman  empire,  in  Northern  Africa. 
Its  history  is  nearly  identical  with  the  city 
of  the  same  name  (which  see). 

Tunis.    A  fortified  city  of  Africa,  and  the 
capital  of  the  country  of  that  name,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Mejerdah,  400  miles  east  by 
north  from  Algiers.     Tunis  is  situated  about 
3  miles  to  the  southwest  of  the  ruins  of  an- 
cient Carthage,  and  it  is  itself  a  place   of 
great  antiquity.     During  the  Punic  wars  it 
was  repeatedly  taken  and  retaken.     In  439 
it   fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Vandals,  but 
having  been  wrested  from  them  about  a  cen- 
tury thereafter  by   Belisarius,  it  continued 
to  be  subject  to  the  Greek  empire  till  theend 
of  the  7th  century,  when  Northern   Africa 
was  overrun  by  the  victorious  armies  of  the 
Saracens  and  became  a  dependency  of  the 
caliphs  of  Bagdad.     In  128i)  Tunis  became 
an  absolute  sovereignty  under  Aboo-Ferez, 
who  soon  added  the  greater  part  of  Algiers 
and  Tripoli.     About  this  time  it  became  no- 
torious for  its  piracies,  and  in   1270,  Louis 
IX.  of  France,  in  a  chivalrous  attempt  to 
suppress  them,  lost   both  his  army  and  his 
life.     It  remained  under  African  kings  till 
taken  by  Barbarossa,  for  Solyman  the  Mag- 
nificent.    It  was  taken  with  great  slaughter, 
and    Barbarossa   expelled,   by   the  emperor 
I  Charles   V.,   when    10,000  Christian   slaves 
j  were  set  at  liberty,  1535.     The  country  was 
;  subjugated  by  the  Turks  (1574),  who  at  first 
!  governed  it  by  a  Turkish  pasha  and  divan, 
'.  with  a  body  of  Janissaries  sent  from  Con- 
I  stantinople,  but  were  ultimately  obliged  to 
I  allow  the  Moors  to  elect  their  own  boy, only 
I  reservinij  to  themselves  the  power  <.>f  con- 
;  firming  the  election  and  exacting  a  tribute. 
■  The  piracies  t>f  the  Tunisians  subjected  them 
,  to  severe  chastisement,  first  from  the  Britbh 


TURIN 


604 


TURKEY 


under  Admiral  Blake,  who  reduced  it,  on 
the  bey  refusing  to  deliver  up  the  British 
captives,  1G55;  and  afterwards  from  France 
and  Holland.  During  the  18th  century  it 
became  tributary  to  Algiers.  About  the  be- 
ginning of  the  19th  century,  Hamuda  Pasha 
threw  oft'  the  Algerian  yoke,  subdued  the 
Turkish  militia,  and  created  a  native  Tu- 
nisian army  ;  in  consequence  of  which  Tunis 
virtually  attained  independence.  An  insur- 
rection broke  out  April  18, 1864,  and  in  May, 
the  European  powers  sent  ships  of  war  to 
protect  their  subjects. 

Turin.  A  large  city  of  Italy,  capital  of 
Piedmont,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Dora- 
Susina  witli  the  Po,  79  miles  west-southwest 
from  Milan.  The  foundation  of  Turin  is 
generally  attributed  to  a  colonj'  of  Transal- 
pine origin  called  Taurini,  or  Taurisci. 
Shortly  after  Hannibal  crossed  the  Alps,  he 
made  himself  master  of  the  territory  in 
which  it  is  situated  ;  but  after  his  expulsion 
from  Italj',  the  Rt)mans  resumed  possession 
and  converted  Turin  into  a  colony,  which 
took  the  name  of  Colonia  Julia.  This  name 
was  afterwards  changed  \-nioiha,io^  Augusta 
Taur-inorum.  It  was  taken  and  sacked  by 
the  Goths  under  Alaric.  To  ward  off"  similar 
disasters,  it  was  shortly  after  surrounded  by 
walls,  but  did  not  escape  the  ravages  of  the 
Longobards.  Charlemagne,  into  whose 
hands  it  subsequently  passed,  bestowed  it  as 
feudal  tenure  on  its  bishops.  In  1418  (1416) 
it  was  declared  by  Amadeo  V.  the  capital  of 
the  states  of  Savoy,  and  ultimately  rose  to 
be  the  capital  of  the  whole  Sardinian  states. 
The  French  besieged  this  city;  but  Prince 
Eugene  defeated  their  army,  and  compelled 
them  to  raise  the  siege,  September  7,  1706. 
In  1798,  the  French  republican  army  took 
possession  of  Turin,  seized  all  the  strong 
places  and  arsenals  of  Piedmont,  and  obliged 
the  king  and  his  family  to  remove  to  the 
island  of  Sardinia.  In  1799  the  French 
were  driven  out  by  the  Austrians  and  Rus- 
sians; but  shortly  afterwards  the  city  and  all 
Piedmont  surrendered  to  the  French.  In 
1814,  it  was  delivered  up  to  the  allies,  who 
restored  it  to  the  king  of  Sardinia. 

Turkey.  Or  the  Ottoman  empire,  called 
by  the  Turks  Osmanli  V'dayeti,  includes 
large  portions  of  the  continents  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa,  and  consists  of  Turkej- 
Proper,  which  is  under  the  direct  rule  of  the 
sultan,  and  of  numerous  dependent  and  trib- 
utary states,  governed  by  their  own  princes. 
The  existing  Turkish  empire  dates  only 
from  the  end  of  the  13th  century,  when  it 
was  founded  by  Osman,  or  Othman,  a  Turk 
of  noble  family,  who  had  been  driven  west- 
ward from  Khorasan  by  the  invasion  of 
Genghis  Khan.  Osman  first  invaded  the 
Greek  territory  of  Nicomedia  on  Jul}'  27, 
1299  ;  but  the  true  era  of  the  empire  may  be 
dated  from  the  conquest  of  the  city  of  Prusa, 
the  capital  of  Bithynia,  which  surrendered 
to  his  son  Orchan  in  1326.  Murad  I. 
(Amurath)  subdued,  without  resistance,  the 
whole   of   Thrace   from   the   Hellespont   to 


Mount  Hjemus,  and  made  Adrianople  the 
seat  of  vice-royalty.  Murad  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Bajazet  (Byazid),  whose  reign 
forms  one  of  the  most  splendid  epochs  in  the 
Turkish  annals.  His  armies  were  victorious 
in  every  country  that  he  undertook  to  con- 
quer, until  at  last  he  encountered  the  famous 
Mogul  chief,  Tamerlane,  who  defeated  the 
Turkish  army  and  took  Bajazet  captive. 
After  the  death  of  Tamerlane,  Solyman,  the 
son  of  Bajazet,  obtained  the  European  do- 
minions of  his  father  and  eventually  as- 
sumed the  title  of  sultan.  At  his  death  in 
1421  he  bequeathed  an  undivided  empire  to 
his  successor,  Amurath  II.,  in  whose  reign 
the  Turkish  empire  rose  in  splendor  and 
opulence.  He  enlarged  the  empire  by  con- 
quests, and  was  succeeded  in  1451  by  Mo- 
hammed II.,  the  conqueror  of  Constanti- 
nople. Mohammed  laid  siege  to  Belgrade, 
three  years  after  the  taking  of  Constanti- 
nople, from  which,  after  an  obstinate  resist- 
ance, he  was  at  length  repulsed  with  the 
loss  of  his  large  ordnance  and  40,000  of  his 
best  troops.  Abandoning  his  attempts  upon 
Hungary,  the  sultan  undertook  an  expedi- 
tion into  Greece,  and  about  1460  succeeded 
in  subduing  the  whole  of  the  Morea.  Mo- 
hammed continued  to  overrun  Europe  with 
his  victorious  armies,  until  death  stopped  his 
triumphant  career  in  1481.  A  series  of  do- 
mestic broils  continued  to  take  place  until 
Selim  ascended  the  throne  in  1512.  He  was 
a  successful  prince,  and  during  his  short 
reign  conquered  Egypt,  Aleppo,  Antioch, 
Tripoli,  Damascus,  and  Gaza,  and  defeated 
the  Persians.  On  the  death  of  Selim,  Soly- 
man the  Magnificent  ascended  the  Otto- 
man throne,  and  like  several  of  the  preced- 
ing monarchs  he  continued  to  humiliate  his 
enemies  and  add  new  territory  to  his  do- 
minions. His  dominions  extended  from  Al- 
giers to  the  river  Euphrates,  and  from  the 
farther  end  of  the  Black  Sea  to  the  extremity 
of  Greece  and  Epirus,  The  latter  years  of 
his  reign  were  embittered  by  domestic  dis- 
sensions and  cruelties.  He  died  while  be- 
sieging Sigeth,  a  city  of  Hungary,  in  1566. 
His  son  and  successor,  Selim  II.,  besieged 
and  took  Cyprus  ;  but  in  the  famous  sea-fight 
at  Lepanto,  in  1571,  the  Turkish  fleet  was 
utterly  destroyed  by  Don  John  of  Austria. 
Selim  afterwards  invested  and  took  Tunis  by 
storm.  On  his  death  Amurath  III.  ascended 
the  throne,  and  extended  his  dominions. 
His  son,  Mohammed  III.,  ascended  the 
throne  in  1595,  but  he  was  involved  in  a 
series  of  wars  which  proved  disastrous  to  the 
Turkish  arms,  and  the  country  continued  to 
decline,  although  each  successive  monarch 
continued  to  wage  war  with  the  neighboring 
provinces,  which  nearly  always  ended  disas- 
trously to  the  Turkish  arms;  the  country 
was  also  torn  asunder  by  internal  strife. 
The  downward  course  of  Turkey  was  for  a 
time  stayed  by  Mustapha  II.,  who  succeeded 
to  the  throne  in  1695;  he  commanded  his 
troops  in  person,  and  passed  the  Danube  at 
the  head  of  50,000  men,  carried  Lippa  by 


TURKEY 


605 


TURTUKAI 


assault,  and  closed  a  canipiiit;n  against  the 
Austrians  with  succesi=.  IJut  two  years  after- 
wards he  was  defeated  Ly  I'rinec  Eugene,  in 
the  bloodv  hattle  of  Zenta,  where  the  Turks 
left  20,000  dead  on  the  field,  and  10,000  were 
drowned  in  their  attempt  to  escape.  Shortly 
after  this  disaster  Mustapha  was  dethroned. 
During  the  reign  of  Mustapha  III.,  in  1700, 
a  destructive  war  broke  out  with  Ku.ssia 
which  lasted  till  1774,  when  the  Turks  were 
compelled  to  make  the  dishonorable  treaty 
of  Kainargi.  Another  disastrous  war  broke 
out  between  Russia  and  Turkey  in  the  au- 
tumn of  1 787,  in  which  Austria  took  sides  with 
the  former.  This  war,  which  was  concluded 
in  nyU,  was  a  series  of  terrible  conflicts,  in 
wliich  much  desperate  valor  was  displayed 
on  the  one  side,  and  many  brave  actions 
were  performed  on  the  other;  but  in  which 
Turkey  lost  much  territory.  Turkey  was 
drawn  into  the  French  revolutionary  war  by 
the  invasion  of  Egypt  by  the  French,  and  in 
1807  she  was  convulsed  bj'  a  sanguinary  in- 
surrection, which  cost  Selim  his  throne,  and 
raised  Mahmoud  to  it.  During  the  event  of 
this  insurrection,  a  wiir  which  had  been  going 
on  with  Russia  had  languished;  but  on  the 
accession  of  Mahmoud,  the  armies  on  both 
sides  were  augmented,  and  the  contest  was 
carried  on  with  great  ferocity.  The  cam- 
paign of  1811  was  short,  but  disastrous  to 
the  Porte,  the  main  body  of  the  Ottoman 
army  having  surrendered  as  prisoners  of 
war.  In  1821  began  that  celebrated  insur- 
rection which,  after  a  bloody  war  of  eight 
years,  terminated  in  the  complete  emancipa- 
tion of  the  Greeks  from  the  Turkish  yoKe. 
In  1828  war  again  broke  out  between  Turkey 
and  Russia.  The  first  campaign  was  unfa- 
vorable to  Turkey,  but  not  completely  deci- 
sive ;  it  ended  with  the  loss  of  Varna  ;  but, 
in  1829,  the  Russians  having  crossed  the 
Balkans,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded, 
which  was  both  humiliating  and  injurious. 
Shortly  after  occurred  that  rupture  between 
the  sultan  and  Mehemet  Ali,  the  pasha  of 
Egypt,  which  shook  the  Ottoman  empire  to 
its  foundation.  In  every  conflict  the  Turkish 
troops  were  overthrown.  Thebattleof  Iloms 
decided  the  fate  of  Syria,  and  the  victory  at 
Konieh  placed  the  sce[)tre  almost  within  the 
grasp  of  the  ambitious  pasha.  In  this  ex- 
tremity the  sultan  was  reduced  to  apply  to 
Russia  for  aid.  A  peace  was  concluded  by 
which  the  pasha  augmented  his  territory. 
In  18;5;t  the  Turks  were  again  defeated  in 
several  battles  by  the  Egyptians  ;  but  the 
latter  were  reduced  to  subjection  by  the 
allied  powers,  Britain,  Austria,  Russia,  and 
Prussia,  and  com|ielled  to  pay  an  annual 
tribute  to  Turkey.  In  October,  1853.  the 
Porte  declared  war  against  Russia,  and  in 
1854  the  French  and  English  entered  into 
the  contest  as  allies  of  Turkey.  In  the  lat- 
ter part  of  this  war,  Sardinia  also  sent  an 
army  to  co-operate  with  those  of  the  allies. 
The  result  of  this  war,  which  was  virtually 
ended  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  signed  on 
March  30,  185C,  was,  that  Turkey  gained 


some  territory,  and  took  her  place  as  a 
member  of  the  European  confederation  of 
states.  A  revolution  took  place  in  Constan- 
tinople in  1870,  which  resulted  in  the  depo- 
sition of  Abd-ul-Azi/.,  and  the  accession  to 
the  throne  of  Murad  V.,  who  in  his  turn 
was  superseded  by  liamid  II.  For  impor- 
tant battles,  etc.,  which  occurred  in  Turkey, 
see  names  of  towns,  places,  etc.,  under  sepa- 
rate headings  in  this  work. 

Turks.  The  name  of  a  numerous,  im- 
portant, and  widely-spread  family  of  the 
human  race,  members  of  which  are  to  be 
found  as  well  on  the  banks  of  the  Lena 
in  Siberia,  as  on  those  of  the  Danube  and 
the  shores  of  the  Adriatic  in  Europe.  They 
consist  of  many  diflerent  tribes,  but  speak 
very  nearly  the  same  language.  For  history 
of  the  Turks,  see  Tlrkey  and  other  coun- 
tries inhabited  by  them. 

Turma.  In  the  Roman  cavalry,  a  troop 
consisting  of  30  horsemen.  There  were  10 
turma;  in  every  legion,  and  3  dccuricc  in 
every  iurma. 

Turn.  To  give  another  direction,  ten- 
dency, or  inclination;  to  direct  otherwise; 
to  deflect.  To  turn  a  hostile  army,  to  turn 
the  enemy's  flank,  and  the  like,  to  pass 
round  and  take  a  position  behind  it,  or  upon 
the  side  of  it.  To  turn  tail,  to  retreat  igno- 
miniously. 

Turn  Out,  To.  To  bring  forward,  to  ex- 
hibit ;  as,  to  turn  out  the  guard  ;  to  turn  out 
so  many  men  for  service.  To  turn  in,  to 
withdraw  ;  to  order  under  cover  ;  as,  to  turn 
in  the  guard. 

Tumau  (Boh.  Tuntov).  A  walled  town 
of  Bohemia,  circle  of  Jung-Bunzlau,  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Iser,  50  miles  northeaat 
from  Prague.  Here  was  fought,  in  July, 
18t!ti,  a  battle  between  the  Prussians  and 
Austrians,  in  which  the  former  were  victo- 
rious. 

Turnhout.  A  well-built  town  of  Bel- 
gium, j>rovincc  of  Antwerp,  34  miles  east- 
northeast  from  the  city  of  Antwerp.  Turn- 
hout is  historically  noteworthy  as  the  .scene 
of  two  battles,  the  first  won  January  22, 
1507,  by  the  Netherlands,  under  Maurice, 
prince  of  Orange,  over  the  Spaniards ;  and 
the  second  October  27,  1780,  by  the  patriots, 
under  Van  der  Mersch,  over  the  Austrians. 

Turning.  In  tactics,  a  manreuvro  by 
which  an  enemy  or  position  is  turned. 

Turning  and   Boring.     See  Ordxanck, 

C0SSTKI(   rioN  OK. 

Turret.  In  military  antiquity,  a  movable 
building,  of  a  square  form,  consisting  of  10 
or  even  20  stories,  sometimes  120  cubits  high, 
usually  moved  on  wheels,  and  employed  in 
approaches  to  a  fortified  place,  forcarrving 
soldiers,  engines,  ladders,  casting  briuges, 
and  other  necessaries. 

Turtukai,  or  Tortokan.  A  town  of  Tur- 
key in  Europe,  in  Hulgnriii.  situated  on  the 
Danube.  It  is  t>ppositc  Oltenitxa,  where  the 
Russians  were  defeated  by  the  Turks  in  a  se- 
ries of  battles  which  extended  over  three 
days,  in  November,  1853. 


TUSCANY 


606 


TYRANT 


Tuscany  (Ital.  Toscana).  A  former  cjrand 
duchy  of  Italy,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  duchies  of  Parma  and  Modena,  and  the 
Papal  States ;  east  and  south  by  the  Papal 
States ;  west  by  the  Mediterranean.  Tuscany 
embraces  the  far  greater  part  of  ancient  Etru- 
ria,  shared  the  common  fate  of  all  the  other 
Italian  states,  and  fell  under  the  Romans 
about  280  B.C.  From  the  Romans  it  passed 
first  to  the  Goths,  next  to  the  Lombards,  and 
then  to  Charlemagne,  who  governed  it  by 
counts.  After  numerous  vicissitudes,  the 
whole  of  Tuscany  became  united,  in  1557, 
under  the  Medici  family.  In  1737  the  Medici 
became  extinct  and  the  grand  duchy  passed 
to  the  Duke  of  Lorraine.  It  was  declared  by 
Napoleon  I.  an  integral  part  of  the  French 
empire;  but,  on  his  downfall  in  1814,  it  was 
restored  to  the  Archduke  Ferdinand.  On 
August  20,  1860,  the  National  Assembly  at 
Florence  unanimously  voted  its  annexation 
to  and  it  now  forms  part  of  the  new  kingdom 
of  Italy. 

Tuscaroras.  A  tribe  of  North  American 
Indians,  who  at  the  settlement  of  North 
Carolina  had  fifteen  towns  on  the  Tar  and 
Neuso  Rivers,  and  1200  warriors.  In  1711, 
they  began  a  war  with  the  settlers,  and  after 
a  series  of  savage  encounters  were  defeated, 
and  joined  the  Iroquois  in  New  York,  where 
they  became  the  allies  of  the  English.  About 
400  of  them  still  reside  on  a  reservation  in 
the  western  part  of  the  State  of  New  York. 

Tusculum.  An  ancient  city  of  Latium, 
on  a  western  prolongation  of  the  Alban 
hills,  about  15  miles  east-southeast  of  Rome. 
It  was  one  of  the  most  strongly  fortified 
places  in  all  Italy,  both  by  nature  and  art. 
After  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins  from 
Rome,  Octavius  Mamilius,  the  chief  man  in 
Tusculum,  is  said  to  have  supported  their 
cause,  and  led  an  army  against  the  Romans  ; 
but  he  was  totally  defeated  and  slain  at  the 
small  lake  Regillus,  near  Tusculum.  There- 
upon an  alliance  was  formed  between  Tus- 
culum and  Rome,  which  lasted  unbroken 
for  140  years,  until,  in  357  B.C.,  the  whole  of 
the  Latin  cities,  and  Tusculum  among  the 
rest,  joined  in  a  war  with  Rome,  which 
ended  in  their  entire  and  final  subjection  to 
that  power.  The  ancient  city  continued  to 
exist  amid  all  the  vicissitudes  of  the  times 
till  near  the  end  of  the  12th  century,  when 
it  was  demolished  by  the  Romans,  and  the 
town  of  Frascati  rose  in  the  vicinity. 

Tuttlingen.  A  town  of  Wiirtemberg,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  20  miles  west- 
southwest  from  Sigmaringen.  Tuttlingen  is 
historically  notable  as  the  scene  of  a  battle 
in  1643,  during  the  Thirty  Years'  AVar,  in 
which  an  Austrian  Bavarian  force  under 
Hatzfeld  and  Mercy  defeated  the  French. 

Twist.  This  term  is  employed  by  gun- 
makers  to  express  the  inclination  of  a  groove 
at  any  point,  and  is  measured  by  the  tangent 
of  the  angle  made  by  the  groove  with  the 
axis  of  the  bore. 

Two-handed,  Used  with  both  hands  ;  as, 
a  two-handed  sword. 


Tyana  (ruins  at  Kiz  Hisai-).  A  city  of 
Asia  Minor,  stood  in  the  south  of  Cappado- 
cia,  at  the  northern  foot  of  Mount  Taurus, 
on  the  high  road  to  the  Cicilian  Gates.  It 
was  a  position  of  great  natural  strength, 
which  was  improved  by  fortifications.  Un- 
der Caracalla  it  was  made  a  Roman  colony. 
It  was  taken  in  272  B.C.  by  Aurelian,  in  the 
war  with  Zenobia,  to  whose  territory  it  then 
belonged. 

Tycocktow  Island.  An  island  in  the 
Canton  River,  China,  8  miles  long  and  6 
miles  broad.  It  is  situated  at  the  entrance 
of  the  Bocca  Tigris,  a  few  miles  below  Can- 
ton. The  British  took  the  fort  on  this  island 
♦in  1841. 

Tykoczin.  A  town  of  Russia  in  Europe, 
situated  on  the  Narew,  17  miles  northwest 
from  Bialystock.  A  battle  was  fought  be- 
tween the  Russians  and  Poles  here  in  1831. 

Tyler's  Insurrection.  Arose  in  opposi- 
tion of  the  poll-tax  imposed  on  all  persons 
above  fifteen,  November  5,  1380.  One  of 
the  collectors  acting  with  indecent  rudeness 
to  Wat  Tyler's  daughter,  the  father  struck 
him  dead,  June,  1381.  His  neighbors  took 
arms  to  defend  him,  and  in  a  short  time  al- 
most the  whole  of  the  population  of  the 
southern  and  eastern  counties  were  in  a  state 
of  insurrection,  extorting  freedom  from  their 
lords,  and  plundering.  On  June  12,  1381, 
they  gathered  upon  Blackheath  to  the  num- 
ber of  100,000  men.  On  June  14,  they  mur- 
dered Simon  of  Sudbury,  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, and  Sir  Robert  Hales,  the  royal 
treasurer.  The  king,  Richard  II.,  invited 
Tyler  to  a  parley,  which  took  place  on  the 
15th  atSmithfield,  where  the  latter  addressed 
the  king  in  a  menacing  manner,  now  and 
again  lifting  up  his  sword.  On  this  the 
mayor,  Walworth,  stunned  Tyler  Avith  a 
blow  of  his  mace,  and  one  of  the  king's 
knights  dispatched  him.  Richard  tempo- 
rized with  the  multitude  by  promising  them 
a  charter,  and  thus  led  them  out  of  the  city, 
when  Sir  R.  Knollys  and  a  band  of  knights 
attacked  and  dispersed  them  with  much 
slaughter.  The  insurrection  in  Norfolk  and 
Suffolk  was  subdued  by  the  bishop  of  Nor- 
wich, and  1500  of  the  rebels  were  executed. 

Tympanum.  A  drum,  a  musical  instru- 
ment which  the  ancients  used,  and  which 
consisted  of  a  thin  piece  of  leather  or  skin, 
stretched  upon  a  circle  of  wood  or  iron,  and 
beat  with  the  hand.  Hence  the  origin  of 
our  drum. 

Tyrant.  A  name  given  in  modern  times 
to  an  arbitrary  and  oppressive  ruler,  but 
originally  applied,  not  necessarily  to  one 
who  exercised  power  badly,  but  merely  to 
one  who  had  obtained  it  illegally,  and  there- 
fore equivalent  to  our  word  usurper.  If  the 
one  who  thus  rose  to  power  as  a  "tyrant" 
happened  to  be  a  man  of  sense,  and  wisdom, 
and  generosity,  his  "  tyranny"  might  prove 
a  blessing  to  a  state  torn  by  the  animosities 
of  selfish  oligarchs,  and  be  the  theme  of 
praise  in  after-ages,  as  was  the  case  with 
the  "  tj-rannies"  of  Pesistratos,  Gelon,  and 


I 
I 


TYRE 


607 


TYRONE 


others;  but  if  he  was  insolent,  rapacious, 
and  cruel,  then  he  sought  to  reduce  the  citi- 
zens to  a  worse  than  Etiyjitian  bondage,  and 
his  name  became  infamous  to  all  time.  Such 
has  been  the  fate  of  most  of  the  "  Thirty 
Tyrants  of  Athens."  It  was  the  method  of 
cxerci.sing  authority  pursued  by  these  and 
similar  usurpers  that  latterly,  even  in  an- 
cient times,  gave  the  word  tyrant  that  evil 
significance  it  has  ever  since  uninterrupt- 
edly retained. 

Tyre  (ruins  at  Sur).  One  of  the  greatest 
and  most  famous  cities  of  the  ancient  world, 
stood  on  the  coast  of  I'hccnice,  about  20 
miles  south  of  Sidon.  The  Assyrian  king 
yhalmanezer  laid  siege  toTyre  for  five  yeaa 
(713  B.C.),  but  without  success.  It  was  again 
besieged  for  thirteen  years  by  Nebuchad- 
irez/.ar,  and  there  is  a  tradition  that  he  took 
it  (572  B.C.),  but  the  matter  is  not  quite  cer- 
tain. At  the  period  when  the  Greeks  began 
to  be  well  acquainted  witli  the  city,  its  old 
site  had  been  abandoned,  and  a  new  city 
erected  on  a  small  island  about  half  a  mile 
from  the  shore,  and  a  mile  in  length,  and  a 
little  north  of  the  remains  of  the  former 
city,  which  was  now  called  Old  Tyre.  In 
322  B.C.  the  Tyrians  refused  to  open  their 
gates  to  Alexander,  who  laid  siege  to  the  city 
for  seven  months,  and  united  the  island  on 
which  it  stood  to  the  main  hind  by  a  mole 
constructed  chiefly  of  the  ruins  of  Old  Tyre. 
After  its  capture  and  sack  by  Alexander, 
Tyre  never  regained  its  former  consequence. 
It  recovered,  however,  sufficiently  to  be 
mentioned  as  a  strong  fortress  and  flourish- 
ing port  under  the  early  Roman  emperors  ; 
it  even  took  an  active  part  (103)  in  the  con- 
test between  Septimius  Severus  and  Pescen- 
nius  Niger,  which,  resulting  in  the  success 
of  the  former,  brought  back  to  it  some  of  its 
ancient  distinction.  In  St.  Jerome's  time  it 
was  again  one  of  the  noblest  and  most  pros- 
perous cities  of  the  whole  East.  In  the  7th 
century  it  came  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Saracens  ;  and  so  remained  until  taken  by 
the  Crusaders.  On  February  11,  1124,  the 
Christian  army  encamped  before  it,  and  on 
June  15  it  fell  into  their  hands.  The 
strength  of  its  fortifications,  the  splendor  of 
its  houses,  and  the  excellence  of  its  harbor, 
excited  their  admiration.  On  the  evening 
of  the  day  on  which  Aero  was  taken  by  the 


I  Mohammedans  (May   19,   1291),  Tyre  was 
I  abandoned  by  the  Crusaders,  and  the  Sara- 
]  cens  entered  it  the  following  morning.     It 
I  was  cajitured  by  the  French,  April  3,  1799; 
!  and    by    the   allied    fleet,    during    the    war 
:  against  Mchemct  All,  1841. 
I       Tyrol.    The  most  western  province  of  the 
I  Austrian  empire,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
liavaria,  on    the  east    by  Salzburg,  Carin- 
thia,  and  Venctia,  on  the  south  by   Italy, 
and  on  the  west  by  Switzerland   and   Italy. 
In  early  times  Tyrol  formed  part  of  Rha,'tia, 
was  conquered  by  the  Romans,  15  b.<'.    Sub- 
sequently it  was  overrun  by  various  German 
tribes  ;  still  later  the  southern  valley  fell  to 
the  share  of  the  Lombards,  and  the  northern 
valleys    to   the    IJavarians.      The   dukes    of 
Austria  acquired   possession  of  it    in    1303. 
The  French  conquered  Tyrol  in  1805,  and 
united  it  to  Bavaria,  much  to  the  discontent 
of  the  population  ;  but  in  1809  an  insurrec- 
tion broke  out,  headed  by  Andreas  Hofer,  an 
innkeeper,  who  drove  thu  Bavarians  out  of 
the   Tyrol,  and    thoroughly  defeated   some 
French  detachments,  but  was  overpowered 
at  last  by  reinforcements  sent  from  France. 
The  Tyrolese  riflemen  were  very  eflfective  in 
the  Italian  war  in  1859. 

Tyrone.  An  inland  county  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Ulster,  in  Ireland.  According  to 
some  authorities  the  Erdini,  and  to  others 
the  Scoti,  were  the  earliest  known  inhabit- 
ants of  this  district.  The  chief  town  of  Ty- 
rone was  Dungannon,  which,  though  sev- 
eral times  taken  and  sacked  by  the  English 
forces  in  their  attempts  to  reduce  the  coun- 
try to  obedience  to  the  royal  authority,  con- 
tinued to  be  of  importance  until  the  close  of 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  when  it  was  burned 
by  Hugh  O'Neill,  earl  of  Tyrone,  to  prevent 
its  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  English. 
The  insurrection  of  l(i41  may  be  said  to 
have  had  its  commencement  in  this  county, 
by  the  capture  of  Charlemont  Fort  and  Dun- 
gannon by  Sir  Phelim  O'Neill;  and  in  lii4»I 
the  Parliamentary  forces  under  (icn.  Mon- 
roe received  a  signal  defeat  from  Hugh  Roe 
O'Neill  at  Benburb.  During  the  greater 
part  of  the  war  between  King  William  and 
King  James,  this  county  was  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  forces  of  the  latter,  and  suflTered 
much  frtim  the  jiartisan  warfare  carried  on 
chiefly  by  the  townsmen  of  Enni^killen. 


UCLES 


608 


UMBRIA 


U. 


Ucles.  A  fortified  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Cuenca,  40  miles  southwest  from 
the  town  of  that  name.  It  stands  at  the 
foot  of  a  hill  crowned  by  a  famous  monas- 
tery which  belonged  to  the  military  order  of 
Santiago  or  St.  James  of  Spain.  It  was 
taken  by  the  French  in  1809. 

Uglitch.  A  town  of  European  Russia,  in 
the  government  and  60  miles  west-south- 
west from  Jaroslav,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Volga.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Lithuan- 
ians'in  1607. 

Uhlans  (a  Tartar  word  signifying 
"brave").  Light  cavalry  of  Asiatic  origin, 
were  introduced  into  the  north  of  Europe 
along  with  the  colonies  of  Tartars,  who  es- 
tablished themselves  in  Poland  and  Lithua- 
nia. They  were  mounted  on  light  active 
Tartar  horses,  and  armed  with  sabre,  lance, 
and  latterly  with  pistols.  Their  lance  was 
from  5i  to  6J  feet  in  length,  and,  like  that 
of  the  modern  lancers,  was  attached  to  a 
stout  leather  thong  or  cord,  which  was  fast- 
ened to  the  left  shoulder  and  passed  round 
behind  the  back,  so  as  to  allow  the  lance  to 
be  couched  under  the  right  arm.  Immedi- 
ately below  its  point  was  attached  a  strip  of 
gaudy-colored  cloth,  the  fluttering  of  which 
was  designed  to  frigbten  the  enemies'  horses. 
The  early  dress  was  similar  to  that  of  the 
Turks,  and  the  regiments,  or  polks,  were  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other  by  the  red,  green, 
yellow,  or  blue  color  of  their  uniforms. 
The  Austrians  and  Prussians  were  the  first 
to  borrow  this  species  of  cavalry  from  the 
Poles.  In  1734,  an  attempt  was  made  by 
Marshal  Saxe  to  introduce  uhlans  into 
France,  and  a  "polk"  of  1000  men  was 
formed ;  but  it  was  disbanded  at  the  author's 
death.  At  the  present  time,  Russia,  Prus- 
sia, and  Austria  are  the  only  powers  which 
possess  uhlan  regiments.  In  the  British 
army,  the  place  of  the  uhlans  is  occupied  by 
hussars. 

Ukraine.  The  name  given  in  Poland  first 
to  the  frontiers  towards  the  Tartars  and  other 
nomads,  and  then  to  the  fertile  regions  lying 
on  both  sides  of  the  middle  Dnieper,  without 
any  verj'  definite  limits.  The  Ukraine  was 
long  a  bone  of  contention  between  Poland 
and  Russia.  It  was  ceded  to  the  Cossacks 
by  Poland  in  1672,  and  was  obtained  by 
Russia  about  1682.  The  country  was  di- 
vided, Poland  having  the  west  side  of  the 
Dnieper,  and  Russia  the  east.  The  whole 
country  was  assigned  to  Russia  by  the  treaty 
of  partition  in  1795.     See  Poland. 

Ulans.     See  Uhlans. 

Ulm.  The  second  city  of  Wiirtemberg  ; 
was,  till  the  war  in  1866,  a  stronghold  of  the 


Germanic  Confederation.  Here  a  peace  was 
signed,  July  3,  1620,  by  which  Frederick  V. 
lost  Bohemia  (having  been  driven  from  it 
previously).  UJm  was  taken  by  the  French 
in  1796.  After  a  battle  between  the  French 
and  Austrians,  in  which  the  latter  under 
Gen.  Mack  were  defeated  with  dreadful  loss 
%y  Marshal  Ney,  Ulm  surrendered  with 
28,000  men,  the  flower  of  the  Austrian  army, 
October  17-20,  1805. 

Ulster.  A  province  of  Ireland,  the  most 
northern  of  the  four  into  which  that  king- 
dom is  divided.  The  northeast  portion,  the 
present  county  of  Down,  was,  early  after 
the  invasion,  overrun  by  the  English  under 
De  Courcy,  and  was  subsequently  held  by 
Hugh  De  Lacy.  Although  various  efforts 
were  made  by  the  English  to  effect  a  perma- 
nent settlement  in  the  north  and  northwest, 
their  success  was  little  more  than  nominal 
until  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and  James  I., 
when  the  well-known  plantation  of  Ulster 
was  attempted. 

Ulster  Badge.  On  the  institution  of  the 
order  of  Baronets  in  England  by  James  I., 
a  sinister  hand,  erect,  open,  and  couped  at 
the  wrist  gules,  the  armorial  ensign  of  the 
province  of  Ulster,  was  made  their  distin- 
guishing badge,  in  respect  of  the  order  hav- 
ing been  intended  for  the  encouragement  of 
plantations  in  the  province  of  Ulster.  This 
badge  is  sometimes  borne  in  a  canton,  some- 
times on  an  escutcheon,  the  latter  placed 
either  in  the  fess  point  or  in  the  middle  chief 
point,  so  as  to  interfere  as  little  as  possible 
with  the  charges  of  the  shield. 

Ulster  King-of-Arms,  The  king-of-arms 
or  chief  heraldic  officer  of  Ireland.  A  king- 
of-arms  called  Ireland  existed  in  the  time  of 
Richard  II.,  but  the  office  seems  to  have 
fallen  into  abeyance  in  the  following  cen- 
tury. Ulster  was  created  to  supply  his 
place  in  1552.  Ulster  holds  his  appointment 
from  the  crown,  and  acts  under  the  imme- 
diate direction  of  the  lord-lieutenant  of  Ire- 
land ;  the  professional  staflF  under  him  con- 
sists of  2  heralds,  4  pursuivants,  1  registrar, 
and  1  clerk  of  records.  The  official  arms 
of  Ulster  king-of-arms  are :  Argent,  St. 
George's  cross  gules,  on  a  chief  of  the  last  a 
lion  passant  gardant  between  a  harp  and  a 
portcullis  or. 

Ultimatum.  A  term  used  in  military 
negotiations,  to  express  the  final  conditions 
upon  which  any  proposition  or  treaty  can  be 
ratified. 

Umbon  (Ft-.).  The  pointed  boss  or 
prominent  part  in  the  centre  of  a  shield  or 
buckler. 

Umbria.      A  district  of  Italy,  the  chief 


UMBRIERE 


609 


UNICORN 


towns  of  which  were  Arminum,  Fanum, 
Fortune,  Mevania,  Tuder,  Nurnia,  and  Spo- 
letium.  Under  Augustus,  it  formed  the 
sixth  Regio  of  Italy.  Its  inhabitants,  the 
Umbri,  were  one  of  tlie  most  ancient  races 
of  Italy,  and  were  connected  with  the  Opi- 
cans,  Sabines,  and  those  other  tribes  whose 
languages  were  akin  to  the  Greek.  The 
Umbri  were  at  a  very  early  {)eriod  the  most 
powerful  people  in  Central  Italy,  and  ex- 
tended across  the  peninsula  from  the  Adri- 
atic to  the  Tyrrhene  seas.  They  were  after- 
wards deprived  of  their  possessions  west  of 
the  Tiber  by  the  Etruscans,  and  confined  to 
the  country  between  this  river  and  the  Ad- 
riatic. Their  territories  were  still  further 
diminished  by  the  Senones,  a  Gallic  people, 
who  took  possession  of  the  whole  country  on 
the  coast,  from  Arminum  to  the  yEsis.  The 
Umbri  were  subdued  by  the  Romans,  307 
B.C.,  and  after  the  conquest  of  the  Senones 
by  the  Romans  in  283,  they  again  obtained 
possession  of  the  country  on  the  coast  of  the 
Adriatic.  This  district,  however,  continued 
to  be  called  Ager  Oallictis  down  to  a  late 
period. 

Umbriere.  The  visor  of  a  helmet,  a  pro- 
jection like  the  peak  of  a  cap,  to  which  a 
face-guard  was  sometimes  attached,  which 
moved  freely  up(m  the  helmet,  and  could  be 
raised  like  a  beaver. 

Unarm.  To  strip  of  armor  or  arms;  to 
disarm. 

Unbreech.  To  free  the  breech  of,  as  a 
cannon,  from  its  fastenings  or  coverings. 

Uncase,  To.  To  display  or  exhibit  the 
colors  of  a  regiment. 

Uncock.  To  letdown  the  cock  of,  as  a  gun. 

Unconditional.  At  discretion  ;  not  lim- 
ited by  any  terms  or  stipulations  ;  as,  an 
unconditional  surrender. 

Unconquered.  Not  subdued  or  defeated  ; 
in  opposition  to  conquered  or  defeated. 

Uncover,  To.  AVhen  troops  deploy,  the 
different  leading  companies  or  divisions,  etc., 
successively  uncover  those  in  their  rear,  by 
marching  out  from  the  right  or  left  of  the 
column. 

Undaunted.  Not  appalled  by  fear  ;  val- 
iant. 

Under.  A  preposition  of  varied  military 
application,  in  combination  with  other  words. 
Thus  troops  are  said  to  be  under  arrnn,  when 
assembled  in  a  state  of  military  array,  and 
having  the  neces.'ary  weapons  of  ofl'ense  and 
defense,  as  rifles,  swords,  etc.  To  be  under 
commnnd  is  being  liable  to  be  ordered  on 
any  particular  duty.  To  be  under  corer  is 
to  be  shielded  or  protected.  To  be  uuiler 
co7itribution  is  being  liable  to  give,  in  money 
or  kind,  what  may  be  authoritatively  called 
for.  Countries  are  sometimes  put  under 
contribution  for  the  support  of  an  army. 
To  be  under  fire  or  be  coo/  is  not  being  dis- 
concerted by  the  apprehension  of  death  in 
battle.  To  be  under  sentenee  is  the  liability 
to  punishment,  according  to  sentence  passed  ; 
as,  under  the  .sentence  of  a  general  court- 
martial  ;  under  sentence  of  death. 


Under  Canvas.     In  a  military  sense,  it  is 

to  be  lying  in  tents. 

Undermine.  To  dig  an  excavation  under 
any  fort,  h<ju»e,  or  other  building,  so  as  to 
cause  it  to  fall  down  or  to  blow  it  up  with 
powder. 

Under-ofiicer.  An  inferior  oflScer,  one 
in  a  subordinate  situation. 

Undisciplined.  Not  yet  trained  to  regu- 
larity or  order ;  not  perfect  in  exercise  or 
maiifcuvres. 

Undress.  In  the  military  service,  is  the 
authorized  habitual  dress  of  officers  and  sol- 
diers when  n(jt  in  full  uniform. 

Unfix,  To.  To  take  off;  as,  to  unfix  bay- 
onets, <m  which  the  soldier  disengages  the 
bavonet  from  his  musket,  and  returns  it  to 
the  scab})ard. 

Unfortified.  Not  strengthened  or  secured 
by  any  walls,  bulwarks,  or  fortifications. 

Unfortunate  Peace,  The.  A  name  given 
by  historians  to  the  peace  of  Chateau  Cam- 
bresis  (April  2,  1559),  negotiated  by  Eng- 
land, France,  and  Spain.  By  this  treaty 
Henr)'  II.  of  France  renounced  all  claim  to 
Genoa,  Corsica,  and  Naples,  agreed  to  re- 
store Calais  to  the  English  within  eight 
years,  and  to  give  security  for  500,000  crowns 
in  case  of  failure. 

Unfurled.  A  standard  or  color  when  ex- 
panded and  disjdayed,  is  said  to  bo  unfurled. 

Ungentlemanlike  or  Unofficerlike.  Not 
like  a  gentleman  or  officer.  Conduct  unbe- 
coming the  character  of  either  is  so  called. 
This  clause,  which  will  be  always  found  to 
depend  on  the  state  of  morals  and  manners, 
affords  a  vast  latitude  to  a  military  court, 
which,  after  all,  is  not  more  free  from  preju- 
dice or  influence  than  any  other  tribunal, 
though  they  are  both  jurors  and  judges. 
Officers  convicted  thereof  are  to  be  dismissed 
from  the  service.  See  Appendix,  Articles 
OF  War,  60,  61. 

Unguled.  In  heraldry,  a  term  applied 
to  the  tincture  of  the  hoofs  of  an  animal; 
e.g.^  Azure,  a  stag  trippant  or,  attired  and 
unguled  gules,  the  arms  of  the  family  of 
Strachan  in  Scotland. 

Unharnessed.  Disarmed ;  divested  of 
armor  or  weapons  of  defense. 

Unhelmed.  Divested  of  the  helmet  or 
helm. 

Unhorsed.      Thrown    from   the   saddle; 

dismounted. 

I       Unicorn  (Lat.  iinum  rornu,  "one  horn"). 

I   An  animal,   probably   fabulous,   nientioned 

:  by  ancient  Grecian  and  Roman  authors  as  a 

native  of  India,  and  described  as  being  of 

I  the  size  of  a  horse,  or  larger,  the  Ixnly  re- 

i  sembling  that  of  a  horse,  and  with  one  horn 

I  of  a  cubit  and  a  half  or  two  cubit.s  long  on 

,  the   forehead,    the    horn    straight,    its   ba.se 

I  white,  the  middle  black,  the  tip  red.     The 

body  of  the  animal  was  also  said  to  be  white, 

!  its  head  red,  its  eyes  blue.    It  was  said  to  be 

I  so  swift  that  no  horse  could  overtake  it.    The 

unicorn  is  perhaps  best  known  as  a  heraldic 

I  charge  or   supporter.      Two  unicorns  were 

I  borne  as   supporters  of  the  Scottish   rt>yal 


UNICORN" 


610 


URUGUAY 


arms  for  about  a  century  before  the  union 
of  the  crowns ;  and  the  sinister  supporter 
of  the  insignia  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  a 
unicorn  argent,  armed  crined,  and  unguled 
or,  gorged  with  a  coronet  composed  of 
crosses  patee  and  fleurs-de-lis,  with  a  chain 
affixed,  passing  between  the  fore  legs,  and 
reflexed  over  the  back,  of  the  last. 

Unicorn.  The  old  name  for  the  howitzer, 
as  improved  from  the  licorn,  borrowed  from 
the  Turks  during  the  last  century  by  the 
Russians,  and  from  the  latter  by  Europe 
generally. 

Uniform  (one  form).  In  its  military 
sense,  means  the  particular  dress  and  equip- 
ment assigned  by  proper  authority  to  each 
grade  of  officers  and  men.  The  clothing 
consists  of  one  prevailing  color,  variously 
ornamented  and  "faced"  according  to  the 
rank  and  corps.  In  full  uniform,  wearing 
the  whole  of  the  prescribed  uniform  ;  not 
in  undress. 

Uniform  Sword.  An  officer's  sword  of 
the  regulation  pattern  prescribed  for  the 
army  or  navy. 

Union.  The  national  colors  are  called  the 
union.  When  there  is  a  blue  field  with 
"white  stripes,  quartered  in  the  angle  of  the 
American  colors,  that  is,  of  the  colors  com- 
posed of  red  and  white  stripes,  that  blue 
field  is  called  the  union;  and  a  small  color  of 
blue  with  white  stars  is  called  a  union-jack. 

United  States  Military  Academy,  See 
Military  Academies,  and  AVkst  Point. 

United  States  Sea-coast  Fuze.  See 
Laboratory  Stores. 

United  States,  The.  A  Federal  republic, 
composed  of  thirty-eight  sovereign  states 
and  eleven  territorial  governments,  occupy- 
ing the  temperate  portion  of  North  America. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  British  North 
America,  east  by  New  Brunswick  and  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  south  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  Mexico,  and  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Its  greatest  length  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific,  on  the  parallel  of  42°,  is  2768  miles, 
and  its  greatest  breadth,  from  Point  Isabel, 
Texas,  to  the  northern  boundary  near  Pem- 
bina, is  1601i  miles.  The  northern  frontier 
is  upward  of  3350  miles  in  length,  the  Mexi- 
can 1500.  The  ocean  coast,  including  the 
larger  indentation,  is  estimated  at  22,609 
miles,  of  which  6861  are  on  the  Atlantic, 
3461  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  2281  in  Cali- 
fornia, 8000  on  the  coast  of  Alaska,  and 
about  2000  on  the  Arctic  Sea.  This  area  has 
been  obtained  by  successive  annexations  of 
territory,  either  by  purchase,  right  of  dis- 
covery, or  conquest.  In  1783,  the  territory 
ceded  by  Great  Britain  was  confined  to  the 
country  east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and 
north  of  Florida,  having  an  area  of  815,615 
square  miles.  To  this  Louisiana  was  added 
by  purchase  from  France  in  1803  ;  Florida, 
ceded  by  Spain,  in  1821 ;  Texas,  annexed  in 
1845;  Oregon,  as  settled  by  the  treaty  of 
1846  ;  California,  etc.,  conquered  from  Mex- 
ico, 1847;  New  Mexico,  etc.,  by  treaty  with 
Mexico,  1854  ;  and  Alaska,  by  purchase  from 


Russia,  1867.  For  full  description  of  the 
States  and  Territories,  and  hist(jries  apper- 
taining thereto,  see  the  articles  respectively. 

Unkiar-Skelessi,  A  small  town  on  the 
Asiatic  shore  of  the  Bosphorus,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Scutari,  gives  its  name  to  a  treaty 
concluded  between  Turkey  and  Russia,  July 
8,  1833.  This  treaty,  which  consisted  of  six 
articles,  was  one  of  mutual  defensive  alli- 
ance ;  but  a  separate  and  secret  article  was 
subjoined,  by  which  the  sultan,  in  place  of 
the  military  or  naval  aid  which,  by  the  first 
article  of  the  treaty,  he  was  bound  to  furnish 
to  Russia,  agreed  to  close  the  Strait  of  the 
Dardanelles,  allowing  no  foreign  vessels  of 
war  to  enter  it  under  any  pretext  whatever. 
In  consequence  of  this  treaty,  Russia  landed 
15,000  men  at  Scutari,  and  stopped  the  vic- 
torious career  of  Ibrahim  Pasha.  The  secret 
article  was  soon  after  divulged  to  Britain 
and  France,  both  of  whom  regarded  the 
treaty  with  dislike  ;  and  by  the  terms  of  that 
concluded  at  London,  July  13, 1841,  the  stip- 
ulations of  Unkiar-Skelessi  were  annulled. 

Unload.  To  take  the  powder  and  ball  out 
of  a  piece  of  ordnance  or  a  musket. 

Unmilitary.  Contrary  to  rules  of  disci- 
pline ;  unworthy  of  a  soldier. 

Unsheathe.  To  draw  from  the  sheath  or 
scabbard,  as  a  sword ;  hence,  to  unsheathe 
the  sword,  sometimes  signifies  to  commence 
or  make  war. 

Unshot.  To  remove  the  shot  from,  as  a 
piece  of  ordnance ;  to  take  out  the  shot  of. 

Unsling.  To  take  ofl:'the  slings  ;  to  release 
from  the  slings  ;  unsling  knapsacks,  etc. 

Unspike.  To  remove  a  spike  from,  as 
from  the  vent  of  a  cannon. 

Untenable.  Not  to  be  held  in  possession  ; 
incapable  of  being  defended. 

Untrained.  Not  disciplined  to  exercise 
or  manoeuvre. 

Unvanquished.  Not  conquered  or  de- 
feated. 

Unwarlike.     Not  fit  for  or  used  to  war. 

Upbraid.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  shall 
upbraid  another  for  refusing  a  challenge, 
shall  himself  be  punished  as  a  challenger. 
See  Appendix,  Articles  of  War,  28. , 

Upon.  Denoting  assumption  ;  as,  he  took 
the  office  of  commander-in-chief  upon  him. 
Also,  to  incur  responsibility  ;  as,  the  general 
took  everything  upon  himself. 

Up-sar-o-ca.     See  Absorokas. 

Uruguay,  or  Banda  Oriental  del  Uru- 
guay. A  republic  of  South  America, 
bounded  north  and  northeast  by  Brazil,  east 
by  the  Atlantic,  south  by  the  Rio  de  la 
Plata,  and  west  by  the  Uruguay.  Banda 
Oriental  was,  during  the  Spanish  rule,  the 
name  of  that  portion  of  the  vice-royalty  of 
Buenos  Ayres  which  lay  to  the  east  of  the 
river  Uruguay,  and  comprehended  the  pres- 
ent Uruguay  and  the  territory  formerly 
known  as  the  Seven  Missions.  When 
Buenos  Ayres  declared  itself  independent  of 
Spain,  Banda  Oriental  formed  a  part  of  the 
new  republic.  In  1821,  however,  it  was 
taken  possession  of  by  Brazil,  and  united 


I 


USAGES 


611 


UXII 


with  tluit  state  under  the  name  of  Provincia 
Cisplutiiia.  By  the  treaty  of  1828  between 
La  Plata  and  Brazil,  the  suiitlicrii  and  larger 
portion  of  IJanda  Oriental  was  formed  into 
the  republic  of  Uruguay.  A  civil  war 
broke  out  in  consequence  of  the  invasion  of 
the  ex-president,  Gen.  Venancio  Floras, 
June  2(j,  18(;.3  ;  Gen.  Flores  inarched  towards 
the  capital  in  June;  in  February,  18G5, 
Flores  became  provisional  president.  During 
an  insurrection  of  the  Blanco  party  (headed 
by  Bcrro),  at  Montevideo,  Gen.  Flores  was 
assassinated.  The  troops  remained  faithful. 
The  insurrection  was  soon  suppressed,  and 
Bern,  shot,  February  19,  18<;8. 

Usages  of  War.     See  Wak. 

Usbegs,  or  Usbeks.  A  people  of  Turk- 
ish race,  who,  at  the  close  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury, invaded  and  coiKjuered  the  numerous 
principalities  into  which  Turkestan  was  at 
that  time  divided,  and  have  ever  since  nuiin- 
tainod  dominion  over  the  country.  At  the 
present  day,  they  arc  for  the  most  part  a 
settled  people,  and  are  scattered  over  both 
Independent  and  Chinese  Turkestan. 

Usher  of  the  Black  Rod.     See  Black 

KOD. 

Usher  of  the  Green  Rod.     One  of  the 

officers  of  the  order  of  the  Thistle,  whose 
duties  consist  in  attendance  on  the  sovereign 
and  knights  when  assembled  in  chapter,  and 
at  other  solemnities  of  the  order.  The  rod 
from  which  the  title  is  taken  is  of  green 
enamel,  3  feet  in  length,  ornamented  with 
gold,  having  on  the  top  a  unicorn  of  silver, 
holding  before  him  an  escutcheon  charged 
with  tiie  cross  of  St.  Andrew. 

Usipetes,  or  Usipii.  A  German  people, 
who,  being  driven  out  of  their  abodes  by 
the  Suevi,  crossed  the  Bhine  and  penetrated 
into  Gaul ;  but  they  were  defeated  by  CVsar, 
and  compelled  to  recross  the  river.  They 
were  now  received  by  the  Sygambri,  and 
allowed  to  dwell  on  the  northern  bank  of 
the  Lippe;  but  we  afterwards  tind  them 
south  of  the  Lippe ;  still  later  they  became 
lo.'it  under  the  general  name  of  Alemanni. 

Utah.  A  Territory  of  the  United  States, 
which  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Idaho 
and  Wyoming,  east  by  Colorado,  south  by 
Arizona,  and  west  by  Nevada.  Utah  is  an 
immense  basin,  from  4000  to  0000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  surrounded  by  moun- 
tains, which  at  some  points  reach  thcaltitude 
of  8000  to  13,000  feet.  Utah  was  acquired 
by  the  United  States  from  Mexico  by  the 
treaty  of  1848,  and  was  erected  into  a  Terri- 
tory in  18;jO.  There  have  been  serious  diflB- 
culties  between  the  U.  S.  government  and 
the  Mormons,  who  first  arrived  in  the  Great 
Salt  Lake  Valley  in  1847.  A  terrible  mas- 
sacre of  settlers  took  place  at  Mountain 
^Meadows,  Utah,  by  Indians,  who  it  is  said 
were  instigated  to  commit  the  terrible  atroc- 
ity by  the  Mormons.  In  order  to  put  an  end 
to  all  the  disturbances  in  Utah,  the  Presi- 
dent dispatched,  in  1857,  an  expedition 
against  Brigham  Young,  who  was  treated 
as  an  open  rebel.     Owing  to  the  inclemency 


of  the  weather  and  other  causes,  the  expe- 
dition did  not  arrive  in  I'tah  until  3Iay, 
1H58,    when    the   governor,    Cumniing,    re- 

[ sorted  to  the  President  that  Brigham  Young 
lad  given  up  all  hi>j)es  of  resistance.  The 
Territory  bus  renuiined  quiet  ever  since. 

Utahs,  or  Utes.  A  tribe  of  North  Amer- 
ican Indians,  who  inhabit  Utah,  Nevada, 
part  of  Colorado,  and  New  Mexico.  They 
are  at  present  peaceable,  but  do  not  engage 
in   agriculture.     See  Indians  and  tukib 

AOKNCIKS. 

Utensil.  That  which  is  used ;  an  imple- 
ment; an  instrument ;  especially,  an  instru- 
ment or  vessel  used  in  a  kitchen,  or  in  do- 
mestic use.  Utensils  for  camp  and  garrison 
are  styled  camp  and  garrison  equipage,  and 
are  furnished  by  the  quartermaster's  depart- 
ment. 

Utica  (ruins  at  Bow-Shaier).  The  great- 
est city  of  ancient  Africa,  supposed  to  be 
older  than  Carthage.  Like  others  of  the 
very  ancient  Phoenician  colonies  in  the  ter- 
ritory of  Carthage,  Utica  maintained  a 
comparative  independence,  even  during  the 
height  of  the  Punic  power,  and  was  rather 
the  ally  of  Carthage  than  her  subject.  It 
stood  on  the  shore  of  the  northern  part  of 
the  Carthaginian  Gulf,  a  little  west  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Bagrades,  and  27  Koman 
miles  northwest  of  Carthage;  but  its  site  is 
now  inland  in  consequence  of  the  changes 
efi'ected  by  the  Bagrades  in  the  coast-line. 
In  the  tliird  Punic  war,  Utica  took  part 
with  the  Romans  against  Carthage,  and  was 
rewarded  with  the  greatest  part  of  the  Car- 
thaginian territory.  It  afterwards  became 
renowned  to  all  future  time  as  the  scene  of 
the  last  stand  made  by  the  Pompeian  party 
against  Ciesar,  and  of  the  glorious,  though 
mistaken,  self-sacrifice  of  the  younger  Calo. 
It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Vandals  in  439  ; 
but  its  final  destruction  is  due  to  the  Sara- 
cens, who  twice  captured  the  town. 

Utrecht  (the  Roman  Trojectum  ad  Rhe- 
tiu»i).  A  town  of  Holland,  capital  of  ft 
province  of  the  same  name,  on  the  old 
Rhine.  The  union  of  the  Seven  United 
Provinces  began  here  in  1579.  The  treaty 
of  Utrecht,  which  terminated  the  wars  of 
t^ueen  Anne,  was  signed  by  the  ministers  of 
Great  Britain  and  France,  and  all  the  other 
allies,  except  the  ministers  of  the  empire, 
April  11,  1713.  This  treaty  secured  the 
Protestant  succession  in  England,  the  sep- 
aration of  the  French  and  Spanish  crowns, 
the  destruction  of  Dunkirk,  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  British  colonies  and  plantations 
in  America,  and  a  full  satisfaction  for  the 
claims  of  the  allies.  Utrwht  surrendered 
to  the  Prussians  May  9,  1787  ;  was  acquired 
by  the  French  January  18,  1795,  and  re- 
stored at  the  peace. 

Uxii.  A  warlike  j>eople.  of  predatory 
habits,  who  had  their  strongholds  in  Mount 
Parachoathras,  on  the  northern  border  of 
Persia,  in  the  district  called  Uxia,  but  who 
also  extended  over  a  considerable  tract  of 
country  in  Media. 


VACANCY 


612 


VALENZA 


V. 


Vacancy.  The  state  of  an  ofBce  or  com- 
mission to  which  no  one  is  appointed. 

Vacant  Companies.  Companies  to  the 
permanent  command  of  which  no  person  is 
appointed  for  the  time  being. 

Vacate.  To  annul  ;  to  make  void  ;  to 
deprive  of  force  ;  to  make  of  no  authority 
or  validity  ;  as,  to  vacate  a  commission. 

Vacca,  Vaga,  or  Vaba  (now  Beja).  A 
city  of  Zeugitana,  in  Northern  Africa,  on 
the  borders  of  Numidia,  a  good  day's  jour- 
ney south  of  Utica.  It  was  destroyed  by 
Metellus  in  the  Jugurthine  war,  but  was 
restored  and  colonized  by  the  Romans.  Its 
fortifications  were  renewed  by  Justinian, 
who  named  it  Theodorias,  in  honor  of  his 
wife. 

Vadimonis  Lacus  (now  Logo  di  Bas- 
sano).  A  small  lake  of  Etruria.  It  is  cele- 
brated in  history  for  the  defeat  of  the 
Etruscans  in  two  great  battles,  first  by  the 
dictator  Papirius  Cursor  in  309  B.C.,  from 
the  effects  of  which  the  Etruscans  never  re- 
covered ;  and  again  in  283,  when  the  allied 
forces  of  the  Etruscans  and  Gauls  were 
routed  by  the  consul  Cornelius  Dolabclla. 

Vaerfvade.  The  standing  army  of  Sweden, 
recruited  by  voluntary  enlistment.  They 
receive  pay,  and  serve  from  three  to  six 
years.  They  form  the  foot-  and  horse- 
guards,  the  artillery  and  engineers. 

Vair.  In  heraldry,  tinctures  are  either  of 
metal,  color  strictly  so  called,  or  fur.  The 
furs  were  originally  but  two, — ermine  and 
vair.  Vair  is  said  to  have  been  taken  from 
the  fur  of  a  squirrel,  bluish-gray  on  the 
back,  and  white  on  the  belly,  is  expressed 
by  blue  and  white  shields,  or  bells  in  hori- 
zontal rows,  the  bases  of  the  white  resting 
on  the  bases  of  the  blue.  If  the  vair  is  of 
any  other  colors  than  white  and  blue,  they 
must  be  specified.  Various  modifications  of 
these  furs  were  afterwards  introduced, 
among  others  :  coimter-vair,  or  vair  with 
the  bells  of  one  tincture  placed  base  to  base, 
&nd  potent  counter-poteiit,  vair  with  crutch- 
shaped  figures  instead  of  bells. 

Vaivode  (Fr.).  An  old  Sclavonian  word, 
which  signifies  prince  or  general.  This 
title  was  formerly  given  to  the  sovereign 
princes  of  Wallachia,  Moldavia,  and  Tran- 
sylvania. 

Valais  (Ger.  Wallis).  A  frontier  canton 
of  Switzerland,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  cantons  of  Vaud  and  Bern,  and  on  the 
south  by  Italy.  At  the  period  of  the  strug- 
gle of  the  Swiss  with  the  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, the  Upper  Valais  took  possession  of 
the  Lower  Valais,  and  reduced  it  to  the  po- 
sition of  a  vassal  state :  and  in  this  condi- 


tion it  remained  until  1798,  the  period  of 
the  French  conquest,  when  the  distinction 
was  set  aside. 

Valdivia.  A  town  of  Chili,  capital  of 
the  province  of  the  same  name,  on  the  river 
Valdivia,  or  Calle,  210  miles  south  from 
Concepcion.  It  was  founded  in  1551  by  the 
conqueror  Pedro  de  Valdivia.  In  1590  it 
was  taken  and  plundered  by  the  Arauca- 
nians,  the  native  inhabitants  of  the  country. 

Valencia  (anc.  Valentia).  An  ancient 
city  of  Spain,  capital  of  the  ancient  king- 
dom and  modern  province  of  the  same  name, 
on  the  Turia,  about  2  miles  from  the  sea,  and 
190  miles  east-southeast  from  Madrid.  Va- 
lencia is  a  very  ancient  city.  It  was  de- 
stroyed by  Pompey,  and  rebuilt  by  Sertorius. 
It  was  taken  by  the  Goths  in  413,  from  whom 
it  was  captured  by  the  Moors  in  714.  From 
the  Moorish  sway  it  was  rescued  in  1094  by 
the  Cid,  from  whom  it  is  sometimes  called 
Valentia  del  Cid.  The  Moors  once  more  got 
possession  of  it  in  1101,  but  were  compelled 
finally  to  relinquish  it  in  1238.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Earl  of  Peterborough  in  1705,  but  sub- 
mitted to  the  Bourbons  after  the  unfortunate 
battle  of  Almanza,  in  1707.  It  resisted  the 
attempts  made  on  it  by  Marshal  Moncey, 
but  was  taken  from  the  Spaniards  with  a 
garrison  of  more  than  16,000  men,  and  im- 
mense stores,  by  the  French  under  Suchet, 
January  9, 1812';  and  held  by  them  till  1813. 

Valenciennes.  A  fortified  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  the  North,  27  miles 
southeast  from  Lille,  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Ehonelle  and  the  Scheldt.  The  town  is 
defended  b}'  a  citadel  constructed  by  Vauban. 
The  city  was  besieged  from  May  23  to  July 
28,  1793,  when  the  French  garrison  surren- 
dered to  the  allied  English  and  Austrian  ar- 
mies, under  the  Duke  of  York.  It  was  re- 
taken by  the  French,  August  27-30,  1794  ; 
on  capitulation,  the  garrison  and  1100  emi- 
grants were  made  prisoners,  with  immense 
stores. 

Valenciennes.  See  Laboratory  Stores. 

Valenza  (anc.  Valentia  Valetitimmi  Fo- 
rum). A  city  of  Northern  Italy,  on  an  ele- 
vated plain  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Po,  8 
I  miles  north  of  Alessandria.  It  is  a  very 
ancient  town,  belonged  to  the  Liguri,  and 
was  conquered  by  Marcus  Fulvius,  the  pro- 
consul. In  1635  it  was  besieged  for  fifty 
days  by  the  armies  of  France,  Savoy,  and 
Parma,  and  taken.  In  1707  it  came  into 
the  possession  of  Victor  Amadeus  II.,  Duke 
of  Savoy ;  in  1805  the  French  destroyed  its 
gates  and  fortifications  ;  and  in  1815,  after 
the  fall  of  Napoleon's  empire,  it  reverted  to 
the  king  of  Sardinia. 


V  A  LETT  A 


613 


VANQUISH 


Valetta,  or  La  Valetta.  An  important 
city  and  capital  of  the  island  of  ilalta,  on 
the  northeast  side  of  which  it  is  situated. 
The  town  and  harb()r8  are  defended  by  a  se- 
ries of  fortifications  of  great  strength.  Thev 
are  mostly  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock,  and, 
mounted  with  the  most  powerful  artillery, 
are  considered  impregnable.  The  city  was 
founded  by  La  Valette,  grand  master  of  the 
\  Knights  (if  St.  John,  in   loOfJ.     Its  history 

is  identical  with  that  of  Malta  (which  see)!^ 

Valetudinarium.  An  intirmary  or  hos- 
pital for  the  sick.  Among  the  Romans,  val- 
etudiiinrinm,  or  hospital,  was  only  established 
in  time  of  war,  when  their  armies  marched 
beyond  the  boundaries  of  the  republic. 

Valiant.  I'ersonally  brave,  fearless  of 
danger  in  war,  etc. 

Valladolid.  A  famous  city  of  Spain, 
capital  of  the  province  of  the  .same  name, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Pisuerga,  150  miles 
northwest  from  Madrid.  It  is  the  lioman 
Pincia  and  the  Moorish  Belad  Walid ;  was 
recovered  for  the  Christians  by  Ordogno  II., 
the  first  king  of  Leon,  914-2:i.  It  was  cap- 
tured from  the  French  by  the  English,  June 
4,  1818. 

Vallary  Crown.  A  crown  bestowed  by 
the  ancient  Komans  as  an  honorary  reward 
on  the  soldier  who  first  surmounted  the  out- 
works, and  broke  into  the  enemy's  camp.  It 
is  in  form  a  circle  of  gold  with  palisades  at- 
tached. The  crown  vallary  occasionally  oc- 
curs as  a  heraldic  bearing. 

Vails.  A  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province 
of  Tarragona,  9  miles  north  from  Tarra- 
gona. The  French  here  defeated  the  Span- 
iards in  1809,  and  afterwards  sacked  the 
town  ;  but  they  sutl'ered  a  defeat  themselves 
near  the  same  place,  in  1811,  by  some  Span- 
ish troops  under  Sarsfield. 

Vallum.  Among  the  Romans,  the  para- 
pet which  fortified  their  encampments.  It 
consisted  of  two  parts, — the  apgn-  and  the 
Slides;  the  agger  was  the  earth  thrown  up 
from  the  vallum,  and  the  sudes  were  a  sort 
of  wooden  stakes  to  secure  and  strengthen 
it.  Vallus  was  the  name  of  the  stake  which 
served  as  a  palisade  in  the  Roman  intrench- 
ment.  Every  soldier  carried  one  of  these 
valii,  and  on  some  occasions  three  or  four 
bound  together  like  a  fagot. 

Valmy.  A  village  of  France,  department 
of  Marne,  20  miles  northeast  from  Chalons. 
This  village  is  celebrated  as  the  place  where 
the  republican  armies  of  France  under  Kel- 
Icrman,  in  1792,  defeated  tor  the  first  time 
the  allied  armies  under  the  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick. 

Valor.  Strength  of  mind  in  regard  to 
danger;  that  quality  which  enables  a  man 
to  encounter  danger  with  firmness  ;  personal 
bravery ;  warlike  courage ;  intrepidity ; 
bravery. 

Valparaiso.  The  principal  seaport  of 
Chili,  South  America,  on  the  bay  of  the 
same  name,  about  80  miles  west-northwest 
of  Santiago.  The  bay  is  sheltered  fronj  all 
quarters  except  the  north  ;  and  is  defend\;d 


by  three  forts  and  a  water-battery.  Valpa- 
rjiiso  was  bombarded  by  the  Spanish  fleet, 
ilarch  31,  1800.  Few  lives  were  lost,  but 
buildings  and  other  property,  the  value  of 
which  was  estimated  at  from  $9,000,000  to 
$20,000,0(X>,  were  destn.yed. 

Valtelline, or Valtcllina (Northern  Italy). 
A  district  near  the  Rhatian  Alps,  seized  by 
the  Grison  league  in  loI2,  and  ceded  to  it 
in  1530.  At  the  instigation  of  Spain,  the 
Catholics  rose  and  ma.ssacred  the  Protestants, 
July  19-21,  1020.  After  much  contention 
between  the  French  and  Austrians,  the  neu- 
trality of  the  Valtelline  was  assured  in  1G39. 
It  was  annexed  to  the  Cisalpine  republic  in 
1797;  to  Italv,  1807;  to  Austria,  1814;  to 
Italy,  1800. 

Vambrace.     In  ancient  armor,  the  piece 

designed  to  protect  the  arm  below  the  elbow. 

\       Vambraced  (Fr.  avant-hras,  "  fore-arm)." 

,  A  term  applied  to  an  arm  clothed  in  armor, 

j  as  in  the  subjoined  crest ;  a  dexter  embowed 

arm  vambraced  proper,  the  gauntlet  holding 

I  a  sword  below  the  hilt  in  bend  sinister,  point 

downwards,  argent,  hilt  and  [>ommel  or. 

Vamplate.  A  round  piece  of  iron  on  a 
tilting-spear,  used  to  protect  the  hand. 

Van.  The  front  of  an  army,  the  first 
line,  or  leading  column. 

Vancouver's  Island.  Now,  jointly  with 
British  Columbia,  one  of  the  colonies  of 
Great  Britain,  forms  a  part  of  British  North 
America.  Settlements  were  made  here  by 
the  English  in  1781,  which  were  seized  by 
the  Spaniards  in  1789,  but  restored.  By  a 
treaty  between  the  British  government  and 
that  of  the  United  States  inl840,  this  island 
was  secured  to  the  former. 

Vandals  (  Vandnlii,  or  Vindalii).     A  con- 
federacy of  German  nations,  probably  of  the 
great  Suevic  race,  to  which  the  Burgundi- 
ones,  Gothones,  Gepida?,  and  Rugii  belonged. 
They  dwelt  originally  on  the  northern  coast 
of    Germany,    but    were    afterward   settled 
north  of  the  Marcotiianni,  in  the  Reiscnge- 
'  birge,   which    are    hence    called    Vandalici 
I  Montes.     TJiey   subsequently  appear   for  a 
i  short  time  in  Dacia  and  Pannonia;  but  at 
I  the  beginning  of  the  5th  century  (409)  they 
traversed  Germany  and  (iaul,  and  invaded 
I  Spain.     In  this  country  they  subjugated  the 
I  Alani,  and    founded    a   powerful   kingdom, 
I  the  name  of  which  is  still  preserved  in  An- 
j  dalusia  (Vandalusia).     In  429  they  crossed 
i  over  into  Africa,  under  their  king  Genseric, 
I  and  conquered  all  the  Roman  dominions  in 
that   country.      (ienseric   subseauentlv   in- 
vadcn;!  Italy,  and  tiM)k  and  plundereil  Rome 
in  455.     The  Vandals  continuinl  masters  of 
Africa   till   535,  when    their   kingdom   was 
destroyed  by  Belisarius,  and  annexed  to  the 
Bv/.antine  empire. 

"Van-foss.  In  fortification,  a  ditch  due 
without  the  counterscarp,  and  running  all 
along  the  glacis,  usually  full  of  water. 

Vanguard.  That  part  of  the  army  which 
marches  in  front. 

Vanquish.  To  conquer;  to  overcome; 
to  subdue  in  battle,  as  an  enemy. 


VANT-BRAS 


614 


VELLORE 


Vant-bras.     Armor  for  the  arm. 

Variation  of  the  Needle.  Is  the  angle 
included  between  the  true  and  magnetic 
meridians  of  a  place  ;  the  deviation  of  a  mag- 
netic needle  from  the  true  north  or  south 
points  of  the  horizon  ; — called  also  declina- 
tion of  the  needle. 

Varna.  An  important  fortified  seaport 
of  European  Turkey,  in  Bulgaria,  on  the 
northern  side  of  a  semicircular  bay,  an  inlet 
of  the  Black  Sea,  180  miles  north-northwest 
from  Constantinople.  A  great  battle  was 
fought  near  this  place,  November  10,  1444, 
between  the  Turks  under  Amurath  II.  and 
the  Hungarians  under  their  king  Ladislaus, 
and  John  Hunniades.  The  latter  were  de- 
feated with  great  slaughter;  the  king  was 
killed,  and  Hunniades  made  prisoner.  The 
Christians  had  previously  broken  the  truce 
for  ten  years,  recently  made  at  Szegedin. 
The  emperor  Nicholas  of  Russia  arrived  be- 
fore Varna,  the  headquarters  of  his  army, 
then  besieging  the  place,  August  5,  1828. 
The  Turkish  garrison  made  a  vigorous  at- 
tack on  the  besiegers,  August  7,  and  another 
on  August  21,  but  were  repulsed.  Varna 
surrendered,  after  a  sanguinary  conflict,  to 
the  Russian  arms,  October  11,  1828.  It  was 
restored  at  the  peace  in  1829;  its  fortifica- 
tions were  dismantled,  but  have  since  been 
restored.  The  allied  armies  disembarked  at 
Varna,  May  29,  1854,  and  remained  there 
till  they  sailed  for  the  Crimea,  September  3, 
following.  While  at  Varna  they  suffered 
severely  from  cholera. 

Varveled.  In  heraldry,  when  the  leather 
thongs  which  tie  on  the  bells  to  the  legs  of 
hawks  are  borne  flotant  with  rings  at  the 
end,  the  bearing  is  termed  jessec^?,  helled,  and 
varveled. 

Vascones.  A  powerful  people  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis, 
between  the  Iberus  and  thePyrenees,  in  the 
modern  Navarre  and  Guipuzco.  Their  chief 
towns  were  Pompelon  and  Calagurris.  They 
were  a  brave  people,  and  fought  in  battle 
bare-headed.  Under  the  empioe  they  were 
regarded  as  skillful  diviners  and  prophets. 
Their  name  is  still  retained  in  that  of  the 
modern  Basques. 

Vassy.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Upper  Marne,  29  miles  north- 
west from  Chaumont.  The  massacre  of  the 
Protestants  at  this  place  by  the  Duke  of 
Guise  on  March  1,  1562,  led  to  the  civil 
wars  which  desolated  France  to  the  end  of 
the  century. 

Vaud.  A  canton  which  forms  the  west- 
ern corner  of  Switzerland  between  the  Jura 
and  the  Bernese  Alps.  After  having  been 
successively  held  by  the  Franks,  kings  of 
Burgundy,  emperors  of  Germany,  dukes  of 
Zahringen,  and  dukes  of  Savoy,  it  was  con- 
quered by  the  Bernese,  January,  1536,  and 
annexed,  1554.  Vaud  was  made  indepen- 
dent in  1798,  and  joined  the  Confederation 
in  1815. 

Vaunt-mure.  In  fortification,  a  false 
wall :  a  work  raised   in  front  of  the  main 


wall.  This  word  is  written  also  vaimure 
and  vamure. 

Vectis,  or  Vecta  (now  Isle  of  Wight).  An 
island  off  the  southern  coast  of  Britain.  It 
was  conquered  by  Vespasian  in  the  reign  of 
Claudius. 

Vedettes,  or  Videttes.  Mounted  senti- 
nels stationed  at  the  outposts  of  an  army  or 
encampment,  and  so  posted  at  all  the 
avenues  and  rising  grounds,  that  they  can 
best  observe  the  approach  of  an  enemy,  and 
communicate  by  signal  to  their  respective 
posts,  as  well  as  with  each  other,  when  any 
danger  is  to  be  apprehended. 

Veii  (now  Isola  Fariicse).  One  of  the 
most  ancient  and  powerful  cities  of  Etruria, 
situated  on  the  river  Crimera,  about  12  miles 
from  Rome.  It  possessed  a  strongly- fortified 
citadel,  built  on  a  hill  rising  precipitously 
from  the  deep  glens  which  bound  it,  save  at 
the  single  point  where  a  narrow  ridge  unites 
it  to  the  city.  The  Veientes  were  engaged 
in  almost  unceasing  hostilities  with  Rome 
for  more  than  three  centuries  and  a  half, 
and  we  have  records  of  fourteen  distinct 
wars  between  the  two  nations.  Veii  was  at 
last  taken  by  the  dictator  Camillus,  after  a 
siege  of  ten  years,  396  B.C.  The  city  fell 
into  his  hands,  according  to  the  common 
story,  by  means  of  a  cuniculus,  or  mine, 
which  was  carried  by  Camillus  from  the  Ro- 
man camp  under  the  city  into  the  citadel  of 
Veii.  The  citizens  were  massacred  or  sold 
as  slaves,  and  the  land  confiscated. 

Vekilchares.  A  word  used  among  the 
Turks,  which  signifies  the  same  as,  fourrier 
in  the  French  and  corresponds  with  quarter- 
mastei*. 

Velez-Malaga.  A  fortified  town  in  the 
south  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Malaga, 
16  miles  east  from  the  city  of  that  name. 
The  town  was  taken  from  the  Moors,  by 
Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  after  a  long  siege. 

Velish.  A  town  of  Russia  in  Europe,  in 
the  government  of  Vitepsk,  situated  on  the 
Dwina.  This  place,  which  was  founded  by 
the  Russians  in  1536,  was  taken  by  the  Poles 
in  1580,  but  in  1772  it  again  reverted  to 
Russia. 

Velites.  In  the  Roman  armies,  the  name 
of  the  light-armed  troops,  who  were  first  in- 
stituted during  the  second  Punic  war,  and 
were  remarkable  for  their  agility. 

Velletri  (anc.  Velitra;).  A  town  of  the 
Papal  States,  in  the  Comarca,  and  21  miles 
southeast  from  Rome.  The  ancient  Velitrce 
was  an  important  Volscian  city  destroyed  by 
the  Romans,  but  afterwards  rebuilt.  In 
1734,  Carlo  Borbone,  king  of  Naples,  gained, 
near  Velletri,  a  decisive  victory  over  the 
Austrians,  which  secured  the  kingdom  of  the 
two  Sicilies  to  the  Spanish  Bourbons. 

Vellore.  A  town  and  fortress  of  British 
India,  in  the  presidency  of  Madras,  situated 
on  the  river  Palar,  80  miles  southwest  from 
Madras.  It  is  very  strongly  fortified.  After 
the  capture  of  Seringapatam,  in  1799,  Vel- 
lore was  fixed  on  for  the  place  of  confine- 
m*ent  or  residence  of  the  family  of  Tippoo 


VELOCIMETER 


615 


VELOCITY 


Sahib.  In  July,  1806,  a  very  serious  mutiny 
took  place  anion^  the  garrison,  composed 
principally  of  native  troops.  It  was  speedily 
suppri'sscd  by  the  gallant  conduct  of  Col. 
Giilf'spio  of  the  I'.Hh  Dragoons. 

Velocimeter.  An  instrument  for  obtain- 
ing initial  velocity,  invented  by  Col.  Benton, 
U.  S.  Ordnance  Department.     See  Chron- 

OSCOPE. 

Velocity.  Is  rate  of  motion  ;  the  relation 
of  ni<itii>n  to  time,  measured  by  the  number 
of  units  of  space  passed  over  by  the  moving 
body  in  a  unit  of  time,  usually  the  number 
of  feet  in  a  second.  The  velocity  of  a  pro- 
jectile, at  any  point  of  its  flight,  is  the  space 
in  feet  passed  over  in  a  necond  of  time,  with  a 
continuous,  uniform  motion.  Initial  velocity 
is  the  velocity  at  the  muzzle  of  the  piece;  re- 
vinining  velocity  is  the  velocity  at  any  point 
of  the  flight ;  terminal  velocity  ia  the  velocity 
with  which  it  strikes  its  object;  nnd  final 
velocity  of  descent  in  air,  is  the  uniform 
velocity  with  which  a  projectile  moves, 
when  the  resistance  of  the  air  becomes  equal 
to  the  accelerating  force  of  gravity.  The 
initial  velocity  of  a  projectile  may  be  deter- 
mined by  the  principles  of  mechanics  which 
govern  the  action  of  the  powder,  the  resist- 
ance of  the  projectile,  etc.,  or  by  direct  ex- 
periment. 

The  instant  that  the  charge  of  a  fire-arm 
is  converted  into  gas,  it  exerts  an  expansive 
effort  which  acts  to  drive  the  projectile  out 
of  the  bore.  If  the  gaseous  mass  be  divided 
into  elementary  sections  perpendicular  to  its 
length,  it  will  be  seen  that,  in  their  efforts 
to  expand,  each  section  has  not  only  to  over- 
come its  own  inertia,  but  the  inertia  of  the 
jiiece  and  projectile,  as  well  as  the  inertia  of 
the  sections  which  precede  it.  The  tension 
of  each  section,  therefore,  increases  from  the 
extremities  of  the  charge  to  some  intermedi- 
ate point  where  it  is  a  maximum.  The 
pressure  on  all  sides  of  the  section  of  maxi- 
mum density  being  equal,  it  will  remain  at 
rest,  while  all  the  others  will  move  in  oppo- 
site directions,  constantly  pressing  against 
the  jirojectile  and  piece,  and  accelerating 
their  velocities.  As  the  projectile  moves  in 
the  bore,  the  space  in  which  the  gases  ex- 
pand is  increased,  while  their  density  is  di- 
minished ;  it  follows  that  the  force  which 
sets  a  pnyectile  in  motion  in  a  tire-arm 
varies  from  several  causes:  (1st)  It  varies  as 
the  space  behind  the  projectile  increases,  or 
as  the  velocity  regarded  as  a  function  of  the 
time  ;  (2d)  It  varies  throughout  the  column 
of  gas  for  the  same  instant  of  time;  and 
(3d)  It  varies  from  the  increasing  quantities 
of  gas  developed  in  the  successive  instants 
of  the  combustion  of  the  powder.  See  In- 
itial  VKI.oriTY. 

The  motion  of  a  bodv  falling  through  the 
air  will  be  accelerated  by  its  weight,  and 
retarded  by  the  buoyant  eff'ort  of  the  air, 
and  the  resistance  which  the  air  offers  to 
motion.  As  the  resistance  of  the  air  in- 
crejises  more  rapidly  than  the  velocity,  it 
follows  that  there  is  a  point  where  the  re- 


tarding and  accelerating  forces  will  be  equal, 
and  that  beyond  this  the  body  will  move 
with  a  uniform  velocity,  equal  to  that  which 
it  had  acquired  down  to  this  point.  The 
buoyant   effort  of  the   air  is   equal    to  the 

weight  of  the  volume  displaced,  or  P  .^l  in 

which  P  is  the  weight  and  D  the  density  of 
the  projectile,  and  <(  the  density  of  the  air. 
"When  the  projectile  meets  with  a  resistance 
equal  to  its  weight,  we  shall  have, 


K'-^) =-'"■'■('+:) 


(15) 


in  which  the  weight  of  the  displaced  air  is 
transferred  to  the  first  member  of  the  equa- 
tion. As  the  density  of  the  air  is  very  slight 
compared  to  that  of  lead  or  iron,  the  mate- 
rials of  which  projectiles  are  made,  may 
be  neglected.  Making  this  change,  and  sub- 
stituting for  P,  -  B}D,  the  expression  for 
ihe  final  velocity  reduces  to 

RD 


0+D-: 


3    A  ' 


(IC) 


The  resistance  on  the  entire  projectile  for  a 
velocity  of  1  foot,  is  A    B'' ;  dividing  this  by 

— ,  or  the  mass,  we  get  the  resistance  on  a 

'  1 

unit  of  mass.     Calling  this       we  have, 

1       ApR^        „  P 


Substituting  for  P  its  value  in  the  equation 
of  vertical  descent,  we  have. 


2yc  =  v^  (^  +  r) 


from  which  we  see  that  v  depends  only  on 
c:  but 


2RD 


(17) 


8  ffA 

hence,  the  final  velocity  of  a  projectile  fall- 
ing through  the  air  is  directly  projH>rtional 
to  the  product  of  its  diameter  and  density, 
and  inversely  proportional  to  the  density  of 
the  air,  which  is  a  factor  of  .4.  The  ex- 
pression for  the  value  of  c  shows  that  the 
retarding  effect  of  the  air  is  less  on  the 
larger  and  denser  projectiles.  To  adapt  it 
to  an  oblong  projectile  of  the  pointed  form, 
the  value  of  D  should  l)e  increased  (imis- 
much  as  its  weight  is  increased  in  proportion 
to  its  cross-section),  while  that  of  .1  should 
be  diminished.  It  follows,  therefore,  that 
for  the  same  caliber  an  oblong  projectile 
will  be  less  retarded  by  the  air  than  one  of 
spherical  form,  and  ci>nsiHjuently  with  an 
equal  and  jHThaps  less  initial  velocity,  its 
range  will  be  greater. 
Velocity  of  Light.  See  Light,  Velocity 

OF. 


VELOCITY 


616 


VERDOY 


Velocity  of  Sound.     See  Sound. 

Vendee,  La.  A  department  in  the  west 
of  France.  Tlie  wars  of  La  Vendee  denote 
the  armed  opposition  to  tlie  religious  and 
political  changes  in  France,  which  burst  out 
into  a  species  of  partisan  warfare  in  1793, 
1794,  1795,  1799,  and  1815.  _ 

Venezuela.  A  republic  in  the  northwest 
of  South  America.  The  east  coast  of  Venez- 
uela was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498 ; 
Ojeda  and  Vespucci  followed  in  1499.  The 
first  settlement  was  made  at  Cumana  in 
1520,  by  the  Spaniards ;  and  Venezuela  re- 
mained subject  to  Spain  till  it  claimed  inde- 
pendence in  1811.  In  1812,  it  returned  to 
allegiance  to  Spain,  but  again  revolted  in 
1813,  and,  forming  with  New  Granada  and 
Ecuador  the  republic  of  Colombia,  it  was 
declared  independent  in  1819.  In  1831,  the 
states  separated.  During  the  ten  years  from 
1861-1871,  upwards  of  60,000  persons  were 
killed  in  the  civil  wars.  The  revolution 
triumphed,  and  Guzman  Blanco  attempted 
to  establish  a  government  at  Caraccas, 
which  was  captured  by  revolutionists,  April, 
1870. 

Venice.  A  fortified  city  of  Northern 
Italy,  one  of  the  noblest,  most  famous,  and 
singular  cities  in  the  world,  is  built  upon  a 
crowded  cluster  of  islets,  in  the  lagoon  of 
the  same  name,  on  the  northwest  fringe  of 
the  Adriatic  Sea,  28  miles  east  of  Padua. 
It  was  founded  by  families  from  Aquileia 
and  Padua  fleeing  from  Attila,  about  452. 
Under  their  third  doge  (720-737)  the  Vene- 
tians entered  upon  that  career  of  enterprise 
in  which  their  prudence  and  valor  were 
almost  always  conspicuous,  and  which  they 
continued  to  pursue  to  the  last.  Venice 
after  a  series  of  enterprises  which  covered  a 
period  of  700  years,  and  in  which  she  was 
nearly  always  successful,  gaining  territory 
and  prestige,  entered  into  a  war  with  the 
Turks  in  1461,  which  lasted  until  1477,  and 
in  which  she  lost  many  of  her  Eastern  pos- 
sessions. The  Venetians  took  Cyprus  in 
1475,  and  helped  to  overcome  Charles  VII L 
of  France  in  1495;  they  excited  the  Turks 
against  Charles  V.  in  1504,  and  were  nearly 
ruined  by  the  league  of  Cambray  in  1508. 
They  also  assisted  in  defeating  the  Turks  at 
Lepanto  in  1571,  but  lost  Cyprus  to  the 
Turks  in  the  same  year.  The  Venetians 
gained  several  important  naval  victories 
over  the  Turks  at  Seio  in  1651,  and  in  the 
Dardanelles  in  1655,  but  lost  Candia,  one  of 
their  possessions,  in  1669 ;  recovered  part  of 
the  Morea  in  1683-99,  but  lost  it  again  in 
1715-39.  Venice  was  occupied  by  Bonaparte 
in  1797,  who,  by  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio, 
gave  part  of  its  territory  to  Austria,  and 
annexed  the  remainder  to  the  Cisalpine  re- 
public. In  1805  the  whole  of  Venice  was 
annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy  by  the 
treat}' of  Presburg  ;"but  was  transferred  to 
the  empire  of  Austria  in  1814,  and  the  city 
declared  a  free  port  in  1830.  An  insurrec- 
tion began  in  Venice  on  March  22,  1848, 
and  the  city,  which  was  defended  by  Daniele 


Manin,  surrendered  to  the  Austrians  after  a 
long  siege  on  August  22,  1849.  It  was 
transferred  to  Italy,  October  17,  1866,  by 
the  treaty  of  Vienna. 

Venlo.  A  small  but  strongly  fortified 
town  in  the  Netherlands,  province  of  Lim- 
burg,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Maas, 
45  miles  north-northeast  from  Maastricht. 
Venlo  was  walled  by  Duke  Reynold  of 
Gelder  in  1343.  It  has  many  a  time  felt  the 
horrors  of  a  siege,  and  has  been  taken  and 
retaken,  the  last  time  by  the  Belgians  in 
1830,  in  whose  hands  it  remained  till  the 
conference  of  London,  June  22,  1839,  when 
it  returned  to  the  Dutch. 

Vennones.  A  people  of  Ehsetia,  and, 
according  to  Strabo,  the  most  savage  of  the 
Rhaetian  tribes,  inhabiting  the  Alps  near 
the  sources  of  the  Athesis. 

Vent.  In  gunnery,  is  the  aperture  through 
which  fire  is  communicated  to  the  chargfe. 
It  should  be  as  small  as  the  use  of  the 
priming-wire  and  tube  will  allow.  See  Ord- 
nance, Construction  or,  Interior  Form 
OF  Cannon. 

Ventail.  That  part  of  a  helmet  which  is 
made  to  lift  up. 

Vent-gauges.  See  Inspection  of  Can- 
non. 

Vent-piece.  In  some  ordnance  is  a  piece 
of  copper  containing  the  vent,  and  screwed 
in  at  the  proper  position. 

Vent-punch.    See  Implements,  Equip- 

.MENTS  AND  MACHINES. 

Vent-searcher.  See  Inspection  of  Can- 
non. 

Vera  Cruz.  An  ancient  city  on  the  east 
coast  of  Mexico,  about  185  miles  east  of  the 
city  of  Mexico.  The  castle  of  Ulloa  and 
the  city  were  bombarded  and  taken  by  the 
Americans  in  1847,  and  the  city  was  taken 
by  the  allies,  December  17,  1861.  Vera 
Cruz  was  retaken  by  the  liberals,  under 
Juarez,  June  27,  1867. 

Verat  (Fr.).  A  12-pounder  gun  of  17 
calibers,  weighing  2300  pounds,  having  a 
charge  of  8  pounds. 

Verbal  Orders.  Instructions  given  by 
word  of  mouth,  which,  when  communicated 
through  an  official  channel,  are  to  be  con- 
sidered as  equally  binding  with  written  ones. 

Vercelli  (anc.  Vercellm).  A  town  of  the 
kingdom  of  Sardinia,  capital  of  a  province 
of  the  same  name.  Near  this  place  Varus 
defeated  the  Cimbri,  101  B.C.  It  was  the 
seat  of  a  republic  in  the  13th  and  14th  cen- 
turies. It  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1630;  by  the  French  in  1704;  and  allies, 
1706  ;  it  subsequently  partook  of  the  fortunes 
of  Piedmont. 

Verden.  A  town  in  Hanover,  Germany, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  AUer.  Here  Charle- 
magne massacred  about  4500  Saxons,  who 
had  rebelled  and  relapsed  into  idolatry,  782. 

Verdict.     See  Finding. 

Verdoy.  In  heraldry,  a  term  indicating 
that  a  bordure  is  charged  with  flowers, 
leaves,  or  vegetable  charges.  Thus  a  bor- 
dure argent  verdoy  of  oak-leaves  proper,  is 


VERDUN 


617 


VERSAILLES 


equivalent  to  a  bordure  argent  charged  with 
eij^lit  oak-leaves  proper. 

Verdun  (anc.  Venxlunum).  A  fortified 
town  of  France  in  the  department  of  Meiise, 
on  the  rii^ht  bank  of  the  river  of  tliat  name, 
about  100  miles  (direct  line)  east- northeast 
from  Paris.  It  was  fortified  b}-  Vauban,  and 
its  defenses  consist  of  a  wall  with  bastions 
and  a  citadel.  It  was  acquired  by  the 
Franks  in  the  0th  century,  and  formed  part 
of  the  dominions  of  Lothaire  by  the  treaty 
of  Verdun,  543,  when  the  empire  was  di- 
vided between  the  sons  of  Louis  I.  It  was 
taken  and  annexed  to  the  empire  of  Otho  I. 
about  9:59.  It  surrendered  to  France  in 
1552,  and  was  formally  ceded  in  1G48.  It 
was  taken  and  held  by  the  Prussians  forty- 
three  days,  September-October,  1792.  Gen. 
IJeaurepaire,  the  commandant,  committed 
suicide  before  the  surrender,  and  fourteen 
ladies  were  executed  in  1794,  for  going  to  the 
king  of  Prussia  to  solicit  his  clemency  for 
the  town.  Verdun  surrendered  to  the  Ger- 
mans, November  8,  1870,  after  a  brave  de- 
fense, two  vigorous  sallies  being  made  Octo- 
ber 28.  Above  4000  men  and  108  cannon 
were  captured,  and  much  arms  and  ammu- 
nition. 

Vere,  de.  The  name  of  an  ancient  and 
noble  family  of  England,  descended  from  a 
Norman  knight  who  had  a  high  command 
at  the  battle  of  Hastings.  His  son  became 
carl  of  Oxford,  and  minister  of  Henry  I. 
The  third  earl  was  one  of  the  barons  who 
extorted  the  Magna  Charta  from  King 
John.  John  de  Vere,  seventh  earl,  was  a 
famous  commander,  and  fought  at  Crecy 
and  Poitiers  (135G).  The  thirteenth  carl  was 
a  loader  of  the  Lancastrian  j)arty  in  the  war 
of  the  Roses,  and  commanded  the  van  of  the 
army  of  Henry  VII.  at  Bosworth  (1485). 
The  twentieth'  earl  was  Aubrey  de  Vere, 
who  fought  for  Charles  I.  in  the  civil  war, 
and  after  the  restoration  became  lord-lieu- 
tenant of  Essex. 

Vergette  {Fr.).  In  heraldry,  a  pallet  or 
small  jiale;  hence,  a  shield  divided  by  pal- 
lets or  pales. 

Vermeuil.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Eure,  situated  on  the  Arve. 
It  was  tlie  scene  of  a  battle  between  the 
Rurgundians  and  English,  under  the  Duke 
of  Bedford,  and  the  French,  assisted  by  thp 
Scots, commanded  by  the  Count  de  Narboniie 
and  the  Karls  of  Douglas  and  Buchan,  etc. 
The  French  at  first  were  successful ;  but 
some  Lombard  auxiliarii-s,  who  had  taken 
the  English  camp,  commenced  {>illaging. 
Two  thousand  Emjlish  archers  then  came 
fresh  to  the  attack ;  and  the  French  and 
Scots  were  totally  defeated,  and  their  leaders 
killed. 

Vermont.  One  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  and  one  of  the  five  New  England 
States;  it  was  the  first  State  received  after 
the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution. 
Vermont  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Can- 
ada, on  the  east  by  the  Connecticut  River, 
which  separates  it  from  New  Hampshire,  on 
40 


I  the  south  by  Massachusetts,  and  on  the  west 
I  by  New  York,  from  which  it  is  separated 
i  for  100  miles  by  Lake  Champlain.    The  first 
settlement  made  in  this  .State  was  in  1724, 
when  it  was  claimed  as  a  jiart  of  the  New 
Hampshire  grants.     In  17<i3,  it  was  claimed 
by  New  York,  under  grants  of  Charles  II. 
to  the  Duke  of  York.     For  ten  years  the 
New  York  officers  were  resisted,  and  some- 
times tied  to  trees  and  whipped  by  the  law- 
less  settlers.     These  contests  were  stopped 
by  the  Revolution,  but  this  St^ite,  a  refuge 
for  settlers  from  the  other  States,  remained 
eight  years  out  of  the  Union.    It  was  chiefly 
the  Vermont  militia  that  gained  the  victory 
of  Plattsburg,  on  Lake  Champlain,  in  1812; 
i  and  the  Green  Mountain  Slate  contributed 
I  largc'lv  to  the  Union  forces  in  the  war  of  the 
I  Re'bcliion. 

I  Verolamium,  or  Venilamium  (now  Old 
I  rer(//«/«,  near  St.  Albans).  The  chief  town 
1  of  the  Caluellani  in  Britain,  j)robably  the 
residence  of  the  king  Cassivellaunus,  which 
was  conquered  by  Cicsar.  It  was  subse- 
quently made  a  Roman  mnnieipium.  It 
was  destroyed  by  the  Britons  under  Boa- 
dicea,  in  their  insurrection  against  the  Ro- 
mans, but  was  rebuilt,  and  continued  to  be 
an  important  place. 

Verona.  An  ancient  city  of  Northern 
i  Italy,  in  Venetia,  72  miles  west  of  Venice 
by  railway.  Verona  is  a  fortress  of  the  first 
rank,  a  member  of  the  famous  Quadrilateral 
(which  see),  and  has  always  been  considered 
a  place  of  strength  since  it  was  surrounded 
I  with  walls  by  the  emperor  Gallienus,  265. 
Its  modern  fortifications  are  among  the 
most  extraordinary  works  of  military  en- 
gineering in  Europe.  After  passing  into 
the  hands  of  the  Austrians,  in  1815,  it  was 
greatly  strengthened  ;  and  since  1849  every 
efl'orthas  been  made  to  render  it  impregna- 
ble. The  early  history  of  Verona  is  involved 
in  obscurity.  It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Romans,  and  under  the  empire  became  one 
of  the  most  flourishing  cities  in  the  north  of 
Italy.  Constantine  took  it  by  assault  in 
312;  Stilicho  defeated  the  Goths  here  in 
402;  and  on  September  27,489,  Theodoric 
defeated  Odoacer.  king  of  Italy.  Charle- 
magne took  it  in  774,  and  made  it  the  royal 
residence  of  his  son,  King  Pepin.  In  1406 
the  city  gave  itself  over  to  Venice,  in  order 
to  free  itself  from  its  tyrants,  who  were  al- 
ternatelv  of  the  Scala,'the  Visconti,  or  the 
Carrara  familes.  It  was  held  by  Venice  till 
its  capture  by  the  French  genenil  Massena, 
June  3,  1796.  Near  here  Charles  AIl>ert  of 
Sardinia  defeated  the  Austrians,  May  6, 
1848.  It  was  surrendered  to  the  Italian 
government.  October  16,  1866. 

Versailles.     A  celebrated  city  of  Franco, 

and  long  the  residence  of  the  French  court, 

capital  of  the  department  of  Seine-el-Oise, 

11   miles  southwest  from  Paris.     Here  waa 

I  siiined    the   treaty    (September  8,   1783),  at 

which  Kngland  recognised  the  indei>endence 

I  of  the  United  States  of  Amerii-a.     On  the 

I  same  dav  a  treaty  wjis  signed  here  between 


VERT 


618 


VICENZA 


Great  Britain,  France,  and  wSpain,  by  which 
Pondicherry  and  Carical,  with  other  posses- 
sions in  Bengal,  were  restored  to  France, 
and  Trincomalee  restored  to  the  Dutch. 
Here  was  held  the  military  festival  of  the 
royal  guards,  October  1,  1789,  which  was 
immediately  followed  (on  the  5th  and  6th) 
by  the  attack  of  the  mob,  who  massacred  the 
guards  and  brought  the  king  back  to  Paris. 
Versailles,  with  the  troops  there,  surren- 
dered to  the  Germans  September  19,  1870, 
and  the  crown-prince  of  Prussia  entered  the 
next  day.  On  September  26,  he  awarded 
the  iron  cross  to  above  thirty  soldiers  at  the 
foot  of  the  statue  of  Louis  XIV.  The  pal- 
ace was  converted  into  a  hospital.  The 
royal  headquarters  were  removed  here  from 
Ferrieres,  October  5. 

Vert.  In  heraldry,  coats  of  arms  are  dis- 
tinguished from  one  another  not  only  by  the 
charges  or  objects  borne  on  them,  but  by  the 
color  of  these  charges,  and  of  the  field  on 
which  they  are  placed.  Vert  (green)  is  in- 
dicated in  uncolored  heraldic  engravings  by 
diagonal  lines  from  dexter  chief  to  sinister 
base. 

Vertical  Fire.     See  Fire,  Vertical. 

Vervels,  or  Varvels.  Small  rings  at- 
tached to  the  ends  of  the  jesses  of  a  hawk, 
through  which  a  string  was  passed  to  fasten 
them  to  its  leg.  They  occur  as  a  heraldic 
charge. 

Vervins.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Aisne,  23  miles  northeast 
from  Laon.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  con- 
cluded here  in  1598  between  Philip  II.  of 
Spain  and  Henry  IV.  of  France. 

Veseronce.  In  Southeast  France,  near 
Vienne.  Here  Gondemar,  king  of  the  Bur- 
gundians,  defeated  and  killed  Clodomir, 
king  of  Orleans,  and  revenged  the  murder 
of  his  brother  Sigismond  and  his  family, 
524.  This  conflict  is  also  called  the  battle 
of  Voiron. 

Vespers,  Sicilian.  See  Sicilian  Ves- 
pers. 

Vestini.  A  Sabellian  people  in  Central 
Italy,  lying  between  the  Apennines  and  the 
Adriatic  Sea.  They  are  mentioned  in  con- 
nection with  the  Marsi,  Marrucini,  and  Pe- 
ligni ;  but  they  subsequently  separated  from 
these  tribes,  and  joined  the  Samnites  in  their 
war  against  Eome.  They  were  conquered 
by  the  llomans,  328  B.C.,  and  from-this  time 
appear  as  the  allies  of  Rome.  They  joined 
the  other  allies  in  the  Marsic  war,  and  were 
conquered  by  Pompeius  Strabo  in  89. 

Veteran.  Long  exercised  in  anything, 
especially  in  military  life  and  the  duties  of 
a  soldier  ;  long  practiced  or  experienced ; 
as,  a  veteran  officer  or  soldier. 

Veteran.  One  who  has  been  long  exer- 
cised in  any  service  or  art,  particularly  in 
war  ;  one  who  has  grown  old  in  service,  and 
has  had  much  experience. 

Veteran  Corps.  Are  among  the  military 
reserves  of  all  nations.  They  consist  of  old 
soldiers  past  the  prime  of  active  manhood, 
and  incapable  of  taking  the  field.      Their 


discipline  and  steadiness,  however,  admira- 
bly fit  them  for  garrisons  or  fortresses,  and 
for  the  instruction  of  young  troops.  Dur- 
ing the  civil  war  in  America  (18G1-65),  a 
veteran  reserve  corps  was  established  under 
the  command  of  the  provost-marshal-gen- 
eral. The  men  admitted  into  this  corps 
were  drawn  from  three  sources,  viz.  :  (1) 
By  taking  officers  and  men  still  in  the  field, 
who  had  been  disabled  by  wounds  or  by 
disease  contracted  in  the  line  of  duty  ;  (2) 
By  taking  officers  and  men  who  were  absent 
sick  in  hospitals  or  convalescent  camps ; 
and  (3)  By  accepting  officers  and  men  who 
had  been  honorably  discharged  on  account 
of  wounds  or  disease  contracted  in  the  line 
of  duty,  and  who  desired  to  re-enter  the  ser- 
vice. This  corps  was  divided  into  com- 
panies, battalions,  and  regiments,  and  was 
employed  to  enforce  the  enrolling  and  draft- 
ing of  men  for  active  service,  for  arresting 
deserters,  stragglers,  etc.,  and  as  a  garrison 
for  permanent  barracks,  etc.  Upon  the  re- 
duction of  the  army  in  1869,  the  corps  was 
discontinued. 

Veterinary.  Of  or  pertaining  to  the  art 
of  healing  or  treating  the  diseases  of  domes- 
tic animals,  as  horses,  etc.  In  England  and 
some  other  European  countries,  a  veterinary 
surgeon  is  a  commissioned  officer,  who  has 
medical  charge  of  horses  used  in  the  military 
service.  In  the  U.  S.  service  there  is  one 
veterinary  surgeon  allowed  to  each  of  the 
regiments  of  cavalry,  and  the  7th,  8th,  9th, 
and  10th  regiments  of  cavalry  have  an  addi- 
tional veterinary  surgeon.  These  veterinary 
surgeons  are  recognized  as  civilians. 

Vetterlin  Rifle.    See  Small-arms. 

Vexilla.  Flags  or  streamers,  given  to  the 
Roman  soldiers  who  distinguished  them- 
selves. They  were  embroidered  in  silk,  and 
fixed  on  the  top  of  a  spear.  Vexillum  ro- 
seuni  was  a  red  flag,  which  the  general,  on 
any  sudden  tumult  or  unforeseen  danger, 
brought  out  of  the  Capitol,  and  encouraged 
the  people  to  flock  to  it  as  recruits  for  in- 
fantry. 

Viazma.  A  town  of  European  Russia, 
on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  in  the  gov- 
ernment and  100  miles  east-northeast  from 
Smolensk.  The  French  were  defeated  here 
by  the  Russians,  October  22,  1812,  when  a 
g^reat  part  of  the  town  was  destroyed  by 
fire. 

Vibo  (now  Blvo7ia).  The  Roman  form  of 
the  Greek  town  Hipponium,  situated  on  the 
southwestern  coast  of  Bruttium.  It  was 
destroyed  by  the  elder  Dionysius,  who  trans- 
planted its  inhabitants  to  Syracuse.  It  was 
afterwards  destroyed,  and  at  a  later  time  it 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Bruttii  by  the  Ro- 
mans, who  colonized  it  194  B.C.,  and  called 
it  Vibo  Valentia. 

Vicenza.  A  city  of  Northern  Italy,  in 
the  province  of  Venice,  39  miles  west  from 
Venice.  Vicenza  was  a  Roman  station,  and 
suffered  greatly  on  the  irruption  of  the 
northern  tribes.  Itwas  successively  pillaged 
by   Alaric,  Attila,  the   Lombards,  and   the 


VICKSBURG 


619 


VIENNA 


ompcror  Frtdcrick  II.  In  the  early  part  of 
tlie  15th  c'fiitury  it  came  into  the  possession 
of  the  Venetians,  who  held  it  till  I79C,  when 
it  became  the  scene  of  sansjuinary  conflicts 
between  the  French  and  Austrians. 

Vicksburg.  A  city  and  port  of  Missis- 
sippi, on  the  Mississippi  River,  408  miles 
north  of  New  Orleans,  and  is  the  chief  town 
between  Memphis  and  New  Orleans.  It  was 
strongly  fortified  in  18C1,  and  provided  with 
a  large  garrison.  In  January,  1802,  it  was 
attacked  by  the  Federal  naval  forces  from 
Memphis  and  New  Orleans,  but  without  suc- 
cess. In  April,  1803,  a  naval  attack  was 
combined  with  the  land  forces  under  Gen. 
Grant,  who  defeated  Gen.  Pemberton  near 
Jackson,  cut  off  supplies  and  reinforcements 
from  the  garrison,  and  with  a  close  siege  and 
continual  assaults,  compelled  a  surrender, 
July  4,  1803,  with  30,000  prisoners  of  war, 
200  cannon,  and  70,000  stand  of  arms. 

Victor.  The  winner  in  a  contest;  one 
who  gets  the  better  of  another  in  any  strug- 
gle ;  es[)ecially,  one  who  conquers  in  war  ;  a 
vanquisher  ;  one  who  defeats  an  enemy  in 
battle. 

Victoria  Cross.  The  peculiarities  of  this 
decoration,  wliich  was  instituted  on  the  ter- 
mination of  the  Crimean  campaign  in  185G, 
are,  that  it  may  be  granted  to  a  soldier  of 
any  rank,  and  for  a  single  act  of  valor.  The 
Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  as  was  felt 
during  the  Crimean  campaign,  served  a  pur- 
pose in  the  French  army  which  was  served 
by  none  of  the  British  decorations,  and  it 
was  in  imitation  of  it  that  the  Victoria  Cross 
was  founded,  with  the  inscription  "  For 
Valor,"  and  which  can  be  given  to  none  but 
those  who  have  performed,  in  presence  of 
the  eneni}-,  some  signal  act  of  valor  or  de- 
votion to  tiieir  country.  The  general  distri- 
bution of  the  crosses  earned  in  the  Crimean 
war  took  place  in  Hyde  Park  on  June  20, 
1857.  The  recipients  were  02  in  number. 
The  Victoria  Cross  is  in  the  form  of  a  Mal- 
tese cross,  formed  from  the  cannon  captured 
at  Sebastopol.  In  the  centre  is  the  royal 
crown,  surmounted  by  the  lion,  and  below, 
on  a  scroll,  the  words,  "For  Valor."  The 
ribbon  is  blue  for  the  navy,  and  red  for  the 
army.  On  the  clasp  are  two  branches  of 
laurel,  and  from  it  the  cross  hangs,  supported 
by  the  initial  "  V."  The  decoration  is  ac- 
companied by  a  pension  of  £10  a  year. 

Victorious.  Helonging  or  relating  to  vic- 
tory, or  a  victor  ;  having  concpiered  in  battle 
or  contest ;  having  overcome  un  enemy ; 
conquering;  winning;  triumphant;  as,  a 
victorious  general ;  victorious  troops  ;  vic- 
torious army.  I'roducing  conquest ;  as,  a 
victorious  day.  Emblematic  of  conquest, 
indicating  victory.  "  Brows  bound  with 
victorious  wreaths." 

Victory.  The  defeat  of  an  enemy  in  bat- 
tle, or  of  an  antagonist  in  contest ;  a  gaining 
of  tlie  superiority  in  war,  struggle,  or  com- 
bat;  conquest;  triumph. 

Victuals.  Food  or  sustenance  allowed  to 
the  troops,  under  certain  regulations,  whether 


on  shore  or  embarked  in  transports.  Re- 
lieving theenemy  with  money,  victuals,  etc., 
is  punishable  by  c<mrt-martial.  See  Ap- 
PKNDix,  Aktkles  of  War,  45. 

Vienna.  A  celebrated  city  of  Europe, 
capital  of  the  Austrian  empire,  is  situated 
about  2  miles  from  the  main  stream  of  the 
Danube,  251  miles  southeast  of  Prague  by 
railway.  Vienna  was  the  Itoman  Viiutohona. 
On  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire  it  ex- 

Cerienced  the  common  fate,  and  was  pillaged 
y  the  Goths  and  Huns.  In  the  13th  cen- 
tur}-  Vienna  was  subjected  to  a  six  weeks' 
siege,  in  consequence  of  the  refusal  of  Otto- 
kar  of  Bohemia  (who  was  then  in  possession 
of  Vienna)  to  acknowledge  the  election  of 
the  emperor  Rudolph.  It  wad  besieged  by 
the  Turks  under  Solyman  the  Magniticent, 
with  an  army  of  300,000  men  ;  but  the  de- 
fense, though  conducted  by  only  about  10,000 
regular  troops,  and  4000  citizens,  was  so  val- 
iant that  the  Turks  were  forced  to  retire 
with  the  loss  of  70,000  of  their  best  trcjops. 
In  July,  1083,  it  was  again  besieged  by  the 
Turks,  headed  by  the  grand  vizier  Kara- 
Mustapha.  The  defense  was  most  valiantly 
conducted  by  Count  RudigerofStarhemberg, 
but  had  become  almost  hopeless,  when  John 
Sobieski,  king  of  Poland,  suddenly  appeared 
with  an  armj',  and  the  Turkish  host  was 
almost  annihilated,  September  12,  1083. 
Vienna  was  taken  by  the  French  under 
Prince  Murat,  November  14,1805;  evacuated 
January,  1800;  was  again  captured  by  the 
French,  May  13,  1809 ;  but  was  restored  on 
the  conclusion  of  peace,  October  14,  1809. 
The  revolt  in  Hungary  induced  an  insur- 
rection in  Vienna,  March  13,  1848.  A  sec- 
ond insurrection  broke  out,  barricades  were 
raised,  and  Count  Latour,  the  war  minister, 
was  murdered,  October  0,  1848  ;  the  emperor 
took  flight,  October  7  ;  and  the  city  was  bom- 
barded by  "Windischgratz  and  Jeliachich, 
October  28;  it  surrendered  to  the  imperial 
troops  on  October  30,  having  sufl'ered  consid- 
erably from  the  bombardment.  The  fortifi- 
cations were  demolished,  and  the  city 
enlarged  and  })eautified,  1857-58.  The  Prus- 
sians encamped  near  Vienna,  and  a  state  of 
siege  was  proclaimed,  July,  1800.  The  fol- 
lowing treaties  were  concluded  in  Vienna: 
(l)  The  treaty  between  the  emperor  of  (ier- 
many  and  the  king  of  Spain,  by  which  they 
confirmed  to  each  other  such  parts  of  the 
Spanish  dominions  as  they  were  respectively 
possessed  of;  and  by  a  private  treaty  the 
emperor  engaged  to  emj)loy  a  force  to  pro- 
cure the  restoration  of  Gibraltar  to  Spain, 
and  to  use  means  for  placing  the  Pretender 
on  the  throne  of  Great  Britain.  Spain 
guaranteed  the  Pmgmatic  Sanction,  April 
30,  1725.  (2)  Treaty  of  alliance  between  the 
emperor  of  Germany,  Charles  VI.,  George 
II.,  king  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  states  of 
Hollanci,  by  which  the  Pragmatic  Sanction 
was  guaranteed,  and  the  disputes  a^  to  the 
Spanish  succession  terminated  (.^pain  acceded 
to  the  tn^aty  on  July  22).  This  treaty  was 
signed  March  10,  1731.     (3)  Treaty  of  peace 


VIEW 


620 


VINCENNES 


between  the  emperor  Charles  VI.  of  Ger- 
muny  and  the  king  of  France,  Louis  XV., 
by  which  the  hitter  power  agreed  to  guaran- 
tee the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  Lorraine 
was  ceded  to  France.  Signed  November  18, 
1738.  (4)  Treaty  between  Napoleon  I.  and 
Francis  (IL  of  Germany)  I.  of  Austria,  by 
which  Austria  ceded  to  France  the  Tyrol, 
Dalmatia,  and  other  territories,  which  were 
shortly  afterwards  declared  to  be  united  to 
France  under  the  title  of  the  Illyrian  Prov- 
inces, and  engaged  to  adhere  to  the  prohib- 
itory system  adopted  towards  England  by 
France  and  Russia,  October  14,  1809.  (5) 
Treaty  between  Great  Britain,  Austria,  Rus- 
sia, and  Prussia,  confirming  the  principles 
on  which  they  had  acted  by  the  treaty  of 
Chaumont,  March  1,  1814.  Signed  March 
23,  1815.  (6)  Treaty  between  the  king  of 
the  Netherlands  on  the  one  part  and  Great 
Britain,  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia  on  the 
other,  agreeing  to  the  enlargement  of  the 
Dutch  territories,  and  vesting  the  sovereignty 
in  the  house  of  Orange,  May  31,  1815.  (7) 
Treaty  by  which  Denmark  ceded  Swedish 
Pomerania  and  Rugen  to  Prussia,  in  ex- 
change for  Lauenburg,  June  4,  1815.  (8) 
Commercial  treaty  for  twelve  years  signed 
between  Austria  and  Prussia.  Signed  at 
Vienna,  February  19,  1853.  (9)  Treaty  for 
the  maintenance  of  Turkey,  by  the  repre- 
sentatives of  Great  Britain,  France,  Austria, 
and  Russia.  Signed  April  9,  1854.  (10) 
Treaty  between  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Den- 
mark, by  which  Denmark  ceded  the  duchies, 
October  30,  1864.  (11)  Treaty  of  peace  be- 
tween Austria  and  Italy  ;  Vcnetia  given  up 
to  Italy,  October  3,  1866. 

View  of  a  Place.  A  reconnoissance  of  a 
fortified  town,  its  situation,  the  nature  of 
the  country  about  it,  as  hills,  valleys,  rivers, 
marshes,  woods,  hedges,  etc. ;  taken  in  order 
to  judge  of  the  most  convenient  place  for 
opening  the  trenches,  and  carrying  out  the 
approaches  ;  to  find  out  proper  places  for 
encamping  the  army,  and  for  the  park  of 
artillery. 

Vigne  (Fr.).  In  ancient  times,  a  shed, 
or  gallery  with  a  roof  and  sides,  made  of 
double  hurdles,  18  or  20  feet  long,  and  7  or 
8  feet  wide,  upon  wheels,  Vignes  were  used 
to  establish  a  covered  communication  be- 
tween the  towers,  testudos,  etc.,  of  the  be- 
siegers. 

Vigo.  A  seaport  town  of  Spain,  in  Ga- 
licia,  situated  on  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic 
called  the  Ilia  de  Vigo,  78  miles  southwest 
from  Corunna.  Vigo  was  attacked  and 
burned  by  the  English  under  Drake  and 
Norris  in  1589.  Vigo  was  taken  by  Lord 
Cobham  in  1719,  but  relinquished  after  rais- 
ing contributions.  It  was  again  taken  by 
t'le  British,  March  27,  1809. 

Vikings.  Scandinavian  chiefs,  Swedes, 
Danes,  and  Norsemen,  who  in  the  4th  cen- 
tury migrated  eastward,  to  the  countries  be- 
yond the  Baltic,  and  westward  and  south- 
ward, chiefly  to  the  British  Isles. 

Villafranca,     A  town  of  Austrian  Italy, 


in  the  delegation  and  9  miles  southwest  from 
Verona,  on  the  Tartaro.  This  place  is  re- 
markable for  the  personal  interview  which 
took  place  here  between  the  emperors  of 
France  and  Austria,  July  11,  1859,  and  the 
peace  in  consequence  concluded,  by  which 
Lombardy  was  given  to  Sardinia. 

Villages.  Cavalry,  the  better  to  preserve 
their  horses,  should  occupy  villages  when- 
ever the  distance  of  the  enemy,  and  the  time 
necessary  to  repair  to  its  posts  in  battle,  will 
permit.  Their  quarters  should  be  prefera- 
bly farm-houses  or  taverns  having  large  sta- 
bles. Posts  are  established  by  the  colonel  or 
commanding  oificer,  and  the  squadrons  con- 
ducted to  their  quarters  by  their  respective 
captains.  Where  in  an  exceptional  case  reg- 
ular distributions  are  not  made,  the  resources 
which  the  household  assigned  as  quarters 
presents  are  equally  divided.  About  two 
hours  after  their  arrival,  the  squadrons  in 
succession  water  their  horses  and  then  give 
forage.  Cavalry,  and  infantry  also,  should, 
wherever  thus  cantoned  near  an  enemy,  oc- 
cupy, when  it  can  be  done,  houses  which  will 
hold  an  entire  company  or  some  constituent 
fraction  of  a  company,  and  at  break  of  day 
stand  to  their  arms.  When  in  the  same 
cantonment,  cavalry  should  watch  over  the 
safety  of  the  cantonment  by  day  and  the 
infantry  by  night ;  and  in  the  presence  of 
an  enemy  they  should  be  protected  by  an 
advance  guard  and  natural  or  artificial  ob- 
stacles. 

Villa  Viciosa.  A  village  of  Spain,  in 
New  Castile,  in  the  province  of  Guadala- 
jara. Here,  in  1710,  was  fought  the  battle 
which  closed  the  War  of  Succession,  and 
placed  Philip  V.  upon  the  Spanish  throne. 

Villa  Vicosa.  A  town  of  Portugal,  prov- 
ince of  Alemtejo.  Here  the  Portuguese 
under  the  French  general  Schoniberg  de- 
feated the  Spaniards,  1665. 

Villeta.  In  Paraguay,  South  America, 
where  Lopez  and  the  Paraguayans  were 
totally  defeated  by  the  Brazilians  and  their 
allies,  December  11,  1868. 

Vimeira.  A  village  of  Portugal,  in  the 
province  of  Estfemadura,  7  miles  north  from 
Torres  Vedras.  At  this  place  the  British 
under  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  defeated  the 
French  and  Spanish  forces  under  Marshal 
Junot,  August  21,  1808.  The  attack  made 
by  the  French  with  great  bravery  was  gal- 
lantly repulsed  ;  it  was  repeated  by  Keller- 
man  at  the  head  of  the  French  reserve,  which 
was  also  repulsed,  and  the  French  being 
charged  with  the  bayonet,  withdrew  on  all 
points  in  confusion,  leaving  many  prisoners. 

Vincennes.  A  town  of  France,  depart- 
ment of  Seine,  5  miles  east-southeast  from 
the  Louvre  in  Paris.  In  reality,  the  town  is 
merely  a  great  fortress  and  barracks,  and  is 
famous  for  its  arsenal,  and  for  its  school  for 
the  practice  of  shooting.  At  the  latter  the 
Chasseurs  de  Vincennes,  and  all  the  best 
marksmen  of  the  army,  are  trained.  Among 
the  famous  men  who  have  been  confined  in 
this  fortress  mav  be  mentioned  Henrv  IV., 


VINCENT 


621 


VITRIFIED 


the  Prince  of  Conde,  Cardinal  de  Retz,  Mira- 
beau,  and  the  Due  d'Enghein,  who  was  shot 
in  the  nioat  of  the  castle  by  order  of  Bona- 
parte. 

Vincent,  St.  An  island  in  the  West  In- 
dies; it  was  lonjj  neutral,  but  at  the  peace  of 
17fj3  the  French  agreed  that  the  rifijht  to  it 
should  be  vested  in  the  English.  .Tlie  latter 
soon  after  engaged  in  a  war  against  the 
Caribs,  on  the  windward  side  of  the  island, 
who  were  obliged  to  consent  to  a  peace.  In 
1779  the  Caribs  greatly  contributed  to  the 
reduction  of  this  island  by  the  French,  who, 
however,  restored  it  in  1783.  In  1795  the 
French  landed  some  troops,  and  again  in- 
stigated the  Caribs  to  insurrection,  which 
was  not  subdued  for  several  months. 

Vincible.  Capable  of  being  overcome  or 
subdued  ;  conquerable. 

Vindelicia.  A  lioman  province  south  of 
the  Danube,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Danube  which  separated  it  from  Germany, 
on  the  west  by  the  territory  of  the  llelveti 
in  Gaul,  on  the  south  by  lihajtia,  and  on  the 
east  by  the  river  (Enus  (now  Inn).  It  was 
originally  part  of  the  province  of  Rhaetia, 
and  was  conquered  by  Tiberius  in  the  reign 
of  Augustus.  The  southern  portion  of  this 
province  was  inhabited  by  the  Vindelici,  a 
warlike  people.  The  other  tribes  in  Vinde- 
licia were  the  Brigantii,  the  Licatii,  and  the 
Brunii.  Vindelicia  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Alemanni  in  the  4th  century,  and  from 
this  time  the  population  of  the  country  ap- 
pears to  have  been  entirely  Germanized. 

Vinegar.  In  transportation  by  water 
vinegar  is  essential  to  the  comfort  of  horses, 
and  should  be  freely  used  by  sponging  their 
mouths  and  noses  repeatedly,  and  also  their 
mangers.  A  small  portion  of  vinegar  drank 
with  water  supplies  the  waste  of  perspiration 
of  nun  in  the  field.  It  is  better  than  rum 
or  whisky  ;  it  allays  thirst.  aTid  men  who 
use  it  avoid  the  danger  of  drinking  cold 
water  when  heated,  and  are  not  fevered  as 
they  are  too  apt  to  be  by  the  use  of  spirituous 
liquors. 

Vinegar-Hill.  Near  Enniscorthy,  in 
"Wexford,  Southeast  Ireland.  Here  the  Irish 
rebels  encamped  and  committed  many  out- 
rages in  the  surrounding  country.  They 
were  gradually  surrounded  by  the  British 
troops,  commanded  by  Lake,  June  21,  1798. 
and  after  a  tierce  struggle,  with  much 
slau<j:lit("r,  totally  dispersed. 

Violence.  See  Appkndix,  Articles  of 
War.  'Jl  and  ')6. 

Vireton  (/•>.).  An  arrow  formerly  made 
very  long:  light,  and  so  feathered  ivs  to  re- 
volve routed  its  own  axis;  also  called  rire. 

Virginia.  One  of  the  thirteen  original 
United  States  of  America,  and  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Pennsylvania.  Maryland, 
and  West  Virginia,  east  by  Maryland  and  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  south  by  S'ortli  Carolina  and 
Tennessee,  and  west  by  Kentucky  and  West 
Virginia.  The  shores  of  Virginia  were  first 
explored  by  Sebastian  Cabot,.  14'.i8.  and 
again    under   the    auspices   of   Sir    Walter 


Raleigh  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  in 
whose  honor  it  was  named  ;  was  first  settled 
by  an  English  colony,  on  the  Jam&s  River, 
May  13,  "lG07,  which  consisted  mostly  of 
gentlemen  of  fortune,  and  persons  of  no  oc- 
cupation. The  friendly  Indians  sold  them 
land  and  provisions;  but  the  disea^e^  of  a 
damp  climate  swept  off  half  the  settlers  tho 
first  autumn.  The  energy  of  Capt.  John 
Smith  saved  the  colony  from  destruction ; 
and  in  IGO'J  it  was  reinforced  by  500  j)er- 
sons,  who  were  reduced  by  sickness  and 
starvation  to  00.  They  had  embarked  to 
abandon  the  settlement,  when  Lord  Dela- 
ware came  with  emigrants  and  su{)plies. 
In  lf)22  the  colony  was  reduced  bv  wars  and 
massacres  from  4000  to  2iJ00  ;  but  in  1G24  it 
became  a  crown  colony,  and  increased,  so 
that  in  1649  there  were  15,000  English  and 
300  negroes  in  it.  In  1754,  the  colonial 
militia  took  part  in  the  French  war ;  and 
^laj.  George  Washington  took  part  in  Gen. 
Braddocks  campaign.  In  1769,  Thomas 
Jetlcrson,  a  member  of  the  House  of  Bur- 
gesses, asserted  for  the  colony  the  right  of 
self-taxation,  denying  the  right  <>f  Parlia- 
ment to  tax  the  colonies.  In  1773,  Patrick 
Henry,  Thomas  JctTerson,  and  Richard 
Henry  Lee  were  appointed  a  committee  to 
confer  with  the  other  colonies,  and  urged  upon 
their  delegates  the  Declaration  of  Indejten- 
dence.  Virginia,  the  earliest  .settled,  largest, 
and  most  populous  of  the  thirteen  original 
States,  called  the  Old  Dominion,  was  the 
first  to  propose  the  confederacy  and  the 
Constitution.  On  April  17,  1861",  this  State 
passed  the  ordinance  of  secession.  The  Con- 
federate government  was  invited  to  Rich- 
mond, which  became  the  centre  of  military 
operations.  Virginia  was  occupied  by  the 
Federal  troops  during  the  whole  of  the  civil 
war,  and  a  great  many  hotly-contested  bat- 
tles were  fought  on  her  soil.  The  State  was 
restored  to  the  Union,  January  26,  1870. 

Virginia,  West.  A  new  State  of  tho 
American  Union,  and  separated  from  the 
above,  because  antagonistic  in  political  in- 
terests; it  was  organized  in  August,  1861, 
and  admitted  into  tho  Union  by  act  of  Con- 
gress, December  31,  18G2,  taking  eflect  June 
20.  1863.  The  State  comprises  52  counties, 
lying  west  of  the  Alleghanies. 
'  Virole.  In  heraldry,  the  hoop,  ring,  or 
mouth-piece  of  a  bugle  or  hunting-horn. 

Viroled.  In  heraldry,  furnished  with  a 
virole  or  viroles. 

Visigoths.     See  Goths. 

Visit,  To.  To  go  to  any  place,  as  guard 
quarters,  barracks,  hospital,  etc.,  for  tho 
purpose  of  noticing  whether  the  orders  or 
regulations  which  have  been  issued  resfxsct- 
ing  it  are  observed. 

Visiting  Officer.  He  whoso  dutv  it  is  to 
visit  the  guards,  barracks,  messes,  n(^>spital, 
etc.     The  same  as  orderly  officer. 

Visor.  That  part  of  the  helmet  which 
covers  the  face. 

Vitrified  Forts.  The  name  given  to  cer- 
tain   remarkable   stone    inclosures   bearing 


VITTOKIA 


622 


VOLTIGEUKS 


traces  of  the  action  of  fire,  about  50  of  which 
exist  in  various  parts  of  Scotland.  They 
are  generally  situated  on  a  small  hill,  over- 
looking a  considerable  valley,  and  consist  of 
a  wall,  which  may  have  originally  been 
about  12  feet  in  height,  inclosing  a  level 
area  on  the  summit  of  a  hill.  The  most  re- 
markable feature  of  these  structures  is,  that 
the  wall  is  always  more  or  less  consolidated 
by  the  action  of  fire, — in  some  cases  only 
giving  a  glassy  coating  to  its  inner  side, 
while  in  other  instances  the  vitrification  has 
been  most  complete,  the  ruins  assuming  the 
character  of  vast  masses  of  coarse  glass. 

Vittoria.  A  town  of  Spain,  the  chief  town 
of  the  pj'ovince  of  Alava,  30  miles  southeast 
from  Bilboa.  This  place  is  the  site  of  a  bril- 
liant victory  obtained  by  Wellington  over 
the  French  army  commanded  by  Joseph 
Bonaparte,  king  of  Spain,  and  Marshal 
Jourdan,  June  21,  1813.  The  hostile  armies 
were  nearly  equal,  from  70,000  to  75,000 
each.  After  a  long  and  fearful  battle,  the 
French  were  driven,  towards  evening, 
through  the  town  of  Vittoria,  and  in  their 
retreat  were  thrown  into  irretrievable  con- 
fusion. The  British  loss  was  22  officers  and 
479  men  killed  ;  167  officers  and  2640  men 
wounded.  Marshal  Jourdan  lost  151  pieces 
of  cannon,  451  wagons  of  ammunition,  all 
his  baggage,  provisions,  cattle,  and  treasure, 
with  his  baton  as  marshal  of  France.  Con- 
tinuing the  pursuit  on  the  25th,  Wellington 
took  Jourdan 's  only  remaining  gun. 

Vivandiere.  In  continental  armies,  and 
especially  that  of  France,  a  female  attendant 
in  a  regiment,  who  sells  spirits  and  other 
comforts,  ministers  to  the  sick,  marches  with 
the  corps,  and  contrives  to  be  a  universal 
favorite.  Although  a  familiar  friend  to  all, 
these  women  contrive  to  maintain  them- 
selves respectable,  and  generally  respected  ; 
and  a  corps  is  usually  extremely  jealous  of 
the  slightest  discourtesy  being  shown  to  its 
vivandiere.  The  woman  wears  the  uniform 
of  the  regiment,  short  petticoats  taking  the 
place  of  the  man's  tunic. 

Vlissingen,  or  Flushing.   See  Flushing. 

Vocontii.  A  powerful  and  important 
people  in  Gallia  Narbonensis,  inhabiting  the 
southeastern  part  of  Dauphine,  and  a  part 
of  Provence.  They  were  allowed  by  the 
Romans  to  live  under  their  own  laws,  and, 
though  in  a  Roman  province,  they  were  the 
allies  and  not  the  subjects  of  Rome. 

Voided.  In  heraldry,  having  the  inner 
part  cut  awaj^,  or  left  vacant,  a  narrower 
border  being  left  at  the  sides,  the  color  of  the 
field  being  seen  in  the  vacant  space; — said 
of  a  charge  or  ordinary. 

Voider.  In  heraldry,  one  of  the  ordina- 
ries, whose  figure  is  much  like  that  of  the 
flanch  or  flasque. 

Volant.  In  heraldry,  flying.  A  bird 
volant  is  represented  flying  bend  ways 
towards  the  dexter  side  of  the  shield ;  and 
its  position  may  be  distinguished  from  that 
of  a  bird  rising,  by  the  legs  being  drawn  up 
towards  the  body. 


Volant.  A  piece  of  steel  on  a  helmet, 
presenting  an  acute  angle  to  the  front. 

Volcse.  A  powerful  Celtic  people  in  Gal- 
lia Narbonensis,  divided  into  the  two  tribes 
of  the  VolciB  Tectosages  and  the  Volcse  Are- 
comici,  extending  from  the  Pyrenees  and  the 
frontiers  of  Aquitania  along  the  coast  as  far 
as  the  Rhone.  They  lived  under  their  own 
laws,  without  being  subject  to  the  Roman 
governor  of  the  province,  and  they  also  pos- 
sessed the  Jus  Latii.  The  Tectosages  inhab- 
ited the  western  part  of  the  country  from 
the  Pyrenees  as  far  as  Narbo,  and  the  Are- 
comici  the  eastern  part  from  Narbo  to  the 
Rhone.  A  portion  of  the  Tectosages  left 
their  native  country  under  Brennus,  and 
were  one  of  the  three  great  tribes  into  which 
the  Galatians  in  Asia  Minor  were  divided. 

Volhynia.  A  frontier  government  of 
West  Russia,  bounded  on  the  southwest  by 
Galicia,  and  on  the  west  by  Poland,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  river  Bug.  Vol- 
hynia in  early  times  belonged  to  the  ancient 
Russians,  but  was  conquered  by  the  Lithua- 
nians and  Poles  in  1320,  and  remained  in 
their  hands  till  its  annexation  to  Russia  in 
1798. 

Volley.  The  simultaneous  discharge  of  a 
number  of  fire-arms. 

Volokolamsk.  A  town  of  Russia  in  Eu- 
rope, in  the  government  of  Moscow,  60  miles 
northwest  from  Moscow.  It  has  suflTered 
many  misfortunes,  having  been  twice  plun- 
dered and  almost  destroyed  by  the  Tartars, 
and  taken  by  the  Poles  in  1613. 

Volsci.  An  ancient  people  in  Latium, 
but  originally  distinct  from  the  Latins, 
dwelt  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Liris,  and 
extended  down  to  the  Tyrrhene  Sea.  Their 
language  was  nearly  allied  to  the  Umbrian. 
They  were  from  an  early  period  engaged  in 
almost  unceasing  hostilities  with  the  Ro- 
mans, and  were  not  completely  subdued  by 
the  latter  till  338  B.C.,  from  which  time 
they  disappear  from  history. 

Volsinii,  or  Vulsinii  (now  Bolsena). 
Called  Vels'ma,  or  Velsuna,  by  the  Etruscans, 
one  of  the  most  ancient  and  most  powerful 
of  the  twelve  cities  of  the  Etruscan  Confed- 
eration, was  situated  on  a  lofty  hill  on  the 
northeastern  extremity  of  the  lake  called 
after  it,  Lncus  Volsiniejisis  and  Vulsiniensis 
(now  Lago  di  Bolsena).  Volsinii  is  first 
mentioned  in  392  B.C.,  when  its  inhabitants 
invaded  Roman  territory,  but  were  easily 
defeated  by  the  Romans,  and  were  glad  to 
purchase  a  twenty  years'  truce  on  humiliat- 
ing terms.  The  Volsiniensis  also  carried  on 
war  with  the  Romans  in  311,  294,  and  280, 
but  were  on  each  occasion  defeated,  and  in 
the  last  of  these  years  appear  to  have  been 
finally  subdued.  On  their  final  subjugation 
their  city  was  razed  to  the  ground  by  the 
Romans,  and  its  inhabitants  were  compelled 
to  settle  on  a  less  defensible  site  in  the 
plain. 

Voltigeurs.  Are  picked  companies  of 
irregular  riflemen  in  the  French  regiments. 
They  are  selected  for  courage,  great  activity, 


VOLTURNO 


623 


WAGON 


and  small  stature.     It  is  their  privilege  to 
lead  the  attack. 

Volturno.  A  river  of  Naples,  which  rises 
in  the  province  of  Sannio  or  Molise,  and, 
after  a  course  of  90  miles,  falls  into  the  Gulf 
of  Giietu  20  miles  from  Naples.  A  great 
battle  was  fought  on  the  banks  of  this  river 
in  1800,  between  the  troops  of  Francis  II., 
king  of  Naples,  and  the  followers  of  Gari- 
baldi. 

Volunteers.     See  Militia. 

Vorant.  In  heraldry,  a  term  applied  to 
an  animal  represented  as  swallowing  an- 
other; as,  sable,  a  dolphin  naiant,  vorant  a 
Hi-h  jiioper. 

Vossem,  Peace  of.     Between  the  elector 
of  Brandenburg  and  Louis  XI V.  of  France  ; 
tlie  latter  engaged  not  to  assist  the  Dutch 
against  the  elector;  signed  June  6,  1673. 
"Votes.     See  Finding. 

Vougle,  or  Vouilli  (Southwest  France ; 
near  Poitiers).     Here   Alaric,  king  of  the 


Visigoths,  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Clovis, 
king  of  France,  507.  Clovis  immediately 
after  subdued  the  whole  country  from  the 
Loire  to  the  Pyrenees,  and  thus  his  king- 
dom became  firmlv  e.<tablished.  A  |>eace 
followed  between  tfie  Fninks  and  the  Visi- 
goths, who  had  been  settled  above  one  hun- 
dred years  in  that  part  of  Gaul  called  Septi- 
niania. 

Vulned.  A  heraldic  term,  applied  to  an 
animal,  or  part  of  an  animal, — as,  for  ex- 
ample, a  human  heart,  wounded,  and  with 
the  blood  dropping  from  it. 

Vulnerable.  Susceptive  of  wounds  ;  liable 
to  external  injuries ;  capable  of  being  taken  ; 
as,  the  town  is  extremely  vulnerable  in  such 
a  quarter.  It  is  also  applied  to  military 
dispositions  ;  as,  the  army  was  vulnerable 
in  the  centre,  etc.  An  assemblage  of  men 
without  arms,  or  with  arms  but  without  dis- 
cipline, or  having  discipline  and  arms,  with- 
out officers,  are  vulnerable. 


W. 


Wad.  To  insert  or  crowd  a  wad  into ;  as, 
to  Wild  a  gun. 

Wad.    Sec  Grommet,  and  Junk-wads. 

\A^ad-hook.  A  screw  or  hook  to  draw 
Avadding  out  fmm  a  gun. 

Wage  Battle,  Tot  To  give  gage  or  se- 
curity for  joining  in  the  duellum,  or  combat. 

Wager  of  Battle.  In  ancient  law,  the 
giving  of  gage  or  pledge  for  trying  a  cause 
by  single  combat,  formerly  allowed  in  mili- 
tary, criminal,  and  civil  causes.  In  writs  of 
right,  where  the  trial  was  by  champions, 
the  tenant  produced  his  champion,  who,  by 
throwing  down  his  glove  as  a  gage  or 
pledge,  thus  waged  or  stipulated  battle  with 
the  champion  of  the  demandant,  who,  by 
taking  up  the  glove,  accepted  the  challenge. 
The  wager  of  battle,  which  has  long  been  in 
disuse,  was  abolished  in  England  in  1820. 

Wagon.  A  vehicle  for  the  conveyance 
of  gooils  or  passengers,  is  mounted  on  four 
wheels,  but  varies  considerably  in  the  con- 
struction of  its  other  parts,  according  to  the 
species  of  traffic  in  which  it  is  employed. 
They  are  used  by  armies  for  the  transporta- 
tion of  subsistence,  other  military  stores, 
baggage,  ammunition,  sick  and  wounded. 
The  following  wagon  has  Wen  adopted  for 
use  in  the  service  of  the  U.  S.  army  :  The 
body  to  be  straight,  3  feet  (J  inches  wide,  1 
foot  9  inches  deep,  0  feet  G  inches  long  at 
the  bottom,  and  10  feet  at  the  top,  sloping 
equallv  at  each  end,  all  in  the  clear  or  in- 
side; the  floor  9  feet  10^  inches  long,  3  feet 
6  inches  wide,  and   7J  inches   thick.     Top 


sides  C  inches  wide,  7J  inches  thick,  10  feet 
2  inches  long  on  the  bottom  edge,  sloping 
the  same  as  the  lower  side  boards.   Six  bows 
of  good  ash  or  oak,  2  inches  wide,  j   inch 
thick,  with  three  staples  to  confine  the  ridge- 
pole to  its  place;  one  ridge-}x)le  11   feet  3 
inches  long,  IJ  inches  wide,  |  inch  thick  ; 
seat-boards  3  feet  6  inches  long,  1  foot  wide, 
I  i  inch  thick  to  rest  on  top  edge  of  sides  on 
j  upright  spiral  springs,  so  arranged  as  to  l>e 
I  used  with   or   without   the   top   sides  ;  two 
i  plates  7  inches  long,  \h  inches  wide,  j  inch 
i  thick,  with  two  bolts  in  each,  for  the  front 
wheels    to    strike    against   in   turning   the 
'  wagon.     The  tongue  to  be  10  feet  G  inches 
long,  4  inches  wide,  2]   inches  deep  at  front 
!  end  of  hounds,  I]  inches  wide,  and  2}  inches 
I  deep  at  point  or  front  end.  and  so  arranged  as 
to  lift  up  the  front  end  of  it  to  hang  within  2 
:  feet  G  inches  of  the  ground  when  the  wagon 
I  is  standing  at  rest  on  a  level  surface ;  front 
I  hounds  6  feet  long,  2}  inches  deep,  3^  inches 
wide  over  axle,  and  to  retain  that  width  to 
the  back  end  of  tongue ;  jaws  of  hounds  1  foot 
j  6  inches  long  and  '2\   inches  square  at  the 
■  front  end.    Axle-stoik  4  feet  J  inch  long,  8J 
;  inches  wide,  3}  inches  deep.     Hind  hounds 
i  4  feet  11  inches  long,  2J  inches  deep,  and  2| 
;  inches  wide  back,  and  2.J  inches  wide  front; 
jaws  10  inches  long  and  4  inches  wide  at 
'  the  end  where  they  rest  on  coupling-pole. 
I  Coupling-pole  8  feel  9  inches  long,  3i  inches 
,  wide,  2g  inches  deep,  with  a  rivet  through 
'  front  end.    Wheels  .S  feel  8  inches  and  4  feet 
I  8  inches  high  ;  sixteen  spokes  2  inches  wide 


WAGON-BODY 


624 


WAHABEES 


und  2  inches  thick  at  hub,  and  2  inches  wide 
and  H  inches  thick  at  felloes  ;  eight  felloes 
2  inches  wide,  2|  inches  deep  ;  hubs  9  inches 
diameter  at  flanges,  3i  inches  diameter  at 
front,  4  inches  diameter  at  back  end,  12 
inches  long ;  tires  2  inches  wide,  i  inch 
thick,  fastened  with  8  screw-bolts,  one  in 
each  felloe.  Distance  from  the  centre  of 
king-bolt  hole  to  centre  of  back  axle,  5  feet 
9j  inches ;  and  from  centre  of  king-bolt 
hole  to  the  centre  of  bolt  in  jaw  of  hind 
hounds,  1  foot  10  inches  ;  distance  from  the 
centre  of  hind  axle  to  centre  of  bolt  in  jaw 
of  hind  hounds,  3  feet  llj  inches,  and  from 
the  centre  of  king-bolt  to  centre  of  slider  2 
feet  2J  inches  ;  distance  between  the  inside 
of  front  and  hind  standards,  5  feet  8i  inches, 
— to  receive  the  body,  which  is  5  feet  8 
inches  from  outside  to  outside  of  cleats  of 
sides.  Weight  of  model  wagon,  1325  pounds, 
complete,  for  four  horses  or  mules.  See 
Ordnance,  Carriages  for,  Traveling 
Kitchen,  and  Traveling  Forge. 

Wagon-body,  Ponton.  See  Pontons, 
Wagon-body  Pontons. 

Wagoner.  One  who  conducts  a  wagon  ; 
a  wagon-driver.  The  number  of  master- 
wagoners  and  wagoners  allowed  in  the  quar- 
termaster's department  IT.  S.  army  is  limited 
only  by  the  exigencies  of  the  service. 

Wagon-master.  A  person  in  charge  of 
one  or  more  wagons,  especially  of  those  used 
for  transporting  freight,  as  the  supplies  of 
an  army,  and  the  like.  The  quartermaster- 
general  is  authorized  to  employ  from  time 
to  time  as  many  forage-masters  and  wagon- 
masters  as  he  may  deem  necessary  for  the 
service,  not  exceeding  20  in  the  whole,  who 
shall  be  entitled  to  receive  |40  per  month 
and  three  rations  a  day,  and  forage  for  one 
horse;  and  neither  of  whom  shall  be  inter- 
ested or  concerned  directly  or  indirectl}'  in 
any  wagon  or  other  means  of  transport  em- 
ployed by  the  United  States,  nor  in  the  pur- 
chase or  sale  of  any  property  procured  for 
or  belonging  to  the  United  States,  except  as 
an  agent  of  the  United  States. 

Wagon-train.  An  indispensable  com- 
panion of  an  army  under  this  or  some  other 
title.  It  serves  to  convey  the  ammunition, 
provisions,  sick,  wounded,  camp  equipage, 
etc.  Wagons  in  convoy  travel  at  a  rate" of 
from  1  to  2  miles  an  hour,  according  to  the 
state  of  the  roads,  and  other  circumstances  ; 
and  a  mile  may  be  said  to  contain  100  wag- 
ons. A  great  object  in  the  march  of  a  con- 
voy, is  to  preserve  the  draught  animals  as 
much  as  possible  from  fatigue.  For  this 
purpose,  if  the  convoy  amount  to  many 
hundred  wagons,  they  must  be  formed  into 
divisions  of  not  more  than  500  each.  Should 
it  consist  of  thousands,  it  will  be  advisable 
to  form  them  into  grand  divisions,  and  then 
again  into  subdivisions  of  500  each.  By 
this  means,  and  by  calculating  the  time  of 
departure,  each  division  may  remain  at  rest 
until  just  before  its  time  of  movement,  and 
the  necessity  will  thus  be  prevented  of  the 
latter  part  of  a  large  convoy  being  harassed 


for  a  considerable  time  before  its  turn  to 
move.  The  ditferent  divisions  of  the  convoy 
should  be  numbered,  and  obliged  each  day 
to  change  the  order  of  their  marching. 
Whenever  the  progress  of  a  wagon-train  is 
arrested  by  the  breaking  down  of  one  of  the 
wagons,  or  other  delay,  all  the  wagons  in 
rear  of  the  stoppage  should  immediately 
drive  up  into  the  first  open  space,  to  as  great 
a  number  as  it  will  hold.  This  will  keep 
the  convoy  together,  and  better  under  the 
care  of  the  escort.  The  escort  should  be 
divided  into  front,  centre,  and  rear  guards  ; 
besides  the  divisions  in  the  flanks,  which 
should  never  be  more  than  400  yards  from 
each  other. 

Wagram.  A  village  of  Lower  Austria, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Eossbach,  11  miles 
northeast  from  Vienna.  It  is  the  site  of  a 
battle  between  the  French  under  Napoleon, 
Davoust,  Massena,  and  Macdonald,  and  the 
Austrians  under  the  Archduke  Charles,  in 
which  the  former  were  victorious,  July  5-6, 
1809.  The  Austrians  retreated  in  the  most 
orderly  manner,  carrying  with  them  about 
5000  prisoners,  and  leaving  about  25,000 
dead  or  wounded  on  the  field  of  battle, — the 
French  loss  being  about  equal ;  the  latter 
claim  to  have  taken  20,000  prisoners. 

Wahabees,  Wahabis,  or  Wahabites.  A 
warlike  Mohammedan  reforming  sect,  con- 
sidering themselves  the  only  true  followers 
of  the  Prophet,  arose  in  Arabia  about  1750, 
under  the  rule  of  Abd-el-Nahab  (Ibn-abd- 
ul-Wahab).  His  grandson  Savoud  (Saud, 
or  Saood),  in  1801,  defeated  an  expedition 
headed  by  the  caliph  of  Bagdad.  The  con- 
quest of  Hejaz  was  next  undertaken  by  the 
Wahabees.  In  1803,  Saoud  collected  a  large 
army,  defeated  Ghaleb,  the  ruler  of  Mecca, 
in  several  battles,  laid  siege  to  Mecca,  which, 
after  a  resistance  of  two  or  three  months, 
surrendered  at  discretion.  Not  the  slightest 
excess  was  committed,  but  the  people  had  to 
become  Wahabees.  Failing  to  take  Jiddah, 
into  which  Ghaleb  had  thrown  himself,  the 
Wahabi  forces  went  northwards,  and,  in 
1804,  took  Medina,  where  they  stripped  the 
tomb  of  Mohammed  of  its  accumulated 
treasures,  and  prohibited  the  approach  to  it 
of  all  but  Wahabees.  For  several  years 
after  the  conquest  of  Hejaz,  Saoud  continued 
to  extend  and  consolidate  his  power.  Plun- 
dering incursions  were  made  to  the  very 
vicinity  of  Bagdad,  Aleppo,  and  Damascus. 
On  the  east,  Saoud  took  the  island  of 
Bahrein,  and  annexed  a  part  of  the  Persian 
coast,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Gulf,  and  ex- 
acted tribute  from  the  sultan  of  Oman.  This 
brought  him  into  conflict  with  Great  Britain, 
which  sent  (1808)  a  force  and  severely  chas- 
tised the  Wahabi  pirates  that  infested  the 
commerce  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  Saoud's  son, 
Abdallah,  long  resisted  Mehemet  Ali,  pasha 
of  Egypt,  but  in  1818  he  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  by  Ibrahim  Pasha,  who  sent 
him  to  Constantinople,  where  he  was  put  to 
death.  Ibrahim  continued  some  months  in 
Arabia,  consolidating  his  conquests  through- 


WAHLSTATT 


625 


WALES 


out  Nejed  and  tlie  adjoining?  provinces.  But 
soon  un  insurrection  broke  out,  and  the 
Egyj)tians  had  to  retire  to  Kasim,  and  Turk!, 
u  son  of  Abdullah,  was  prt)chiiined  sultan  of 
Nejed.  Renewed  expeditions  were  under- 
taken by  the  Egyptian  coniinandurs,  driving, 
lirst,  Turki  from  his  capital  fcjr  a  time  and 
then  his  son  and  successor,  Fevsul.  But 
soon  after  the  death  of  Mehemet'Ali  (1849) 
the  Egyptians  gave  up  tlie  struggle;  Feysul 
was  recalled  from  exile;  and  under  him  and 
his  son  Abdallah  II.,  who  unites  in  a  high 
degree  the  fanaticism  and  ferocity  of  the 
"W'almbi,  with  great  skill  in  military  tactics, 
the  Wahabi  swav,  according  to  the  accounts 
of  Palgrave  in  18(J8,  and  of  Col.  Felly  in 
18'io,  liad  become  more  powerful  and  exten- 
sive, and  threatens  to  swallow  up  the  entire 
])eiiiii>ii]a. 

Wahlstatt.    See  Katsbach. 

Wait.  Ambush.  To  lay  wait,  to  lie  in 
ambush  ;  to  prepare  an  ambuscade.  To  lie 
in  wait,  to  lie  in  ambush  ;  to  be  secreted  in 
order  to  fall  by  surprise  on  an  enemy. 

Waiting,  In.  This  term  is  used  in  the 
British  service,  to  mark  out  the  person  whose 
turn  is  next  for  duty ;  as,  an  officer  in  wait- 
ing. Field-ojficer  in  waiting,  is  the  term  ap- 
plied to  tlie  monthly  duty  taken  by  the  tield- 
officersof  the  three  regiments  of  Foot  Guards, 
who  attend  the  sovereign  on  court-days,  to 
present  the  detail  of  his  corps,  and  receive 
the  parole  or  other  orders  from  her  person- 
ally, which  are  afterwards  given  to  the 
guards  in  orders.  The  field-officer  in  wait- 
ing commands  all  the  troops  on  duty,  and 
has  the  immediate  care  of  the  sovereign's 
person  within-doors,  as  tlie  gold  stick  has  of 
it  wliile  in  court.  The  latter  also  receives 
the  parole  from  the  sovereign. 

Waiving  Amain.  A  salutation  of  defi- 
ance, as  by  brandishing  weapons,  etc. 

Waiwode,  nr  V/aywode.  In  the  Turkish 
empire,  the  governor  of  a  small  province  or 
town  ;  a  general. 

Wakefield.  A  town  of  England,  in  the 
"West  Hiding  of  Yorkshire,  2ti  miles  from 
York.  Near  it  is  the  site  of  a  battle  between 
Margaret,  the  queen  of  Henry  VI.,  and  the 
Duke  of  York,  in  which  the  latter  was  slain, 
and  3(XH)  Yorkists  fell  u]>on,  the  field,  De- 
cember 81,  14»;0.  The  death  of  the  duke, 
who  aspired  to  the  crown,  seemed  to  fix  the 
good  fortune  of  Margaret;  but  the  Earl  of 
Warwick  espoused  the  cause  of  the  duke's 
son,  till'  Earl  of  March,  afterwards  Edward 
I^'.,  and  the  civil  war  was  continued. 

Walcheren.  An  island  of  Holland,  in 
the  province  of  Zealand,  in  the  German 
Ocean,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt.  The 
unfortunate  expedition  of  the  British  to  this 
isle  in  1809  consisted  of  35  ships  of  the  line, 
and  200  smaller  vessels,  principally  trans- 
ports, and  40.0(M)  lund  forces,  the  latter  under 
the  command  of  the  the  Earl  of  Chatham, 
and  the  fleet  under  Sir  Richard  Strachan. 
For  a  long  time  the  destination  of  the  expe- 
dition remained  secret ;  but  before  July  28, 
1809,  when  it  set  sail,  the  French  journals 


had  announced  that  "NValcheren  was  the  point 
of  attack.  Perhaps  a  more  |>owerful  and 
better  appointed  armament  baa  never  previ- 
ously left  the  British  fKirls,  or  ever  more 
completely  disa|)|xjinted  public  expectation. 
The  plan  was  to  send  the  fleet  and  army  up 
the  Scheldt,  and  attack  Antwerp  (the  prin- 
cipal naval  station  and  arsenal  in  the  north 
of  France),  whose  fortifications,  though  for- 
midable, were  much  in  need  of  repair,  and 
whose  garrison  at  the  time  only  numbered 
about  2000  invalids  and  coast-guards ;  while 
there  were  not  more  than  io.t»0(J  French 
soldiers  in  Holland.  The  expedition,  after 
numberless  needless  delays,  at  last  sailed  on 
July  28,  and  reached  the  Dutch  coast  on  the 
following  day.  But,  instead  of  obeying  the 
orders  of  the  minister  of  war.  Lord  Castle- 
reagh,  to  advance  at  onre  in  force  arjainitt 
Antwerp,  the  commander-in-chief.  Lord 
Chatham,  frittered  away  liis  time  in  the  re- 
duction of  Vlissingen  (Flushing),  which  was 
not  eft'ected  till  August  10,  by  which  time 
the  garrison  of  Antwerp  had  been  reinforced 
by  King  Louis  Bonaparte  with  the  troops  at 
his  command  (about  0000),  and  by  detach- 
ments .sent  from  France,  whidi  swelled  the 
garrison,  by  August  20,  to  15,0<X)  men. 
About  the  end  of  August,  Chatham,  who, 
as  a  general,  was  a  methodical  incapable, 
"  found  liimself  prepared'  to  march  upon 
Antwerp,  but  by  this  time  30,000  men,  un- 
der Bernadotte,  were  gathered  to  its  defense, 
and  the  English  army  was  decimated  by 
marsh-fever,  so  that  success  was  not  to  be 
hoped  for.  However,  it  was  judged  right  to 
hold  possession  of  Walcheren,  in  order  to 
compel  the  French  to  keep  a  strong  force 
on  the  watch  in  Belgium,  and.  accordingly, 
15,000  men  remained  to  garrison  the  island, 
the  rest  returned  to  England  ;  but  the  ma- 
laria proved  too  fatal  in  its  ravages,  and  as 
peace  had  been  concluded  between  Austria 
and  France,  this  force  was  also  recalled. 
Thus  an  excellently  devised  scheme,  through 
utter  stupidity  of  the  agent  chosen  by  roy- 
alty to  carry  it  out,  failed  in  every  point  of 
consequence,  and  ended  in  the  loss  of  7000 
men  dead,  and  the  permanent  disablement 
of  half  the  remainder.  The  House  of  Com- 
mons instituted  an  inquiry,  and  Lord  Chat- 
ham resigned  his  post  of  master-general  of 
the  ordnance,  to  prevent  greater  disgrace; 
but  the  policy  of  the  ministers  in  planning 
the  expedition  was,  nevertheless,  appnned. 

Wales  (anc.  Britannia  Secumln).  A  prin- 
cipality in  the  southwest  part  of  Great  Bri- 
tain. After  the  Roman  emperor  Honorius 
quitted  Britain,  Vortigern  was  elected  king 
of  South  Britain.  He  invited  over  the  Sax- 
ons to  defend  his  country  against  the  Picts 
and  Scots  ;  but  the  Saxon*  j>erfldiously  sent 
for  reinforcements,  consisting  of  Saxons, 
Danes,  and  Angles,  by  which  they  made 
I  themselves  masters  of  South  Britain.  Many 
of  the  Britt>ns  retired  to  Wales,  and  defended 
themselves  against  the  Saxons,  in  their  in- 
accessible mountains,  about  447.  In  thi.s 
state  Wales  remained  unconquercd  till  Uenrj 


WALK 


626 


WAK 


II.  subdued  South  Wales  in  1157  ;  and  in 
1282,  Edward  I.  entirely  reduced  the  whole 
country,  putting  an  end  to  its  independence, 
by  the  death  of  Llewelyn,  the  last  prince. 
The  Welsh,  however,  were  not  entirely 
reconciled  to  this  revolution,  till  the  queen 
gave  birth  to  a  son  at  Caernarvon  in  1284, 
whom  Edward  styled  prince  of  Wales,  which 
title  the  heir  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain 
has  borne  almost  ever  since.  For  further 
history  of  Wales,  see  separate  articles  in  this 
work. 

Walk  About.  A  military  expression  used 
by  British  officers  when  they  approach  a  sen- 
tinel, and  think  proper  to  waive  the  cere- 
mony of  being  saluted. 

Wall.  A  series  of  brick,  stone,  or  other 
materials,  carried  upward  and  cemented 
with  mortar.  When  used  in  the  plural 
number,  wall  signifies  fortification  ;  works 
built  for  defense.  To  be  driven  to  the  ivrill, 
a  figurative  term,  signifying  to  be  so  pressed 
that  you  can  neither  advance  nor  retreat. 

Wallachia.  One  of  the  Danubian  princi- 
palities, in  the  northeast  of  Turkey  in  Eu- 
rope. This  country  formed  part  of  the 
ancient  Dacia  of  the  Romans,  and  was  sub- 
sequently bi'ought  under  the  dominion  of 
the  Goths  and  Huns.  During  the  two  cen- 
turies which  preceded  the  fall  of  the  empire 
of  the  East,  it  was  sometimes  subject  to  the 
Greek  emperors,  and  sometimes  to  the  mon- 
archs  of  Hungary.  It  was  conquered  by  the 
Turks  in  the  14th  century,  but  the  inhabit- 
ants struggled  to  assert  their  independence 
until  1536,  when  it  became  a  province  of 
the  Ottoman  empire.  In  1829  it  was  placed 
under  the  protection  of  Russia,  though  it 
was  still  considered  a  dependency  of  Tur- 
key.    See  Moldavia. 

Walloon  Guard.  The  body-guard  of  the 
Spanish  monarch  ; — so  called  because  for- 
merly consisting  of  Walloons. 

Wall-piece.  A  small  cannon  (or,  in  an- 
cient times,  an  arquebuse)  mounted  on  a 
swivel,  on  the  wall  of  a  fortress,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  being  fired  at  short  range  on  assail- 
ants in  the  ditch  or  on  the  covert  way. 
There  are  distinct  evidences  that  the  great 
wall  of  China  was  originally  constructed  for 
the  reception  of  wall-pieces. 

Wandewash.  A  town  on  the  Coroman- 
del  coast,  about  30  miles  south  of  Madras 
In  1739,  when  M.  de  Lally,  the  French 
governor  in  the  East  Indies,  threatened 
with  utter  subjection  the  English  settle- 
ments in  the  Carnatic,  he  was  opposed  most 
gallantly  by  Col.  Coote,  upon  the  Coroman- 
del  coast.  Coote  reduced  the  French  settle- 
ments of  Masulipatam  and  Conjeveram,  and 
made  a  vigorous  attack  upon  Wandewash, 
which  he  captured.  Lally,  in  the  autumn 
of  1739,  made  a  bold  attempt  to  regain  pos- 
session of  the  disputed  settlement,  but  his 
force  \vas  utterly  broken  ;  he  lost  600  men, 
and  was  happy  to  save  the  wreck  of  his 
army  by  abandoning  his  camp  to  the  victor. 

Wapinschaw.  A  periodical  gathering  of 
the  people,  instituted  by  various  Scots  stat- 


utes, for  the  purpose  of  exhibiting  their 
arms,  these  statutes  directing  each  individ- 
ual to  be  armed  on  a  scale  proportionate 
to  his  property.  There  are  numerous  Scots 
acts  of  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  regulat- 
ing the  subject  of  wapinschaws.  In  the 
time  of  war  or  rebellion,  proclamations 
were  issued  charging  all  sheriflFs  and  magis- 
trates of  burghs  to  direct  the  attendants  of 
the  respective  wapinschawings  to  join  the 
king's  host.  During  the  reign  of  the  later 
Stuarts,  attendance  on  the  wapinschaws 
was  enforced  with  considerable  strictness  ; 
and  in  addition  to  military  exercises,  sports 
and  pastimes  were  carried  on  by  authority 
at  these  gatherings.  The  Covenanters,  in 
consequence  of  this  sport  being  of  a  kind 
disapproved  by  them,  did  what  they  could 
to  discourage  attendance  on  the  wapin- 
schaws. 

War.  A  contest  between  nations  or 
states,  carried  on  by  force,  either  for  defense 
or  for  revenging  insults  and  redressing 
wrongs,  for  the  extension  of  commerce  or 
acquisition  of  territory,  or  for  obtaining  and 
establishing  the  superiority  and  dominion  of 
one  over  the  other.  It  is  the  armed  con- 
flicts of  sovereign  powers,  declared  and  open 
hostilities.  Wars  are  various  in  their  occa- 
sions and  objects;  but  in  all  cases,  the  aim 
of  each  contending  party  is  to  weaken  and 
overthrow  the  opposing  party.  At  one  time, 
the  art  of  war  was  supposed  to  consist  very 
much  in  wearing  out  the  enemy  by  a  slow 
process  of  exhaustion,  and  thus  wars  were 
much  protracted.  But  more  recently,  the 
greatest  generals  have  adopted  the  method 
of  rather  endeavoring  to  strike  sudden  and 
terrible  blows,  by  which  the  war  is  sooner 
brought  to  a  termination,  and  this  method, 
although  it  may  often  have  been  adopted 
without  regard  to  considerations  of  human- 
ity, is,  in  all  probability,  less  productive  of 
suffering  to  mankind  than  the  other.  Among 
rude  nations,  wars  are  conducted  by  tumult- 
uary hosts,  suddenly  congregated,  and  in 
general,  either  after  defeat  or  victory,  soon 
dispersed.  But  the  wars  of  the  more  civil- 
ized and  powerful  nations  have  long  been 
conducted  by  armies  carefully  trained  and 
disciplined ;  and  in  the  case  of  maritime 
powers,  by  means  of  fleets  at  sea  as  well  as 
of  armies  on  land.  Preparation  for  war 
among  such  nations  requires  not  only  the 
forming  and  training  of  the  army,  but  vast 
provision  in  many  various  ways  of  the 
means  and  materiel  of  war.  Much  science 
and  skill  are  also  applied  to  the  conduct  of 
military  operations,  and  the  principles  upon 
which  they  ought  to  be  conducted  have  been 
carefully  investigated  and  theories  tested  by 
an  examination  of  the  history  of  the  most 
important  campaigns.  See  Strategy  and 
Tactics. 

Wars  are  classified  in  various  waj's.  They 
are  classified  from  the  nature  of  the  military 
operations  emploj'ed  in  their  prosecution  ; 
into  ojfen.iive  or  defensive  wars  :  from  the 
end  to  be  attained ;   into  wars  of  conquest, 


WAR 


627 


WAR 


wars  of  independence,  etc. :  from  the  causes 
producing  the  war;  into  wars  of  insurrec- 
tion, religious  wars,  etc. :  from  the  general 
locality  in  which  they  arc  waged;  into 
American,  African,  European,  etc.  Other 
classifications  than  these  are  also  used,  be- 
ing based  on  the  nature  and  object  of  the 
war.  AVar  is  both  a  science  and  an  art.  All 
investigations  which  have  for  their  object 
the  determination  of  the  great  principles 
which  should  govern  a  general  in  conduct- 
ing his  military  oiierations ;  all  analyses 
which  are  made  to  show  the  important  and 
osf^cntial  features  which  characterize  a  cam- 
jiiiign  or  battle,  and  comparisons  made  with 
other  campaigns  and  battles  ;  all  deductions 
niul  formations  of  rules  which  arc  to  be  used 
in  military  operations;  all  these  belong  to 
the  .science  of  war.  The  practical  applica- 
tion of  these  great  principles  and  rules  be- 
longs to  the  art  of  war.  In  the  science  of 
war  as  well  as  in  the  other  physical  sciences, 
the  facts  must  precede  theory  ;  and  although 
the  number  of  known  facts  is  steadily  in- 
creasing, the  number  of  general  principles 
upon  which  the  theories  of  the  science  are 
based  is  constant,  if  not  decreasing.  These 
general  principles  are  deduced  by  a  close 
and  critical  examination  of  such  methods  of 
waging  war  as  have  been  adopted  by  those 
great  generals  who  are  known  as  eminent  in 
their  jtrofession.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  an 
intinuitc  connection  exists  between  military 
history  and  the  science  of  war.  ^Napoleon 
said,  "Alexander  made  eight  campaigns; 
Hannibal,  seventeen, — one  in  Spain,  fifteen 
in  Italy,  and  one  in  Africa;  Ca>sar,  thir- 
teen, of  which  eight  were  against  the  Gauls 
and  five  against  the  legions  of  Pompey  ; 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  three  ;  Turenne,  eight- 
een ;  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy,  thirteen  ; 
Frederick,  eleven,  in  Bohemia,  Silesia,  and 
on  the  banks  of  the  Elbe.  The  history  of 
these  eighty-four  campaigns,  written  with 
care,  would  be  a  complete  treatise  on  the  art 
of  war.  From  this  source,  the  principles 
which  ought  to  be  followed,  in  offensive  as 
well  as  defensive  warfare,  could  at  once  be 
obtained."  To  these  campaigns  are  to  bo 
added  the  battles  and  campaigns  of  Naj)o- 
Icon.  Jomini,  an  eminent  writer  on  mili- 
tary art,  says,  "Correct  theories,  founded 
upon  right  principles,  sustained  by  actual 
events  of  war,  and  added  to  accurate  mili- 
tary history,  will  form  a  true  school  of  in- 
struction for  generals."  If  these  means  do 
not  produce  great  men,  they  will  at  least 
produce  generals  of  sufficient  skill  to  take 
rank  next  after  the  "  natural  masters  of  the 
art  of  war."  The  sources  of  all  treatises  on 
the  "Art  and  Science  of  War,"  are  to  be 
found  in  the  military  histories  narrating  the 
events  and  results  of  the  battles  and  cam- 
paigns just  enumerated. 

In  the  progress  of  society,  certain  usages 
of  war  have  come  to  be  generally  recognized. 
These,  of  course,  have  varied  at  different 
times,  and  in  different  parts  of  the  world, 
according  to  the  state  of  civilization  and  the 


prevalent  feelings  of  the  time.  They  are 
also  subject  to  modification  from  causes  less 
general.     But  the  changes  which  have  taken 

Clace  in  them  during  the  lapse  of  ages  have 
een  in  general  favorable  to  the  interests  of 
humanity.  Prisoners  of  war  are  no  longer 
put  to  death,  nor  are  they  reduced  to  slavery, 
as  was  once  very  frequently  the  case,  but 
their  treatment  has  become  generally  more 
and  more  mild  and  kind.  It  is  a  well-un- 
derstood rule,  however,  that  a  prisoner  of 
war  obtaining  his  liberty  by  exchange  or 
otherwise,  with  the  condition  <if  not  serving 
again  during  a  fixed  period  against  the  same 
power,  forfeits  his  life,  if  he  is  found  so  serv- 
ing, and  is  again  taken  prisoner.  Among 
all  civilized  nations,  quarter  is  granted  in 
battle  whenever  it  is  sought  ;  and  there  are 
certain  usages  universally  prevalent  with 
regard  to  the  capitulation  of  fortified  places, 
and  of  bodies  of  troops  hopelessly  hemmed 
in  by  superior  forces,  etc. 

War,  Articles  of.  Sec  Appendix,  Ar- 
TKLKs  OK  War. 

War,  Auxiliary.  Is  that  in  which  a  na- 
tion succors  its  neighbors,  either  in  conse- 
quence of  alliances  or  engagements  entered 
into  with  them  ;  or  sometimes  to  prevent 
their  falling  under  the  power  of  an  am- 
bitious prince. 

War,  Civil.  A  war  between  different  sec- 
tions or  parties  of  the  same  country  or  nation. 

War,  Council  of.     See  Council  ok  War. 

War,  Defensive.  Is  a  war  undertaken 
to  repel  invasion  or  the  attacks  of  an  enemy. 
Defensive  war  may  be  divided  into  three 
kinds.  It  is  either  a  war  sustained  by  a  na- 
tion, which  is  suddenly  attacked  by  another 
who  is  superior  in  troops  and  in  means  ;  or 
a  nation  makes  this  sort  of  war  by  choice  on 
one  side  of  its  frontiers,  while  it  carries  on 
offensive  war  elsewhere;  or  it  is  a  war  be- 
come defetisive  by  the  loss  of  a  battle. 

War  Department.  See  Departmkstof 
Wai-.. 

War    Establishment.     See    EsTABLisn- 

MKNT. 

W^ar,  Game  of.     See  Strateoos. 

War,  Holy.  A  crusade;  a  war  under- 
taken to  deliver  the  Holy  Land,  or  Judea, 
from  infidels.     Sec  Crtsadk. 

War  Minister.  See  Minister,  and  Sec- 
retary OK  War. 

War,  Offensive.     Sec  Offensive  War. 

War  Office.  The  immediate  office  of  the 
British  secretary  of  state  for  war,  and  the 
centre  on  which  pivots  the  entire  adminis- 
tration of  the  army.  It  is  suMivided  into  a 
number  of  departments,  each  under  a  chief 
oflScer.  who  is  at  the  head  of  that  section  of 
the  labor,  and  is  directly  responsible  to  the 
secretary  of  state.  The  last  named  high  offi- 
cer is  allied  by  two  under-secretaries  of  state, 
an  assistant  under-secretarv,  and  a  military 
assistant.  Under  these  an^  the  heads  of  de- 
partments there  are  about  460  clerks,  with 
50  messentrers,  etc. 

War  of  Succession.  See  SuccESSlox 
Wars. 


WAR 


628 


WAESAW 


War,  Religious.  Is  a  war  maintained  in 
a  state  on  account  of  religion,  one  of  the 
parties  refusing  to  tolerate  the  other. 

Warasdins.  A  kind  of  Sclavonian  sol- 
diers, clothed  like  the  Turks,  with  a  sugar- 
loaf  bonnet  instead  of  a  hat. 

War-beat,  or  War-beaten.  "Worn  down 
in  service. 

Warburg  (Northern  Germany).  Here 
the  French  were  defeated  by  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick  and  the  allies,  July  31,  1760. 

War-cry.  A  cry  or  signal  used  in  war. 
For  mutual  recognition  and  encouragement 
in  battle,  war-cries  have  always  been  com- 
mon, each  rude  nation  or  tribe  having  its 
own.  The  ancient  war-cry  of  the  English 
was  Saint  George!  that  of  the  Spaniards, 
San  Jago!  and  that  of  the  French,  Montjoie 
Saint-Denis !  that  of  the  dukes  of  Burgundy, 
Montjoie  Saint- Andre!  and  that  of  the  dukes 
of  Bourbon,  Montjoie  Notre-Dame.  In  the 
feuds  of  the  Middle  Ages,  each  party,  or  the 
retainers  of  each  noble  family,  had  a  dis- 
tinctive war-cry.  Sometimes  the  war-cry 
was  the  name  of  the  family.  Thus,  in  Scot- 
land, the  retainers  of  the  noble  houses  of 
Douglas  and  of  Home  rushed  into  battle 
with  the  cry  of  A  Douglas !  a  Doi/glas  I  or  A 
Home!  a  Home!  The  French  armies  under 
Napoleon  were  accustomed  to  charge  with 
shouts  of  FM'fi  I'Empereur! 

Ward.  Watch,  the  act  of  guarding.  A 
garrison  or  party  stationed  for  defense  of 
any  place;  a  position  of  defense  or  guard 
made  by  a  weapon  in  fencing.  Also,  to 
guard ;  to  watch  ;  to  defend  ;  to  parry  an 
attack. 

Ward-Burton  Rifle.  See  Magazine 
GtrNS. 

War-dance.  A  dance  among  savages 
preliminary  to  going  to  war.  Among  the 
North  American  Indians,  it  is  begun  by 
some  distinguished  chief,  and  whoever  joins 
in  it  thereby  enlists  as  one  of  the  party  en- 
gaged in  a  warlike  excursion.  The  war- 
dance  is  also  indulged  in  upon  the  close  of 
any  successful  expedition,  as  well  as  for 
pleasure. 

Warden.  An  ofScer  appointed  for  the 
naval  or  military  protection  of  some  particu- 
lar district  of  country.  In  order  to  keep 
the  districts  of  England  adjoining  to  Scot- 
land and  Wales  in  an  attitude  of  defense, 
great  officers,  called  lo7-d  wardens  of  the 
marches,  were  appointed,  to  whom  the  duty 
of  protecting  the  frontier  was  committed. 
From  this  source  originated  the  name  tva7Yl, 
applied  to  the  subdivisions  of  the  counties 
of  Cumberland,  AVestmoreland,  and  Dur- 
ham,— a  term  afterwards  extended  to  divis- 
ions of  a  city,  town,  or  burgh  adopted  for 
municipal  purposes.  The  custodier  of  Dover 
Castle  was  created  by  William  the  Con- 
queror warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports,  and 
guardian  of  the  adjacent  coast,  an  office 
comprising  extensive  jurisdiction,  civil, 
naval,  and  military,  the  greater  part  of 
which  was  taken  away  by  18  and  19  Vict., 
c.  48. 


Warder.  A  truncheon,  or  staff  of  com- 
mand, carried  by  a  king  or  any  commander- 
in-chief,  the  throwing  down  of  which  seems 
to  have  been  a  solemn  act  of  prohibition  to 
stay  proceedings. 

Warfare.  Military  service ;  military 
life  ;  war  ;  hostilities  ;  contest  carried  on  by 
enemies. 

Warfarer.  One  engaged  in  warfare ;  a 
military  man;  a  soldier. 

War-field.     A  field  of  war  or  battle. 

W^ar-horse.  A  horse  used  in  war ;  the 
horse  of  a  cavalry  soldier ;  especially,  a 
strong,  powerful,  spirited  horse  for  military 
service ;  a  charger. 

Warlike.  Fit  for  war ;  disposed  for  war ; 
as,  a  warlike  state.  Belonging  or  relating 
to  war  ;  military  ;  martial. 

Warlike  Virtues.  Are  love  of  our  coun- 
try, courage,  valor,  prudence,  intrepidity, 
temperance,  disinterestedness,  obedience, 
wisdom,  vigilance,  and  patience.  In  the 
celebration  of  the  anniversary  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Bastile,  which  took  place  at  Paris 
July  14, 1789,  the  French  characterized  these 
eleven  virtues  by  the  following  emblems  :  a 
pelican,  a  lion,  a  horse,  a  stag,  a  wolf,  an 
elephant,  a  dog,  a  yoked  ox,  an  owl,  a  cock, 
and  a  camel. 

Warned.  Admonished  of  some  duty  to 
be  performed  at  a  given  time  or  place. 
Thus,  officers  and  soldiers  are  warned  for 
guard,  etc. 

War-paint.  Paint  put  on  the  face  and 
other  parts  of  the  body  by  savages,  as  a 
token  of  going  to  war. 

War-path.  The  route  taken  by  a  party 
going  on  a  warlike  expedition, — usually 
applied  to  hostile  Indians. 

War-proof.     Valor  tried  by  war. 

Warrant.  A  certificate  of  rank  issued  by 
commissioned  officers.  See  Officers,  War- 
rant-. 

Warrant.  In  Great  Britain,  is  a  royal 
ordinance  on  any  matter  relating  to  the 
army. 

Warrington.  A  town  of  England,  in 
Lancashire,  on  the  river  Mersey,  17  miles 
east  by  south  from  Liverpool.  As  the  best 
passage  of  the  river,  it  was  the  scene  of  fre- 
quent conflicts  during  the  civil  war  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  I.  In  1643  the  town  was 
twice  taken  by  storm  by  the  Parliamentary'^ 
forces.  In  1648  the  Scottish  army  made  a 
stand  here,  but  were  defeated  by  Gen.  Lam- 
bert, who  also  here  repulsed  the  troops  under 
Charles  II.  on  his  way  to  Worcester  in 
1651 ;  and  in  1745  the  centre  arches  of  the 
bridge,  over  the  Mersej',  were  broken  down 
to  impede  the  progress  of  the  Highlanders 
under  the  Pretender. 

Warrior.  A  man  engaged  in  war  or  mil- 
itary life  ;  a  soldier;  a  man  noted  for  valor 
and  prowess  ;  a  champion. 

Warsaw.  Formerly  the  capital  of  Po- 
land, now  capital  of  the  Russian,  or  rather 
Russianized,  government  of  Warsaw,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Vistula,  about  300  miles 
east  of  Berlin  by  railway.     The  Poles  were 


WAR-SCOT 


629 


WATCH-TOWER 


defeated  in  a  three  days'  hattle  by  the 
Swedes,  July  28-30,  IGoO.  An  alliaiue  was 
formed  here,  between  Austria  and  I'ohind 
against  Turkey,  in  pursuance  of  which 
John  Sobieski  assisted  in  raising  the  siege 
of  Vienna  (see  Vienna),  March  ?A,  1083. 
Warsaw  surrendered  to  Charles  XII.,  1703. 
A  treaty  was  concluded  here  between  Russia 
and  Poland,  February  24,  17t»8.  The  Rus- 
sians, placed  here  in  1794,  were  expelled 
by  the  citizens  with  the  loss  of  2000  killed 
and  500  wounded,  and  30  pieces  of  cannon, 
April  17,  1794;  the  Polos  were  defeated,  by 
the  Ku.ssians  at  Maciejovice,  near  AVarsaw, 
October  4,  1704.  The  king  of  Prussia  be- 
sieged Warsaw,  July,  1794;  was  compelled 
to  raise  the  siege  in  September  ;  but  it  was 
taken  by  the  Russians,  November,  1794. 
On  November  4,  1794,  tlie  Russian  general 
Suwarrow,  after  the  siege  and  destruction 
of  Warsaw,  cruelly  butchered  30,000  Poles, 
of  all  ages  and  conditions,  in  cold  blood. 
In  August,  1807,  Warsaw  was  constituted 
a  duchy,  and  annexed  to  the  house  of  Sax- 
ony, in  1813  the  duchy  was  overrun  by 
the  Russians,  and  Warsaw  made  the  resi- 
dence of  a  Russian  viceroy.  A  Polish  revo- 
lution commenced  at  Warsaw,  November 
29,  1830.  The  subsequent  principal  events 
in  the  history  of  this  city  being  intimately 
connected  with  that  of  the  state  of  which  it 
was  the  capital,  are  narrated  in  the  article 
Poland. 

War-scot,  A  contribution  for  the  sup- 
ply of  arms  and  armor,  in  the  time  of  the 
Saxons. 

War-song.  A  song  exciting  to  war  ;  es- 
pecially, among  the  American  Indians,  a 
song  at  the  war-dance,  fu^l  of  incitements 
to  military  ardor. 

War-traitor.  A  person  who  betrays  to 
the  enemy  anything  concerning  the  condi- 
tion, safety,  operation,  or  j)lans  of  the 
troops  holding  or  occupying  a  [ilace.  The 
punishment  is  usually  death. 

AA/ar-whoop.  The  cry  or  shout  uttered 
by  Iiuliaiis  iti  war. 

Warwickshire.  A  county  occupying  al- 
most the  very  heart  of  England,  and  the 
centre  and  highest  point  of  the  great  district 
of  midland  table-land.  At  the  time  of  the 
Roman  invasion  the  county  was  inhabited 
partly  by  the  Cornavii,  and  partly  by  the 
Wigantes,  or  Wiccii.  Under  the  Romans 
it  forme<l  part  of  the  province  of  Flavia 
Ca'sarionsis.  Under  the  Saxons,  the  county 
was  included  in  the  kingdom  of  Mercia, 
whose  rulers  occasionally  resided  at  War- 
wick, Tamworth,  and  kingsbury.  After 
the  Conquest,  the  powerful  families,  the 
Newburghs,  Beauchamps,  and  Nevilles, 
who  held  the  earldom  of  Warwick,  in- 
volved the  county  in  all  the  groat  civil  wars 
recorded  in  English  history.  In  the  troubles 
in  Henry  Ill.'s  reign,  Kenil worth  stood  a 
long  sioie  by  the  royal  forces;  in  the  wars 
of  the  Roses',  the  city  of  Coventry  warmly 
embraced  the  Lancastrian,  and  the  town  of 
Warwick    the   Yorkist  cause;   and   in   the 


war  between  Charles  I.  and  his  Parliament, 
Warwickshire  was  torn  by  the  contending 
factions,  who  made  special  head  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Birmingham.  Charles 
slept  at  Aston  Hall,  near  tliat  town,  on 
his  march  through  Warwickshire  in  1042, 
and  two  days  afterward*  the  first  great  bat- 
tle of  the  civil  war  was  fought  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  county  at  Edge  Hill.  Swords 
and  other  weanrms,  used  in  the  battle,  are 
still  occasionally  plowed  up.  Maxstoko 
Castle  (inhabited)  is  externally  a  remark- 
ably perfect  specimen  of  the  fortified  resi- 
dences of  the  period  of  the  14th  century. 

Warwolf.  In  ancient  military  history,  an 
engine  for  throwing  stones  and  other  great 
masses. 

War-worn.  Worn  with  military  service; 
as,  !i  \var-\v"iri  soldier. 

Washington  City.  The  seat  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  of  America, 
is  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Potomac  River,  between  Ana- 
oostia  River  and  Rock  Creek,  which  separates 
it  from  Georgetown,  39  miles  southwest  from 
Baltimore,  and  120  miles  northeast  from 
Richmond.  This  city  was  commenced  in 
1793,  but  operations  were  subsequently  sus- 
pended in  consequence  of  the  war,  and  much 
that  had  been  done  was  destroyed  by  the 
British  in  1814,  so  that  the  whole  edifice  was 
recommenced  in  1815,  and  was  not  entirely 
finished  till  1828.  During  the  civil  war 
(I8GI-G0),  from  its  exposed  position,  it  was 
threatened  with  capture,  and  was  surrounded 
with  fortifications,  and  converted  into  an 
intrenched  camp. 

\A^ashington  Territory.  A  Territory  of 
the  United  States  ;  bounded  north  by  British 
Columbia,  ea^-t  by  the  Territory  of  Idaho, 
south  by  the  Columbia  River,  which  sepa- 
rates it  from  Oreg(m,  and  west  by  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  This  Territory  was  discovered  by 
Juan  de  Fuca,  a  Greek,  in  1592;  visited  by 
a  Spanish  navigator  in  1775,  and  three  years 
after  by  Capt.  Cook.  In  1787,  Berkeley,  an 
Englishman,  re-discovered  the  Strait  of 
Fuca,  which  had  been  missed  by  the  others. 
Settlements  wore  made  in  this  Territory  by 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company  in  1828;  in  1845, 
American  settlers  entoredthe  Territory,  then 
a  jnirt  of  Oregon.  Wars  with  tlie  Indians, 
in  1855  and  1858,  retarded  immigration,  but 
in  the  latter  year.  15,(KX)  pors<.ns  were  at- 
tracted by  gold  discoveries.  This  Territory 
was  organized  in  \S'hi. 

Wat  Tyler's  Insurrection.  See  Tyler's 
Insirrkction. 

Watch.  The  non-commissioned  oflScers 
and  men  on  board  of  tran?iK>rts  are  divided 
into  three  watches,  one  of  which  is  constantly 
to  bo  on  dock,  with  at  least  one  subaltern 
officer  in  charge  of  the  watch. 

Watch  and  Ward.  The  charge  or  caro 
of  certain  othcers  to  keep  a  watch  by  night 
and  a  guard  by  day  in  towns,  cities,  and 
other  districts,  for  "the  preservation  of  the 
public  peace. 

Watch-tower.     A  tower  on  which  a  sen- 


WATCH-WORD 


630 


WATERLOO 


tinel  is  placed  to  watch  for  enemies  or  the 
approach  of  danger. 

Watch-word.     ISee  Parole. 

Water.  In  calculating  the  quantity  of 
water  required  per  man  for  drinking  and 
cooking,  it  may  be  put  down  at  6  pints  in  tem- 
perate, and  8  pints  in  tropical  climates.  A 
similar  amount  will  just  allow  men  to  wash 
their  bodies.  In  stationary  camps,  however, 
the  minimum  daily  allowance  per  man 
should  be  5  gallons  for  all  purposes,  washing 
clothes  included.  Horses  not  doing  work 
will  thrive  well  on  6  gallons  a  day,  but 
require  from  8  to  12  when  at  work,  accord- 
ing to  their  condition  and  the  nature  of  the 
work.  A  couple  of  gallons  extra  should, 
under  all  circumstances,  be  allowed  for  wash- 
ing them.  Oxen  require  about  6  or  7  gal- 
lons daily. 

In  selecting  positions,  particularly  those 
that  are  likely  to  be  of  a  permanent  charac- 
ter, a  careful  analysis  of  the  water  should 
be  made  by  a  medical  man.  A  fair  opinion 
can  be  formed  as  to  whether  it  is  wholesome 
or  not,  by  the  appearance  of  the  inhabitants, 
and  by  tasting  the  water  oneself.  "  It  should 
be  transparent,  colorless,  without  odor,  and 
tasteless  ;  well  aerated,  cool,  and  pleasant  to 
drink  ;  it  must  have  no  deposit ;  vegetables 
should  be  easily  cooked  in  it."  Shallow 
water  is  always  to  be  examined  with  sus- 
picion. The  water  of  some  rivers  at  certain 
seasons  is  thick  and  muddy ;  in  some,  it  is 
always  so.  To  examine  it  without  the  aid 
of  chemical  tests,  fill  a  long  tumbler  or  other 
glass  vessel  with  it.  If  the  water  has  been 
drawn  in  a  bucket  or  other  vessel,  shake  it 
up  and  stir  it  well  before  pouring  it  into  the 
tumbler  or  glass  cylinder  ;  let  it  stand  for  a 
daj',  or  as  many  hours  as  possible ;  draw  otf 
the  water  without  disturbing  the  sediment, 
which  should  then  be  carefully  examined 
through  a  microscope.  Vegetable  decompo- 
sitions and  iron  are  thechief  substances  that 
give  color  to  water.  When  water  is  very 
bad  it  should  be  boiled  before  drinking; 
after  boiling  it  should  be  placed  in  shallow 
vessels,  and  poured  from  a  height  from  one 
into  another.  Very  muddy  water  when 
placed  in  barrels  or  other  vessels,  can  be 
cleaned  by  immersing  the  hand  containing  a 
lump  of  alum  in  it,  and  moving  it  about  for 
a  few  seconds.  All  the  coloring  matter  will 
sink  to  the  bottom.  The  longer  the  time 
that  elapses  between  the  operation  and  drink- 
ing, the  better.  Growing  vegetable  sub- 
stances may  not  be  always  injurious,  but 
dead  vegetable  matter  is  so  without  doubt. 
At  the  maximum  density  (39.8°  Fahr.),  the 
barometer  being  at  30  inches,  a  gallon  of 
distilled  water  weighs  8.33888  avoirdupois 
pounds  or  58,373  grains. 

Water-battery.  One  nearly  on  a  level 
with  the  water. 

Water-bucket.     See  Implements. 

Water-budget.  A  heraldic  bearing,  in 
the  form  of  a  yoke  with  two  pouches  of 
leather  appended  to  it,  originally  intended 
to  represent  the  bags  used  by  the  Crusaders 


to  convey  water  across  the  desert,  which 
were  slung  on  a  pole,  and  carried  across  the 
shoulders.  The  Trusbuts,  barons  of  Wartre 
in  Holderness,  bore  Trols  boutz  d'eau,  "  Hiree 
waier-budgets,'^  symbolizing  at  once  their 
family  name  and  baronial  estate;  and  by 
the  marriage  of  the  heiress,  similar  arms 
came  to  be  assumed  by  the  family  of  De 
Ros,  who  bear  gules,  three  water-budgets 
argent. 

Water-deck.  A  covering  of  painted 
canvas  for  the  saddle,  bridle,  and  the  like, 
of  a  dragoon's  horse. 

Waterford.  A  maritime  county  of  the 
province  of  Munster,  in  Ireland.  In  the 
time  of  Ptolemy,  it  was  inhabited  by  the 
tribe  of  the  Brigantes.  It  was  afterwards 
peopled  by  the  Desii,  who  are  supposed  to 
have  migrated  from  a  tribe  of  the  same 
name  in  Meath ;  and  having  spread  them- 
selves also  over  the  plain  country  of  Tippe- 
rary ;  those  settled  in  Waterford  were  dis- 
tinguished by  the  name  of  South  Desii,  and 
the  others  by  that  of  North  Desii.  Here 
the  Danes  established  a  permanent  settle- 
ment in  the  9th  century,  making  the  city  of 
Waterford  their  chief  seat  of  government ; 
and  though  frequently  involved  in  wars 
with  the  surrounding  natives,  they  retained 
possession  of  the  city  and  district  until  their 
subjugation  by  the  English,  who,  in  1170, 
under  Strongbow,  stormed  Watei-ford,  took 
their  chieftain  or  prince  prisoner,  and 
brought  the  whole  of  the  Desiis  into  the 
possession  of  the  English.  Shortly  after, 
Henry  II.  granted  the  greater  part  of  the 
county  to  Robert  le  Poer,  and  the  remain- 
der, with  that  of  Cork,  then  a  petty  king- 
dom, to  Milo  de  Cogan,  two  of  his  followers. 
King  John  landed  at  Waterford  in  1211, 
and  personally  visited  many  parts  of  the 
country.  The  next  king  of  England  who 
visited  Ireland,  Richard  II.,  landed  at 
Waterford  in  1394,  with  an  army  of  4000 
men-at-arms,  and  30,000  archers.  The 
county  suffered  severely  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  through  the  rebellion  of  the  Earl 
of  Desmond,  and  the  Spanish  invasion  ;  and 
also  in  the  wars  of  1G41,  during  the  first 
years  of  which,  its  possession  was  the  sub- 
ject of  continued  sanguinary  contention  be- 
tween the  English  and  Irish  forces,  until  it 
was  ultimatel}'  reduced  under  the  authority 
of  the  English  Parliament  by  Cromwell. 
During  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  it  took 
part  with  King  James,  and  was  reduced  by 
King  William's  forces,  under  Gen.  Kirk, 
after  the  decisive  battle  of  the  Boyne. 

Watering-bucket.     See  Implements. 

Watering  -  call.  A  trumpet  sounding, 
on  which  the  cavalry  assemble  to  water 
their  horses. 

Waterloo,  A  village  of  Belgium,  prov- 
ince of  South  Brabant,  on  the  highway 
from  Charleroi  to  Brussels ;  which  was  the 
scene  of  the  greatest  and  most  decisive  bat- 
tle of  modern  times.  This  battle  was  fought 
on  June  18,  1815,  between  the  French  army 
of  71,947  men  and  246  guns,  under  Napo- 


WATTIGNIES 


631 


WESTMORLAND 


leon,  and  the  allies,  commnndod  by  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  ;  the  hitter  witli  (;7,»i«31 
men  and  150  fjiins,  resisted  the  various  at- 
tacks of  the  enemy  from  10  o'clock  in  the 
mornint;  until  o  o'clock  in  the  afternoon. 
About  that  tin)e  lt;,0()0  Prussians  reached 
the  field  of  battle;  and  by  7  o'clock,  the 
force  under  Uludier  amounted  to  above 
50,000  men,  with  104  guns.  Wellington 
then  moved  f(jr\vard  his  whole  army,  and 
in  every  point  this  attack  succeeded.  The 
French  were  forced  from  their  positions,  and 
fled  in  the  utmost  confusion,  leaving  227 
pieces  of  artillery  in  the  hands  of  the  vic- 
tors. The  pursuit  was  kept  up  with  great 
energy  throughout  the  whole  night  by  the 
Prussian  troopers,  who  seemed  bent  upon 
at  once  avenging  the  defeats  of  Jena,  Auer- 
stadt,  and  Lignj',  and  glutted  their  tierce 
animosity  by  an  indiscriminate  slaughter. 
The  total  loss  in  this  battle  was,  from  the 
obstinacy  and  determination  with  which  it 
was  contested,  necessarily  large;  the  figures 
are:  British  and  Hanoverians,  11,078;  Bruns- 
wickers,087;  N!issauers,04;J;  Netherlanders, 
3178;  a  total  of  10,1«0;  which  added  to  0999 
Prussians,  gives  the  aggregate  allied  loss, 
23,185.  Tlie  French  had  18,500  killed  and 
wounded,  and  7800  prisoners  (some  French 
accounts  raise  the  total  list  of  hors  de  cumhat 
to  32,000).  Napoleon,  quitting  the  wreck 
of  his  flying  army,  returned  to  Paris;  and, 
finding  it  impossible  to  raise  another,  abdi- 
cated the  throne  of  France. 

Wattignies.  A  village  of  France,  de- 
partment of  Nord,  where  Jourdan  and  the 
French  republicans  defeated  the  Austrians 
under  the  Prince  of  Coburg,  and  raised  the 
siege  of  .Maubeuge,  October  14-16,  1793. 

Waver.  A  body  of  troops  is  said  to  waver 
when  it  becomes  unsteady  if  at  the  halt,  or 
to  hesitate  and  lose  its  order  if  on  the  march, 
under  the  fire  of  the  enemy. 

Wavre.  A  town  in  the  province  of  South 
Brabant,  Belgium.  It  is  known  as  the  scene 
of  a  desperate  and  protracted  conflict  be- 
tween the  French  and  Prussians,  on  June 
18-19,  1815.  The  former  under  Grouchy, 
Gerard,  and  Vandamme,  advanced  against 
the  Prussians  at  the  sanu>  time  as  Napoleon 
directed  the  troops  under  his  immediate  or- 
ders against  AVellington  at  Waterbio,  and 
being  much  superior  in  number  (32, (MM)  to 
15,200),  drove  the  Prussians  under  Tliiclnnm 
into  Wavre,  where  they  defended  themselves 
with  desperate  firmness,  repulsing  thirteen 
difl'erent  assaults  in  the  course  of  the  18th. 
On  the  following  morning,  Thielman,  who 
Lad  heard  of  the  victory  at  Walerloi>,  at- 
tacked Grouchy,  but  was  repulsed  with  vigor, 
tlu>ugh  the  urgent  orders  of  Napoleon  forced 
the  latter  to  retreat  to  Laon,  instead  of  fol- 
lowing up  his  success. 

Wawz,  or  Wawer  (Poland).  The  Poles 
under  Skrzynccki  attacked  the  Russians  at 
Wawz,  and  after  two  days'  hard  fighting, 
all  the  Kussian  positions  were  carried  by 
storm,  and  thev  retreated  with  the  loss  of 
12,000  men  and  2000  prisoners,  March  31, 


1831.  The  loss  of  the  Poles  was  small,  but 
their  triumph  wu.s  soon  followed  by  defeat 
and  ruin. 

Way,  Covert.     See  Covekt  Way. 

Way  of  the  Rounds.  In  fortifi«ation,  a 
spacf  kit  for  the  passage  of  the  rounds  be- 
tween the  rampart  and  the  wall  of  a  forti- 
fied town. 

Waywode.  A  Slavic  word  meaning 
"  leader  in  war,''  was  first  applied  simply  to 
the  military  commanders,  but  afterward  aKo 
to  the  governors  of  the  provinces,  and  used 
in  Poland,  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Molda- 
via, and  Wallachia.  It  has  been  superseded 
by  another  title,  also  of  Slavic  origin, — 
hospinlar. 

Weapon.  An  instrument  of  offensive  or 
defensive  combat ;  something  to  fight  with  ; 
anything  used,  or  designed  to  be  used,  in 
destroying  or  annoying  an  enemy. 

■Weaponed.  Furni>hed  with  weapons  or 
arm^  ;   armed  ;   t(jui|iped. 

Weaponless.  Having  no  weapons  ;  un- 
armed. 

Wear  and  Tear.  Said  of  military  stores 
which  have  been  worn  out  in  service;  as, 
the  equiiiments  were  rendered  useless  by  the 
wear  and  tear  of  service. 

Wednesfield.  A  parish  of  England,  in 
Statiordshire.  Edward  the  Elder  gained  a 
victory  over  the  Danes  near  this  place  in  the 
beginning  of  the  10th  century. 

Well.  A  depth  which  the  miner  sinks 
under  ground,  with  branches  or  galleries 
running  out  from  it,  either  to  prepare  a 
mine,  or  to  discover  the  enemy's  mine. 

■Well  Found.     Fully  erjuipped. 

Werder  Rifle.     See  Sm.\i,i,-.vrms. 

Werndl  Rifle.     See  Sm.\i,i.-aiims. 

Westmorland,  or  Westmoreland.  One 
of  the  lake  counties  of  England,  bounded  by 
Cumberland  on  the  northwest  and  north,  by 
Durham  and  Yorkshire  on  the  east,  and  by 
Lancashire  on  the  south  and  west.  It.s  earl- 
iest inhabitants,  as  far  as  any  traces  renuiin, 
were  principally,  though  not  exclusively, 
Celts  of  the  Cambrian  division.  Early  in 
the  2d  century  this  part  of  England  was 
overrun  by  the  Kumans,  who  established 
their  power  by  means  of  numerous  forts  and 
well-constructed  roads.  From  the  with- 
drawal of  the  Romans  to  the  connng  in  of 
the  Angles  and  the  Danes  the  history  of 
Westmorland  is  a  complete  blank.  The  in- 
vasion of  the  former  people,  who  apnear  to 
have  penetrated  along  the  lines  of  tlie  Ki>- 
man  roads,  probably  commenced  alwut  the 
close  of  the  7th  century,  and  soon  after  the 
Northmen,  when  driven  from  the  other 
parts  of  England,  took  refuge  in  this  coun- 
try. Westmorland,  with  other  northern 
counties,  was  either  held  or  daimctl  during 
some  centuries  by  Scotland,  and  thus  con- 
tinued for  a  bmg  time  a  cause  of  ci.>ntention 
between  the  two  countries  ;  but  in  1237  the 
king  of  Scotland  wiu«  induifd  to  give  up  his 
claim  to  it.  From  this  time  to  the  jteritKl  of 
the  civil  war  of  the  reign  i)f  Charles  I. 
Westmorland    enjoyed    comparative    tran- 


WESTPHALIA 


632 


WIOKLOW 


quillity.  In  1G48,  Sir  Marmadiike  Langdale 
raised  a  force  of  upwards  of  4000  men, 
chiefly  in  Cumberland  and  Westmorland. 
They  were  joined  by  the  Scots,  who  re- 
mained in  the  latter  county  until  they  were 
compelled  to  remove  out  of  it  for  want  of 
provisions  ;  and  during  their  stay,  and  until 
the  final  retreat  of  the  royalists,  this  district 
was  reduced  to  extreme  distress.  In  1715 
the  adherents  of  the  Stuart  family  passed 
through  Westmorland  on  their  way  to  Pres- 
ton. And  again  in  1745,  Prince  Charles, 
with  his  Highland  followers,  marched 
through  the  county  in  his  invasion  of  Eng- 
land. During  the  retreat  of  this  ill-fated 
expedition,  in  December  of  the  same  year, 
the  rear  of  the  Highlanders  was  overtaken 
by  the  Duke  of  Cumberland's  horse  on  Clif- 
ton Moor,  when  a  sharp  skirmish  ensued, 
which  checked  the  advance  of  the  English 
for  the  moment,  and  hastened  the  retreat  of 
the  rebels. 

Westphalia,  or  Munster,  Peace  of.  Was 
signed  at  Munster  and  at  Osnaburg,  between 
France,  the  emperor,  and  Sweden  ;  Spain 
continuing  the  war  against  France.  By  this 
peace  the  principle  of  a  balance  of  power  in 
Europe  was  first  recognized ;  Alsace  given 
to  France,  and  part  of  Pomerania  and  some 
other  districts  to  Sweden  ;  the  elector  pala- 
tine restored  to  the  Lower  Palatinate ;  the 
religious  and  political  rights  of  the  German 
states  established ;  and  the  independence  of 
the  Swiss  Confederation  recognized  by  Ger- 
many, October  24,  1648. 

West  Point.  Site  of  the  United  States 
Military  Academy,  and  of  a  fortress  erected 
during  the  war  of  Independence,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Hudson  lliver,  52  miles 
north  of  the  city  of  New  York.  The  Military 
Academy  is  on  a  plain  160  to  180  feet  above 
the  river,  surrounded  by  the  bold  scenery  of 
one  of  the  finest  river-passes  in  the  world. 
The  forts  and  a  river-chain  were  taken  by 
the  British  in  1777,  but  abandoned  after  Bur- 
goyne's  surrender,  and  stronger  forts  were 
built,  which  Gen.  Arnold  bargained  to  be- 
tray,— a  plot  foiled  by  the  arrest  of  Maj. 
Andre.  For  history  of  the  Military  Acad- 
emy at  West  Point,  see  Military  Acad- 
emies. 

■West  Virginia.     See  Virginia,  West. 

Wexford.  A  maritime  county  of  the 
province  of  Leinster,  Ireland.  The  mari- 
time position  of  Wexford  laid  it  open  early 
to  the  incursions  of  the  Danes,  to  whom  the 
name  Wexford,  or  Weisford,  is  traced  by 
antiquaries.  It  was  the  first  landing-place 
of  the  English  in  the  invasion,  and  formed 
part  of  the  tract  granted  by  MacMurrough 
to  the  English  adventurers  whose  assistance 
he  had  invoked.  During  the  civil  wars 
which  followed  1641,  Wexford  was  the  scene 
of  frequent  contests ;  and  in  the  more  recent 
insurrection  of  1798,  it  formed  the  theatre 
of  the  only  formidable  conflicts  of  the  peas- 
antry with  the  regular  troops. 

Wheel.  See  Ordnance,  Carriages  for, 
The  Caisson. 


Wheel,  To.  In  tactics,  to  move  forward 
or  backward  in  a  circular  manner,  round 
some  given  point.  Wheeling  is  one  of  the 
most  essential  and  important  operations  of 
the  company,  necessary  in  many  changes  of 
position,  and  in  the  formation  of  column 
and  of  the  line. 

Wheelings.  Different  circular  motions 
made  by  horse  and  foot,  either  to  the  right 
or  left,  forward  and  backward,  etc. 

Wheel-lock.  A  sort  of  lock  anciently 
used  on  arquebuses.  It  consisted  of  a  rough- 
ened steel  wheel,  with  chain  and  spring, 
which,  when  wound  up  like  a  watch,  re- 
volved rapidly,  and  struck  fire  against  a  flint 
held  in  the  cock. 

Whinyard.  A  sword,  or  hanger,  so  called 
by  Butler  in  his  "Hudibras." 

Whipping.     See  Flogging. 

White  Eagle,  Order  of  the.  An  order 
of  knighthood  in  Poland,  instituted  by 
Vladislaus  V.  in  1.S25;  revived  by  Fred- 
erick Augustus  I.  in  1705. 

White  Feather.  A  mark  of  cowardice. 
To  show  the  white  feather,  to  give  indica- 
tions of  cowardice. 

White  Gunpowder.     See  Gunpowder. 

White  Plains.  A  village  of  Westchester 
Co.,  jST.  Y.,  25  miles  north-northeast  of  New 
York.  A  noted  battle  of  the  Revolution 
was  fought  in  the  vicinity,  October  28,  1776, 
between  the  Americans  and  the  British,  in 
which  the  former  were  worsted. 

Whiteboys.  A  body  of  ruffians  in  Ire- 
land, so  called  on  account  of  their  wearing 
linen  frocks  over  their  coats.  They  com- 
mitted dreadful  outrages  in  1761,  but  were 
suppressed  by  a  military  force,  and  their 
ringleaders  executed  in  1762.  They  rose 
into  insurrection  again  and  were  suppressed 
1786-87.  Whiteboys  have  appeared  at  various 
times  since,  committing  the  most  frightful 
crimes.  The  insurrection  act  was  passed  on 
their  account  in  1822. 

Whitworth  Gun.  See  Ordnance,  Con- 
struction OF. 

Whiz.  To  make  a  humming  or  hissing 
sound,  like  an  arrow  or  ball  flying  through 
the  air. 

Who  Comes  There  ?  The  night  chal- 
lenge of  a  sentinel  on  post. 

Whogp.  A  shout;  a  loud  noise  which 
soldiers  make  in  charging.  It  is  a  natural 
though  a  barbarous  habit,  and  has  been  pre- 
served in  civilized  armies  from  a  prevailing 
custom  among  savages,  particularly  the  wild 
Indians  of  America. 

Wicket.  A  small  door  in  the  gate  of  a 
fortified  place,  afl^"ording  a  free  passage  to 
the  people  without  opening  the  great  gate. 

Wicklow.  A  maritime  county  in  the 
province  of  Leinster,  in  Ireland.  Accord- 
ing to  Ptolemy  the  geographer,  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  county  was  the  residence  of 
the  tribe  of  the  Cauci,  and  the  southern  that 
of  the  Menapii.  It  was  afterwards  occu- 
pied by  the  Irish  septs  of  the  Byrnes  and 
O'Tooles,  who,  though  the  district  was 
claimed  by  the  English  after  their   settle- 


WIDDIN 


633 


WILDERNESS 


ment,  maintained  their  independence,  and 
carried  on  an  almost  continual  war  againjit 
the  new  settlers  until  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth.  The  inhabitants  adhered  U>  the 
royal  cause  during  the  war  of  1041,  until 
the  arrival  of  Cromwell,  to  whose  superior 
force  they  submitted  without  opposition. 
No  other  occurrences  of  historical  impor- 
tance took  place  until  IT'JM,  when  several 
bands  of  insurgents  sought  refuge  in  the 
mountain  fastnesses  after  the  disjiersion  of 
their  nuiin  body  in  Wexford,  and  continued 
to  harass  the  neighboring  counties  until 
tranquillity  was  restored,  partly  by  making 
terms  with  the  leaders,  and  jmrlly  by  estab- 
lishing military  posts  in  the  interior  of  the 
country. 

Widdin,  or  Widin.  A  fortified  town  of 
European  Turkey.  It  is  surrounded  on  the 
land  side  by  morasses,  and  is  defended  by  a 
strong  citadel,  by  walls,  and  by  a  fortified 
island  in  the  Danube.  For  centuries  it  has 
been  a  strong  post  in  all  the  contests  be- 
tween the  Turks  and  their  northern  neigh- 
bors, and  it  is  called  by  the  Turks  the  ^'ir- 
gin  Fort,  from  its  never  having  been  taken. 

Wield.  To  use  with  full  command  or 
power,  as  a  thing  not  heavy  for  the  holder  ; 
to  manage ;  tt)  handle  ;  as,  to  wield  a  sword. 

Wiesbaden.  A  town  of  Prussia,  for- 
merly capital  of  the  independent  dOchy  of 
Nassau.  The  Komans  built  a  station  here, 
and  erected  a  fort  on  a  hill  on  the  northwest 
side  of  the  town,  still  known  as  the  Komer- 
berg,  and  which  was  garrisoned  by  the  22d 
lioman  legion.  The  Maftinci,  a  subdivision 
of  the  German  tribe  called  the  C(t(ti,  allied 
themselves  with  the  llomans  ;  but  in  the  3d 
century,  the  barbarian  Germans  rose  against 
the  Komans,  and  destroyed  their  forts,  in- 
cluding AViesbaden. 

Wigan,  A  town  of  England,  in  Lan- 
cashire, situated  near  the  small  river  Doug- 
las. In  the  civil  war  the  king's  troops, 
commanded  by  the  Earl  of  Derby,  were  de- 
feated and  driven  out  of  the  town  in  1043  by 
the  Parliamentary  forces  under  Sir  John 
Sn)eaton.  The  earl  was  again  defeated  by 
Ashton,  who  razed  the  fortifications  of 
Wigan  to  the  ground  in  the  .same  year ;  and 
once  more  by  a  greatly  superior  force  com- 
manded by  Col.  Lilburne,  1051. 

Wight,  Isle  of  (anc.  ]'cctn,  or  Vcctis).  An 
island  in  tlu'  Knglish  Channel,  lying  off  the 
coast  of  Hampshire,  from  which  it  is  sepa- 
rated by  the  Solent.  It  was  originally  peo- 
pled by  the  Celts,  who  were  afterwards  ex- 
pelled or  subdued  by  the  Hclgie ;  and  these, 
in  their  turn,  were  compelled  to  submit,  in 
43,  to  the  Koman  legions  under  Vespasian. 
The  Saxon  kings  of  Wessex  conquered  it 
about  530,  after  n  sanguinary  action  at 
AVilit-garasbyrig,  supposed  to  oe  the  mod- 
ern Carisbrooke.  In  001,  it  was  subdued  by 
"W'ulfhere,  son  of  Penda,  king  of  Mercia. 
The  Danes  invaded  the  Wight  in  787,  8<.»7, 
981,  998,  anil  again  in  UK)3,  when  they  de- 
stroyed the  town  of  Waltham.  supposed  to 
be  identical  with  the  modern  Werror.  The 
41 


French  landed  on  the  island,  but  were  re- 
pulsed in  1340.  In  1377,  the  French  burnt 
the  towns  of  Yarmouth,  Newtown,  and 
Newport,  but  were  defeated  in  an  attack 
wliicli  they  hazarded  upon  Carisbrooke  Cas- 
tle. In  154.'>,  the  French  forces,  which  had 
assembled  under  Claude  d'Annebault,  and 
fought  an  indecisive  action  with  Lord  Lisle 
at  Snithead,  threw  themselves  upon  the 
island  in  four  detachments  at  Sea  View, 
Bembridge,  Shanklin,  and  Bonchurch,  but 
were  repulsed  with  signal  loss. 

Wigwam  (sometimes  written  werkicam). 
An  Indian  cabin  or  hut.  The  wigwam,  or 
Indian  house,  of  a  circular  or  oval  shape, 
was  made  of  bark  or  mats  laid  over  a  frame- 
work of  branches  of  trees  stuck  in  the  ground 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  converge  at  the  top, 
where  was  a  central  aperture  for  the  escape 
of  smoke  from  the  fire  beneath.  The  better 
sort  had  also  a  lining  of  mats.  For  entrance 
and  egress  two  low  openings  were  left  on 
opposite  sides,  one  or  the  other  of  which  was 
closed  with  bark  or  mats,  according  to  the 
direction  of  the  wind. 

Wilderness,  Battles  of  the.  "Were  fought 
between  the  Federal  and  Confederate  armie-s 
in  Virginia,  in  May,  1804.  They  consisted 
of  a  series  of  sanguinary  battles,  having  for 
their  object  the  capture  of  Richmond.  The 
plan  of  Gen.  Grant,  commander-in-chief  of 
the  Union  forces,  was  to  follow  a  line  nearly 
corresponding  to  the  route  of  the  Freder- 
icksburg and  Richmond  Railroad,  making 
his  base  at  Acquia  Creek.  For  this  purpose 
he  moved  down  the  right  of  the  position  of 
Gen.  Lee,  who  commanded  the  Confederate 
army,  and  was  prepared  either  to  accept  a 
battle  from  him  on  the  Rapidan,  or  to  con- 
tinue his  march  to  Spottsylvania  Court- 
house. Gen.  Lee  would  not  consent  to  be- 
outflanked,  and  thereby  endanger  his  rail- 
road communication  with  Richmond.  He 
therefore  prepared  to  resist  the  progress  of 
Grant,  and  commenced  a  rapid  movement 
of  his  forces  parallel  with  the  course  of  the 
river.  Gen.  HilTs  and  E wells  forces  ar- 
rived in  front  of  Gen.  Grant's  forces  on 
Thursday,  iltiy  5,  1804. 

Early  on  the  morning  of  the  5th,  Grant's 
command  began  to  move.  The  5ih  Corps 
(AVarren's)  advanced  from  its  position  near 
Wilderness  Tavern,  along  the  roads  leading 
to  Orange  Court-house,  5  miles  to  Parker's 
store.  This  point  is  in  Spottsylvania  County,, 
about  8  miles  above  Chancellorsville.  The 
whole  face  of  the  country  in  that  neighb«ir- 
hood  is  thickly  covered  with  an  undergrowth 
of  field-pines,  cedars,  and  scrub-oaks,  and 
therefore  utterly  unfit  for  the  use  of  cavalry  or 
artillery.  The' t'.th  Corj^s  (Sedgwick's)  was 
to  follow,  and  the  2d  Corps  (Hancock's)  was 
to  stretch  southwesterly  from  Chancellors- 
ville toward  Shady  Grove  Church.  Sheri- 
dan covered  the  extreme  left,  with  the  ob- 
ject of  finding  the  enemy's  cavalry  under 
Stuart.  This  line  extended  nearly  5  miles, 
with  the  centre  thrown  forward,  when  the 
action  commenced.     The  oth  Corps  and  the 


WILDEKNESS 


634 


WILTSHIKE 


advance  of  the  enemy  under  Ewell  met, 
when  a  fierce  encounter  ensued,  the  Federals 
losing  about  1000  men.  At  different  periods 
during  the  afternoon  other  portions  of  the 
opposing  armies  came  in  contact,  and  the 
contest  became  exceedingly  bloody.  Such 
"was  the  nature  of  the  undergrowth  that 
there  was  little  opportunity  to  use  artillery. 
The  fire  of  the  enemy's  musketry  was  furious, 
and  continued  until  late  in  the  night,  but 
the  Federal  line  was  substantially  as  it  had 
been  when  the  battle  commenced  ;  both  ar- 
mies were  still  face  to  face,  ready  to  attack 
at  dawn  on  the  morrow. 

The  battle  of  the  Wilderness  was  renewed 
on  Maj'^  6,  and  consisted  of  a  succession  of 
fierce  attacks  made  by  each  side.  Both  had 
more  or  less  intrenched  their  positions  by 
felling  timber  and  covering  it  with  earth, 
or  slight  earthworks.  The  interval  of  ground 
between  the  opposing  lines  was  bought  over 
in  some  places  as  many  as  four  or  five  times, 
the  combatants  driving  each  other  in  turn 
from  the  opposite  lines  of  rifle-pits,  and  the 
battle  continued  with  unabated  fury  until 
darkness  set  in,  each  army  holding  substan- 
tially the  same  position  that  they  had  on  the 
evening  of  the  5th.  After  dark,  the  enemy 
made  a  feeble  attempt  to  turn  our  right 
flank,  but  the  promptness  of  Gen.  Sedg- 
wick, who  was  personallj'  present  and  com- 
manding that  part  of  the  line,  frustrated 
their  object.  During  these  two  days,  the 
total  loss  Avas  estimated  at  15,000.  On  the 
morning  of  the  7th,  reconnoissances  showed 
that  the  enemy  had  fallen  behind  his  in- 
trenched lines,  with  pickets  to  the  front, 
covering  a  part  of  the  battle-field.  Gen. 
Grant  determined  to  move  by  his  right  flank, 
and  put  his  whole  force  between  Lee's  forces 
and  Richmond. 

On  the  night  of  the  7th  the  march  was 
commenced  toward  Spottsylvania  Court- 
house, the  5th  Corps  moving  on  the  most 
direct  road.  But  Lee  having  been  apprised 
of  the  movement,  and  having  the  shorter 
line,  was  enabled  to  reach  there  first,  and 
the  battles  of  Spottsylvania  followed,  which 
are  given  below. 

On  the  8th,  Gen.  Warren  met  a  force  of 
the  enemy,  which  had  been  sent  out  to  op- 
pose and  delay  his  advance,  to  gain  time  to 
fortify  the  line  taken  up  at  Spottsylvania. 
This  force  was  steadily  driven  back  on  the 
main  force,  within  the  recentl^^-constructed 
works,  after  considerable  fighting,  resulting 
in  severe  loss  to  both  sides.  On  the  morn- 
ing of  the  9th  Gen.  Sheridan  started  on  a 
raid  against  the  enemy's  lines  of  communi- 
cation with  llichmond. 

The  9th,  10th,  and  11th  were  spent  in 
manoeuvring  and  fighting  without  decisive 
results.  Among  the  killed  on  the  9th  was 
that  able  and  distinguished  soldier.  Gen. 
Sedgwick,  commander  of  the  6th  Corps,  of 
which  Gen.  H.  G.  Wright  succeeded  to  the 
command.  Early  on  the  morning  of  the 
12th  a  general  attack  was  made  on  the 
enemy  in   position.     The   2d  Corps   (Han- 


cock's) carried  a  salient  of  his  line,  cap- 
turing most  of  Johnston's  division  of  Ewell's 
corps  and  20  pieces  of  artillery.  But  the 
resistance  was  so  obstinate  that  the  advan- 
tage gained  did  not  prove  decisive. 

From  the  13th  to  the  18th  was  consumed 
in  manoeuvring  and  awaiting  the  arrival  of 
recruits  from  Washington.  Deeming  it 
impracticable  to  make  any  further  attack 
upon  the  enemy  at  Spottsylvania  Court- 
house, orders  were  issued  on  the  18th  with  a 
view  to  a  movement  to  the  North  Anna,  to 
commence  on  the  19th,  but  owing  to  an  at- 
tack of  the  Confederates  the  movement  was 
delayed  until  the  night  of  the  21st.  The 
enemy  again  having  the  short  line,  and  be- 
ing in  possession  of  the  main  roads,  was  en- 
abled to  reach  North  Anna  in  advance  of 
the  Federals,  and  took  position  behind  it, 
where  the  battles  were  again  renewed. 

Bottles  of  North  Anna. — The  5th  Corps 
reached  the  North  Anna  on  the  afternoon 
of  the  23d,  closely  followed  by  the  6th  Corps  ; 
the  2d  and  9th  got  up  about  the  same  time. 
Gen.  Warren  effected  a  crossing  the  same 
afternoon  and  got  into  position.  Soon  after 
getting  into  position  he  was  violently  at- 
tacked, but  repulsed  the  enemy  with  great 
slaughter.  Hancock  also  effected  a  crossing 
after  some  fighting.  The  6th  Corps  crossed 
on  the  24th  and  took  up  a  position.  The 
attempt  of  the  Federals  on  tlie  Confederate 
centre  was  repulsed,  and  finding  the  enemy's 
position  on  the  North  Anna  stronger  than 
either  of  his  previous  ones.  Gen.  Grant  with- 
drew on  the  night  of  the  26th  to  the  north 
bank,  and  moved  to  turn  the  enemy's  posi- 
tion by  his  right.  The  battle  of  Cold  Har- 
bor (which  see)  was  the  next  serious  engage- 
ment. The  loss  of  the  Federals,  not  in- 
cluding Burnside's  corps,  from  May  5  to  31 
was  about  41,400.  The  Confederate  loss  is 
not  known. 

Williamsburg.  A  citj',  capital  of  James 
Cit}^  Co.,'Va.,  60  miles  east  of  Richmond, 
and  68  miles  northwest  of  Norfolk.  It  is 
situated  on  a  level  plain  between  James  and 
York  Rivers,  6  miles  from  each.  It  was 
first  settled  in  1632,  is  the  oldest  incorporated 
town  in  the  State,  and  was  the  colonial  and 
State  capital  till  1779.  A  battle  was  fought 
here  between  Gen.  McClellan  and  the  Con- 
federates on  May  5,  1862,  which  resulted  in 
victory  to  the  former. 

Wilmington.  A  city  and  port  of  North 
Carolina,  in  New  Hanover  County,  and  sit- 
uated on  the  Cape  Fear  River.  It  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Union  forces  in  February, 
1865,  Fort  Fisher,  its  principal  defense, 
having  been  taken  by  storm  on  the  15th  of 
the  month  preceding. 

Wiltshire,  or  Wiltonshire.  An  inland 
county  of  England.  When  Cfcsar  invaded 
England,  Wiltshire  was  occupied  by  the 
Belgse;  and  the  Wansdyke  is  pointed  to  as 
a  portion  of  the  defenses  which  they  con- 
structed. It  was  afterwards  included  in  the 
province  of  Britannia  Prima,  and  important 
Roman  stations  were  established,  of  which 


WINCH 


635 


WINTER  QUARTERS 


the  chief  was  placed  at  Sorbiodunum  (Old 
Saruin).  The  Saxons  under  Cedric  were 
det'cntc'd  by  Arthur  and  his  famous  knights, 
but  conquered  the  country  when  led  by 
Cynrie,  and  annexed  it  to  the  kintjdom  of 
Wessex.  It  became  the  battle-tield  between 
Saxon  and  Dane  for  many  lontr  years  of 
warfare.  A  great  council  was  held  at  Sarum 
in  1080,  by  William  the  Conqueror,  which 
firmly  fixed  upon  the  conquered  land  the 
feudal  system  of  the  Normans.  Durini^  the 
civil  war,  many  important  oni^afjements  took 
place  in  various  parts  nf  the  county,  and 
especially  at  Devizes  and  Malmesbury,  be- 
tween Roundheads  and  Cavaliers. 

Winch.  An  axle  turned  by  a  crank- 
hand  lu  for  raisintj  weights,  as  from  mines 
and  the  like;  a  windlass. 

Winchelsea.  A  town  of  England,  in 
Sussex,  87  miles  northeast  from  Brighton. 
It  is  a  j)lace  of  great  antiquity,  and  was 
twice  pillaged,  first  by  the  French  and  again 
bv  the  Spaniards,  who  landed  near  Farley 
liead. 

Winchester  (Rom.  Venia  Belgarum).  A 
town  of  England,  capital  of  Hampshire.  It 
is  a  very  ancient  town,  whose  erection  may 
reasonably  he  ascribed  to  the  Celtic  Britons. 
It  was  taken  by  the  Saxons  in  495,  and  by 
the  Danes  in  871-73;  and  was  ravaged  by 
Sweyn  in  1013.  "Winchester  was  several 
times  taken  and  retaken  between  1G41  and 
1043;  it  was  taken  by  Cromwell,  and  the 
castle  dismantled  in  1G45. 

Winchester.  A  city  and  capital  of  Fred- 
erick Co.,  Vn.,  in  the  valley  of  the  Shenan- 
doah, loO  miles  north-northwest  of  Rich- 
mond, 71  miles  west  by  north  from  Wash- 
ington. On  March  12,  1802,  it  was  occupied 
by  the  Federal  general  Banks,  and  during 
the  war  was  the  scene  of  frequent  conflicts, 
and  occupied  in  turn  by  the  Federal  and 
Confederate  armies. 

Winchester  Rifle.  See  Small- .\rm.s,  and 
Maoazine  Olxs. 

Windage.  Is  the  space  left  between  the 
bore  of  a  piece  and  its  projectile,  and  is  meas- 
ured by  the  dificrence  of  their  diameters. 
The  objects  of  windage  are  to  facilitate  load- 
ing, and  to  diminish  the  danger  of  bursting 
the  piece;  it  is  rendered  necessary  by  the 
mechanical  impossibility  of  making  every 
projectile  of  the  proper  size  and  shape,  by 
the  unyielding  nature  of  the  material  of 
which  large  projectiles  are  made,  by  the 
foulness  which  collects  in  the  bore" after 
each  discharge,  and  by  the  use  of  hot  and 
strapped  shot.  The  true  tcindnrjr,  which  is 
the  dif^'erence  between  the  true  diameters  of 
the  bore  and  projectile,  increases  slightly 
with  the  size  of  the  bore,  and  is  greater  for 
solid  shot,  which  are  sometimes  fired  hot, 
than  for  hollow  projectiles,  which  are  never 
heated. 

Loss  of  Force. — The  ordinary  windage  of 
smooth-bore  cannon,  used  in  tfie  U.  S.  ser- 
vice, is  about  1-40  of  the  diameter  of  the 
bore,  and  the  loss  of  force  arising  from  the 
escape  of  gas  through  this  windage  amounts 


to  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the  entire 
charge.  The  amount  of  loss  in  any  case  de- 
pends on:  (1)  The  degree  of  windage;  (2) 
The  caliber  of  the  gun;  (3)  The  length  of 
the  bore  ;  (4)  The  kind  of  powder  ;  (5)  The 
charge  of  powder;  (0)  The  weight  or  dens- 
ity of  the  ball.  It  is  probable  that  the  in- 
fiuence  which  some  of  these  causes  exert  on 
the  force  of  the  charge  is  very  slight.  It 
has  been  determined  by  experiment,  that  the 
loss  of  velocity  by  windage  is  proportional 
to  the  windage.  It  may  be  stated  that  the 
loss  of  velocity  by  a  given  windage  is  di- 
rectly as  the  windage,  and  inversely  as  the 
diameter  of  the  bore,  very  nearlj'. 

Wind-gauge.  In  a  military  sense,  is  an 
attachment  to  the  sight  (either  front- or  rear- 
sight)  of  a  fire-arm  hy  which  an  allowance 
for  the  effect  of  wind  i>n  the  projectile  can 
be  made  in  aiming.  Though  usually  called 
wind-f/nuf/e,  it  is  also  used  to  counteract  drift 
oi-  any  other  deviation  which  can  be  antici- 
pated. In  the  old  model  target-rifles,  the 
front-sight  is  capable  of  a  slight  movement. 
Some  of  the  more  recent  military  arms  have 
a  wind-gauge  attached  to  the  rear-sight. 
In  the  peep-sights,  the  sight-piece  is  moved 
by  a  screw.  In  the  present  U.  S.  service 
rifle  the  sight-piece  is  moved  by  hand.  It 
has  graduations  to  guide  the  marksman. 
The  wind-gauge  is  frequently  attached  to 
breech-sights  of  cannon  in  Europ<\  In  this 
country  theParrottgun  issimilarly  equipped. 

Wind-gun.  A  gun  discharged  by  the 
force  of  compressed  air;  an  air-gun. 

Windlace.  Formerly  an  apparatus  for 
bending  the  bow  of  an  arblast  or  cross-gun. 

Windlass.  An  axis,  or  roller  of  wood, 
square  at  each  end,  through  which  are  cither 
cross-holes  for  hands|)ikes,  or  staves  across, 
to  turn  it  round,  by  which  operation  it 
draws  a  rope,  one  end  of  which  is  attached 
to  a  weight,  which  is  thus  raised  from  any 
depth.    ■■ 

Windsor,  Knights  of.  See  Knights, 
Military. 

Wing.  The  right  or  left  division  of  an 
army,  regiment,  and  the  like.  The  word 
is  sometimes  used  to  denote  the  large  sides  of 
horn-works,  tenailles,  and  other  outworks. 

Wing.  An  ornament  worn  on  the  shoul- 
der ;— a  small  imitation  epaulettcorshouider- 
knot. 

Winged.  In  heraldry,  represented  with 
wings,  or  having  wings,  of  a  difl'erent  color 
from  the  body. 

Winnebagoes.  A  tribe  of  Indians  who 
lived  around  Lake  Winnelmgo  in  1039,  and 
were  engaged  in  the  war  of  I'ontiac  against 
the  English  in  1702.  In  1794  they  were 
-severely" defeated  by  (ien.  Wayne,  and  were 
engaged  in  thf  Black  Hawk  war  of  1881. 
They  were  removed  to  ^Minnesota  in  1848, 
from  thence  to  Dakota  in  1803.  and  in  the 
following  year  to  Nebraska.     See  Indians 

AXn  TIlKIll   .VoEXflES. 

Winter-quarters.  The  quarters  of  an 
army  during  the  winter;  a  winter  residence 
or  station. 


"WIRE-CARTKIDGE 


636 


WOECESTER 


Wire-cartridge.  A  cartridge  strength- 
ened by  wire  ligaments. 

Wires,  Pointing-.   See  Pointing-wires. 

Wisby.  A  once  famous  seaport  of  the 
Swedish  island  of  Gothland,  capital  of  the 
island,  and  situated  on  its  west  coast,  about 
130  miles  south  of  Stockholm.  In  1361, 
Valdemar  III.  of  Denmark  took  this  town 
by  storm,  and,  plundering  it,  obtained  an 
immense  booty. 

Wisconsin.  One  of  the  Northwestern 
States  of  the  United  States  of  America;  it 
is  302  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  258 
from  east  to  west.  Wisconsin  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Lake  Superior  and  the  State 
of  Michigan,  east  by  Lake  Michigan,  south 
by  Illinois,  and  west  by  Iowa  and  Minne- 
sota, from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  St.  Croix  liivers.  This  State 
was  explored  by  French  missionaries  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  17th  century,  and  Indian 
trading-posts  were  also  established.  It  was 
organized  as  a  Territory  in  1836,  and  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union  as  a  State  in  1848. 
During  the  late  civil  war  it  filled  its  quotas 
cheerfully  for  the  Union  cause. 

Wissembourg,  or  Weissenbourg.  A 
small  fortified  town  of  Alsace,  in  what  was 
formerly  the  French  department  of  Bas-Rhin, 
situated  on  the  Lauter.  It  was  formerly  an 
imperial  city,  was  seized  by  Louis  XIV.  in 
1673,  and  annexed  to  France  by  the  treaty 
of  Ryswick,  1697.  The  "lines"  of  Wis- 
sembourg, erected  by  Villars,  in  1705,  were 
taken  by  the  Austrians  and  retaken  by  the 
French,  1793,  after  Hoche's  victory  at  Geis- 
berg.  On  August  4,  1870,  the  crown-prince 
of  Prussia  crossed  the  Lauter  and  gained  a 
brilliant  but  bloody  victory  over  the  French 
(a  part  of  MacMahon's  division),  storming 
the  lines  and  the  Geisberg.  Gen.  Abel  Douay 
was  mortally  wounded,  and  about  500  pris- 
oners were  made.  The  killed  and  wounded 
on  both  sides  appear  to  have  been  nearly 
equal.  The  German  army,  composed  of 
Prussians,  Bavarians,  and  Wiirtembergers, 
■were,  it  is  said,  about  40,000,  against  about 
10,000  French,  who  fought  with  desperate 
bravery. 

Witepsk,  or  Vitepsk.  A  city  of  Russia 
in  Europe,  where  a  battle  was  fought  be- 
tween the  French  under  Marshal  Victor, 
duke  of  Belluno,  and  the  Russians  com- 
manded by  Gen.  Wittgenstein.  The  French 
were  defeated  after  a  desperate  engagement, 
with  the  loss  of  3000  men,  Novernber  14, 
1812. 

Withstand.  To  oppose  ;  to  resist ;  as,  to 
■withstand  the  attack  of  troops. 

Witness.  One  who  testifies  in  a  cause,  or 
gives  evidence  before  a  judicial  tribunal; 
one  who  gives  testimony.  Every  judge- 
advocate  of  a  court-martial  or  court  of  in- 
quiry has  power  to  issue  the  like  process, 
to  compel  witnesses  to  appear  and  testify, 
which  courts  of  criminal  jurisdiction  within 
the  State,  Territory,  or  District  where  such 
military  courts  are  ordered  to  sit  may  law- 
fully issue.     For  oath  administered  to  wit- 


nesses, depositions,  etc.,  see  Appendix, 
Articles  of  War,  91,  92,  and  118. 

Wittenberg.  A  fortified  town  of  Prus- 
sian Saxony,  capital  of  a  circle  of  the  same 
name  in  the  government  of  Merseburg,  on 
the  Elbe.  It  has  sufi'ered  several  times  from 
sieges,  particularly'  in  1756  and  1814,  having 
on  the  latter  occasion  been  taken  by  storm 
from  the  French  after  a  siege  of  ten  months. 

Wolf-hole.     See  Trou  de  Loup. 

Wolgast.  A  seaport  of  Prussia,  in  Pom- 
erania,  situated  on  the  Peene,  about  10  miles 
from  its  entrance  into  the  Baltic.  It  is  a 
very  old  town,  and  was  strongly  fortified  as 
early  as  the  12th  century.  It  was  taken  and 
retaken  five  times  between  1628  and  1675; 
the  Russians  plundered  and  burned  it  in 
1713,  and  the  Swedes  retook  it  in  1715. 

W^omen  and  Domestic  Relations,  Pro- 
tection of.  See  Appendix,  Articles  op 
War,  58. 

Wood.  The  most  useful  timbers  in  the 
United  States  are :  the  hickory,  which  is 
very  tough  and  inflexible  ;  white  oak,  tough 
and  pliable  ;  white  ash,  tough  and  elastic ; 
black  walnut,  hard  and  fine-grained  ;  white 
poplar,  soft,  light,  fine-grained  wood ;  white 
pine  and  other  pines,  for  building  ;  cypress, 
soft,  light,  straight-grained,  and  grows  to  a 
large  size;  dogwood,  hard  and  fine-grained. 
The  timber  growing  in  the  centre  of  a  forest 
is  best. 

Wooden  Fuze.  See  Laboratory  Stores. 

Woolwich.  A  town  of  England,  in  Kent, 
and  is  the  most  ancient  military  and  naval 
arsenal  in  England.  It  is  celebrated  for  its 
royal  dock-yard,  where  men  of  war  have 
been  built  so  early  as  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.,  1512.  The  royal  arsenal  was  formed 
about  1720;  it  contains  vast  magazines  of 
great  guns,  mortars,  shells,  powder,  and 
other  warlike  stores  ;  a  foundry  with  several 
furnaces  for  casting  ordnance  ;  and  a  labora- 
tory where  fireworks,  cartridges,  grenades, 
etc.,  are  made  for  public  service.  There  is 
also  a  royal  artillery  barracks  here  which 
can  accommodate  nearly  4000  men.  About 
10,000  persons  are  employed  in  Woolwich 
Arsenal. 

Woolwich  Gun.  See  Ordnance,  Con- 
struction OF. 

Woordie- Major.  The  native  adjutant  of 
an  Indian  irregular  cavalry  regiment. 

Worcester.  The  capital  of  Worcester- 
shire, England,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Severn.  It  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
cities  of  the  kingdom,  and  was  formerly 
strong!}'  fortified,  as  it  had  to  resist  frequent 
attacks  from  the  Welsh,  and  in  turbulent 
periods  of  English  history  was  often  the 
object  of  assault  by  contending  parties.  In 
the  civil  war  the  final  great  battle  between 
the  Puritans  and  the  cavaliers  took  place 
here.  This  battle,  which  Cromwell  called 
his  "crowning  mercy,"  was  fought  on  Sep- 
tember 3,  1651,  between  the  Parliamentary 
troops,  commanded  by  Cromwell  in  person, 
and  the  Scotch  army  of  Charles  II.  The 
battle  lasted  several  hours,  and  at  its  close 


WORCESTERSHIRE 


637 


WREATH 


the  Scotch  were  utterly  routed,  nearly  all  of 
them  bciiii^  killed  or  miide  prisoners. 

Worcestershire.  An  inland  county  of 
Eiii^laiid,  forniinj;  part  of  the  west  midland 
division.  Its  early  history  cannot  be  deter- 
mined with  accuracy.  Under  the  Sa.xons 
the  county  was  included  in  the  kin<;dom  of 
Mercia.  It  shared  in  all  the  threat  civil  wars 
of  Enf:fland  ;  it  was  frefjuently  the  scene  of 
contests  between  the  Saxons  and  the  Danes; 
the  threat  battle  which  decided  the  fate  of 
Simon  de  Montfort  was  fought  in  the  vale 
of  Evesham  ;  and  during  the  civil  war  AVor- 
cestershire  was  disturbed  by  frequent  skir- 
mishes. The  battle  which  settled  Cromwell 
in  possession  of  the  government  was  fought 
under  the  walls  of  the  chief  city.     See  Woii- 

CKSTKR. 

Words  of  Command.  Are  certain  terms 
which  have  been  adopted  for  the  exercise 
and  movement  of  military  bodies,  according 
to  the  nature  of  each  particular  service. 
Words  of  command  are  classed  under  two 
principal  heads,  and  consist  of  those  which 
are  given  by  the  chief  or  commander  of  a 
brigade,  or  division,  and  of  those  which  are 
uttered  by  the  subordinate  officers  of  troops 
or  companies,  etc.  Cautlonanj  wotiIs,  are 
certain  leading  instructions  which  are  given 
to  designate  any  particular  manoeuvre.  The 
cautionary  words  precede  the  words  of  com- 
mand.     See  COMMA.ND.S. 

W^orking  Party.  A  body  of  soldiers  told 
ofl',  by  t'oiiiinaiid,  to  perform  certain  work  or 
labor  foreign  to  their  ordinary  duties.  The 
men  generally  receive  additional  pay  while 
performing  this  labor. 

Works.  Are  the  fortifications  about  the 
body  of  a  place.  This  word  is  also  used  to 
signify  the  approaches  of  the  besiegers,  and 
the  several  lines,  trenches,  etc.,  made  round 
a  place,  an  army,  or  the  like,  for  its  security. 

Works,  Advanced.  See  Advanckd 
Works. 

Works,     Detached.      Sec      Detached 

AVOKKS. 

\A/orks,  Field-.     See  Fiklh-works. 

Worm.     Sec  Imi'i.kmknts. 

Worm  a  Gun,  To.  To  take  out  the 
charge  of  a  tire-arm  by  means  of  a  worm. 

Worms.  A  city  of  Western  Germany, 
grand  duchy  of  Hesse,  near  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  2G  miles  southeast  of  Mayence. 
This  is  one  of  the  oldest,  and  in  the  early 
history  of  Germany  was  one  of  the  most  itn- 
portant,  towns  in  the  country.  After  it-s 
destruclit)n  by  Attila  the  Hun  about  the 
middle  of  the  5th  century,  it  was  rebuilt  by 
CK>vis  in  490.  It  afterwards  became  the 
seat  of  many  Prankish  and  Carlovingian 
kings.  Worms  was  also  the  seat  of  nniny 
imperial  diets,  the  best  known  of  which  is 
that  of  ir/21,when  Luther  appeared  before 
the  emperor  Charles  V.  In  I'iSD  it  was 
burned  by  order  of  Louis  XIV.;  and  was 
taken  by  the  French  under  Custine,  October 
4,  17'.t2.  Hero,  in  174:5,  an  otJ'ensive  and 
defensive  alliance  was  entered  into  by  Great 
Britain  and  Austria  with  Sardinia. 


Worst,  To.  To  defeat ;  to  overthrow  ;  to 
put  to  the  rout. 

Worth.  A  village  of  Alsace,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Sulzbach  and  the  Sauerbach,  is 
noted  as  the  point  where  the  first  decisive 
encounter  took  place  between  the  French 
and  German  armies,  August  C,  1870.  After 
storming  Wissenbourg  on  August  4,  1870, 
the  crown-prince  of  Prussia  with  the  3d 
army  (about  120,000)  marched  rapidly  for- 
ward and  surprised  part  of  the  French  army 
under  Marshal  MaiMahon,  including  the 
corps  of  Canrobert  and  Failly  (about  47,000), 
and  defeated  it  in  a  long,  desperate,  and 
sanguinary  engagement  near  this  place.  The 
battle  lasted  from  7  a.m.  till  4  I'.M.  The 
chief  struggles  occurred  in  the  country 
around  Keichshotlen  and  in  the  village  of 
Frce.schweiller  ;  the  French  are  said  to  have 
charged  the  German  line  eleven  times,  each 
time  breaking  it,  but  always  finding  a  fri*s-h 
mass  behind.  The  ridge  on  whicli  Worth 
stands  was  not  captured  until  the  French 
wore  taken  in  flank  by  the  Bavarians  and 
Wtirtembergers.  Nearly  all  MacMahon's 
staff  were  killed,  and  the  marsluil  himself 
unhorsed,  fell  fainting  into  a  ditch,  from 
which  he  was  rescued  by  a  soldier.  He  then, 
on  foot,  directed  the  retreat  towards  Savcrne, 
to  cover  the  passes  of  the  Vosges.  The  vic- 
tory is  attributed  to  the  very  great  numerical 
superiority  of  the  Germans  (about  130,000) 
as  well  as  to  their  e-vcellent  strategy.  The 
French  loss  has  been  estimated  at  20,000 
killed  and  wounded,  and  about  GOOO  prison- 
ers, 2  eagles,  6  mitrailleures,  30  cannon,  and 
much  baggage.  The  Germans  are  stated  to 
have  had  above  8000  men  put  hors  de  com- 
bat. It  was  admitted  that  MacMahon  had 
acted  as  an  able  and  brave  commander. 

Wounded,  The.  All  the  individuals  be- 
longing to  an  army  who  may  have  been 
maimed,  or  otherwise  hurt  in  battle. 

Wreath,  Wreathed.  In  heraldry,  a 
wreath  is  a  twisted  garland  of  silk  of  difler- 
ciit  colors,  otherwise  called  atorce,on  which 
it  has,  since  the  14th  century,  been  usual  to 
place  the  crest.  The  side-view  of  a  wreath 
exhibits  six  divisions,  which  are  generally 
tinctured  with  the  living  colors,— that  is, 
the  principal  metal  and  color  of  the  shield. 
Every  crest  is  now  understood  to  be  placed 
upon  a  wreath,  except  when  it  is  expressly 
stated  to  issue  out  of  a  chnpcau  or  curonet. 
A  wreath,  when  rejiresented  alone,  shows  its 
circular  form.  A  Moors  head  is  sometimes 
encircled  with  a  heraldic  wreath.  A  wreath 
is  always  understood  to  bo  the  twisted  gar- 
land ofsilk  above  explained.  unK>#s  other- 
wisespecifiod  ;  but wreathsof  laurel, oak.  ivy, 
etc.,  sometimes  occur,  and  savages  usihI  as 
supporters  are  often  wreathed  about  the 
head  and  middle  with  laurel.  Ordinaries 
are  occasionally  wreathed,  otherwise  called 
iorfUle,  in  which  case  they  are  represented 
as  if  com|Kised  of  two  colors,  twisted  as  in 
the  heraldic  wreath  ;  as  in  the  coat  of  Car- 
michael,  argent,  a  fess  wreathed  azure  and 
gules. 


WRIGHT-FUZE 


638 


XIMENA 


Wright-fuze.    See  Laboratory  Stores. 

Wrong.  To  guard  agivinst  injustice  and 
oppression  in  tlie  army,  the  Articles  of  War 
(see  Appendix,  Articles  of  War)  clearly 
point  out  the  mode  of  redress  to  every  indi- 
vidual in  the  service,  who  considers  himself 
wronged  by  his  superiors. 

Wrought  Iron.  See  Ordnance,  Metals 

FOR. 

Wiirtemberg,  or  Wirtemberg,  Kingdom 
of.  A  state  in  the  southwest  of  Germany, 
which  was  erected  into  a  kingdom  in  1806. 
It  was  originally  part  of  Suabia,  and  was 
made  a  county  for  Ulric  1.,  about  126-5,  and 
a  duchy  in  1495.  Wiirtemberg  has  been  re- 
peatedly traversed  by  hostile  armies,  partic- 
ularly since  the  revolution  of  France.  Mo- 
reau  made  his  celebrated  retreat  October  23, 
1796.  This  kingdom  opposed  Prussia  in  the 
war  of  1866,  but  made  peace  on  August  31, 
following.  On  November  5,  1870,  it  joined 
the  other  German  states  in  the  formation  of 
the  German  empire. 

Wyandot  Indians.  See  Huron  Indi- 
ans. 

Wyoming.  A  Territory  of  the  United 
States,  organized  July  25,  1868,  from  a  re- 
gion attached  to  Dakota,  but  formerly  in- 
cluded in  Idaho,  and  still  earlier  known  as 
part  of  Nebraska.  Its  average  length  from 
east  to  west  is  355  miles,  and  its  breadth  276 
miles.  This  Territory  has  been  overrun 
several  times  by  hostile  Indians,  but  under 
the  strong  hand  of  the  military  the  country 
is  becoming  rapidly  settled. 


Wyoming  Valley.  A  beautiful  fertile 
valley  on  the  Susquehanna  River,  in  Penn- 
sylvania. It  is  21  miles  long  by  3  wide, 
and  surrounded  by  mountains  1000  feet 
high.  It  was  purchased  about  1765  by  a 
Connecticut  company  from  the  Delaware 
Indians  ;  but  the  settlers  were  soon  dis- 
persed by  hostile  savages.  In  1769,  forty 
families  came  from  Connecticut,  but  found 
a  party  of  Pennsylvanians  in  possession, 
and  for  several  years  there  were  continual 
contests  of  the  settlers  with  the  Indians, 
and  with  each  other.  In  1776,  the  settlers 
armed  for  their  own  defense  against  the 
English  and  their  Indian  allies  ;  but  in  1778 
most  of  their  troops  were  called  to  join  the 
army  under  AVashington.  On  June  30,  a 
force  of  400  British  provincials,  or  "  Tories," 
and  700  Seneca  Indians,  led  by  Col.  John 
Butler,  entered  the  valley,  and  were  opposed 
by  300  men,  under  Col.  Zebulon  Butler.  On 
July  3,  the  settlers  were  driven  to  the  shel- 
ter of  Fort  Forty  (so  called  from  the  orig- 
inal number  of  families),  with  the  loss  of 
two-thirds  of  their  number,  many  soldiers 
and  inhabitants  being  murdered.  On  the 
5th,  the  remnant  of  the  troops  surrendered, 
and  they  and  the  inhabitants  wer.e  either 
massacred  or  driven  from  the  valley,  which 
was  left  a  smoking  solitude. 

Wyvern.  A  lictitious  monster  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  of  frequent  occurrence  in  her- 
aldry. It  resembles  a  dragon,  but  has  onlj' 
two  legs  and  feet,  which  are  like  those  of 
the  eagle. 


X. 


Xanthica.  A  military  festival  observed 
by  the  31acedonian3  in  the  month  called 
Xanthicus  (our  April),  instituted  about  392 

B.C. 

Xanthus.  The  most  famous  city  of  Ly- 
cia,  stood  on  the  western  bank  of  the  river 
of  the  same  name,  60  stadia  from  its  mouth. 
Twice  in  the  course  of  its  history  it  sus- 
tained sieges,  which  terminated  in  the  self- 
destruction  of  the  inhabitants  with  their 
property,  first  against  the  Persians  under 
Harpagus,  and  long  afterward  against  the 
Romans  under  Brutus.  The  city  was  never 
restored  after  its  destruction  by  the  latter. 


Xeres  de  la  Frontera.  A  town  in  the 
southwest  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Cadiz, 
14  miles  northeast  from  Cadiz.  At  the  battle 
of  Xeres,  July  19-26,  711,  Roderic,  the  last 
Gothic  sovereign  of  Spain,  was  defeated  and 
slain  by  the  Saracens,  commanded  bj^  Tarik 
and  Muza. 

Ximena  (Southern  Spain).  The  site  of  a 
battle  between  the  Spanish  army  under  the 
command  of  Gen.  Ballasteros,  and  the  French 
corps  commanded  by  Gen.  Regnier,  Sep- 
tember 10,  1811.  The  Spaniards  defeated 
their  adversaries  ;  the  loss  was  great  on  both 
sides. 


YAGER 


639 


YORKSHIRE 


Yager.  One  belonginfi:  to  a  body  of  light 
infjititry  armed  with  ritlus.  "Written  also 
jaiji-r. 

Yankton  Indians.  See  Dakota  Indians. 

Yataghan.  A  Turkish  poniard  having  a 
Damascus  bhide,  straight  or  crooked.  It  has 
a  double  edge,  and  sharp  point,  with  a  ridge 
in  the  middle  of  its  whole  length ;  the 
handle  and  scabbard  are  generally  highly 
ornamented  and  costly. 

Yeomanry.  A  volunteer  force  of  cavalry 
in  Great  Britain,  numbering  about  14,000 
men,  and  costing  the  country  annually  about 
£85,000.  It  was  originally  formed  during 
the  wars  of  the  French  revolution,  and  then 
comprised  infantry  as  well  as  cavalry  ;  but 
the  whole  of  the  infantry  corps,  and  many 
of  the  cavalry,  were  disbanded  after  the 
peace  of  1814.  The  organization  of  the 
corps  is  by  counties,  under  the  lords-lieu- 
tenant. The  men  provide  their  own  horses 
and  uniform,  in  consideration  of  which  they 
receive  annually  a  clothing  and  contingent 
allowance  of  £2  a  man,  are  exempt  from 
taxation  in  respect  to  the  horses  employed 
on  yeomanry  duty,  and  draw  during  the 
annual  training  2.s.  a  day  for  forage,  besides 
a  subsistence  allowance  of  7s.  a  day.  If 
called  out  for  permanent  duty  they  receive 
cavalry  pay,  with  forage  allowance.  The 
yeomanry  are  available  in  aid  of  the  civil 

{)ower;  and  in  time  of  invasion,  or  appre- 
lended  invasion,  the  sovereign  may  embody 
them  for  service  in  any  part  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, under  the  provisions  of  the  Mutiny  Act 
and  Articles  of  War. 

Yeomen  of  the  Guard.  A  veteran  com- 
pany, consisting  of  100  old  soldiers  of  stately 
presence,  employed  on  grand  occasions,  in 
conjunction  with  the  gentlemen-at-arms,  as 
the  body-guard  of  the  sovereign.  These 
yeomen  were  constituted  a  corps,  in  1485,  by 
King  Henry  \'1I.,  and  they  still  wear  the 
costume  of  that  period.  Armed  with  parti- 
sans, and  in  the  quaint  uniform,  the  men 
present  a  curious  sight  in  the  19th  century. 
The  officers  of  the  corps  are  a  captain  (or- 
dinarily a  peer),  a  lieutenant,  and  an  ensign. 
There  is  also  a  "  Clerk  of  the  Cheque  and 
Adjutant."  All  these  appointments  are  held 
by  old  officers,  and  are  considered  as  impor- 
tant prizes.  The  whole  charge  is  borne  by 
the  sovereign's  civil  list.  The  headquarters 
of  the  corps  is  at  the  Tower  of  London, 
where  the  men  are  popularly  known  as 
"  ]{eef-eaters." 

Yermuk  (Syria).  Near  hero  the  emperor 
Ileraclius  was  totally  defeated  bv  the  Sara- 
cens, after  a  tierce  engagement,  ^N'ovembcr, 


C36.     Damascus  was  taken,  and  his  army 
was  expelled  from  Syria. 

Yesawul.  In  India,  a  state  messenger  ;  a 
servant  of  parade,  who  carries  a  gold  or 
silver  statl";  an  aide-de-caiun. 

York.  The  capital  of  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land, is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  rivers 
Ouse  and  Foss.  Before  the  invasion  of  the 
Romans  it  formed  one  of  the  chief  citie«  of 
the  Brigantes,  the  most  powerful  of  British 
tribes  ;  and  it  is  supposed  that  on  their  sub- 
jugation by  Agricola,  he  founded  here  about 
the  year  79  the  Roman  city  of  Eboracum, 
which  became  the  great  "Colonia"  of  the 
Romans  in  Britain,  the  seat  of  imperial  gov- 
ernment, and  the  "  Altera  Roma."  On  the 
departure  of  the  Roman  cohorts,  about  409, 
it  became  a  prey  to  the  wars  which  prevailed 
between  the  Picts  and  the  Britons,  and  be- 
tween the  latter  and  the  Saxons  ;  and  also  to 
the  invasions  of  the  Danes  ;  but  under  these 
vicissitudes  it  still  maintained  its  distinction 
as  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  kingdom. 
William  the  Conqueror  was  long  unable  to 
overcome  this  stronghold  of  the  north.  One 
Norman  garrison,  numbering  3000  men,  was 
put  to  the  sword  in  1069 ;  but  William  ex- 
acted a  terrible  vengeance  in  the  following 
year,  when  he  laid  waste  the  whole  country 
between  York  and  Durham.  During  the 
insurrections  consequent  upon  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  monasteries  by  Henry  VIII., 
York  was  seized  by  the  insurgents  of  the 
"  Pilgrimage  of  Greece"  ;  and  in  its  imme- 
1  diate  neighborhood,  Fairfax,  in  1044,  con- 
!  quered  Prince  Rupert  on  Marston  Moor; 
I  after  which  battle  York  was  taken  (July  IG) 

for  the  Parliament. 
I  York  (Upper  Canada,  founded  in  1794; 
■  since  1834  named  Toronto).  In  the  war  be- 
I  tween  America  and  Great  Britain,  the  U.  S. 
;  forces  made  several  attacks  upon  the  proy- 
!  ince  of  Upper  Canada,  and  succeeded  in 
1  taking  York,  the  scat  of  the  government, 
\  AprirL'7,  1813;  but  it  was  soon  afterwards 
:   retaken  by  the  Hriti.-li. 

'       York    and    Lancaster,   Wars    of.      See 
1  RosKs,  Wau.s  ok  the. 

Yorkshire.  The  largest  county  of  Eng- 
I  land,  is  situated  in  its  northern  jiart.  The 
1  history  of  the  county  in  early  times  may  be 
I  mainly  read  in  that  of  its  chief  city.  In  the 
troublous  times  which  preceded  the  Conquest, 
many  battles  were  fought  against  the  invad- 
I  ing  banes,  and  generally  with  success.  At 
I  Stamford  Brig,  a  few  miles  from  York, 
I  Harold,  the  last  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings, 
I  defeated  tiio  united  Danish  and  Norwegian 
i  armies,  three  weeks  before  he  fell  before  the 


TORKTOWN 


640 


ZANZIBAR 


Normans  on  the  fatal  field  of  Hastings. 
Among  the  more  notable  events  of  later  his- 
tory, may  be  named  the  battle  of  Wakefield, 
■where  the  Duke  of  York  was  defeated  by 
Queen  Margaret  in  1460  ;  the  battle  of  Tow- 
ton  Field,  near  Tadcaster,  fought  on  Palm- 
Sunday  in  1461,  the  most  sanguinary  conflict 
of  the  bitter  war  between  the  rival  Roses ; 
and  that  of  Marston  Moor,  which  gave  the 
final  blow  to  the  falling  fortunes  of  Charles  I. 
Since  that  time,  with  slight  exceptions,  its 
history  has  been  one  of  peace  and  prosperity. 

Yorktown.  Capital  of  York  Co.,  Va., 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  York  River, 
70  miles  from  Richmond.  This  locality  was 
the  theatre  of  one  of  the  most  important 
events  in  American  history, — the  surrender 
of  Lord  Cornwallis  to  Gen.  Washington, 
which  occurred  on  October  19,  1781.  York- 
town  was  besieged  during  the  civil  war  in 
April,  1862,  but  before  the  Federals  opened 
fire  on  the  town,  the  Confederates  evacuated 
it. 

Youngsters.  A  familiar  term  to  signify 
the  junior  officers  of  a  troop  or  company. 

Ypres,  or  Yperen.  A  fortified  town  of 
Belgium,   province   of  West   Flanders,    30 


miles  south-southwest  from  Bruges.  Ypres 
in  the  9th  century,  when  only  a  strong  cas- 
tle, was  destroyed  by  the  Normans.  It  was 
rebuilt  in  901 ;  and  was  first  walled  in  1388. 
Louis  XIV.,  in  1688,  made  it  one  of  the 
strongest  fortresses  of  the  Low  Countries, 
In  thegreat  European  wars,  it  seldom  escaped 
a  siege  or  bombardment. 

Yucatan.  The  most  eastern  department 
of  Mexico,  Central  America.  It  is  in  the 
form  of  a  peninsula,  jutting  out  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  was  discovered  in  1517, 
and  conquered  by  Spain  in  1541,  and  re- 
tained until  1821,  when  it  became  a  depart- 
ment of  Mexico.  This  department  declared 
itself  independent  of  Mexico  in  1846,  but  it 
subsequently  annexed  itself  to  Mexico. 

Yumas.  A  tribe  of  North  American  In- 
dians, located  on  the  Colorado  River,  near 
the  village  of  Yuma.  In  1781  they  mas- 
sacred a  number  of  white  settlers,  and  again 
in  1853  they  rose  and  committed  depreda- 
tions. Since  the  latter  date  they  have  gen- 
erally been  peaceable.  They  numbered  in 
1876  about  900. 

Yvres.  Now  Ivry-la-Bataille  (which 
see). 


Z. 


Zabern,    Rhein,   or   Rhein-Zabern.      A 

town  on  the  Erlenbach,  in  Rhenish  Bavaria. 
It  is  noted  for  the  two  battles  fought  here 
and  at  the  village  of  Jokgrin,  about  2  miles 
farther  south,  between  the  Austrians  and 
the  French,  June  29  and  August  20,  1793. 

Zagaie.  A  long  dart  or  lajice  in  use 
among  some  African  tribes,  particularly  the 
Moors,  while  fighting  on  horseback.  It  is 
armed  with  a  sharp  stone  and  thrown  like  a 
javelin.  The  savages  of  New  Holland  are 
still  armed  with  it. 

Zaikany.  A  village  of  Austria,  in  Tran- 
sylvania, 38  miles  from  Deva.  It  was  here 
that  Trajan  won  his  third  victory  over  De- 
cebalus,  a  part  of  whose  treasure  was  dis- 
covered, as  it  is  supposed,  in  1543. 

Zaim.  High  caste  among  the  Turks,  who 
are  bound  to  maintain  a  proportion  of  mili- 
tia according  to  their  revenue,  viz.,  one 
horseman  for  every  5000  aspres. 
■  Zama  Regia.  A  strongly-fortified  city  in 
the  interior  of  Numidia,  on  the  borders  of 
the  Carthaginian  territory.  It  was  the  or- 
dinary residence  of  King' Juba  and  was  the 
scene  of  one  of  the  most  important  battles 
in  the  history  of  the  world,  that  in  which 
Hannibal  was  defeated  by  Scipio,  and  the 
second  Punic  war  was  ended,  202  B.C. 

Zamora.  A  very  ancient  town  of  Spain, 
of  the  province  of  that  name,  on  the  right 


bank  of  the  Douro,  132  miles  northwest  of 
Madrid.  Zamora  was  of  great  importance 
in  the  Moorish  times,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
inclosed  by  seven  lines  of  walls,  with  a  moat 
between  each.  Sir  J.  Moore  urged  the  Junta 
of  Salamanca  to  repair  the  defenses  of  Za- 
mora, and  receive  there  his  stores  ;  but  his 
retreat  had  commenced  before  they  had  done 
deliberating.  The  French  afterwards  got 
possession  of  it,  and  although  no  resist- 
ance was  made,  the  town  was  sacked,  neither 
age  nor  sex  was  spared,  and  the  principal 
persons  were  executed.  It  was  again  plun- 
dered by  the  French,  and  has  never  recov- 
ered these  visitations. 

Zamosc,  or  Zamosz.  A  town  of  Russia 
in  Europe,  in  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  in  the 
province  of  Lublin.  This  place  is  strongly 
fortified,  and  has  long  been  considered  a 
military  station  of  importance.  In  1656  it 
was  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the  Swedes; 
in  1715  it  was  surprised  by  the  Saxons  ;  and 
in  the  civil  contests  of  1771  the  Poles  were 
defeated  in  its  vicinity  by  the  Russians.  In 
1812  it  was  one  of  the  few  towns  in  which 
the  French  left  a  garrison  after  their  retreat 
from  Russia. 

Zanzibar,  or  Zanguebar.  An  island  in 
the  Indian  Ocean,  near  the  east  coast  of  Af- 
rica, belonging  to  the  sultan  of  Zanzibar. 
In  1784  the  island  was  taken  by  the  iniaum 


ZAYM 


641 


ZOUAVES 


of  Muscat,  in  whose  family  the  government 
remained  until  1858. 

Zaym.  In  the  East  Indies,  a  feudal 
chief,  or  military  tenant. 

Zeithun.  A  town  and  district  in  the 
liii^liUinds  of  Cilicia,  inhabited  by  a  com- 
munity of  Armenian  Christians,  virtually 
independent  of  the  Turkish  government, 
and  forming  in  fact  an  Asiatic  republic. 
The  Zcithumlus  can  muster  an  army  from 
7000  to  8000  men  to  defend  the  mountains 
airainst  the  Turkish  pashas;  and  they  are  in 
alliance  with  a  neighboring  Turconum  chief, 
also  independent  of  the  Turks,  who  brings 
10,000  men  into  the  field.  It  was  not  till 
after  the  Crimean  war  that  the  massacres  in 
the  East  called  special  attention  to  the  exist- 
ence of  Zeithun.  An  attempt  by  the  Turks 
to  settle  Circassians  near  Zeithun,  gave 
Aziz  Pasha  of  Marash  an  opportunity  of  at- 
tacking the  Christians,  and  the  atrocities 
committed  remind  one  of  the  worst  excesses 
of  Cawnj)ore.  The  inhabitants  defended 
themselves,  however,  with  the  greatest  gal- 
lantry, twice  defeating  in  the  field  large 
Turkish  forces;  and  the  struggle  was  at 
length  terminated  by  the  interference  of 
the  French  and  English  governments  at  Con- 
stantinople, and  the  recall  of  the  pasha. 

Zela,  or  Ziela.  A  city  in  the  south  of 
Pontus,  not  far  south  of  Amasia,  and  four 
days' journey  east  of  Tavium.  It  stood  on 
an  artificial  hill,  and  was  stronglj'  fortified. 
At  Zela  the  Roman  general  Valerius  Tria- 
rius  was  defeated  by  Mithridates;  but  the 
city  is  more  famous  for  another  great  battle, 
— that  in  which  Julius  Ciesar  defeated  Phar- 
naces,  and  of  which  he  wrote  this  dispatch 
to  Home  :    Veui:  Vi</i :  Vici. 

Zenta,  or  Szenta.  A  town  of  Hungary, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Theiss,  120  yiiles 
south-southeast  from  Pesth.  Near  here 
Prince  Eugene  defeated  the  Turks,  Septem- 
ber 11,  Wi'.'n  (IfiOl)).  This  victory  led  to  the 
peace  of  Carlowitz,  ratified  January,  IfiOO. 

Zierikzee.  A  town  of  Holland,  in  the 
province  of  Zealand,  situated  on  the  south- 
east of  the  island  of  Schouwen.  It  suf- 
fered severely  in  the  contests  between  Flan- 
ders and  Holland  for  the  jiossession  of  Zea- 
land. In  1303,  the  Flemings  besieged  it 
with  a  large  army,  but  were  compelled  by 
Count  William  of  Holland  to  retire,  on  Au- 
gust 10,  1304.  In  the  long  war  of  inde- 
pendence, after  an  t)bstinate  defense,  the 
Spaniards  took  Zierikzee  in  July,  1570. 

Zigzags.  In  fortification,  are  trenches  or 
paths,  with  several  windings,  so  cut  that  the 
besieged  are  prevented  from  enfilading  the 
besieger  in  his  approaches. 

Ziyamut.  In  the  East  Indies,  a  fief  be- 
stowed for  military  services. 

Zizarme.     A  sort  of  ancient  piko  or  lance. 

Znaym,  t>r  Znaim.  A  town  of  Austria, 
situated  on  the  Thaya,  34  miles  southwest 
from  Hrunn.  A  conflict  took  place  here  in 
1800.  between  the  Austrians  and  the  French. 

Zoarque.  A  .soldier  who  had  charge  of 
an  elephant  among  the  ancients. 


Zone  of  Defense.  A  term  used  in  forti- 
fication, signifying  the  belt  of  ground  in 
front  of  the  general  contour  of  the  works 
within  crtVctive  range  of  the  defenders. 

Zone  of  Operations.  The  strip  of  terri- 
tory which  contains  the  lines  of  operations 
— or  lines  on  which  an  army  advances — 
between  the  base  and  the  ulterior  object. 
See  Stratkoy. 

Zorndorf.  A  village  of  Prussia,  province 
of  JJrandenburg,  4  miles  north  of  Kustrin, 
and  was  the  scene  of  the  bloodiest  of  the 
many  desperate  conflicts  of  the  Seven  Years' 
AV'ar.  The  Russians  having  for  the  sec<md 
time  been  ordered  by  the  czarina  Elizal)eth 
to  invade  Prussia,  advanced  towards  Berlin, 
committing  frightful  devastations,  while 
Frederick  the  Great,  with  the  bulk  of  his 
forces,  was  engaged  with  the  Austrians  in 
Silesia  and  Saxony.  The  Russians,  under 
Fermor,  were  50,000  strong,  and  easily  drove 
before  them  Dohna's  little  Prussian  army 
of  15,000;  but  Frederick  hastened  north"- 
wards  with  such  reinforcements  as  raised  the 
army  to  3O,0tX) ;  and  after  taking  care,  by  the 
breaking  down  of  bridges,  etc.,  to  cut  off 
their  retreat,  engaged  the  invaders.  The 
battle  was  commenced  at  eight  on  the  morn- 
ing of  August  25,  1758,  anil  lasted  till  even- 
ing, consisted  nuiinly  in  a  succession  of  furi- 
ous charges,  accompanied  with  a  tremendous 
artillery-fire,  and  was  not  decided  till  Seid- 
litz,  by  an  able  nrovement,  turned  the  Rus- 
sian fliink.  The  next  morning  Fermor  drew 
oft"  his  forces,  diminished  by  20,000  men.  103 
cannon,  and  27  standards;  having  inflicted 
on  the  Prussians  a  loss  of  13,000  men,  20 
cannon,  and  a  few  standards. 

Zouaves  (Arab.  Zicawa).  A  body  of 
troops  in  the  French  army,  which  derives  its 
name  from  a  tribe  of  Kabyles,  inhabiting  the 
mountains  of  Jurjura,  in  the  Algerian  jirov- 
ince  of  Constantine.  Long  previous  to  the 
invasion  of  Algiers  by  the  French,  these 
Kabyles  had  been  empioyed  as  hired  merce- 
naries in  the  service  of  the  rulers  of  Tripoli, 
Tunis,  and  Algiers  ;  and  after  the  conque-st  of 
the  last-named  country  in  1830,  the  French, 
in  the  hope  of  establishing  a  friendly  feeling 
between  the  natives  and  their  conquerors, 
took  the  late  dey's  mercenaries  into  their 
service,  giving  them  a  new  organization. 
Accordingly,  Gen.  Clausel  created,  in  1830, 
two  battalions  of  zouaves,  in  which  each 
company  consisted  of  French  and  Kabyles 
in  certain  proportions,  officers,  subalterns, 
and  soldiers  being  selected  from  either  race; 
the  zouaves,  though  retaining  their  Moorish 
dress,  were  armed  and  disciplined  after  the 
European  fashion  ;  a^d  the  battalions  were 
recruited  by  voluntary  enlistment.  After- 
wards the  native  element  was  eliminated, 
and  since  1840  they  may  be  considered  as 
French  troops  in  a  Moorish  dress.  They 
now  number  about  15,0(X>,  and  are  divided 
into  four  regiments.  They  are  recruited 
from  the  veterans  of  the  ordinarv  infantry 
regiments  who  are  distinguished  for  their 
fine  -'physique"  and  tried  courage  and  hardi- 


ZULICHAU 


642 


ZUYPER  SLUYS 


hood.  Their  uniform  is  very  picturesque. 
There  is  one  regiment  of  zouaves  incorporated 
in  the  Guards.  The  name  was  also  given  to 
several  regiments  of  volunteers  in  the  Union 
army  during  the  American  civil  war  (1861- 
65),  who  were  clad  in  zouave  uniform. 

Zullichau  (Prussia).  Here  the  Russians 
under  Soltikow  severely  defeated  the  Prus- 
sians under  Wedel,  July  23,  1759. 

Zululand.  The  country  lying  northeast 
of  the  colony  of  Natal,  between  its  east 
boundary,  the  Umtugola  and  Umzimyati 
Rivers,  lat.  29°  10^  E.,  and  Delagoa  Bay, 
lat.  26°  S.,  long.  32°  40^  E.,  is  generally 
known  under  the  name  of  Zululand,  or  the 
Zulu  country,  inhabited  by  independent 
tribes  of  Zulu  Kaffirs.  The  Zulu  is  by 
nature  social,  light  of  heart,  and  cheerful ; 
his  passions  are,  however,  strong,  and  called 
out  when  in  a  state  of  war.  He  is  hospita- 
ble and  honest,  yet  greedy  and  stingy  ;  and 
whatever  the  better  nature  of  his  impulses 
may  be,  yet  when  his  great  chief  commands 
■war,  he  is  converted  into  a  demon.  It  is 
from  the  Zulu  country,  however,  that  those 
terrible  tyrants  who  so  long  devastated 
Southeastern  Africa,  the  chiefs  Chaka,  Din- 
gaan,  Moselikatze,  etc„  issued.  The  train- 
ing of  their  subjects  to  a  peculiar  mode  of 
warfare  spread  desolation  and  havoc  for 
many  years  among  the  Betjuana  and  other 
tribes  of  the  interior.  These  chiefs  with 
their  thousands  of  followers,  lighting,  like 
Homer's  heroes,  hand  to  hand,  armed  with 
stabbing  assagais  and  shields  of  ox-hide,  the 
colors  of  which  distinguished  the  different 
regiments  they  were  formed  into,  melted 
away  with  broken  power  into  comparative 
insignificance  before  the  terrible  rifles  of  a 
few  hundred  emigrant  Dutch  Boers,  who, 
in  their  turn,  gave  way  to  the  energetic 
action  of  the  British  authorities.  The 
Zulus  often  have  serious  intestine  wars 
among  themselves.  The  principal  Zulu 
tribes  are  the  Amazulu,  the  Amahute,  Amaz- 
■wazi,  and  Amatabele.  The  last,  under  the 
chief  Moselikatze,  have  emigrated  far  to 
the  north,  where,  among  the  mountains 
which  separate  the  valley  of  the  Limpopo 
from  the  basin  of  the  Zambesi,  they  still 
issue  forth,  and  carry  their  depredations  as 
far  north  as  the  Lake  Nyassa,  where  they 
"were  found  by  Dr.  Livingstone.  A  war 
broke  out  in  the  latter  part  of  1878,  or  be- 
ginning of  1879,  between  the  British  and 
the  Zulus,  and  on  January  22,  1879,  the 
British  were  defeated  with  terrible  slaughter 
about  10  miles  in  front  of  Rorke's  drift ; 
their  loss  in  killed  being  put  down  at  30 
officers,  about  500  enl^ted  men  of  the  Im- 
perial troops,  and  700  enlisted  men  of  the 
Colonial  troops.  It  seems  that  the  troops 
were  enticed  away  from  their  camp,  as  the 
action  took  place  about  one  mile  and  a  quar- 
ter from  it.  The  camp  containing  surplus 
ammunition,  etc.,  of  the  British  force  was 
taken  by  the  Zulus,  but  was  occupied  after 
dark  the  same  night  by  British  troops. 
About    the   same   time  Rorke's  drift  was 


attacked  by  some  3000  or  4000  Zulus  ;  its 
defense  by  some  80  men  of  the  24th  Regi- 
ment was  most  gallant,  370  bodies  lay  close 
around  the  post ;  the  loss  of  the  Zulus  was 
estimated  at  1000  here  alone.  At  the  camp 
where  the  disaster  occurred,  the  loss  of  the 
Zulus  was  computed  at  over  2000.  The 
Zulus  are  even  more  formidable  than  the 
military  authorities  expected  ;  they  are 
well  drilled,  great  numbers  are  armed  with 
breech-loaders,  and  they  fight  courageously. 
It  is  now  known  but  too  well  how  large  a 
force  they  can  mass  at  one  point.  Lord 
Chelmsford,  the  commander  of  the  English 
forces  in  Zululand,  after  suffering  some  ad- 
ditional reverses,  was  superseded  in  June, 
1879,  by  Sir  Garnet  Wolesley.  Eugene 
Louis  Jean  Napoleon,  prince  imperial  of 
France,  participated  as  a  volunteer  with 
the  British  forces  against  the  Zulus,  and 
was  killed  (about  the  end  of  May  or  the 
beginning  of  June)  while  on  a  reconnois- 
sance  under  the  command  of  Col.  Wood ; 
he  was  suddenly  beset  by  Zulus  and  assa- 
gaied,  receiving  no  less  than  seventeen 
wounds.  Prince  Napoleon  was  born  in 
Paris  on  March  16,  1856.  He  received 
his  "  Baptism  of  Fire"  at  tlie  battle  of 
Saarbruck,  August  2,  1870,  during  the 
Franco-German  war,  in  company  with  his 
father,  the  emperor.  After  the  fall  of  the 
empire  and  the  death  of  his  father  he  re- 
sided in  England,  and  graduated  with  high 
honors  at  the  Military  Academy  at  Woolwich . 
The  war  was  terminated  in  the  latter  part  of 
1879,  by  the  total  defeat  of  the  Zulus  and  the 
capture  of  the  king  Cetawayo. 

Zumbooruks  (Pers.  Zumboor,  "wasp"). 
Diminutive  swivel  artillery,  carried  on  the 
backs  of  camels. 

Zurich.  A  town  of  Switzerland,  capital 
of  the  canton  of  the  same  name,  at  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  Lake  of  Zurich, 
60  miles  northeast  from  Berne.  The  Swiss 
defeated  the  Austrians  near  this  town  in 
1443,  and  in  1799  the  French  defeated  the 
Russians  and  Austrians  before  it.  In  1859  a 
treaty  between  Austria,  France,  and  Sardi- 
nia was  signed  here,  and  Lombardy  sold 
bv  Austria  to  the  king  of  Sardinia  for 
£10,000,000. 

Zutphen.  An  inland  town  of  Holland, 
in  the  province  of  Gelderland,  on  the  Yssel, 
16  miles  northeast  from  Arnheim.  It  is  for- 
tified and  rendered  peculiarly  strong  by  its 
situation,  which  is  in  the  midst  of  drained 
fens.  It  formerly  belonged  to  the  Hanseatic 
League,  and  was  taken  by  Don  Frederick  of 
Toledo  in  1572 ;  by  Prince  Maurice  in  1591  ; 
and  by  the  French  in  1672.  The  gallant 
and  accomplished  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  author 
of  "  Arcadia,"  was  mortally  wounded  in  the 
battle  fought  here  on  September  22,  1586, 
between  the  Spaniards  and  the  Dutch.  He 
was  serving  with  the  English  auxiliaries, 
commanded  by  the  Earl  of  Leicester. 

Zuyper  Sluys  (Holland).  Here  Sir  Ralph 
Abercromby  defeated  an  attack  of  the  French 
under  Brune,  September  9,  1799. 


APPENDIX. 


EMBRACING  WOKDS  CASUALLY  OMITTED  IN  THE  BODY  OF  THE  WORK, 
AND  THE  ARTICLES  OF  AVAR. 


A. 

Acanzi.  In  military  history,  the  name 
of  the  Turkish  iitjht-horse  who  lonned  the 
vanguard  of  the  sultan's  army. 

Adoni,  or  Adonani.  A  city  in  Hindo- 
stan,  formerly  stronLcly  fortified;  captured 
hy  Tippoo  Sahib  in  1787;  sold  to  England 
after  his  death  in  1800. 

Afabuar  (Fr.).  Color-bearer  of  the  an- 
cient Icelanders.  Every  war-vessel  had  one 
of  these  ofhcers  aboard,  who  commanded  the 
soldiers.  These  officers  were  selected  for  this 
duty  for  their  bravery. 

Alains  {Fr.).  People  of  ancient  Snrma- 
tia  ;  they  followed  the  lluns  in  their  inva- 
sions, and  penetrated  as  far  as  Spain  in  the 
Cth  century. 

Alexandria.  A  port  in  Egypt,  where,  on 
March  l!l,  1801,  the  French  army  destined 
by  Napolet>n  Bona|)arte  to  conquer  Egypt, 
and  afterwards  proceed  to  India  with  hostile 
designs,  was  routed  by  the  British  under 
Sir  Ralph  Abercromby.  Tlie  town  capitu- 
lated to  Hutchinson  on  September  2,  1801  ; 
and  surreinlered  uj)on  a  subseijuent  occasion 
to  Gen.  Eraser,  on  March  20,  1807. 

AUezoir.  A  frame  of  timber  tirmly  sus- 
pended in  the  air  with  strong  cordage,  on 
which  is  placed  a  niece  of  ordnance  with  the 
muzzle  downwards.  In  this  situation  the 
bore  is  rounded  and  enlarged  by  means  of 
an  instrument  which  has  a  very  sharp  and 
strong  edge  made  to  traverse  the  bore  by 
force  of  machinery,  or  horses,  and  in  a  hori- 
zontal direction. 

Allezures.  The  metal  taken  from  the 
cannon  by  boring. 

Ancient.  A  term  formerly  used  to  express 
the  grand  ensign  or  standard  of  an  army. 

Anspessade  (Fr.).  This  term  was  origi- 
nally used  to  denote  dismounted  horsemen, 
who  were  obliged  to  servo  temporarily  in 
the  infantry,  and  who  broke  otl"  the  t(»ps  of 
their  lances  so  as  to  reduce  their  length  to 
that  of  tiie  halberds  of  the  sergeants.  Also, 
a  non-commissioned  othcer  who  acis  subor- 
dinate to  a  corporal ;  a  lance-corporal. 

Antoninus,  Wall  of.     Was  a  rampart  or 


defense  (the  remains  of  which  still  exist  un- 
der the  name  of  Ora/xiDis  Dyke),  which  was 
erected  in  Scotland  in   139  by  the  Romans 
against  the  incursions  of  the  North  Britons. 
Aquileia  {I.itrin).     Made  a  Roman  cobmy 
about  180  H.C.,  and  fortified  a.d.  lt;8.     Con- 
stantine  II.  was  slain  in  a  battle  with  Con- 
stans,  fought  at  Aquileia  towards  the  close 
of  March,  340.     Maximus  was  defeated  and 
slain    by    Theodosius,   near   Aquileia,  July 
28,  388.     Theodosius  defeated  Eugenius  and 
Arbogastes,  the  Gaul,  near  Acpiileia,  and  re- 
I  mained    sole    emperor,   September    6,   3'J4. 
I  Eugenius  was  put  to  death,  and  Arbogastes 
i  died  bj'  his  own  hand,  mortified  by  his  over- 
]  throw.     In  452  Aquileia  was  almost  totally 
destroyed  by  Attila  the  Hun,  and  near  it  in 
1  489  Theodoric  and  the  Ostrogoths  totally  de- 
j  feated  Odoacer,  the  king  of  Italy. 

Auberoche,     Guicnne.       In      Southern 
I  France.     The  Earl  of  Derby  defeated  the 
■   French,  besieging  this  place,  August  19,1344. 
I       Auray  (Northwest  France).    Hereon  Sep- 
tember 29,   1364,  the   English   under  John 
Chandos  defeated  the  French  and  captured 
:   their  leader,  Du  Gucsclin.     Charles  of  Blois, 
made    duke   of    Brittany   by   the    king   of 
France,  was  slain,  and  a  peace  was  made  in 
j  April,  1305. 

!  ^- 

'       Band,  Military.*     Consists  of  n  body  of 
musicians  attached  to  each  army  regiment 
or  battalion.     The  law  provides  for  a  band 
at  the  Military   Acadeniy  at  "West   Point. 
And  for  each  artillery,  cavalry,  and  infantry 
regiment  a  chief  musician,  who  shall  be  in- 
;  structor  of   musje;    and   for  each    artillery 
I  and  infantry  regiment  two  principal  musi- 
i  cians ;   each  cavalry  regiment  to  have  one 
I  chief  trumpeter.     Musicians  for  n\gimental 
I  bands  are  enlisted  as  soldiers,  and  formed 
I  under  the  direction  of  the  adjutant,  but  are 
j   not  permanently  detached  from  their  compa- 
nies, and  are  instructed  in  all  the  duties  of 
a  soldier. 


Incorrectly  printpJ  in  th«  l>odj  of  the  work. 
643 


644 


APPENDIX. 


Bander  (Fr.).  To  unite;  to  intrigue  to- 
gethor  for  the  purpose  of  insurrection. 

Barry.  In  heraldry,  the  term  applied  to 
a  shield  which  i^  divided  transversely  into 
four,  six,  or  more  equal  parts,  and  consisting 
of  two  or  more  tinctures  interchangeably 
disposed.  Barry-bendy  is  where  the  shield 
is  divided  into  four,  six,  or  more  equal  parts, 
by  diagonal  lines,  the  tincture  of  which  it 
consists  being  varied  interchangeably.  Bar- 
ry-pily  is  where  the  shield  is  divided  by  di- 
agonal lines,  the  different  colors  being  inter- 
changed. 

Bassinet  [Fr.].     The  pan  of  a  musket. 

Bautzen.  A  town  in  Saxony,  near  which 
desperate  battles  were  fought  May  20-22, 
1818,  between  the  French,  commanded  by 
Napoleon,  and  the  allies  under  the  emperor 
of  Kussia  and  the  king  of  Prussia.  The 
struggle  commenced  on  the  19th,  with  aeon- 
test  on  the  outposts,  which  cost  each  army  a 
loss  of  above  2000  men.  On  the  20th  (at 
Bautzen),  the  French  were  more  successful ; 
and  on  the  21st  (at  Murschen),  the  allies  were 
compelled  to  retire;  but  Napoleon  obtained 
no  permanent  advantages  from  these  san- 
guinary engagements.  Duroc  was  killed  at 
Kachenbach  by  a  cannon-ball  on  May  22,  to 
the  great  sorrow  of  the  emperor  and  the 
French  army. 

Beaver,  or  Bever.  That  part  of  a  helmet 
covering  the  lower  part  of  the  face,  which 
shifted  on  pivots  to  allow  the  wearer  to 
drink.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
word  bcvpve,  to  drink. 

Bethune.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment Pas-de-Calais  ;  it  is  strongly  forti- 
fied, part  of  the  works  and  the  citadel  having 
been  constructed  by  Vauban ;  taken  by  the 
French  in  1645 ;  retaken  by  the  allies  in 
1710,  but  was  restored  to  France  by  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht,  1714. 

Biset  (Fr.).  Was  a  member  of  the  na- 
tional guard  who  performed  his  duty  in  civil- 
ian's dress,  before  the  wearing  of  uniform 
on  duty  was  made  obligatory. 

Blackstock's  Hill.  A  hill  situated  in 
South  Carolina,  United  States,  memorable 
for  the  victory  the  Americans  gained  over 
the  English  in  1780. 

Blakemere.  A  village  of  England,  near 
where  a  memorable  battle  was  fought  be- 
tween the  Scots  and  the  troops  of  Edward 
II.  of  England,  in  which  the  latter  were 
defeated. 

Blumenau.  In  Lower  Austria  ;  on  July 
22,  1866,  the  Austrians  in  possession  of  this 
place  were  attacked  by  the  Prussians  on  their 
march  towards  Vienna,  a  severe  conflict  was 
interrupted  by  the  news  of  the  armistice 
agreed  to  at  Nikolsburg  ;  and  the  same  even- 
ing Austrians  and  Prussians  bivouacked  to- 
gether. 

Brabant.  Part  of  Holland  and  Belgium, 
an  ancient  duchy,  part  of  Charlemagne's 
empire,  fell  to  the  share  of  his  son  Charles. 
In  the  17th  century  it  was  held  by  Holland 
and  Austria,  as  Dutch  Brabrant  and  the 
Walloon   provinces,  and   underwent  many 


changes  through  the  wars  in  Europe.  The 
Austrian  division  was  taken  by  the  French 
in  174G  and  1794.  It  was  united  to  the 
Netherlands  in  1814,  but  South  Brabant  was 
given  to  the  kingdom  of  Belgium,  under 
Leopold,  1830.  The  heir  of  the  throne  of 
Belgium  is  styled  Duke  of  Brabant. 

Braquemart,  or  Jacquemart  (Fr.).  In 
antiquity,  a  two-edged  broadsword. 

Breda.  A  strongly  fortified  town  of  Hol- 
land ;  taken  by  Prince  Maurice  of  Nassau 
in  1590;  by  the  Spaniards  under  Spinola  in 
1625,  and  by  the  Dutch  in  1G37 ;  taken  by 
the  French  in  1793.  The  French  garrison 
was  expelled  by  the  burgesses  in  1813. 

Briche  [Fr.).  A  machine  of  war  form"erly 
used  to  throw  stones. 

Broad  Arrow.  A  mark  for  goods  belong- 
ing to  the  royal  dock-yards  or  navy,  Eng- 
land ;  is  said  to  have  been  ordered  to  be  used 
in  1698,  in  consequence  of  robberies. 

Brussels.  Once  capital  of  Austrian  Bra- 
bant, now  of  Belgium  (since  1831),  was 
founded  by  St.  Gery,  of  Cambray,  in  the  7th 
century.  It  was  bombarded  and  captured 
by  Marshal  Villeroi  in  1695 ;  taken  by  the 
French  in  1701  at  the  beginning  of  the  War 
of  Succession ;  captured  by  the  Duke  of 
Marlborough  in  1706  ;  by  the  French  under 
Marshal  Saxe  in  1747,  and  by  Gen.  Du- 
mouriez  in  1794,-'  the  revolution  commenced 
in  1880. 

c. 

Cabacle  (Fr.).  Military  coat  of  the  mod- 
ern Grecians. 

Cabas  {Fr.).  A  large  shield  or  buckler, 
which  served  to  protect  the  archers  who 
attacked  in  intrenchments. 

Cage  de  la  Bascule  (Fr.).  A  space  into 
which  one  part  of  a  draw-bridge  falls,  whilst 
the  other  rises  and  conceals  the  gate. 

Calosiers.  Soldiers  of  ancient  Egypt, 
who  with  the  Hcrmotybes  composed  the 
particular  guard  of  the  king. 

Calotte  (Fr.).  The  back  plate  of  a  sword- 
handle  ;  the  cap  of  a  pistol ;  species  of  skull- 
cap worn  by  French  cavalry,  sabre-proof, 
made  of  iron  or  dressed  leather. 

Candjiar,  or  Canjar.  A  kind  of  crooked 
Turkish  sabre. 

Carcas  (Fr.).  The  name  given  to  a 
quiver  during  the  Middle  Ages. 

Chadd's  Ford.  A  village  in  Delaware 
Co.,  Pa.,  on  the  Brandy  wine  Creek.  Near 
here  was  fought  the  battle  of  Brandywine, 
September  11,  1777. 

Charlestown.  A  former  city  and  seaport 
of  Middlesex  Co.,  Mass. ;  is  now  a  northern 
suburb  of  Boston.  Was  burnt  by  the  Brit- 
ish forces  under  Gen.  Gage,  June  17,  1775. 
On  Bunker's  Hill  a  monument  is  erected 
commemorating  the  battle  of  that  name, 
which  was  fought  June  17,  1775. 

Charlestowri.  A  village  of  Jefferson  Co., 
West  Va.  In  this  place  John  Brown  was 
tried  and  executed,  December,  1859.  On 
October  18, 1863,  a  Confederate  force  of  1200 
or    1400  men,   under   Gen.    Imboden,   sur- 


WORDS  CASUALLY  OMITTED. 


645 


rounded  the  place  at  daylight,  and  attacked  1 
the  Union  troojjs  statio.'ied  there.  Ueinj;  ', 
surprised,  thoy  were  panic-stricken,  and,  i 
flying  in  confusion,  were  nearly  all  captured.  I 
The  place  was  recaptured  within  an  hour  by  ; 
a  force  of  U.  S.  troops  under  Col.  George  D. 
"Wells,  and  the  Confederates  driven  from  the  } 
town. 

Chateau  Cambresis.  A  fortified  town  of 
French  Flanders,  on  the  Selle,  where  the 
French  republican  armv  was  defeated  by 
the  Duke  of  York  in  April,  171t4. 

Cherry  Valley.  A  village  of  Otsego  Co., 
N.  Y.  It  was  the  scene  of  a  dreadful  massa- 
cre l>y  the  Tories  and  Indians  in  the  British 
service,  October  11,  1778.  Thirty-two  in- 
habitants, nearly  all  women  and  children, 
were  murdered,  besides  si.xteen  soldiers  of 
the  Continental  army.  The  rest  of  the  citi- 
zens were  made  prisoners  and  taken  away, 
and  ail  the  buildings  were  burned. 

Chickasaw  Bluffs,  Battle  of.  Before 
Yicksburg,  Miss.  Tiie  U.  S.  forces  under 
Gen.  AV.  T.  Sherman  assaulted  this  strongly 
fortified  positit)n,  December  2'J,  18G2,  but, 
though  the  head  of  the  assaulting  column 
reached  the  works,  the  severe  fire  from  the 
ritle-pits  and  batteries  caused  them  to  fall 
back  to  the  point  of  starting,  leaving  many 
dead,  wounded,  and  prisoners  on  the  field. 
The  Confederate  loss  was  but  light. 

Clipeadus.  So  were  called,  in  ancient 
times,  the  soldiers  who  were  armed  with  the 
Grecian  buckler,  which  was  large  and  round. 
By  clipeadus  chlamyde  was  understood  com- 
batants, who,  in  place  of  the  shield,  wound 
their  coats  (chlamyde)  around  their  left  arms. 

Clunaculum.  A  poniard  carried  by  cer- 
tain Koman  troops  in  ancient  times.  It 
was  so  called  because  it  was  carried  on  the 
back  of  the  soldier. 

Cnemidas.  A  kind  of  leggings,  made  of 
bronze,  which  were  worn  by  Grecian  sol- 
diers. 

Cnidos  (now  Crio).  A  town  of  Anatolia, 
in  Asia  Minor;  in  its  neighborhood  a  battle 
was  fought  between  the  Lacedaemonian  and 
Persian'floets  in  31)4  b.c.  ;  the  latter  gained 
the  victnry. 

Colismarde  (Fr.).    A  long,  slender  sword. 

Colletin  (  Fr.).  So  was  called,  in  ancient 
time.-,  that  jirtrt  of  an  armor  wliich  protected 
the  neck  and  upper  part  of  the  breast. 

Custozza.  Near  Verona,  Northern  Italy. 
Here  the  Italians  were  defeated  by  Jfarshal 
Kadet/.ky,  July  2.3,  1848;  and  here  they 
were  again  defeated,  June  24,  1806,  after  a 
series  of  desperate  attacks  on  the  Austrian 
army.  The  Italians  were  commanded  by 
their  king,  Yictor  Emmanuel,  and  the  Aus- 
trians  by  the  Archduke  Albrecht. 


D. 

Davids  Island.  An  island  of  100  acres 
in  Long  Island  Sound,  within  the  township 
limits  of  New  Kochelle,  "Westchester  Co., 
N.   Y.      It  was  purchased  in   1807  by  the 


U.  S.  government,  to  be  used  for  military 
purposes. 

Dinkelsbuhl.  A  town  of  Bavaria,  sur- 
rounded with  a  high  wall,  flanked  with  tow- 
ers and  ditches.  It  suttered  much  during 
the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Dorylaeum  [Fhry;iia).  Soliman,  the 
Turkish  sultan  of  Iconium,  having  retired 
from  the  defense  of  Nica.-a,  his  capital,  was 
here  defeated  with  great  loss  by  the  Cru- 
saders, July  1,  10'J7. 

Douglas.  An  ancient  noble  family  of 
Scotland.  The  earls  of  Douglas,  the  earls 
of  Angus,  and  the  earls  of  Morton  belonged 
to  this  family.  Sir  James  Douglas,  sur- 
named  "The  Good,"  was  the  founder  <>f 
their  fame  and  grandeur.  He  commanded 
the  left  wing  at  Bannockburn  in  1.314,  and 
was  killed  by  the  Saracens  in  .'<pain  about 
1830,  in  a  pilgrimage  to  Palestine.  James 
the  second,  earl  of  Douglas,  was  a  famous 
warrior,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Ut- 
terburn  in  1388.  Archibald  the  Grim,  third 
earl,  fought  for  the  French  at  Poitiers,  and 
died  about  1400.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Archibald,  fourth  earl,  A-ho  displayed 
great  courage  at  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury 
(1403j,  where  he  fought  against  Henry  lY., 
and  rendered  important  services  to  Charles 
YII.  of  France,  who  rewarded  him  with  the 
duchy  of  Touraino.  He  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Yerneuil,  in  France,  in  1424. 

Dry  Tortugas.  A  group  of  ten  small, 
low,  barren  i.-lands  belonging  to  Monroe 
Co.,  Fla.  These  islands  served  as  a  place  of 
imprisonment  for  persons  under  sentence 
by  courts-martial  during  the  late  civil  war. 
Several  criminals  concerned  in  the  con- 
spiracy in  which  President  Lincoln  was 
murdered  were  confined  here. 

E. 

Egard  (Fr.).  An  ancient  tribunal  of 
Malta  which  decided,  by  commission,  suits 
among  the  knights. 

Eleasa.  In  Palestine;  here  Judas  Mac- 
caba-us  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Bacchides 
and  Alcimus,  and   the   Syrians   about   101 

B.C. 

Entrenchments.  The  field-works  which 
are  hastily  thrown  up  to  cover  a  force  in 
position. 

Erivan,  Irvin,  or  Irivan.  A  fortified 
town  of  Russian  Armenia,  sitmitetl  on  the 
Zenghi.  It  was  taken  by  the  Turks  in 
ir)'>3  and  1582,  but  recovered  by  Abbas  the 
(ireat,  lf>04;  after  being  several  times  cap- 
tured, it  was  ceded  to  Persia,  170'.».  The 
Russians  blockaded  this  place  during  six 
months   in    1808,  and  were    repulsed,    with 

freat  slaughter,  in  an  attempt  to  storm  it. 
n  1827,  however,  it  was  Utken  by  them. 
Ermin.  An  order  of  knights"  instituted 
in  14.J0.  by  Francis  I.,  duke  of  Bretagne, 
and  which  formerly  subsisted  in  France. 
The  collar  of  this  o'rder  was  of  gold,  com- 
posed of  cars  of  corn  in  saltirc,  at  the  end 
of  which   hung   the  ermine,  with   the   in- 


646 


APPENDIX. 


scription  a  ma  vie.  But  the  order  expired 
when  the  dukedom  of  Bretagne  was  an- 
nexed to  France. 

Erouad,  or  Erroad.  A  town  of  Hindos- 
tan,  in  the  province  of  Coimhetoor.  This 
town  was  reduced  in  size  during  the  reign 
of  Tippoo  Sahib  ;  and  during  the  invasion 
of  Gen.  Meadows  the  town  was  destroyed. 
It  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1790,  and 
retaken  by  Tippoo;  but  it  came  into  the 
final  possession  of  the  British,  along  with 
the  province,  in  1799. 

Evans  Rifle.    See  Magazine  Guns. 


F. 

Fabian.  Delaying  ;  dilatory  ;  avoiding 
battle,  in  imitation  of  Quintus  Fabius  Maxi- 
mus  Verrucosus,  a  Eoman  general  who  con- 
ducted military  operations  against  Hannibal, 
by  declining  to  risk  a  battle  in  the  open  field, 
but  harassing  the  enemy  by  marches,  coun- 
termarches, and  ambuscades. 


G. 

Gad.  The  first-born  of  Zilpah,  Leah's 
maid,  was  the  seventh  son  of  Jacob.  The 
tribe  of  Gad  numbered  in  the  wilderness  of 
Sinai  more  than  40,000  fighting-men.  No- 
madic by  nature,  they  preferred  to  remain  on 
the  east  side  of  Jordan,  and  were  reluctantly 
allowed  to  do  so  by  Joshua,  on  condition  of 
assisting  their  countrymen  in  the  conquest 
and  subjugation  o'f  Canaan.  The  men  of 
Gad — if  we  may  judge  from  the  eleven  war- 
riors who  joined  David  in  his  extremity — 
were  a  race  of  stalwart  heroes ;  "  men  of 
might,  and  men  of  war,  fit  for  the  battle, 
that  could  handle  shield  and  buckler,  whose 
faces  were  like  the  faces  of  lions,  and  were 
as  swift  as  the  roes  upon  the  mountains." 

Gomer  Chamber.  Chamber  of  the  24- 
pounder  Coehorn  mortar;  it  is  in  the  form 
of  a  frustum  of  a  cone,  superior  diameter  3 
inches,  and  inferior,  2  inches. 

Gore.  In  heraldry,  a  charge  consisting 
of  one-third  of  the  shield  cut  otf  by  two 
arched  lines,  one  drawn  from  the  dexter  or 
sinister  chief,  and  the  other  from  the  bottom 
of  the  escutcheon,  meeting  in  the  fess  point. 
A  gore  sinister  is  enumerated  by  heralds  as 
one  of  the  abatements  or  marks  of  dishonor 
borne  for  unknightly  conduct.     See  Gusset. 

Guelf,  Guelph,  or  Welf.  The  name  of  a 
noble  family  in  Germany,  the  founder  of 
which  lived  in  the  time  of  Charlemacrne. 


H. 

Half  Merlons.  The  merlons  at  the  ends 
of  the  parapet. 

Harrow.  In  a  military  sense,  means  to 
lay  waste  ;  to  ravage  ;  to  destroy. 

Here.  Is  a  word  used  by  soldiers  at  a 
regimental  roll-call,  to  intimate  their  pres- 
ence. 


M. 

Magnano.  In  Northern  Italy ;  here 
Scherer  and  a  French  army  were  defeated 
by  the  Austrians  under  Kray,  April  5,  1799. 

Mars.  The  name  of  the  Koman  god  of 
war,  was  a  contraction  of  Mavors.  He  was 
supposed  to  be  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  Juno,  and 
was  identified  with  the  Ares  of  Greek  my- 
thology. According  to  Ovid  he  was  a  son 
of  Juno,  but  had  no  father.  Homer  and 
other  poets  relate  that  Mars  fought  for  the 
Trojans  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  and  was 
wounded  by  Diomede.  Mars  was  believed 
to  love  war  for  its  own  sake,  and  to  dejight 
in  carnage.  He  is  usually  represented  as  a 
grim  soldier  in  full  armor, — sometimes  as 
driving  furiously  in  a  war-chariot. 

Moliones,  or  Molionidae.  Regarded  as 
the  sons  of  Neptune  (Poseidon) ;  according 
to  Homer  the  Moliones,  when  yet  boys,  took 
part  in  an  expedition  of  the  Epeans  against 
Neleus  and  the  Pylians.  When  Hercules 
marched  against  Augeas,  the  latter  intrusted 
the  conduct  of  the  war  to  the  Moliones  ;  but 
as  Hercules  was  taken  ill,  he  concluded  peace 
with  Augeas,  whereupon  his  army  was  at- 
tacked and  defeated  by  the  Molionidas.  In 
order  to  take  vengeance,  he  afterwards  slew 
them  near  Cleonffi,  on  the  frontiers  of  Ar- 
golis.  Their  sons,  Amphimachus  and  Thal- 
pius,  led  the  Epeans  to  Troy. 


N. 


Nugent.  The  name  of  a  noble  family, 
originally  from  Normandy,  who  settled  in 
Ireland  in  the  12th  century.  Richard  Nu- 
gent was  created  by  King  James  I.  earl  of 
Westmeath  in  1621.  George  Thomas  John 
Nugent,  born  in  1785,  became  marquis  of 
Westmeath  in  1822.  Sir  George  Nugent, 
grandson  of  Viscount  Clare,  born  in  1757, 
served  in  America  and  the  Netherlands.  He 
was  successively  appointed  governor  of  Ja- 
maica and  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
in  the  West  Indies,  and  in  1846  field-mar- 
shal. Died  in  1849.  His  brother.  Sir  Charles 
Edmund  Nugent,  served  with  distinction 
under  Rodnev,  and  was  created  admiral  of 
the  blue  in  1808.  In  1833  he  received  the 
title  of  admiral  of  the  fleet.     Died  in  1844. 


P. 

Paneas,  or  Panius  (Syria).  Here  Antio- 
chus  the  Great  defeated  Scopas,  the  Egyptian 
general,  and  his  Greek  allies,  198  b.c. 

Percy.  The  name  of  an  ancient  and  noble 
English  family,  descended  from  William  de 
Percy,  who,  in  the  reign  of  William  the 
Conqueror,  possessed  several  manors  in  the 
counties  of  Lincoln  and  York.  He  was 
probably  a  Norman.  In  the  reign  of  Edward 
I.  a  Henry  de  Percy  acquired  Alnwick  and 
other  estates  in  Northumberland.  Another 
Henry  de  Percy,  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
III.,  married   Mary  Plantagenet,  a   great- 


ARTICLES  OF  WAR. 


647 


granddaughter  of  King  Henry  III.,  and 
hud  two  sons,  Henry,  earl  of  Northiimbor- 
hind,  and  Tlumias,  earl  of  Worcester.  Henry 
Perey,  surnained  Hotspur,  u  sou  of  Henry 
last  named,  rebelled  against  Henry  IV.,  and 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury  (1403). 
A  son  of  Hotspur  was  restored  to  the  earl- 
dom, fought  for  the  hou.se  of  Lancaster,  and 
fell  at  Saint  Albans,  in  14/J5,  leaving  .several 
suns,  who  were  killed  in  the  war  of  the 
Koses.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  a  Percy, 
earl  of  Northumberland,  was  executed  for 
rebellion  (1572). 

Pharaoh.  The  term  applied  in  the  Bible 
to  the  kings  of  Egypt,  of  whicli  many  ex- 
planations have  been  proposed,  as  pa-ra, 
"the  sun;"  pi-ouro,  "the  king;"  per-aa, 
"the  great  house,"  "court;"  pa-rn-anh,  or 
"  the  living  sun."  None  of  these  etymolo- 
gies are  altogether  satisfactory,  some  not 
being  found  at  an  early  period.  It  is  still 
less  possible  to  connect  it  with  the  name  of 
any  Egyptian  monarch,  and  it  must  have 
been  a  common  appellation  like  khan,  arsar, 
or  czn?-.  Pharaoli  is  the  one  under  whom 
the  Israelites  were  in  bondage,  and  who 
compelled  them  to  build  the  treasure-cities 
of  Pithom  and  Kameses  of  bricks  ;  and  it 
was  under  him  or  his  successor  that  Egypt 
was  afHicted  with  the  ten  plagues,  and  that 
Moses  and  Aaron  led  the  Israelites  out  of 
Egypt,  and  the  Egyptian  army  in  its  pur- 
suit of  the  retreating  Israelites  was  drowned 
in  the  sea,  although  it  is  doubtful  if  Pharaoh 
perished  with  them.  The  identical  Egyptian 
monarch  who  was  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exo- 
dus has  been  a  subject  of  dispute,  but  it  is 
principally  confined  to  the  period  of  the 
eighteenth  and  nineteenth  dynasties.  The 
other  Pharaohs  mentioned  in  the  Bible  are 
the  father  of  Hadad  the  Edomite,  supposed  to 
be  a  king  of  the  twentj'-second  dynasty  ;  the 
father-in-law  of  Solomon  ;  one  of  the  prede- 
cessors of  Sheshanka  or  Shishak  ;  that  mon- 
arch himself,  who  overran  the  Holy  Land 
and  pillaged  Jerusalem  ;  Tirhakah  the  Ethio- 
pian, who  for  a  time  wrested  Egypt  from  the 
Assyrians;    Nekau   or  Nccho  ll.,  who  in- 


vaded Palestine  to  reduce  it  to  subjection, 
then  in  alliance  with  the  As.syrians,  but  was 
tiiuilly  defeated  at  C'archcniish  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, then  at  a  youthful  age,  GOO  H.c.  ;  and 
Uah-pa-ru,  Hophraor  Aprie:*,  of  the  twenty- 
!  sixth  dynasty,  who  marched  to  relieve  tno 
,  siege  of  Jerusalem,  causing  the  Babylonians 
to  retire  for  a  while,  althougii  it  was  tinally 
taken    by  Nebuchadnezzar,  588  H.c.     It  is 
remarkable  that  the  Etliioi.iau  Kings  Zerah 
and  so  mentioned  in  the  Bible  are  not  styled 
I  Pharaohs,  like  the  Egyptian  rulers,  as  if  for 
I  some  rea.son  thev  hatiHot  the  same  title  or 
I  were   recognized   as    lawful   rulers   of   the 

country. 
;       Phyiarque    (Fr.).      A   Grecian    cavalry 
I  officer  who  commanded  the  cavalry  of  his 
;  tribe. 

i  ^' 

Reichenbach  (Prussia).     Here  was  signed 

a  subsidy  treaty  between  Kussia,  Prus.-ia, 
and  England,  whereby  the  last  engaged  to 
provide  means  for  carrying  on  the  war 
against  Napoleon  I.  on  certain  conditions, 
June  14-15,  1813.  Austria  joined  the  alli- 
ance soon  after.  Here  Duroc  was  killed 
during  the  conflicts  between  the  French  and 
the  allies,  May  22,  1813. 


S. 
Shako.     A  kind  of  military  cap. 


Tesserae  Militares.  Military  watchwords, 
or  countersigns,  among  the  ancient  Romans. 

V. 

Viana.  A  town  of  Portugal,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Minho,  situated  on  the  Lima,  38 
miles  north  from  Oporto.  This  place  sur- 
rendered to  Admiral  Sir  Charles  Napier  in 
the  civil  war  which  deprived  Don  Miguel  of 
the  throne  of  Portugal. 


ARTICLES    OF   WAR. 


Section  1342.  The  armies  of  the  I'nited 
States  shall  be  governed  by  the  following 
rules  and  articles.  The  word  officer,  as 
used  therein,  shall  be  understood  to  desig- 
nate commissioned  officers ;  the  word  sol- 
dier shall  be  understood  to  include  non- 
commissioned officers,  niu.oicians,  artillocrs, 
and  jirivatcs,  and  other  enlisted  men,  and  the 
convictions  mentioned  therein  shall  be  un- 
derstood to  be  convictii>ns  by  court-martial. 

Article  1.      Every  officer   now   in  the 


Army  of  the  United  States  shall,  within 
six  months  from  the  passing  of  this  act, 
and  every  officer  hereafter  ap|K>inted  shall, 
before  he  enters  upon  the  duties  of  his  office, 
subscribe  these  rules  and  articles. 

Art.  2.  These  rules  and  articles  shall  be 
read  to  every  enlisted  man  at  the  time  of, 
or  within  six  days  after,  his  enlistment,  and 
he  shall  thereupon  take  an  oath  or  affirma- 
tion, in  the  following  form:  •'!,  A  B,  do 
solemnly  swear  (or  affirm j  that  1  will  bear 


648 


APPENDIX. 


true  faith  and  allegiance  to  the  United 
States  of  America;  that  I  will  serve  them 
honestly  and  faithfully  against  all  their 
enemies  whomsoever;  and  that  I  will  obey 
the  orders  of  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  orders  of  the  officers  ap- 
pointed over  me,  according  to  the  Rules 
and  Articles  of  War."  This  oath  may  be 
taken  before  any  commissioned  officer  of 
the  Army. 

Art.  3.  Every  officer  who  knowingly 
enlists  or  musters  into  the  military  service 
any  minor  over  the  age  of  sixteen  years 
without  the  written  consent  of  his  parents 
or  guardians,  or  any  minor  under  the  age 
of  sixteen  years,  or  any  insane  or  intoxi- 
cated persons,  or  any  deserter  from  the  mili- 
tary or  naval  service  of  the  United  States, 
or  any  person  who  has  been  convicted  of 
any  infamous  criminal  offense,  shall,  upon 
conviction,  be  dismissed  from  the  service, 
or  suffer  such  other  punishment  as  a  court- 
martial  may  direct. 

Art.  4.  No  enlisted  man,  duly  sworn, 
shall  be  discharged  from  the  service  without 
a  discharge  in  writing,  signed  by  a  field- 
officer  of  the  regiment  to  which  he  belongs, 
or  by  the  commanding  officer,  when  no  field- 
officer  is  present ;  and  no  discharge  shall  be 
given  to  any  enlisted  man  before  his  term 
of  service  has  expired,  except  by  order  of 
'  the  President,  the  Secretary  of  War,  the 
commanding  officer  of  a  department,  or  by 
sentence  of  a  general  court-martial. 

Art.  5.  Any  officer  who  knowingly 
musters  as  a  soldier  a  person  who  is  not  a 
soldier  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  knowingly 
making  a  false  muster,  and  punished  accord- 
ingly. 

Art.  6.  Any  officer  who  takes  money, 
or  other  thing,  by  way  of  gratification,  on 
mustering  any  regiment,  troop,  battery,  or 
company,  or  on  signing  muster-rolls,  shall 
be  dismissed  from  the  service,  and  shall 
thereby  be  disabled  to  hold  any  office  or 
employment  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States. 

Art.  7.  Every  officer  commanding  a 
regiment,  an  independent  troop,  battery,  or 
company,  or  a  garrison,  shall,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  every  month,  transmit  through  the 
proper  channels,  to  the  Department  of  War, 
an  exact  return  of  the  same,  specifying  the 
names  of  the  officers  then  absent  from  their 
posts,  with  the  reasons  for  and  the  time 
of  their  absence.  And  any  officer  who, 
through  neglect  or  design,  omits  to  send 
such  returns,  shall,  on  conviction  thereof, 
be  punished  as  a  court-martial  may  di- 
rect. 

Art.  8.  Every  officer  who  knowingly 
makes  a  false  return  to  the  Department  of 
War,  or  to  any  of  his  superior  officers, 
authorized  to  call  for  such  returns,  of  the 
state  of  the  regiment,  troop  or  company,  or 
garrison  under  his  command ;  or  of  the 
arms,  ammunition,  clothing,  or  other  stores 
thereunto  belonging,  shall,  on  conviction 
thereof  before  a  court-martial,  be  cashiered. 


Art.  9.  All  public  stores  taken  from  the 
enemy  shall  be  secured  for  the  service  of  the 
United  States ;  and  for  neglect  thereof  the 
commanding  officer  shall  be  answerable. 

Art.  10.  Every  officer  commanding  a 
troop,  battery,  or  company,  is  charged  with 
the  arms,  accoutrements,  ammunition,  cloth- 
ing, or  other  military  stores  belonging  to 
his  command,  and  is  accountable  to  his 
colonel  in  case  of  their  being  lost,  spoiled, 
or  damaged  otherwise  than  by  unavoidable 
accident,  or  on  actual  service. 

Art.  11.  Every  officer  commanding  a 
regiment  or  an  independent  troop,  battery, 
or  company,  not  in  the  field,  may,  when 
actually  quartered  with  such  command, 
grant  furloughs  to  the  enlisted  men,  in  such 
numbers  and  for  such  time  as  he  shall  deem 
consistent  with  the  good  of  the  service. 
Every  officer  commanding  a  regiment,  or 
an  independent  troop,  battery,  or  company, 
in  the  field,  may  grant  furloughs  not  ex- 
ceeding thirty  days  at  one  time,  to  five  per 
centum  of  the  enlisted  men,  for  good  con- 
duct in  the  line  of  duty,  but  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  commander  of  the  forces  of 
which  said  enlisted  men  form  a  part.  Every 
company  officer  of  a  regiment,  commanding 
any  troop,  battery,  or  companj^  not  in  the 
field,  or  commanding  in  any  garrison,  fort, 
post,  or  barrack,  may,  in  the  absence  of  his 
field-officer,  grant  furloughs  to  the  enlisted 
men,  for  a  time  not  exceeding  twenty  days 
in  six  months,  and  not  to  more  than  two 
persons  to  be  absent  at  the  same  time. 

Art.  12.  At  every  muster  of  a  regiment, 
troop,  battery,  or  company,  the  command- 
ing officer  thereof  shall  give  to  the  muster- 
ing officer  certificates,  signed  by  himself, 
stating  how  long  absent  officers  have  been 
absent  and  the  reasons  of  their  absence. 
And  the  commanding  officer  of  every  troop, 
battery,  or  company  shall  give  like  certifi- 
cates, stating  how  long  absent  non-commis- 
sioned officers  and  private  soldiers  have  been 
absent  and  the  reasons  of  their  absence. 
Such  reasons  and  time  of  absence  shall  be 
inserted  in  the  muster-rolls  opposite  the 
names  of  the  respective  absent  officers  and 
soldiers  ;  and  the  certificates,  together  with 
the  muster-rolls,  shall  be  transmitted  by  the 
mustering  officer  to  the  Department  of  War, 
as  speedily  as  the  distance  of  the  place  and 
muster  will  admit. 

Art.  13.  Every  officer  who  signs  a  false 
certificate,  relating  to  the  absence  or  pay  of 
an  officer  or  soldier,  shall  be  dismissed  from 
the  service. 

Art.  14.  Any  officer  who  knowingly 
makes  a  false  muster  of  man  or  horse,  or 
who  signs,  or  directs,  or  allows  the  signing 
of  any  muster-roll,  knowing  the  same  to 
contain  a  false  muster,  shall,  upon  proof 
thereof  by  two  witnesses,  before  a  court- 
martial,  be  dismissed  from  the  service,  and 
shall  thereby  be  disabled  to  hold  any  office 
or  employment  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States. 

Art.  15.     Any  officer  who,  willfully  or 


ARTICLES  OP  WAR. 


649 


llirougli  net;lect,  suflers  to  be  lost,  spoiled, 
or  daiiiaiijcd,  uny  military  stores  belonging 
to  the  United  States,  shall  make  good  the 
loss  or  damage,  and  be  dismissed  from  the 
service. 

Art.  16.  Any  enlisted  man  who  sells, 
or  willfully  or  through  neglect  wastes  the 
ammunition  delivered  out  to  him,  shall  be 
punished  as  a  court-martial  may  direct. 

Art.  17.  Any  soldier  who  sells  or, 
through  neglect,  loses  or  spoils  his  horse, 
arms,  clothing,  or  accoutrements,  shall  suf- 
fer such  stoppages,  not  exceeding  one-half 
of  his  current  pay,  as  a  court-martial  may 
deem  sufficient  for  repairing  the  loss  <>r 
damage,  and  shall  be  punished  by  confine- 
ment or  such  other  corporal  punishment  as 
the  court  may  direct. 

Art.  18.  Any  officer  commanding  in 
any  garrison,  fort,  or  barracks  of  the  United 
States  who,  for  his  private  advantage,  lays 
any  duty  or  imposition  upon,  or  is  inter- 
ested in,  the  sale  of  any  victuals,  liquors, 
or  other  necessaries  of  life,  brought  into 
such  garrison,  fort,  or  barracks,  for  the  use 
of  the  soldiers,  shall  be  dismissed  from  the 
service. 

Art.  19.  Any  officer  who  uses  contempt- 
uous or  disrespectful  words  against  the 
President,  the  Vice-President,  the  Congress 
of  the  United  States,  or  the  chief  magistrate 
or  legislature  of  any  of  the  United  States 
in  which  he  is  quartered,  shall  be  dismissed 
from  the  service,  or  otherwise  punished  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct.  Any  soldier  who 
so  offends  shall  be  punished  as  a  court-mar- 
tial may  direct. 

Art.  20.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  be- 
haves himself  with  disrespect  towards  his 
commanding  officer  shall  be  punished  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct. 

Art.  21.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who,  on 
any  pretense  whatsoever,  strikes  his  supe- 
rior officer,  or  draws  or  lifts  up  any  weapon, 
or  offers  any  vit)lence  against  him,  being  in 
the  execution  of  his  ofhce,  or  disobeys  any 
lawful  command  of  his  superior  officer,  shall 
suffer  death,  or  such  other  punishment  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct. 

Art.  22.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  be- 
gins, excites,  causes,  or  joins  in  any  mutiny 
or  sedition,  in  any  troop,  battery,  company, 

n,  post,  detachment,  or  guard,  shall  suf- 
eath,  or  such  other  punishment  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct. 

Art.  23.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who, 
being  present  at  any  mutiny  or  sedition, 
does  not  use  his  utmost  endeavor  to  suppress 
the  same,  or  having  knowledge  of  any  in- 
tended mutiny  or  sedition,  does  not,  without 
delay,  give  information  thereof  to  his  com- 
manding officer,  shall  suffer  death,  or  such 
other  punishment  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct. 

Art.  24.  All  officers,  of  what  condition 
soever,  have  power  to  part  and  quell  all 
quarrels,  frays,  and  disorders,  whether 
among  persons  belonging  to  his  own  or  to 
another  corps,  regiment,  troop,  battery,  or 
42 


company,  and  to  order  officers  into  arrest, 
and  non-commissioned  officers  and  soldiers 
into  confinement,  who  take  part  in  the  same, 
until  their  proper  sujK-rior  officer  is  ac- 
quainted therewith.  And  whosoever,  being 
so  ordered,  refuses  to  obey  such  officer  or 
non-commissioned  officer,  or  draws  a 
weapon  upon  him,  shall  be  punished  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct. 

Art.  25.  No  officer  or  soldier  shall  use 
any  reproachful  or  provoking  8|>eeche8  or 
gestures  to  another.  Any  officer  who  so 
offends  shall  be  jiut  in  arrest.  Any  soldier 
who  so  offends  shall  be  confined,  and  re- 
quired to  ask  pardon  of  the  party  offended,  in 
the  presence  of  the  commanding  officer. 

Art.  26.  No  officer  or  soldier  shall  send 
a  challenge  to  another  officer  or  soldier  to 
fight  a  duel,  or  accept  a  challenge  so  sent. 
Any  officer  who  so  offends  shall  be  dismissed 
from  the  service.  Any  soldier  who  so  offends 
shall  sutt'er  such  corporal  punishment  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct. 

Art.  27.  Any  officer  or  non-commis- 
sioned officer,  commanding  a  guard,  who, 
knowingly  and  willingly,  suffers  any  person 
to  go  forth  to  fight  a  duel,  shall  be  punished 
as  a  challenger ;  and  all  seconds  or  pro- 
moters of  duels,  and  carriers  of  challenges 
to  fight  duels,  shall  be  deemed  principals, 
and  punished  accordingly.  It  shall  be  the 
duty  of  any  officer  commanding  an  army, 
regiment,  troop,  battery,  company,  post,  or 
detachment,  who  knows  or  has  retison  to 
believe  that  a  challenge  has  been  given  or 
accepted  by  any  officer  or  enlisted  man 
under  his  command,  immediately  to  arrest 
the  offender  and  bring  him  to  trial. 

Art.  28.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  up- 
braids another  officer  or  soldier  for  refusing 
a  challenge  shall  himself  bo  punished  as 
a  challenger  ;  and  all  officers  and  soldiers 
are  hereby  discharged  from  any  disgrace  or 
opinion  of  disadvantage  which  might  arise 
from  their  having  refused  to  acrt-pt  chal- 
lenges, as  they  will  only  have  acted  in  obe- 
dience to  the  law,  and  have  done  their  duty 
as  good  soldiers,  who  subject  themselves  to 
discipline. 

Art.  29.  Any  officer  who  thinks  himself 
wronged  bj'  the  commanding  officer  of  his 
regiment,  and,  upon  due  application  to  such 
commander,  is  refused  retlress.  may  com- 
plain to  the  general  commanding  in  the 
State  or  Territory  where  such  regiment  is 
stationed.  The  general  shall  examine  into 
said  complaint  and  Uike  proper  measures  for 
redressing  the  wrong  complained  of;  and  ho 
shall,  as  soon  as  j)ossible,  transmit  to  the 
Department  of  War  a  true  statement  of  such 
complaint,  with  the  prvx^eedinga  had  thereon. 
Art.  30.  Any  soldier  who  thinks  himself 
wronged  by  any  officer  may  complain  to  the 
commanding  officer  of  his  regiment,  who 
shall  summon  a  regimental  court-martial 
for  the  doing  of  justice  to  the  complainant. 
Either  party  may  ap|)eal  from  such  regi- 
mental court-martial  to  a  general  court- 
martial  ;  but  if,  upon  such  second  hearing, 


650 


APPENDIX. 


the  appeal  appears  to  be  groundless  and 
vexatious,  the  party  appealing  shall  be  pun- 
ished at  the  discretion  of  said  general  court- 
martial. 

Art.  31.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  lies 
out  of  his  quarters,  garrison,  or  camp,  with- 
out leave  from  his  superior  officer,  shall  be 
punished  as  a  court-martial  may  direct. 

Art.  32.  Any  soldier  who  absents  him- 
self from  his  troop,  battery,  company,  or  de- 
tachment, without  leave  from  his  command- 
ing officer,  shall  be  punished  as  a  court- 
martial  may  direct. 

Art.  83.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  fails, 
except  when  prevented  by  sickness  or  other 
necessity,  to  repair,  at  the  fixed  time,  to  the 
place  of  parade,  exercise,  or  other  rendez- 
vous appointed  by  his  commanding  officer, 
or  goes  from  the  same,  without  leave  from 
his  commanding  officer,  before  he  is  dis- 
missed or  relieved,  shall  be  punished  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct. 

Art.  34.  Any  soldier  who  is  found  one 
mile  from  camp,  without  leave  in  writing 
from  his  commanding  officer,  shall  be  pun- 
ished as  a  court-martuil  may  direct. 

Art.  35.  Any  soldier  who  fails  to  retire 
to  his  quarters  or  tent  at  the  beating  of  re- 
treat, shall  be  punished  according  to  the 
nature  of  his  offense. 

Art.  36.  No  soldier  belonging  to  any 
regiment,  troop,  battery,  or  company  shall 
hire  another  to  do  his  duty  for  him,  or  be 
excused  from  duty,  except  in  cases  of  sick- 
ness, disability,  or  leave  of  absence.  _  Every 
such  soldier  found  guilty  of  hiring  his  duty, 
and  the  person  so  hired  to  do  another's  duty, 
shall  be  punished  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct.  _ 

Art.  37.  Every  non-commissioned  officer 
who  connives  at  such  hiring  of  duty  shall 
be  reduced.  Every  officer  who  knows  and 
allows  such  practices  shall  be  punished  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct. 

Art.  38.  Any  officer  who  is  found  drunk 
on  his  guard,  party,  or  other  duty,  shall  be 
dismissed  from  the  service.  Any  soldier 
who  so  offends  shall  suffer  such  punishment 
as  a  court-martial  may  direct.  No  court- 
martial  shall  sentence  any  soldier  to  be 
branded,  marked,  or  tattooed. 

Art.  39.  Any  sentinel  who  is  found 
sleeping  upon  his  post,  or  who  leaves  it  be- 
fore he  is  regularly  relieved,  shall  suffer 
death,  or  such  other  punishment  as  a  court- 
martial  may  direct. 

Art.  40.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  quits 
his  guard,  platoon,  or  division,  without 
leave  from  his  superior  officer,  except  in  a 
case  of  urgent  necessity,  shall  be  punished 
as  a  court-martial  may  direct. 

Art.  41.  Any  officer  who,  by  any  means 
whatsoever,  occasions  false  alarms  in  camp, 
garrison,  or  quarters,  shall  suffer  death,  or 
such  other  punishment  as  a  court-martial 
may  direct. 

Art.  42.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  mis- 
behaves himself  before  the  enemy,  runs 
away,  or   shamefully    abandons    any   fort, 


post,  or  guard,  which  he  is  commanded  to 
defend,  or  speaks  words  inducing  others  to 
do  the  like,  or  casts  away  his  arms  or  am- 
munition, or  quits  his  post  or  colors  to  plun- 
der or  pillage,  shall  suffer  death,  or  such 
other  punishment  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct. 

Art.  43.  If  any  commander  of  any  gar- 
rison, fortress,  or  post  is  compelled,  by  the 
officers  and  soldiers  under  his  command,  to 
give  up  to  the  enemy  or  to  abandon  it,  the 
officers  or  soldiers  so  offending  shall  suffer 
death,  or  such  other  punishment  as  a  court- 
martial  may  direct. 

Art.  44.  Any  person  belonging  to  the 
armies  of  the  United  States  who  makes 
known  the  watch-word  to  any  person  not  en- 
titled to  receive  it,  according  to  the  rules 
and  discipline  of  war,  or  presumes  to  give 
a  parole  or  watch-word  different  from  that 
which  he  received,  shall  suffer  death,  or 
such  other  punishment  as  a  court-martial 
may  direct. 

Art.  45.  Whosoever  relieves  the  enemy 
with  money,  victuals,  or  ammunition,  or 
knowingly  harbors  or  protects  an  enemy, 
shall  suffer  death,  or  such  other  punishment 
as  a  court-martial  may  direct. 

Art.  46.  Whosoever  holds  correspond- 
ence with,  or  gives  intelligence  to,  the  ene- 
my, either  directly  or  indirectly,  shall  suffer 
death,  or  such  other  punishment  as  a  court- 
martial  may  direct. 

Art.  47.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who, 
having  received  pay,  or  having  been  duly 
enlisted  in  the  service  of  the  United  States, 
deserts  the  same,  shall,  in  time  of  war,  suffer 
death,  or  such  other  punishment  as  a  court- 
martial  may  direct;  and  in  time  of  peace, 
any  punishment,  excepting  death,  which  a 
court-martial  may  direct. 

Art.  48.  Every  soldier  who  deserts  the 
service  of  the  United  States  shall  be  liable 
to  serve  for  such  period  as  shall,  with  the 
time  he  may  have  served  previous  to  his  de- 
sertion, amount  to  the  full  term  of  his  en- 
listment ;  and  such  soldier  shall  be  tried  by 
a  court-martial  and  punished,  although  the 
term  of  his  enlistment  may  have  elapsed 
previous  to  his  being  apprehended  and  tried. 

Art.  49.  Any  officer  who,  having  tendered 
his  resignation,  quits  his  post  or  proper 
duties,  without  leave,  and  with  intent  to  re- 
main permanently  absent  therefrom,  prior 
to  due  notice  of  the  acceptance  of  the  same, 
shall  be  deemed  and  punished  as  a  de- 
serter. 

Art.  50.  No  non-commissioned  officer  or 
soldier  shall  enlist  himself  in  anj'  other  regi- 
ment, troop,  or  company,  without  a  regular 
discharge  from  the  regiment,  troop,  or  com- 
pany in  which  he  last  served,  on  a  penalty 
of  being  reputed  a  deserter,  and  suffering 
accordingly.  And  in  case  any  officer  shall 
knowingly  receive  and  entertain  such  non- 
commissioned officer  or  soldier,  or  shall  not, 
after  his  being  discovered  to  be  a  deserter, 
immediately  confine  him  and  give  notice 
thereof  to  the  corps  in  which  he  last  served, 


ARTICLES  OP  WAR. 


661 


> 


the  said  officer  shall,  by  a  court  martial,  be 
cashiered. 

Akt.  51.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  ad- 
vises or  persuades  any  other  officer  or  soldier 
to  desert  the  service  of  the  United  Stales, 
shall,  in  time  of  war,  suffer  death,  or  such 
other  punishment  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct;  and  in  time  of  peace,  any  punish- 
ment, excepting  death,  which  a  court-mar- 
tiiil  may  direct. 

Art.  .'J2.  It  is  earnestly  recommended  to 
all  officers  and  soldiers  diligently  to  attend 
divine  service.  Any  officer  who  behaves  in- 
decently or  irreverently  at  any  place  of 
divine  worship  shall  be  brought  before  a 
general  court-martial,  there  to  be  publicly 
and  severely  reprimanded  by  the  president 
thereof.  Any  .soldier  who  so  offends  shall, 
for  his  first  offense,  forfeit  one-sixth  of  a 
dollar;  for  each  further  offense  he  shall  for- 
feit a  like  sum,  and  shall  be  confined  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  money  so  forfeited  shall 
be  deducted  from  his  next  pay,  and  shall  bo 
applied,  bv  the  captain  or  senior  officer  of 
his  troop,  battery,  or  company,  to  the  use  of 
the  sick  soldiers  of  the  same. 

Art.  53.  Any  officer  who  uses  any  pro- 
fane oath  or  execration  shall,  for  each  offense, 
forfeit  and  pay  one  dollar.  Any  soldier  who 
so  offends  shall  incvir  the  penalties  provided 
in  the  preceding  article  ;  and  all  moneys  for- 
feited for  such  offense  shall  be  applied  as 
therein  provided. 

Art.  54.     Every  officer  commanding  in 
quarters,  garrison,  or  on  the  march,  shall 
keep  good  order,  and,  to  the  utmost  of  his 
power,  redress  all  abuses  or  disorders  which 
may  be  committed  by  any  officer  or  soldier 
under  his  command  ;  and  if,  upon  complaint 
made  to  him  of  officers  or  soldiers  beating 
or  otherwise  ill-treating  any  person,  disturb-  ' 
ing  fairs  or  markets,  or  ct)mmitting  any  kind  j 
of  riot,  to  the  disquieting  of  the  citizens  of 
the  United  States,  he  refuses  or  omits  to  see  i 
justice  done  to  the  offender,  and  reparation 
made  to  the  party  injured,  so  far  as  part  of  1 
the   ofl'ender's  pay   shall   go   towards   such  '• 
reparation,  he  shall  be  dismissed  from  the  ' 
service,  or  otherwise  punished,  as  a  court- 
martial  maj'  direct. 

Art.  55.  All  officers  and  soldiers  are  to 
behave  themselves  orderly  in  quarters  and 
on  the  march  ;  and  whoever  commits  any 
waste  or  spoil,  either  in  walks  or  trees,  parks, 
warrens,  fish-ponds,  houses,  gardens,  grain- 
fields,  inclosures,  or  meadows,  or  maliciously 
destroys  any  property  whatsoever  belonging 
to  inhabitants  of  the  United  States  (unless 
by  order  of  a  general  officer  commanding  a 
separate  army  in  the  field),  shall,  besides 
such  penalties  as  he  may  be  liable  to  by  law, 
be  punished  as  a  court-martial  may  direct. 

Art.  56.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  does 
violence  to  any  person  bringing  provisions 
or  other  necessaries  to  the  camp,  garrison, 
or  quarters  of  the  forces  of  the  United  States 
in  foreign  parts,  shall  suffer  death,  or  such 
other  punishment  as  a  court-nuirtial  may 
direct. 


Art.  57.  Whosoever,  belonging  to  the 
armies  of  the  United  States  in  foreign  parts, 
or  at  any  place  within  the  United  States  or 
their  Territories  during  rebellion  against 
the  sui>reme  authority  of  the  United  States, 
forces  a  safeguard,  »hall  suffer  death. 

Art.  58.  In  time  of  war,  insurrection, 
or  rebellion,  larcony,  robbery,  burglary,  ar- 
son, mayhem,  manslaughter,  murder,  a.ssault 
and  battery  with  an  intent  to  kill,  wound- 
ing, by  shooting  or  stabbing,  with  an  intent 
to  commit  murder,  rafio,  or  assault  and  bat- 
tery with  an  intent  to  cointnit  rape,  shall  be 
punishable  by  the  sentence  of  a  general 
court-martial,  when  committed  by  persons 
in  the  military  service  of  the  United  States, 
and  the  punishment  in  any  such  ca.<e  shall 
not  be  less  than  the  punishment  provided, 
for  the  like  offense,  by  the  laws  of  the  .State, 
Territory,  or  district  in  which  such  ofi'cnse 
may  have  been  committed. 

Art.  50.  When  any  officer  or  soldier  is 
accused  of  a  capital  crime,  or  of  any  offense 
against  the  |)erson  or  projierty  of  any  citizen 
of  any  of  the  United  States,  which  is  pun- 
ishable by  the  laws  of  the  land,  the  com- 
manding officer,  and  the  officers  of  the  regi- 
ment, troop,  battery,  company,  or  detach- 
ment, to  which  the  person  so  accused  belongs, 
are  required,  exce})t  in  time  of  war,  upon 
application  duly  made  by  or  in  behalf  of  iho 
party  injured  to  use  their  utmost  endeavors 
to  deliver  him  over  to  the  civil  magistrate, 
and  to  aid  the  officers  of  justice  in  appre- 
hending and  securing  him,  in  order  to  bring 
him  to  trial.  If  upon  such  application,  any 
officer  refu.scs  or  willfully  neglect*,  except  in 
time  of  war,  to  deliver  over  such  accused 
person  to  the  civil  magistrates,  or  to  aid  the 
officers  of  justice  in  apprehending  him,  ho 
shall  be  dismissed  from  the  service. 

Art.  00.  Any  person  in  the  military  ser- 
vice of  the  United  States  who  makes  or 
causes  to  bo  made  any  claim  against  the 
United  States,  or  any  officer  thereof,  know- 
ing such  claim  to  be  false  or  fraudulent;  or 

Who  presents  or  causes  to  be  presented  to 
any  person  in  the  civil  or  military  service 
thereof,  for  approval  or  payment,  any  claim 
against  the  United  States  or  any  officer 
thereof,  knowing  such  claim  to  be  false  or 
fraudulent ;  or 

AVho  enters  into  any  agreement  or  con- 
spiracy to  defraud  the  United  States  by  ob- 
taining, or  aiding  others  to  obtain,  the 
allowance  or  payment  of  any  false  or  fraudu- 
lent claim ;  or 

Who,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining,  or 
aiding  others  to  obtain,  the  approval,  allow- 
ance, or  payment  of  any  claim  against  the 
United  States  or  against  any  officer  thereof, 
makes  or  us««!,  or  ]»rocures  or  advises  the 
making  or  use  of,  any  writing,  or  other 
paper,  knowing  the  same  to  contain  any 
false  or  fraudulent  statement  ;  or 

Who,  for  the  pur|>oso  of  obtaining,  or 
aiding  others  to  obtain,  the  anjiroval,  allow- 
ance, or  payment  of  any  claim  against  the 
United  States  or  any  officer  thereof,  makes, 


652 


APPENDIX. 


or  procures  or  advises  tlie  making  of,  any 
oath  to  any  fact,  or  to  any  writing  or  other 
paper,  knowing  such  oath  to  be  false  ;  or 

Who,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining,  or 
aiding  others  to  obtain,  the  approval,  allow- 
ance, or  payment  of  anj'  claim  against  the 
United  States  or  any  officer  thereof,  forges 
or  counterfeits,  or  procures  or  advises  the 
forging  or  counterfeiting  of,  any  signature 
upon  any  writing  or  other  paper,  or  uses,  or 
procures  or  advises  the  use  of,  any  such  sig- 
nature, knowing  the  same  to  be  forged  or 
counterfeited  ;  or 

Who,  having  charge,  possession,  custody, 
or  control  of  any  money  or  other  property 
of  the  United  States,  furnished  or  intended 
for  the  military  service  thereof,  knowingly 
delivers,  or  caxises  to  be  delivered,  to  any 
person  having  authority  to  receive  the  same, 
any  amount  thereof  less  than  that  for  which 
he  receives  a  certificate  or  receipt ;  or 

Who,  being  authorized  to  make  or  deliver 
any  paper  certifying  the  receipt  of  any 
property  of  the  United  States,  furnished  or 
intended  for  the  military  service  thereof, 
makes,  or  delivers  to  any  person,  such  writ- 
ing, without  having  full  knowledge  of  the 
truth  of  the  statements  therein  contained, 
and  with  intent  to  defraud  the  United  States  ; 
or 

Who  steals,  embezzles,  knowingly  and 
willfully  misappropriates,  applies  to  his  own 
use  or  benefit,  or  wrongfully  or  knowingly 
sells  or  disposes  of  any  ordnance,  arms, 
equipments,  ammunition,  clothing,  subsist- 
ence stores,  money,  or  other  property  of  the 
United  States,  furnished  or  intended  for  the 
military  service  thereof ;  or 

Who  knowingly  purchases,  or  receives  in 
pledge  for  any  obligation  or  indebtedness, 
from  any  soldier,  officer,  or  other  person  who 
is  a  part  of  or  employed  in  said  forces  or 
service,  any  ordnance,  arms,  equipments, 
ammunition,  clothing,  subsistence  stores,  or 
other  property  of  the  United  States,  such 
soldier,  officer,  or  other  person  not  having 
lawful  right  to  sell  or  pledge  the  same. 

Shall,  on  conviction  thereof,  be  punished 
by  fine  or  imprisonment,  or  by  such  other 
punishment  as  a  court-martial  may  adjudge. 
And  if  any  person,  being  guilty  of  any  of 
the  offenses  aforesaid,  while  in  the  military 
service  of  the  United  States,  receives  his 
discharge,  or  is  dismissed  from  the  service, 
he  shall  continue  to  be  liable  to  be  arrested 
and  held  for  trial  and  sentence  by  a  court- 
martial,  in  the  same  manner  and  to  the  same 
extent  as  if  he  had  not  received  such  dis- 
charge nor  been  dismissed. 

Art.  61.  Any  officer  who  is  convicted  of 
conduct  unbecoming  an  officer  and  a  gentle- 
man shall  be  dismissed  from  the  service. 

Art.  62.  All  crimes  not  capital,  and  all 
disorders  and  neglects,  which  officers  and 
soldiers  may  be  guilty  of,  to  the  prejudice 
of  good  order  and  military  discipline,  though 
not  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  Articles  of 
War,  are  to  be  taken  cognizance  of  by  a 
general,  or  a  regimental,  garrison,  or  field- 


officers'  court-marshal,*  according  to  the 
nature  and  degree  of  the  offense,  and  pun- 
ished at  the  discretion  of  said  court. 

Art.  63.  All  retainers  to  the  camp,  and 
all  persons  serving  with  the  armies  of  the 
United  States  in  the  field,  though  not  en- 
listed soldiers,  are  to  be  subject  to  orders, 
according  to  the  rules  and  discipline  of 
war. 

Art.  64.  The  officers  and  soldiers  of  any 
troops,  whether  militia  or  others,  mustered 
and  in  pay  of  the  United  States,  shall,  at 
all  times  and  in  all  places,  be  governed  by 
the  Articles  of  War,  and  shall  be  subject  to 
be  tried  by  courts-martial. 

Art.  65.  Officers  charged  with  crime 
shall  be  arrested  and  confined  in  their  bar- 
racks, quarters,  or  tents,  and  deprived  of 
their  swords  by  the  commanding  officer. 
And  any  officer  who  leaves  his  confinement 
before  he  is  set  at  liberty  by  his  command- 
ing officer  shall  be  dismissed  from  the  ser- 
vice. 

Art.  66.  Soldiers  charged  with  crimes 
shall  be  confined  until  tried  by  court-mar- 
tial, or  released  by  proper  authority. 

Art.  67.  No  provost-marshal,  or  officer 
commanding  a  guard,  shall  refuse  to  receive 
or  keep  anj'  prisoner  committed  to  his  charge 
by  an  officer  belonging  to  the  forces  of  the 
United  States  ;  provided  the  officer  commit- 
ting shall,  at  the  same  time,  deliver  an  ac- 
count in  writing,  signed  by  himself,  of  the 
crime  charged  against  the  prisoner. 

Art.  68.  Every  officer  to  whose  charge 
a  prisoner  is  committed  shall,  within  twenty- 
four  hours  after  such  commitment,  or  as  soon 
as  he  is  relieved  from  his  guard,  report  in 
writing,  to  the  commanding  officer,  the 
name  of  such  prisoner,  the  crime  charged 
against  him,  and  the  name  of  the  officer 
committing  him  ;  and  if  he  fails  to  make 
such  report,  he  shall  be  punished  as  a  court- 
martial  may  direct. 

Art.  69.  Any  officer  who  presumes, 
without  proper  authority,  to  release  any 
prisoner  committed  to  his  charge,  or  suffers 
any  prisoner  so  committed  to  escape,  shall 
be  punished  as  a  court-martial  may  direct. 

Art.  70.  No  officer  or  soldier  put  in 
arrest  shall  be  continued  in  confinement 
more  than  eight  days,  or  until  such  time  as 
a  court-martial  can  be  assembled. 

Art.  71.  When  an  officer  is  put  in  arrest 
for  the  purpose  of  trial,  except  at  remote 
military  posts  or  stations,  the  officer  by 
whose  order  he  is  arrested  shall  see  that  a 
copy  of  the  charges  on  which  he  is  to  be 
tried  is  served  upon  him  within  eight  da\'3 
after  his  arrest,  and  that  he  is  brought  to 
trial  within  ten  days  thereafter,  unless  the 
necessities  of  the  service  prevent  such  trial ; 
and  then  he  shall  be  brought  to  trial  within 
thirty  days  after  the  expiration  of  said  ten 
days.  If  a  copy  of  the  charges  be  not 
served,  or  the  arrested  officer  be  not  brought 
to  trial,  as  herein  required,  the  arrest  shall 


1=  Court-martial. 


ARTICLES  OP  WAR. 


053 


cease.  But  officers  released  from  arrest, 
under  the  provisions  of  this  article,  may 
be  tried,  whenever  the  exigencies  of  the 
service  shall  permit,  within  twelve  months 
after  such  release  from  arrest. 

Art.  72.  Any  general  officer,  command- 
ing the  army  of  the  United  States,  a  sepa- 
rate army,  or  a  separate  department,  shall 
be  competent  to  appoint  a  general  court- 
martial,  either  in  time  of  peace  or  in  time 
of  war.  But  when  any  such  commander  is 
the  accuser  or  prosecutor  of  any  officer 
under  his  command,  the  court  shall  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  President,  and  its  proceed- 
ings and  sentence  shall  be  sent  directly  to 
the  Secretary  of  War,  by  whom  they  shall 
be  laid  before  the  President,  for  his  approval 
or  orders  in  the  case. 

Art.  73.  In  time  of  war  the  commander 
of  a  division,  or  of  a  separate  brigade  of 
troops,  shall  be  competent  to  appoint  a  gen- 
era! court-martial.  But  when  such  com- 
mander is  the  accuser  or  prosecutor  of  any 
person  under  his  command,  the  court  shall 
DC  appointed  by  the  next  higher  commander. 

Art.  74.  Officers  who  may  appoint  a 
court-martial  shall  be  competent  to  appoint 
a  judge-advocate  for  the  same. 

Art.  75.  General  courts-martial  may 
consist  of  any  number  of  officers  from  live 
to  thirteen,  inclusive;  but  they  shall  not 
consist  of  less  than  thirteen  when  that  num- 
ber can  be  convened  without  manifest  injury 
to  the  service. 

Art.  7G.  When  the  requisite  number  of 
officers  to  form  a  general  court-martial  is 
not  present  in  any  post  or  detachment,  the 
commanding  officer  shall,  in  cases  which 
require  the  cognizance  of  such  a  court, 
report  to  the  commanding  officer  of  the 
department,  who  shall,  thereupon,  order  a 
court  to  be  assembled  at  the  nearest  post  or 
department  at  which  there  may  be  such  a 
requisite  number  of  officers,  and  shall  order 
the  party  accused,  with  necessary  witnesses, 
to  be  transported  to  the  place  where  the  said 
court  shall  be  assembled. 

Art.  77.  Officers  of  the  Regular  Army 
shall  not  be  competent  to  sit  on  courts-mar- 
tial to  try  the  officers  or  soldiers  of  other 
forces,  except  as  provided  in  Article  78. 

Art.  78.  Officers  of  the  Marine  Corps, 
detached  for  service  with  the  Army  oy 
order  of  the  President,  may  be  associated 
•with  officers  of  the  Regular  Army  on 
courts-martial  for  the  trial  of  ofTendcrs  be- 
longing to  the  Regular  Army,  or  to  forces 
of  the  Marino  Corps  so  detached;  and  in 
such  cases  the  orders  of  the  senior  officer  of 
cither  corps  who  may  be  present  and  duly 
authorized,  shall  be  obeyed. 

Art.  70.  Officers  shall  be  tried  only  by 
general  courts-martial ;  and  no  officer  shall, 
when  it  can  be  avoided,  be  tried  by  officers 
inferior  to  him  in  rank. 

Art.  80.  In  time  of  war  a  field-officer 
may  l)e  detailed  in  every  regiment,  to  try 
soldiers  thereof  for  otlenses  not  capital ;  and 
no  soldier,  serving  with  his  regiment,  shall 


be  tried  by  a  regimental*  garrison  court- 
martial  when  a  field-officer  of  his  regiment 
mav  be  so  detailed. 

Art.  81.  Every  officer  commanding  a 
regiment  or  corps  shall,  subject  to  the  pro- 
visions of  article  eighty,  be  competent  to 
appoint,  for  his  own  regiment  or  corps, 
courts-martial,  consisting  of  three  officers, 
to  try  oflenscs  not  capital. 

Art.  82.  Every  officer  commanding  a 
garrison,  fort,  or  other  place,  where  the 
troops  consist  of  diflferent  corps,  shall,  8ul>- 
ject  to  the  provisions  of  article  eighty,  be 
competent  to  appoint,  for  such  garrison  or 
other  place,  courts-martial,  consisting  of 
three  officers,  to  try  ofl^enses  not  capital. 

Art.  83.  Regimental  and  garrison  courts- 
martial,  and  field-officers  detailed  to  try 
offenders,  shall  not  have  power  to  try  cap- 
ital cases  or  commissioned  officers,  or  to 
inflict  a  fine  exceeding  one  month's  pay,  or 
to  imprison  or  put  to  hard  labor  anv  non- 
commissioned officer  or  soldier  for  a  longer 
time  than  one  month. 

Art.  84.  The  judge-advocate  shall  ad- 
minister to  each  member  of  the  court,  be- 
fore they  proceed  upon  any  trial,  the  follow- 
ing oath,  which  shall  also  be  taken  by  all 
members  of  regimental  and  garrison  court-- 
martial: "You,  A  B,  do  swear  that  you 
will  well  and  truly  try  and  determine,  ac- 
cording to  evidence,  the  matter  now  before 
you,  between  the  United  States  of  America 
and  the  prisoner  to  be  tried,  and  that  you 
will  duly  administer  justice,  without  par- 
tiality, favor,  or  affection,  according  to  the 
provisions  of  the  rules  and  articles  for  the 
government  of  the  armies  of  the  United 
States,  and  if  any  doubt  should  arise,  not 
explained  l)y  said  articles,  then  according 
to  your  conscience,  the  best  of  your  under- 
standing, and  the  custom  of  war  in  like 
ca.ses ;  and  you  do  further  swear  that  you 
will  not  divulge  the  sentence  of  the  court 
until  it  shall  be  published  by  the  proper 
authorities ;  neither  will  you  disclose  or 
discover  the  vote  or  opinion  of  any  jiartic- 
ular  member  of  the  court-martial,  unless 
required  to  give  evidence  thereof,  as  a  wit- 
ness, by  a  court  of  justice,  in  a  due  course 
of  law.     So  help  you  God.'" 

Art.  85.  When  the  onth  has  been  ad- 
ministered to  the  members  of  a  court-mar- 
tial, the  president  of  the  court  shall  admin- 
ister to  the  judge-advocate,  or  person  officia- 
ting as  such,  an  oath  in  the  following  form  : 
"  You,  A  B,  do  swear  that  you  will  not  dis- 
close or  discover  the  vote  or  opinion  of  any 
particular  member  of  the  court-martial,  un- 
less required  to  give  evidence  thereof,  as  a 
witness,  by  a  court  of  justice,  in  due  course 
of  law ;  nor  divulge  the  sentence  of  the 
court  to  any  but  the  proner  authority,  until 
it  shall  be'duly  discloseu  by  the  same.  So 
help  vou  God." 

Art.  86.  A  court-martial  may  punish, 
at    discretion,   any    person   who   uses    any 


•The  word  or  omitted  fmni  the  roll. 


654 


APPENDIX. 


menacing  words,  signs  or  gestures,  in  its 
presence,  or  who  disturbs  its  proceedings  by 
any  riot  or  disorder. 

Art.  87.  All  members  of  a  court-martial 
are  to  behave  with  decency  and  calmness. 

Art.  88.  Members  of  a  court-martial 
may  be  challenged  by  a  prisoner,  but  only 
for  cause  stated  to  the  court.  The  court 
shall  determine  the  relevancy  and  validity 
thereof,  and  shall  not  receive  a  challenge  to 
more  than  one  member  at  a  time. 

Art.  89.  When  a  prisoner,  arraigned  be- 
fore a  general  court-martial,  from  obstinacy 
and  deliberate  design,  stands  mute,  or  an- 
swers foreign  to  the  purpose,  the  court  may 
proceed  to  trial  and  judgment,  as  if  the 
prisoner  had  pleaded  not  guilty. 

Art.  90.  The  judge-advocate,  or  some 
person  deputed  by  him,  or  by  the  general  or 
officer  commanding  the  army,  detachment, 
or  garrison,  shall  prosecute  in  the  name  of 
the  United  States,  but  when  the  prisoner 
has  made  his  plea,  he  shall  so  far  consider 
himself  counsel  for  the  prisoner  as  to  object 
to  any  leading  question  to  any  of  the  wit- 
nesses, and  to  any  question  to  the  prisoner 
the  answer  to  which  might  tend  to  criminate 
himself. 

Art.  91.  The  depositions  of  witnesses  re- 
siding beyond  the  limits  of  the  State,  Terri- 
tory, or  District  in  which  any  military  court 
may  be  ordered  to  sit,  if  taken  on  reasonable 
notice  to  the  opposite  party  and  duly  au- 
thenticated, may  be  read  in  evidence  before 
such  court  in  cases  not  capital. 

Art.  92.  All  persons  who  give  evidence 
before  a  court-martial  shall  be  examined  on 
oath,  or  affirmation,  in  the  following  form  : 
"  You  swear  (or  alBrm)  that  the  evidence 
you  shall  give,  in  the  case  now  in  hearing, 
shall  be  the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and 
nothing  but  the  truth.     So  help  you  God." 

Art.  93.  A  court-martial  shall,  for  rea- 
sonable cause,  grant  a  continuance  to  either 
party,  for  such  time,  and  as  often,  as  may 
appear  to  be  just:  Provided,  That  if  the 
prisoner  be  in  close  confinement,  the  trial 
shall  not  be  delayed  for  a  period  longer  than 
sixty  days. 

Art.  94.  Proceedings  of  trials  shall  be 
carried  on  only  between  the  hours  of  eight 
in  the  morning  and  three  in  the  afternoon, 
excepting  in  cases  which,  in  the  opinion  of 
the  officer  appointing  the  court,  require  im- 
mediate example. 

Art.  95.  Members  of  a  court-martial,  in 
giving  their  votes,  shall  begin  with  the 
youngest  in  commission. 

Art.  96.  No  person  shall  be  sentenced  to 
suffer  death,  except  by  the  concurrence  of 
two-thirds  of  the  members  of  a  general  court- 
martial,  and  in  the  cases  herein  expressly 
mentioned. 

Art.  97.  No  person  in  the  military  ser- 
vice shall,  under  the  sentence  of  a  court- 
martial,  be  punished  by  confinement  in  a 
penitentiary,  unless  the  offense  of  which  he 
may  be  convicted  would,  by  some  statute  of 
the  United  States,  or  by  some  statute  of  the 


State,  Territory,  or  District  in  which  such 
offense  maj'  be  committed,  or  by  the  common 
law,  as  the  same  exists  in  such  State,  Terri- 
tory, or  District,  subject  such  convict  to  such 
punishment. 

Art.  98.  No  person  in  the  military  ser- 
vice shall  be  punished  by  flogging,  or  by 
branding,  marking,  or  tattooing  on  the 
body. 

Art.  99.  No  officer  shall  be  discharged 
or  dismissed  from  the  service,  except  by  order 
of  the  President,  or  by  sentence  of  a  general 
court-martial ;  and  in  time  of  peace  no  officer 
shall  be  dismissed,  except  in  pursuance  of  the 
sentence  of  a  court-martial,  or  in  mitigation 
thereof. 

Art.  100.  "When  an  officer  is  dismissed 
from  the  service  for  cowardice  or  fraud,  the 
sentence  shall  further  direct  that  the  crime, 
punishment,  name,  and  place  of  abode  of 
the  delinquent  shall  be  published  in  the 
newspapers  in  and  about  the  camp,  and  in 
the  State  from  which  the  offender  came,  or 
where  he  usually  resides ;  and  after  such 
publication  it  shall  be  scandalous  for  an  offi- 
cer to  associate  with  him. 

Art.  101.  When  a  court-martial  sus- 
pends an  officer  from  command,  it  may  also 
suspend  his  pay  and  emoluments  for  the 
same  time,  according  to  the  nature  of  his 
oflense. 

Art.  102.  No  person  shall  be  tried  a  sec- 
ond time  for  the  same  offense. 

Art.  103.  No  person  shall  be  liable  to  be 
tried  and  punished  by  a  general  court-mar- 
tial for  any  oflense  which  appears  to  have 
been  committed  more  than  two  years  before 
the  issuing  of  the  order  for  such  trial,  unless, 
by  reason  of  having  absented  himself,  or  of 
some  other  manifest  impediment,  he  shall 
not  have  been  amenable  to  justice  within 
that  period. 

Art.  104.  No  sentence  of  a  court-mar- 
tial shall  be  carried  into  execution  until  the 
whole  proceedings  shall  have  been  approved 
by  the  officer  ordering  the  court,  or  by  the 
officer  commanding  for  the  time  being. 

Art.  105.  No  sentence  of  a  court-mar- 
tial, inflicting  the  punishment  of  death,  shall 
be  carried  into  execution  until  it  shall  have 
been  confirmed  by  the  President ;  except  in 
the  cases  of  persons  convicted,  in  time  of 
war,  as  spies,  mutineers,  deserters,  or  mur- 
derers, and  in  the  cases  of  guerilla  maraud- 
ers, convicted,  in  time  of  war,  of  robbery, 
burglary,  arson,  rape,  assault  with  intent  to 
commit  rape,  or  of  violation  of  the  laws  and 
customs  of  war ;  and  in  such  excepted  cases 
the  sentence  of  death  may  be  carried  into 
execution  upon  confirmation  by  the  com- 
manding general  in  the  field,  or  the  com- 
mander of  the  department,  as  the  case  may 
be. 

Art.  106.  In  time  of  peace  no  sentence 
of  a  court-martial,  directing  the  dismissal  of 
an  officer,  shall  be  carried  into  execution, 
until  it  shall  have  been  confirmed  by  the 
President. 

Art.  107.     No  sentence  of  a  court-mar- 


ARTICLES  OP  WAR. 


655 


tial  appointed  by  the  coniinnnder  of  a  di- 
vision or  of  a  eeparate  brigade  of  troops, 
directing  the  dismissal  of  an  oftiocr,  shall  bo 
carried  into  execution  until  it  (shall  have  been 
confirmed  by  the  general  connnanding  the 
army  in  the  field  to  which  the  division  or 
brigade  belongs. 

Akt.  108.  No  sentence  of  a  court-mar- 
tial, either  in  time  of  peace  or  in  time  of 
war,  respecting  a  general  officer,  shall  be 
carried  into  execution,  until  it  shall  have 
been  confirmed  by  the  President. 

Art.  109.  Alf  sentences  of  a  court-mar- 
tial may  be  confirmed  and  carried  into  exe-  i 
cution  by  the  officer  ordering  the  court,  or  ' 
by  the  officer  commanding  for  the  time  being, 
where  confirmation  by  the  President,  or  by 
the  commanding  general  in  the  field,  or  com- 
mander of  the  department,  is  not  required 
by  these  articles. 

Art.  110.  No  sentence  of  a  field-officer, 
detailed  to  try  soldiers  of  his  regiment,  shall 
be  carried  into  execution,  until  the  whole 
proceedings  shall  have  been  approved  by  the  j 
brigade  commander,  or,  in  case  there  be  no 
brigade  commander,  by  the  commanding 
officer  of  the  post. 

Art.  111.  Any  officer  who  has  authority 
to  carry  into  execution  the  sentence  of  death, 
or  of  dismissal  of  an  officer,  may  suspend 
the  same  until  the  pleasure  of  the  President 
shall  be  known  ;  and,  in  such  case,  he  shall 
immediately  transmit  to  the  President  a 
copy  of  the  order  of  suspension,  together 
with  a  copy  of  the  proceedings  of  the  court. 

Art.  112.  Every  officer  who  is  author- 
ized to  order  a  general  court-martial  shall 
have  power  to  pardon  or  mitigate  any  pun- 
ishment adjudged  by  it,  except  the  punish- 
ment of  death,  or  of  dismissal  of  an  officer. 
Every  officer  commanding  a  regiment  or 
garrison  in  which  a  regimental  or  garrison 
court-martial  may  be  held,  shall  have  power 
to  pardon  or  mitigate  any  punishment  which 
such  court  may  adjudge. 

Art.  113.  Every  judge-advocate,  or  per- 
son acting  as  such,  at  any  general  court- 
martial,  shall,  with  as  much  expedition  as 
the  opportunity  of  time  and  distance  of 
place  may  admit,  forward  the  original  pro- 
ceedings and  sentence  of  such  court  to  the 
Judge-Advocate  General  of  the  Army,  in 
whose  office  they  shall  be  carefully  preserved. 

Art.  114.     Every  party  tried  by  a  general 


officer  or  soldier  whose  conduct  is  to  bo 
inquired  of. 

Art.  110.  A  court  of  inquiry  shall  con- 
sist of  one  or  more  officers,  not  exceeding 
three,  and  a  recorder,  to  reduce  the  proceed- 
ings and  evidence  to  writing. 

Art.  117.  The  recorder  of  a  court  of  in- 
quiry shall  administer  to  the  members  the 
following  oath  :  "  You  shall  well  and  truly 
examine  and  inquire,  according  to  the  evi- 
dence, into  the  matter  now  before  you,  with- 
out partiality,  favor,  attuction,  prejudice,  or 
hope  of  reward.  So  help  you  God."  After 
which  the  president  of  the  court  shall  ad- 
minister to  the  recorder  the  following  oath  : 
"  You,  A  H,  do  swear  that  you  will,  accord- 
ing to  your  best  abilities,  accurately  and 
impartially  record  the  proceedings  of  the 
court  and  the  evidence  to  be  given  in  the 
case  in  hearing.     So  help  you  God.' 


court-martial  shall,  upon  demand  thereof, 
made  by  himself,  or  by  any  person  in  his 
behalf,  be  entitled  to  a  copy  of  the  proceed- 
ings and  sentence  of  such  court. 

Art.  115.  A  court  of  inquiry,  to  examine 
into  the  nature  of  any  transaction  of,  or 
accusation  or  imputation  against,  any  officer 
or  soldier,  may  bo  ordered  by  tho  President 
or  by  any  commanding  ofllcer  ;  but,  as  courts 
of  inquiry  may  be  perverted  to  dishonorable 
purposes,  and  may  be  employed,  in  the  hands 
of  weak  and  envious  commandants,  as  en- 
gines for  tho  destruction  of  military  merit, 
they  shall  never  bo  ordered  by  any  command- 
ing officer,  except  upon  a  demand   by  tho 


Art.  118.  A  court  of  inquiry,  and  the 
recorder  thereof,  shall  have  tlie  same  jn>wer 
to  summon  and  examine  witnesses  as  is  given 
to  courts-martial  and  the  judge-advocates 
thereof.  Such  witnesses  shall  take  the  same 
oath  which  is  taken  by  witnesses  before 
courts-martials,*  and  the  party  accused 
shall  be  permitted  to  examine  and  cross- 
examine  them,  so  as  fully  to  investigate  tho 
circumstances  in  question. 

Art.  119.  A  court  of  inquiry  shall  not 
give  an  opinion  on  the  merits  of  the  case 
inquired  of  unless  specially  ordered  to  do  so. 

Art.  120.  The  proceedings  of  a  court  of 
inquiry  must  be  authenticated  by  tho  signa- 
tures of  the  recorder  and  tho  president 
thereof,  and  delivered  to  the  commanding 
officer. 

Art.  121.  The  proceedings  of  a  court  of 
inquiry  may  be  admitted  as  evidence  by  a 
court-martial,  in  cases  not  capital,  nor  ex- 
tending to  the  dismissal  of  an  officer  :  Pro- 
vided, That  the  circumstances  are  such  that 
oral  testimony  caniH>t  be  obtained. 

Art.  122.  If,  upon  marches,  guards,  or 
in  quarters,  different  corps  of  the  Army 
happen  to  join  or  do  duty  together,  the  offi- 
cer liighest  in  rank  of  the  line  of  the  Army, 
Marino  Corps,  or  militia,  by  commission, 
there  on  duty  or  in  quarters,  shall  command 
the  whole,  and  give  orders  for  what  is 
needful  to  the  service,  unless  otherwise  spe- 
cially directed  by  tho  President,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  case. 

Art.  123.  In  all  matters  relating  to  tho 
rank,  duties,  and  rights  of  officers,  the  same 
rules  and  regulations  shall  apply  to  officers 
of  the  Regular  Army  and  to'  volunteers 
commissioned  in,  or  mustered  into  said  ser- 
vice, under  the  laws  of  the  United  States, 
for  a  limited  period. 

Art.  124.  Officers  of  the  militia  of  the 
several  States,  when  called  into  the  service 
of  the  United  StJttes,  shall  on  all  detach- 
ments, courts-martial,  and  other  duty 
wherein  they  may  be  omploved  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  regular  or  volunteer  forces  of 

•  Sic  in  the  rolL 


656 


APPENDIX. 


the  United  States,  take  rank  next  after  all 
officers  of  the  like  grade  in  said  regular  or 
volunteer  forces,  notwithstanding  the  com- 
missions of  such  militia  officers  may  be  older 
than  the  commissions  of  the  said  officers  of 
the  regular  or  volunteer  forces  of  the  United 
States. 

Art.  125.  In  case  of  the  death  of  any 
officer,  the  major  of  his  regiment,  or  the 
officer  doing  the  major's  duty,  or  the  second 
officer  in  command  at  any  post  or  garrison, 
as  the  case  may  be,  shall  immediately  se- 
cure all  his  effects  then  in  camp  or  quarters, 
and  shall  make,  and  transmit  to  the  office 
of  the  Department  of  War,  an  inventory 
thereof. 

Art.  126.  In  case  of  the  death  of  any 
soldier,  the  commanding  officer  of  his  troop, 
battery,  or  company  shall  immediately  se- 
cure all  his  effects  then  in  camp  or  quarters, 
and  shall,  in  the  presence  of  two  other  offi- 
cers, make  an  inventory  thereof,  which  he 
shall  transmit  to  the  office  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  War. 

Art.  127.  Officers  charged  with  the  care 
of  the  effects  of  deceased  officers  or  soldiers 


shall  account  for  and  deliver  the  same,  or 
the  proceeds  thereof,  to  the  legal  representa- 
tives of  such  deceased  officers  or  soldiers. 
And  no  officer  so  charged  shall  be  permitted 
to  quit  the  regiment  or  post  until  he  has  de- 
posited in  the  hands  of  the  commanding 
officer  all  the  effects  of  such  deceased  officers 
or  soldiers  not  so  accounted  for  and  deliv- 
ered. 

Art.  128.  The  foregoing  articles  shall 
be  read  and  published,  once  in  everj'  six 
months,  to  every  garrison,  regiment,  troop, 
or  company  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States,  and  shall  be  duly  observed  and 
obeyed  by  all  officers  and  soldiers  in  said 
service. 

Sec.  1343.  All  persons  who,  in  time  of 
war,  or  of  rebellion  against  the  supreme 
authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be 
found  lurking  or  acting  as  spies,  in  or  about 
any  of  the  fortifications,  posts,  quarters,  or 
encampments  of  any  of  the  armies  of  the 
United  States,  or  elsewhere,  shall  be  triable 
by  a  general  court-martial,  or  by  a  military 
commission,  and  shall,  on  conviction  there- 
of, suffer  death. 


INDEX  TO  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


{For  description  of  Illustrations,  see  body  of  work.) 


PIATB 

Abntis 1 

Acinace 1 

Allleltes 1 

Aiminii;  kneeling 1 

Aiming,  Hitii  an  overhead  rest...  1 

Aiming,  aiind-bog  rest 1 

Alman-riveti 1 

Amazon 29 

Ambulance 1 

American  Indians 28 

Amiisutte 1 

Aniacc 1 

Apiircjo 1 

Aqueduct 1 

Arbalest - 1 

ArbnlcRt „ 1 

Arbaletricr 26 

Arch 1 

Arcliors,  1470  (France) 27 

Argoulet 29 

Arquebuse 1 

Artificer      of      Artillery,     175C 

(France) 20 

Back-plate _ 3 

Bagpipe 1 

Bal.lrick 3 

Ballieta 3 

Balloon 3 

Ban,  Arrlt^re  (France) 31 

Banduuliere 3 

Bonnert 3 

Barbacan 3 

Baril-foudruyant 3 

Barricade 2 

Bar-shut 3 

Barti7.an 3 

Ba.scule  Bridge 1 

Btt.-tinado 3 

Btistion 2 

Battering-ram 1 

Battery- wngun 3 

Battle-axe 1 

Battlement 1 

BayonoU,  17th,  18th,  19tli  Centu- 
ries   3 

Beaver 1 

Bemie 2 

Bcrsaglleri _ _ „..  20 

Bill-hook 2 

Blind,  Gulling 2 

HI.KTk-house 1 

Block-house 2 

Block-house ~«....^ 2 

Blocks  and  TiicklM- 3 

Blood-hound 3 

Blunderbuss 1 

Bonilis 3 

Boml>-proof. 3 

Boomerang 3 

Boiirguignote 3 

Brnc.inniere _ 3 

Braqiiemart 3 

BrH8s:ird 3 


PIATK 

Breech-siglit 3 

Bridge  (read  Bateau  bridge) 3 

Bridge.Trestle 2 

Bridge,  Triatle 2 

Bridge,  Trestle 2 

Bridge,  Losliing  for  Trealle 2 

Bridge,  Frame 2 

Bridge,  Frame » 2 

Bridge,  Sling 2 

Bridge,  Tension 2 

Bridge,  Suspension '2 

Bridge,  Suspension 2 

Bridges,  Holdltksts  for 2 

Bridle 2 

Brigantes _ 26 

Broadsword 1 

Bucklers 2 

Bugle „ 3 

Bullet-proof  Oato 2 

Busby ~ 1 

Buskin 3 

Oabasset .5 

<>iligffi 4 

Caltrop .5 

Calumet,  or  Pipe  of  Peace 19 

Candjiar  Turc 5 

Canister „ 6 

Canonnier  (Louis  XIV.) 26 

Canteen 5 

Caparison 29 

Carabineer  (Louis  XIV.),  France..  3i 

Carabineer.  Itoly 28 

Carbine,  17th  Century 4 

Carreau 6 

Cartridge 6 

Cartridge-box 5 

Casemate 8-4 

Casque 6 

Lacedaemonian 6 

Boetiao 5 

Athenian 6 

Of  the  Dacia 6 

Of  the  DacIa  (Infantry) 5 

Of  the  Dacia  (Cavalry) 6 

French    (Cuirassier    of    the 

Guard) 6 

French  (Carabineer) 6 

French     (Dragoon     of     the 

Line) 5 

,   Oasse-tete 4 

I   Castellated :> 

Castle 4 

,   CaUpult 5 

I   Catepulta 5 

Oit-o'-nine-Uils 5 

Cavalry,  18th  Century  (France)...  3i 

Bavaria 32 

United  States 31 

Greek  (Ancient) 31 

Regular  (China) 31 

Roman 29 

Chnln-«hot 5 

Chapeau  Bras 5 


PLATK 

rii.ipoan  (Henry  II.) „ 5 

Cliapeuu  (Hcnrv  HI.) _ 5 

ChiipeHu  (Fruncois  I.) 5 

Cb«l>eau  (l^.uis  XV.)  5 

Cliapeiiu  (Louis  XIV.) 5 

Chupeau  (I-ouis  XIII.) 5 

Chasseur,  Bavaria 28 

Chasseur,  Tyrolean  (Austria) 28 

Foot,  1»62  (France) _...  27 

Foot  (Lonis  XV.) 27 

Algerian „  ....„ 3U 

Of     the     Guanl,     Mounted 

(Fmiice.  1862) 31 

Cheval-de-frlso „ „ 

Cimeterre 

Cimier „ 

Claymore _ 

Clunaculum _ „_ 

Cnc-mides „ 

Coat  of  Mail 

Co.it  of  Mall 

Collelin 5 

Colors 4 

Corium 5 

Cornet,     Light    Cavalry    (Lools 

XIII.) 30 

Corselet 6 

Cossack „..  30 

Cr^aneaux .....^ «..    4 

Cros.'t-bow „ _ 6 

Crown,  Mural _ „..    5 

Crows-foot 6 

Cuirass 6 

Cuirassier  (Pnissia) 32 

Cutlass _ 5 

Dagger 4 

I>aggora _ 4 

Diiguee  (cut  next  to  DtTic*)„ 4 

Ihingcrous  Space - 4 

Dart „ 4 

Decoration 4 

Device _........ 4 

Diameter 4 

Donjon ™ ^ 4 

Dragoon,  Sepoy „....  .....  S7 

Swiiivrbuid „...  32 

Austria 32 

Drawbridge 4 

Drum _ _.    4 

Dnim-Major,      Francb     GuarUs 

(I'VJ) S7 

Of    the    Grenadirn    uf    ihe 

Gnanl,  France.  1813 27 

KaRlee,  lloman _.._..._ _.,    6 

Kchaugettc „.    4 

»u _. 4 

Kinbrosura* 4 

Knibrasures „ 6 

Knidnunro  Lining _ 6 

KnUiiglrmcnl,  Wire 6 

K|Mulelte __ 4 

K-carp „    6 

EspaJon _ „    6 

657 


658 


INDEX   TO   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PLATE 

Espingole 4 

Falariqiie 6 

FantasBin  (Japan) 28 

Fautassin  of  the  Kizam 28 

Japan 28 

Fasces 6 

Fascino 6 

Fascine  Blind 6 

Fascine  Choker 7 

Fascine  Trestle 7 

Fascine,  Withe  for 7 

Fire-arrow 6 

Fire-ball 6 

Fleaux  d'Armes 23 

Fleches 9 

Foil 6 

Foot  Artillery,  Line  (France) 27 

Fortification — Trenches 6 

Gun  Pit 6 

Military  Pits 6 

Defense  (Hedges) 6 

Defense  (Screen) 6 

Defense  (Walls) 6 

Defense  (Wall) 7 

Defense  (Stockades) 7 

Fraises C 

Fascine  Revetment 6 

Fascine  Revetment 7 

Gabion  Revetment 6 

Gabion  Revetment 7 

Sod  Revetment 7 

Brushwood  Revetment 7 

Sand-bag  Revetment 7 

Fascine  Stockade 7 

Log  Stockade 7 

Log  Loop-hole 7 

Brnshwood  Loop-hole 7 

Sand-bag  Loop-hole 7 

Breastwork 7 

Hurdles 7 

Fascines 7 

Logs 7 

Gun  or  Gatling-port  in  Stock- 
ade   7 

Palisades 7 

Palisade 18 

Profile 7 

Lunette 7 

Shell-proof 9 

Field-works 7 

Field-works 8 

Ditch,   Glacis,  Parapet,  and 

Trench 8 

Bastioned  Fort 8 

Star  Fort 8 

Cremaillere 8 

Lunette  (Defense  of  Bridge).  8 

Splinter-proof 8 

Traverse 8 

One  gun   "  en  barbette"  on 

straight  parapet 8 

Keep 8 

Gabionnade 23 

Gun-bank 8 

Field  Casemate 8 

Earthen  Retrenchment 9 

Tambour 9 

Tambour 9 

Caponniere 9 

Shoulder  Caponniere 8 

Machicolation 13 

Machicolation 23 

Magazine 8 

Magazine,  Plan  of 8 

Magazine  in  a  Traverse 9 

Escarp  Gallery 8 

Parallels 23 

Francisques 6 

Friction  Tube 6 

Fusileor,  Mounted  (Louis  XIIL).  31 

Fusils,  Indien 9 

Fusils,  Marocian 9 

Fuze,  Bormann- 6 

Fuze,  German  Time- 6 

Fuze,  Percussion- 6 

Fuze,  Percussion-  (English  G.  S.)  6 

Fuze,  Percussion-  (Knglish  G.  S.)  6 

Fuze,  Swiss  Combination 6 

Fuze,  Time- 6 

Fuze,  Time- G 

Gabion 7 


PLATE 

Gabion  Knife 7 

Gabionnade 23 

Gadling 9 

Garter,  Collar  of 9 

Garter,  Starof 9 

Gauntlet 9 

Gendarme,  1453 29 

Gendarme,  Foot,  1824  (France)...  27 

Gladiator 9 

Gong 9 

Gorget 9 

Grape 9 

Grenade  and  Fuze 9 

Grenaiiier 9 

Grenadier,  Belgium 28 

England,  1690 26 

Guide,  Belgium 32 

Guillotine 9 

Guisarme 9 

Haches  d'Armes 9 

Halberdier,  1534 26 

Halberds 10 

Hand  Sling-cart 23 

Handspike,  Manceuvring 9 

Hauberk 9 

Hausse,  Pendulum 18 

Haversack 9 

Head-piece 6 

Helmet,  Barred 6 

Helmet,  U.  S 5 

Heraldry 10 

Eagle  Recursant 10 

Fanciful    variations   of  the 

Shield 10 

Fleur-de-lis 10 

Inescutcheon 10 

Lion  Statant 11 

Lozenge 11 

Norman  Shield 11 

Pale 10 

Paly 10 

Party  per  Pale 10 

Passant 10 

Patee 10 

Pheon 10 

Pile 10 

Pomme 10 

Quartered  Arms 10 

Raguled 10 

Rampant 10 

Rampant  Gardant 10 

Rampant  Regardant 10 

Regardant 10 

Respectant 10 

Roundel 10 

Sa  le 10 

Salient 10 

Saltire 11 

Sejant H 

Spread  eagle 11 

Supporters 11 

Surmounted 11 

Treasure 11 

Herison 9 

Herse 10 

Heuses 10 

Highlander,  Scots  (England) 28 

Holdfasts 19 

Homme  d'Armes,  Lancer  (1610)...  29 

Hoplitai 25 

Hoqueton 10 

Horse 10 

Horse  and  Harness,  Artillery 10 

Horse  Guard  (England) 32 

Hulans,  1745 31 

Hurdle 7 

Hussar,  Belgium 30 

France,  1796  (Chamborin's)..  32 

Implements,  Artillery 11 

Ladle 11 

Lifting-jack 11 

Lifting-jack 11 

Lifting-jacks 11 

Pass-box 11 

Rammer 11 

Sponge  and  Rammer 11 

Springhead  (Sponge) 11 

Worm 11 

Infantry,  1572  (Charles  IX.) 25 

Louis  XIV 25 

Negro  (Brazil) 28 


PLATE 

Infantry. 

Of  the  Line  (Austria) 28 

Of  the  Line  (Russia) 28 

Of  the  Guard  (Morocco) 28 

Regular  (Persia) 28 

Tiger  (China) 28 

U.  S.  Foot-soldier,  1870 27 

Jack-boot 11 

Jambeaux  (Ancient  and  Modern)  23 

Jambes 11 

Javelins 11 

Joan  of  Arc 25 

Jupon 11 

Kalmuck 30 

Kettle-drum 12 

Knapsack 12 

Knight  in  Full  Armor 12 

Knighthood,  Conferring 12 

Knots,  Hitches,  Splices,  etc 11 

Anchor  Knot 11 

Becknet  Knot 11 

Bight 11 

Bight 11 

Knots,  etc 11 

Blackwall 11 

Bowline 11 

Cable-laid  Rope 11 

Capstan  or  Prolonge  Knot....  11 

Carrick  Bend 11 

Catspaw 11 

Fisherman's  Bend 11 

Granny 11 

Gronnnet 11 

Hawser-laid  Rope 11 

Hitch,  Clove 11 

Hitch,  Timber 11 

Hitch,  Marlinespike 11 

Hitches,  Two  Half 11 

Hitches,   Two    Half,   and    a 

Round  Turn 11 

Mooring  Knot 11 

Nipper  or  Rack  Lashing 11 

Parceling  a  Rope 11 

Pointing  a  Rope 11 

Rolling 11 

Sheet  Bend 11 

Seizing  a  Rope 11 

Serving  a  Rope 11 

Sheepshank 11 

Splice,  Eye 11 

Splice,  Short U 

Splice,  Long 11 

AVhipping  a  Rope 11 

Worming  a  Rope 11 

Square .• 11 

Strap 11 

Kriss 12 

Labarum 12 

Lancer  (Egypt) 32 

Lances 13 

Lances,  Ancient 23 

Lansquenet 2G 

Lanyard,  Handle,  and  Hook 12 

Lashing  and  Slinging 12 

Lashing 12 

Lashing,  Shear 12 

Slinging,  Barrel 12 

Legatus 25 

Litters 12 

Army  Regulation  Two-horse 

Litter 13 

British  Crimean  Cacolet 12 

British  Army  Mule-litter 12 

French  Litter  unfolded 12 

Litter 13 

Litter  of  poles  and  raw-hide.  12 
Lord  and  Baine's  Horse-litter  12 
Splint  of  willow-twigs  united 

bv  buckskin  thongs 13 

Two-horse  Litter  of  the  IGlh 

Century 13 

Wounded  Soldier  on  a  "  Tra- 
vail"   12 

Wounded    Soldier   conveyed 
on  a  Double-mule  Litter...  13 

Lochaber-axe 12 

Machette 14 

Machicolations 13,  23 

Maiden 13 

Mameluke  Guards 30 

Mangonneau 13 


INDEX  TO  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


659 


PLATE 

Manipulo 13 

Mantelet,  Ancient 12 

Mantelet,  Gun 1:1 

Mantelet,  Itoi>e 13 

Mar4chaU8i-o  (France,  1780) 30 

Mikrineufthe Guard, 180i(Krance)  27 

Mara 14 

Mnrtenu  li'Armea 14 

Miirtello  Tower(U.  S.  1780) 13 

Marteis-de-fer 13 

Manses  d'Armes 13 

Mattock 13 

Merlons 13 

Miner.  1786  (England) 26 

Minle-ball 13 

Mining 24 

Shaft  with  Oases 24 

Shaft  with  Frames 24 

gh..rt,  Hard  Soil 24 

Galjcriee,  Hard  Soil 24 

False  Fnimes,  Use  of. 24 

Detonator,  No.  ."> 24 

Detonator,  No.  8 24 

Detonator,  No.  9 24 

Detonator,  No.  10 24 

Detonator,  No.  13 24 

Fuze  No.  1 24 

Fuze,   Instantaneous    (Bick- 

fords) 24 

Tube,  No.  4 24 

Fuzes  In  pairs,  coupling  up...  24 
Fuzes  in  Powderlwig,  Inser- 
tion of. 24 

Quantity      Dynamo-Electric 

Machine 24 

Circuit,  Continuous 24 

Circuit,  Simple 24 

Commencement     of     Three 

Way  Joint 24 

Tul.e,   Flexible 24 

Tube,  Tin 24 

Miner's  Pick 24 

Push  Pick 24 

Miner's  Shovel 'J4 

Miner's  Tnick 24 

Candle-stick 24 

Bucket '.^4 

Bellows 24 

Spark  Measurer 24 

Miquelet 27 

Mole 13 

Morion 13 

Musculas,  14th  Century 23 

National  Guard  (Mexico). 28 

Officer  of  the  Guard  (Prusaia) 28 

Ordnance 14 

Armstrong  Gun  (8-iuch) 14 

Cannon,  15th  Century 14 

Cannon,  ICtii  Century 14 

Cannon,  17th  Century 14 

Carnmade 15 

Caisson  and  Body 17 

Cais.<ion  and  Limber 15 

Field-gun  and  Carriage,  Ger- 
man    15 

Fii-lil-gnn      and      Carriage, 

Swedish 15 

Forgo  and  Bo«ly,  Traveling-...  17 

Flank  Casemate-carriage 15 

Galling  Gun 14 

Gatling  Gun  on  Cavalry  Cart..  14 

Gin 15 

Gun-lifts 15 

Gunner's  Quadrant. 17 

Howitzer 15 

Howitzer  and  Carriage,  Siege-  14 

Howitzer.  German 16 

Krupp  12-inch  Gun  and  Car- 

ringe 16 

Limber 17 

Morur 14 

Mortar,  Coehom 14 

Mortar,  Kussian 14 

Mortar   and  Carriage,   Aus- 
trian   14 

Mortar  and  Carriage,  Krupp.  15 

Mortar-wagon 16 

Mortapi,  Pointing 23 

Sea-coast  Carriage 15 

iShoars 16 

Siege-gun-carriage 15 


PLATE 

Ordnance. 

Siege-gun  and  Carriage 15 

Sloge-carrlage,  Austrian 14 

Sling-cart 15 

Sling-cart,  Hand 'a 

Star-gauge 17 

Truck  Wagon 14 

Truck,  Casemalo 15 

Ball,  I".  S.  Kitlc IB 

Ball,  Chasseixit 1« 

Bullet,  Percusdion- 10 

Cartridge,  Multi-ball 16 

Fixed  llound-shot 16 

Fixed  Canister 16 

Projectile,  Krupp   Howitzer..  16 
Projectile,  English  Howitzer.  10 

Projectile,   Butler 10 

Projectile,  Whitworth 16 

Sabot 10 

Strapped  Shell 10 

Orinamme 17 

Pack  and  Draught  Animals 18 

Buffalo 18 

Camel,  Bactrian 18 

Dromedary 18 

Dromedary  and  Saddle 18 

Elephant 18 

Horse 18 

Llama 18 

Mule 18 

Mulo    laden   with     pack  on 

crosd-tree  saddle 18 

Pack-saddle 18 

Paludamentum 25 

Parallels %i 

Parthian 26 

Pavisor  and  Pavise 18 

PeUrd 18 

Pilum 19 

Piquier 26 

Pistolier,  17th  Century 31 

Platform,  Gun 9 

Plummet  Stand 18 

Plummet  Stand 19 

Pointing  Instruments 18 

Pointing  Mortars 23 

Pole-axes 18 

Poniard 18 

Portcullis 19 

Portuguese  Legion i~ 

Powder %\ 

Cubical 23 

Hexagonal 23 

Mamm.ith 23 

Prismatic  (Blolde<l) 23 

For  3-incli  and  Z]/,-iuc\i  Field 

Hitlc .". 23 

Pretorian '25 

Pretorian 'r^ 

Quiver 20 

Quoin 20 

Bange-finder,  Nolan's 20 

Ravelin 20 

Recbaud 20 

Redoubt 20 

Ribaud 2.i 

Ribaude<)uin 23 

Rivers.  Means  employed  in  pass- 
ing   19 

Pontou _ 19 

Ponton-bridge 19 

Raft  complete 19 

Rnft,   Log 19 

Flying  Bridges 19 

BaVrel  Pier 19 

Roi  d'Amies 2<". 

Rondelle W 

Sabretache 20 

Saddle 21 

Salado 6 

Sapper  of   the  "  Legion  of   the 

Vistula" 27 

Sceptre 20 

Scorpion 20 

Scutum .- 20 

Semaphore*..  _ 20 

Sepov "ii 

Sbabracs,  180O-1850..._ 23 

Shako«.._ 6 

Shield 20 

Signal  Pi.'tol  flrcd 20 


PLATE 

Signal  Station 20 

Signal  SUtioD  at  Night 20 


Sllnger 

Sluall-arms 

Air-gun 

Cba»»il«.t  Rifle 

Martini-Henry  Uifl«. 


itterlin  Rifle 

Wenidl  Rifle 

Wenler  turbine 

Werndl  Carbine 

Pistoleu,  16th  and  I8lb  Cen' 

turies Ig 

Pistol,  1»56._ 18 

Pistol,  Werder 18 

Pistol,  18th  Centoi7._ 18 

Percussion-luck 18 

Revolver,  Austrian 18 

Beach's  Comblnatii)n  Sight...  10 
Lyman's  Combination  8lght„  10 

Chassipot  Sight 16 

Globe  Sight 16 

Martini-Henry  8-ghL 10 

Wind-gauge  (Spirit  Level)...  10 

Wind-gauge  atid  Sight,  U.  8..  10 

Winchester  Reveniible  Sight.  16 

Soldier  of  the  "  Legion  O-pthe"  20 

Soldier  Foot  Legion  (Bomauj 26 

Spahis .TO 

Sparum 20 

Si)ear 20 

Spear-beads 20 

Spurs .- 20 

Standard 21 

Standard.  Paoha's 21 

Stirrup,  18th  Century 21 

Strappado „ 20 

StyleU 20 

Swiss  Captain  (1550) 26 

Swords 20 

Tabard 22 

Tangent  Scale 21 

Target,  Floating 21 

Target,  Laidley's  Shelter..^ 21 

Targets 21 

Tassos,  or  Tasces 21 

Telegraph  (Electric  Field) 21 

Telemeter 22 

Telemeter,  for  Field  and   Moun- 
tain Batteries...^ 22 

Telemeters 22 

TeuU 23 

"  A,"or  Common  Tont 22 

Bell-tent 22 

Cushing's  Shelter-ten t.» 22 

Pole  (open). 22 

Pole  (shut) 22 

Conical  Tent  (France).™ 22 

Hoepiul  Tent  (Russian) 22 

Roman  Tent* 

Shelter-tcDt. 

Sibley  Tent 

Sibley  Wall-tent 

Tent  d  abn  (Fr»nce).._ 

Wall-tent 

Tiniilleur,  Native  (Algeria)- 

Toga. 

Toll^non 21 

Tomahawks ^ SI 

Tortue  d'Hommct*.__ SS 

Tour  B^liere _ SS 

Tower _ 21 

Tower,  Watch- —  SI 

Tnyectory _-  SS 

Tril.une,  Military  (Bonwn)-. S5 

Trident. SI 

Tromblou - „..  S3 

Trumpet SS 

I'nicorn _ ~.~  S3 

Velite SS 

Vellte.  1807.— _ - SS 

Texilla. S» 

VerlUa. _ 83 

Vireton _ _«_... „.  SS 

VivaiKildrr- __ !• 

VivaadUns  1800  (rrmnoe) 30 

Wahobec*- S9 

Wigwam _ _ X8 

Zagale S3 

Zouave*  (France). 27 


PLATE    I 


p™|L^-.  (^ 


PLATES. 


Bom^  pr»«<' 


PLATE   4. 


fcSk/Bi 


PLATE    5 


PLATE    6 


PLATE    7 

Gabum.  Kru/e 


4  OS 


■^■^i^  ti^-mh  ^j¥t^ 


mm  wm  ffit 


l>tffon(»s  (8tovkiules). 


PLATE    8. 


ITCH   .M.PAR.lP'T-1 


Field  Casemate 


PLATE    9. 


EARTHEN     RtTRENCHMENT 


^%s 
^5^ 


■^  — — - 


PLATE  10. 


1.  Ears;  2.  Nape  of  the  neck; 3.  Forelock;  i.  Forotop  ; 
6.  Eye-pit;  6.  Eyes;  7.  Face;  8.  Cheeks;  9.  Nostrils;  10. 
Tip  of  nose  ;  ll".  Lips  ;  12.  Chin  ;  13.  Beard  ;  14.  L'auge ; 
15.  Nether  jaw;  16.  Throat;  17.  L'tncolure;  18.  Mane;  19. 
Withers ;  20.  Chest ;  21.  Shoulders ;  22.  Ann  :  23.  Fore- 
arm ;  24.  Elbow  ;  25.  Chesnut  :  26.  Knees  ;  27.  Shank- 
bone  ;  28.  Sinew;  29.  Bullet;  30.  Fetlock;  31.  Pastern;  32. 
Coronet ;  S3.  Hoof ;  34.  Fetlock  of  the  hind  leg  ;35.  Heel ; 
36.  Toe  ;  37.  Back ;  38.  Loins ;  39.  Girths ;  «).  Eibs 
41.  Belly ;  42.  Flanks  ;  43.  Sheath  ;  44.  Croup ;  45.  Tail ; 
46.  Rump;  47.  Haunches;  48.  Thighs;  49.  Leg; 
60.  Stifflie  ;  51.  Hock ;  52.  Point  of  the  hock. 


Artillerj  Horses  and  iriariiess, 
1.  Halter;  2,  Crown-piece;  3,  cheek-strap;  4,  Bio». 
iiid;  5,  Xosi-banrt;  (i,  Chin-strajj;  7,  Throat-strap; 
lash.  Bridles,  •joniposed  ot  Head-istall,  Curb- 
bit,  and  Rtiiis.  9,  Near  Saddle;  10,  Girth;  11,  Collar; 
12,  Hiinies;  l:i;  Oliin  and  T();,'gle;  14,  Safes;  15,  Trace- 
tuifs;  16,  Tnissiiig-straps;  17,  Haine-strap;  18,  Ci.llar- 
strap;  19,  Tiacis;  20,  Fiont-trace  chains; 
trace  chains;  22,  Tiace-tujfjjles:  2:1,  Lion-strap,  Cnip[H!c 
iiicludinff  24,  Back  i-tiup;  2.5,  Body;  26,  Dock  "  " 
iiig,  including  -7,  Breech-strap;  2S,  Hip  .strap; 
•/9,  Breast-strap;  30,  Sliding-loops;  31,  Off  Saddle; 
M,  Hook  for  Reins  and  Valise-strap;  33,  Valise,  Coup- 
on n);-reiii,  Whip,  Leg  guard,  and  Nose-bag. 


Regardant,        l^egpccUnt, 


PLATE  11. 


'V 


t^' 


Lion  Blatant,  Sprcnd  eagl 

Vjili'i;i^ll.l^l!ll'lt;'l'y   e 


/box 

Bejniil,  Norman  hhlcld,  I»t«o(e  Shield, 


4? 


Bui'pincn, 


rwo  BAuf    1  eiovi  Hircii 


ROUNO   TU«»« 


PLATE  12 


PLATE  13 


Martello  Tower.  Maiden 

(I'.  S.  1780.) 


Austruui  Morlnraiid  Oiiriai,'! 


PLATE  15, 


PLATE  16. 


Wind-guage     (Spirit  level). 


Heach  Combination  Sight 


ilaitini-Henry.  Sight. 


^.^^ 


U.  S.  Wind-gauge  and  Sight. 


Chassapot  Sight. 


PLftTE  n 


PLATE  18. 


I*(  rcu>8ion  lock., 


Mule  Iflilen  with  pack  on  crosn- 


ole-axes.       Pavisor  aiul  l'a-|o      \ii'/      o|  Pointing  Instrumeou. 


PLATE  19. 


Caliitiiet  or  Pipe  of  Teato. 

MKANB  KMPL.OYEL>lN  PASSING  KIVKR:*  ••  •'^' 


PonUo  biidf* 

ii..:i.r.. 


PLATE  IjO 


Swords, 
1.  Saxon  sceax!  2.  Enelisli  hanger,  old  fo.ni;  3,  rapier,  about  33  inch  blade;  4.  £aftem  cimeter-, 
i,  cut  und  thrust  snord,  !fO  to  32  inch  blade:  «.  saber,  or  cavalry  broadsword.  33  to  36  Inch  blade; 
7.  heavy  civalry  bmadsword.  40  inch  blade;  8,  claymore,  or  Scotch  broadsword,  with  basket  hilt. 
40  inch  Wi  c;  9.  ftlchion;  10, 11,  navy  cutlasocs,  18  or  20  inch  blade;  13,  hari-kari,  or  .l.n-aoaa 
disemboweler. 


hiiinal  Stabon  atNifthl 


Semaphores 


PLATE  21 


IVIoifrapli  (Klet-irio  Kield). 


^iLSSi5;ls,^^^ 


Conica)  Tent  (France).  Tent  d'abn  (Fiance) 


Kiis'.  T,  Hosp  t»i  Tent 


PLATE  23 


't:%i'  ^ 


(.^,«.  .*:>  -  c- 


PLATE  14 


,'ittu/t  mtfi  Caj>6s 


MINING. 


OicktbrtiW  InstnnJaneoinrFuxe 


PLAT  E  2  6- 


iBffciiUrax-ali  XIV.) 


PLATE  26. 


Vivandtere.       Cannonier  (Louis  XIV.X      Artificer   of     Artillery. 
1756  (Prauce). 


Grenadier,  1690 
(EnjflHnd). 


Sepoy. 


PLATE  Z7. 


I'raram«;.,r   .^J  th.-         ^rMm ^■^\<»  of ib. 
Fraoch  tiuwO.  Orcn«diier.   ol     th 


Ar.hr...  t4r»<K 


PLATE  18 


National  Guard. 
(Mexico). 


'Scota  HiKhlander  "**"Ip€^"iV'^-  Pantassin  of  th«Ni«m.  Infantry  of  the  Line.Oiaoer  of  the  Guarrf. 

(EriBlaod).  \rena.).  (Russia).  (Pruaria). 


(BRirii). 


PLATE19 


Koniaii  c^vidrj. 


PLATE  30. 


MamelDke  Guards 


PLATE  31 


Carabineer,  Louis  XI V  (France  ) 


PUATE32- 


Horse    Gnard.  (EnRland). 


Dragoon  (Austria). 


CavaJry,(Bavana;i 


ESTJLBLISHEID    1815. 


Horstmann  Bros.  &  Co., 

Fifth  and   Chvrr\f  St  reefs, 


:pi3:iij^nDEXj:F>i3:i^ 


MANUFACTURERS    OF 


liiiiiarj  booiiJi  iiiKi  ti|iii|iiiifiiis 

OF  ALL   DESCRIPTIONS,    FOR  THE 

ARMY,  NAVY,  AND  MARINE  CORPS. 


■^NEW    REGULATION  i* 


CORK  AND  FELT  HELMETS, 


FL^aS,    B^NI^ERS,   Etc, 


SEND    FOR    ILLUSTRATED    CATALOGUE.-«i 


Horstmann  Bros.  &  Co., 


New  England 


|utoal|4fi^  Ktt^twmw^Cump^tta 


o:p   BOSTOJsr. 


The  attention  of  Officers  of  the  Army  and  Navy  is 
directed  to  the  following: 

Assets ^15,941,879.40 

I^iabilltics 13,352,918.88 

Total   Surplus #2,588,960.52 


This  Company  insures  the  lives  of  Officers  of  the  Army  and  Navy 
without  extra  premium,  except  when  actually  engaged  in  warfare,  which 
premium,  if  not  paid  at  the  assumption  of  the  extra  risk,  loill  not  invalidate 
the  policy,  but  will  be  a  lien  upon  it ;  and  also  gives  liberty  of  residence 
and  travel,  on  service,  in  all  countries,  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  Avithout 
extra  charge. 


The  Directoes'  Annual,  Report,  containing  a  detailed  statement, 
can  be  obtained  at  the 

Office  of  the  Company, 


BENJ.  F.  STEVENS,  President. 
JOS.  M.  GIBBENS,  Secretary, 


POST-OFFICE    SQUARE. 


SEEDS 

FOIi 

POST   GJ^^RDENS, 


Profitablo  Gardening  depends  first  of  all  upon  procurinE:  SEEDS  of  VITALITY 
and  rUUITY.  Such  can  bo  Imd  from  OUK  ESTAHL1SII3IENT.  We  ever  have 
been  tlie  oldest  and  most  extensive 

SEED  GROWERS  and  SEED  MERCHANTS 

IN   THE   UNITED  STATES. 

Wo  cordially  invite  all  interested  to  visit  and  critically  inspect  our  Sekd  Farus, 
feeling  confident  that  the  areas,  varied  soils  and  climates,  systems  of  cultivation, 
drying  houses,  steam  machinery,  implomonts  and  apj)urtenunce8  penerally,  will 
demonstrate  our  ability  to  nroduoo  lart^or,  more  varied,  and  bettor  stock  than  any 
other  party  in  the  Seed  Trade.     We  have  always  been  by  far 

The  Largest  Producers  of  Garden  Seeds  in  America. 

Our  farms  do  not  exist  upon  paper,  but  can  be  found  by  any  inquirer  ;  and  in  the 
selection  of  stocks  and  systems  of  culture  wo  have  as  a  firm  tho  advantages  of  very 
^■KAKLY  A  CENTURY  OF  EXi'KRiJiNCE.     Our  farms  are  situated  at 

BRISTOL.  Bucks  Co..  Pa.  MANITOWOC,  Manitowoc  Co..  Wis. 

BURLINGTON. BurlingtonCo.,N. J.      MONASKON.  Lancaster  Co..  Vh. 

The  whole  comprising  a  total  of  l/>74'  Acres,  owned,  occupied,  and  cultivated 
by  ourselves.  Upon  these  lands  we  have  aiipliod  in  a  single  season  ?'J(t.O<>0  worth 
of  purchased  fertilizers,  a  fact  Avhich  exhibits  the  magnitude  of  our  operations. 

THE    STOCK   SEEDS 

from  which  all  our  crops  arc  grown  on  all  tlio  farms  are  produced  on  Bloomsdale, 
the  Pcnn.sylvania  farm,  and  under  the  daily  scrutiny  of  tho  proprietors,  are  thor- 
oughly culled  of  all  departures  from  the  true  types,  and  produce  crops  of  such  purity 
of  strain  as  to  warrant  us  in  declaring  that  none  are  Superior  and  few  Equal ! 

Commanders  of  Government  Posts  who  favor  us  witn  their  orders  can  rely  upon 
being  supplied  upon  most  liberal  terras. 

HORTICULTURAL  REQUISITES. 

Post  Farmers,  Gardeners,  or  Florists  desiring  Tools  or  Appliances  for  the  Field, 
Garden,  or  Hot  House,  will,  upon  application  to  us,  be  promptly  furnished  with 
Prices  which,  upon  examination,  will  bo  found  as  low  as  those  of  other  dt-alors. 

I5OOKS--250  DISTINCT  PUBLICATIOXS 

upon  tho  subjects  of  the  Brooding  and  Management  of  Horses,  Cattle,  Shoep.  Swine, 
Poultry,  Bees,  and  upon  the  Culture  of  Cotton,  Tobacco,  Flax,  U<«ses,  and  Bedding 
Plants;  upon  Irrigation,  Drainage,  Horticultural  Architecture,  Forestry — every- 
thing that  a  Farmer  or  Gardener  is  interested  in — at  Publishers'  Prie<»—V*»\.*g9 
Paid. 

Send  for  our  Caialopues  of  Books,  Bulbous  Roots,  Seeds,  Tools,  Oarden  Ornaments. 
We  publish  Catalogues  of  Seeds  in  English,  German,  Stcedish,  and  Spanish. 

These   Catalogues  will   be  furnished   Kratultously 
upon  application. 

DAVID    LANDRETH   &  SONS, 
Seed    Growers, 

PHILADELPHIA. 


JSS     CSrJEiTiSi. 


R.  &  J.  BECK,  Manufacturing  Opticians, 

1016  Chestnut  Street,  Philadelphia, 

Beg  to  call  the  attention  of  Officers  of  the  Army  and  Navy  to  their  unrivaled  stock  of 

riELD  GLASSES,  OPEEA  GLASSES,  TELESCOPES,  MIOEOSGOPES,  OLINIOAL 
THERMOMETEKS,  BAKOMETEES,  COMPASSES,  SPECTACLES, 

Of  the  Highest  Grades  at  Lowest  Prices. 

THE  GEM  is  the  most  Compact,  Portable,  and  Powerful  Field,  Marine,  and  Opera 
Glass  ever  constructed.  It  is  very  largely  in  use  in  the  Army,  and  we  refer  by  permis- 
sion to  numerous  officers  using  it.     Ca7i  be  sent  by  mail. 

Illustrated  Catalogue,  176  pages,  mailed  free  to  any  part  of  the  world. 


Life  Insurance  Qo. 


s. 


OF   PHILADELPHIA, 

E.  Corner   of  Foiartli   and  TValnnt. 
INCORPORATED  1850.     CHARTER  PERPETUAL 


Assets,  January  1,  1881    -    $3,431,813.05 


GEORGE  W.  HILL,  President. 


JOHN  S.  WILSON,  Secretary  and  Treasurer. 


WIBSTEB'S 


ONABRIDGED. 


THE   IS^ATIONAL    STAKDABD. 

Contains  over  118,000  Words,  3000  Engravings;  over  4600 
IVETV^    i;V01lI>S    and    MIEJlTVIIVGS. 

Also  contains  a  NEW  BIOGKAPHIOAL  DICTIONARY  of  over  9700  If  AMES. 


Becommended  by  State  Superintendents  of  Schools  in 
36  States,  and  by  50  College  Presidents. 

There  have  been  32,000  Webster's  Unabridged  placed 
in  the  Public  Schools  of  the  United  States. 

Every  State  purchase  of  Dictionaries  for  the  Schools 
has  been  of  Webster. 


The  Books  in  the  Public  Schools  of  the  United  States 
are  mainly  based  on  Webster. 

The  sale  of  Webster''i  Dictionaries  is  20  times  as  great 
as  the  sale  of  any  other  series. 

"January  1, 18S1.  The  Dictionary  used  in  the  Govern- 
ment Printing  Office  is  Webster's  Unabridged." 


Published  by  G.  &  C.  MERRIAM,  Springfield,  Mass. 
4 


A.a8cts,    87*350,000.  Surplus,    81.SOU,UUO. 

THE    PENN    MUTUAL 

Life  Insurance  Company 

OF    PHILADELPHIA. 

Purely  Mutual.  ^^  Incorporated  1847. 

Has  age  and  stability;  is  purely  mutual,  liberal,  and  progressive;  solid  and  vigorous, 
wide-awake  and  well-managed  ;  securities  all  first-class ;  estimates  its  liabilities  upon  the 
severest  standard  known  to  the  law, — four  per  cent. ;  has  a  relatively  greater  surplus  than 
others ;  and  is  a  non-contesting  company. 


8TA.TE]>£EIVT    OF    rOLICY    IS'OW    IIS-^    FORCE. 

Policy  No.  36,  for  ?5000,  on  the  life  of  Henry  C.  T d,  Esq.,  was  issued  July  13, 

1847,  at  ago  2G,  annual  premium,  $105.50. 

To  this  date  (1880)  thirty-four  premiums  have  been  paid,  aggregating  .    $3587.00 
Dividends  have  been  allowed,  in  reduction  of  premium,  amounting  to  .      1992.69 

Net  cost  to  the  member $1594.31 


A.VEIIAGE   DIVIOENI)   OVER   FIFTY-FIVE    J?EIl    CETST. 

The  actual  cash  paid  in  thirty-four  years,  as  above          ....    $1594.81 
E(iual  to  an  average  annual  payment,  for  $5000  insurance,  of  46.8;> 

Per  year,  for  $1000  insurance ^^Ml 


ALL  "PENN"  POLICIES  NON-FORFEITABLE. 


SAMUEL    C.  HUEY,  President.  J.  J.  BARKER.  Actuary. 

E.  M.  NEEDLES,    "i  „  HENRY  AUSTIE.  Socrotary, 

'•Vice-Presidents. 

H.  8.  STEPHENS,  J  HENRY  C.  BROWN.  Ass't  Secretary. 


VALUABLE  WORKS  FOR  MILITABY  MEN 

A  Course  of  Instruction  in  Rifle  Firing.     Prepared  by  command  of  Brigadier-General  S.  V.  Benkt, 
Chief  of  Ordnance,  U.S.A.    By  Colonel  T.  S.  Laidley,  Ordnance  Department,  U.S.A.    With  numer- 
ous Illustrations.     New  and  Revised  Edition.     Ifimo.     Extra  cloth.     $1.50. 
"Its  every  page  bears  the  mark  of  a  high  degree  of  professional  ability,  earnestly  directed  to  the  development 

of  the  subject."— l/iiiierf  Service  Magazine. 

3V[£:az3e:'s  naval  consxrttction. 

A  Treatise  on  Naval  Architecture  and  Ship-Building;  or,  An  Exposition  of  the  Elementary  Princi- 
ples involved  in  the  Science  and  Practice  of  Naval  Construction.  Compiled  from  various  Standard 
Authorities.  By  Commander  Richard  W.  Meade,  U.S.N.  Fully  Illustrated.  Crown  8vo.  Extra 
cloth.    $10.00. 

I.IFE:    OF    STONETWAI-I-    JACKSON- 
Life  of  General  Thomas  J.  Jackson.     By  S.  N.  Randolph,  author  of  "  The  Domestic  Life  of  Thomas 
Jefferson."     With  Illustrations.     Crown  8vo.     Extra  cloth.     $2.00. 

LIFE    OF    GESffERAr.    THOIVIAS. 
Life  and  Services  of  Major-General  George  H.  Thomas.     By  General  R.  W.  Johnson,  U.S.A.     Illus- 
trated with  Portraits  of  Distinguished  Officers  from  Steel.     Crown  8vo.     Extra  cloth.     $2.00. 
THE    FIELD    JMtAMXJAL    OF    COXJRTS-1VIARTIAI-. 
By  Captain  Henry  Coppee.     Second  Edition,  Revised.     18mo.     Extra  cloth.     $1.00. 

XEIE     C03VIPA.1WY     C  L  E  X%  K. 
By  Major-General  Aug.  V.  Kautz.     12mo.     Extra  cloth.     $1.25. 

CXJSXOXM[S    OF    SERVICE    FOR    ARIVIY    OFFICERS, 
As  Derived  from  Law  and  Regulations,  and  Practiced  in  the  United  States  Army.    By  Major-General 
A.  V.  Kautz.     18mo.     Fine  cloth.     $1.25. 

CUSTOMS  OF  SERVICE  FOR  NON-COMMISSIONED  OFFICERS  AND  SOLDIERS, 

As  Derived  from  Law  and  Regulations,  and  Practiced  in  the  United  States  Army.  By  Major-General 
A.  V.  Kautz.     18mo.     Cloth.     $1.25. 

ORDISTANCE       KEANXJAL. 
The  Ordnance  Manual,  for  the  use  of  Officers  of  the  Army  and  others.     Third  Edition.     Fully  Illus- 
trated with  Engravings  on  Steel.     Demi  8vo.     Extra  cloth.     $3.00. 

*■:-.*  For  sale  by  all  Booksellers,  or  will  be  sent  by  mail,  postage  prepaid,  on  receipt  of  the 
price  by  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT    &   CO.,  Publishers, 

715  and  717  Market  St.,  Philadelphia. 

VALUABLE  MILITARY  WORKS, 

PuUished  hy  JD.  VAN  NOSTRANB, 

23  MURRAY  &  27  W^ARRKN  STS.,  NE\\r  YORK. 

♦■-»  » — — 

A  Treatise  on  Military  I^aw, 

And  the  Jurisdiction,  Constitution,  and  Proceedings  of  Military  Courts,  with  a  Summary  of  the  Rules 
of  Evidence  as  applicable  to  such  Courts.  By  Lieut.  R.  A.  Ives,  U.  S.  Army.  1  vol.  8vo.  Law 
sheep.     $4.00. 

liotelikiss  aiad  Allan's  Battle  of  Chaneellorsville. 

The  Battle-Fiei.ds  op  Virginia.  Chnncellorsville,  embracing  the  Operations  of  the  Army  of 
Northern  Virginia,  from  the  First  Battle  of  Fredericksburg  to  the  Death  of  Lieut.-Gen.  T.  J.  Jack- 
son. By  Jed.  IIotchkiss  and  William  Allax.  Illustrated  with  Five  Maps  and  Portrait  of  Stonewall 
Jackson.    Svo.    Cloth.    $3.50. 

Stevens's  Three  Years  in  tke  Sixth  Corps. 

Three  Years  in  the  Sixth  Corps.  A  Concise  Narrative  of  Events  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac 
from  1861  to  the  Close  of  the  Rebellion,  April,  1805.  By  Geo.  T.  Stevens,  Surgeon  of  the  Seventy- 
seventh  Regiment  New  York  Volunteers.  Illustrated  with  Seventeen  Engravings  and  Six  Steel  Por- 
traits.    New  and  Revised  Edition.     Svo.     Cloth.     $3.00. 

Jomini's  Orand  Military  Operations. 

Treatise  on  Grand  Military  Operations.    Illustrated  by  a  Critical  and  Military  History  of  the 

Wars  of  Frederick  the  Great.    With  a  Summary  of  the  Most  Important  Principles  of  the  Art  of  War. 

By  Baron  De  Jomini.     Illustrated  by  Maps  and  Plans.     Translated  from  the  French  by  Col.  S.  B. 

HotABiRD,  A.D.C.,  U.  S.  Army.     2  vols.,  8vo,  and  Atlas.     Cloth.     $16.00.     Half  calf  or  morocco. 

$21.00.     Half  Russia.    $22.50. 

.-♦-^ 

Send  for  Catalogue  of  Military  and.  Naval  Books.    Copies  of  the  above  books  sent 
free  by  mail  on  receipt  of  price. 


PENNSYLVANIA 


Military  Academy 


CHESTER,  PENNA. 


Civil  and  Mining  Engineering, 


Chemistry,  Classics, 

and  English. 


DEGREES     CONFERRED. 


Col.   THEO.    HYATT, 

President. 


COMPOUND    OXYGEN. 

For  the  Cure  of  Consumption,  Asthma,  Bronchitis,  Catarrh,  Dyspep- 
sia, Headache,  Ozcena,  Debility,  and  all  Chronic  and  Nervous 
Disorders,  by  a  Natural   Process  of  Mevitalization. 


A  REMARKABLE  RESULT. 

We  are  constantly  meeting  with  new  and  singular  re- 
sults from  the  administration  of  Compound  Oxygen. 
Witness  the  following,  in  the  sudden  penetration  of  the 
air  into  a  collapsed  lung.  A  gentleman  in  Pleasantville, 
Iowa,  writing  under  date  of  October  10, 1880,  says: 

"  My  daughter  had  not  been  confined  to  her  bed,  but 
for  the  past  twelve  years  had  not  been  able  to  inhale 
much  air  in  her  left  lung,  in  consequence  of  congestion, 
owing  to  overheating.  She  waa  unable  to  stand  heat, 
and  she  was  liable  to  sinking  and  smothering  spells ;  also 
her  heart  would  not  beat  regularly  ;  every  hour  or  two 
it  would  stop  its  pulsations,  or  feel  as  if  it  was  going  to. 
On  the  second  inhalation  her  lung  erpanded  to  its  fullest 
capacity,  which,  of  course,  caused  great  distress  of  body 
(as  the  chest  had  sunk  in  over  her  lung),  but  ever  since 
she  has  had  no  symptoms  of  smothering.  The  heart  pul- 
sations are  regular,  and  she  feels  like  a  new  person;  is 
gaining  rapidly  injlesh.  Her  lung  is  not  yet  strong,  but 
is  gaining.  We  are  truly  grateful  to  you  for  rescuing  her 
from  an  untimely  grave." 

"AM  SO  MUCH  BETTER." 

Extract  from  letter  of  a  patient  in  Biddeford,  Me.: 
"It  is  with  pleasure  I  tell  you  what  your  Compound 
Oxygen  Treatment  has  done  for  me.  Last  April,  when 
I  commenced  using  it,  I  was  very  low ;  suffered  from  a 
weak,  tired  feeling  all  the  time.  Had  not  been  able  to  do 
any  hmisework  or  serving  for  four  years,  and  but  very  little 
for  ten  years  past.  My  right  side  was  very  bad,  a  continual 
smarting  ache  extending  from  the  throat  to  the  hip,  ag- 
gravated by  using  my  arm.  Had  not  been  free  from  a 
cotigh  for  four  years.  Now  I  do  most  of  my  housework ;  all 
my  family  sewing ;  walk  out  every  pleasant  day ;  think  I 
could  walk  a  mile  and  not  be  very  tired ;  am  so  much  Jiappier 
to  feel  that  I  am  some  use  in  the  world.  For  all  this  con- 
sider myself  indebted  to  your  Compound  Oxygen  Treat- 
ment." 

FORCED  CHEERFULNESS. 

A  patient  writes: 

"  I  used  to  seem  cheerful,  and  people  often  remarked 
it ;  but  my  husband  would  look  sad,  and  toll  me  he  feared 
I  did  not  feel  it;  which  was  true.  (I  did  it  to  keep  up 
his  spirits.)  But  now  it  does  me  good  to  take  a  hearty 
laugh.  Every  one  I  meet  says, '  How  well  you  are  look- 
ing.' I  tell  them  it  is  the  Compound  Oxygen  rebuilding 
mo.  ...  I  can  scarcely  believe  myself  to  be  the  same  miser- 
able little  ivoman  I  once  was." 

"VICTORY!" 

Under  this  caption,  a  gentleman  in  Iowa,  who  had  pro- 
cured the  Compound  Oxygen  Treatment  for  his  wife, 
writes: 

"lam  surprised  at  finding  her  so  much  improved  in  health. 
When  she  began  using  the  Oxygen  she  could  not  sit  up 
more  than  four  hours  at  a  time.  Could  not  walk  a  quarter 
of  a  mile.  Improved  from  the  first  inhalation,  and  now, 
having  used  the  Treatment  for  six  weeks,  does  consider- 
able work  around  the  house,  and  can  walk  two  miles  and 
not  be  tired.  Raises  no  more  bloody  matter.  No  cough. 
Sleeps  and  eats  well.  All  that  I  can  say  is, '  Thank  God, 
and  Drs.  Starkey  &  Palen.' " 


BRONCHITIS. 

A  lady  in  Carmel,  N.  Y.,  after  using  the  Oxygen  Treat- 
ment for  about  four  weeks,  writes  as  follows  in  regard  to 
the  result : 

"  Four  years  ago  I  had  an  attack  of  Acute  Bronchitis. 
It  was  two  or  three  months  before  I  got  over  it,  and  then 
I  had  lost  my  voice.  I  could  not  sing.  The  next  winter  I 
had  two  attacks,  and  in  the  spring  I  had  chronic  inflam- 
mation of  the  throat.  I  was  treated  for  it  from  March  till 
June.  Then  my  husband  took  me  to  Brooklyn  for  medi- 
cal treatment.  I  got  very  much  better;  but  as  soon  as 
the  weather  became  cold  I  took  cold,  and  had  to  stay  in 
the  house  for  most  of  the  time  with  an  inflamed  throat. 
When  I  sent  for  the  Oxygen  I  had  just  had  the  worst 
attack  from  which  I  had  ever  suffered.  I  feared  that  I 
was  going  to  lose  ray  voice  entirely,  it  hurt  me  so  to  talk. 
Last  year,  every  time  I  had  a  cold  it  left  me  with  apain 
in  the  lower  part  of  my  left  lung.  This  summer  the  doctor 
sounded  my  lung,  and  said  all  the  trouble  was  in  the 
larger  air  passage. 

"  The  flrst  time  I  inhaled  the  Oxygen  that  pain  left  me 
in  half  an  hour,  and  I  have  notfe.lt  it  since.  For  two  days 
my  lung  felt  real  good;  then  the  inhaling  made  it  feel 
sore,  and  every  time  I  coughed  it  seemed  to  come  from 
that  place  whore  the  pain  had  been,  and  what  I  passed 
had  a  very  bad  taste,  but  did  not  look  bad. 

"  I  have  taken  a  great  many  different  things,  but  never 
in  my  life  took  anything  like  the  Oxygen.  I  feel  so  strong 
and  ivell,  and  have  such  a  good,  healthy  appetite." 

ASTONISHED  AT  THE  RESULT. 

A  lady  writing  from  Louisiana,  November  15,  1880, 
say's : 

"  The  reception  of  your  interesting  quarterly  reminds 
me  that  I  have  been  very  ungrateful  to  yon,  in  not  report- 
ing progress  for  so  long.  I  am  not  yet  entirely  cured,  but 
when  I  think  of  the  miserable  condition  I  was  in  when, 
on  the  7th  of  last  February,  I  began  the  Oxygen  Home 
Treatment,  I  am  truly  astonished  at  the  result.  I  am  still 
thin  in  flesh,  but  I  believe  I  am  still  gaining  ground. 
My  health  is  better  than  in  years  before,  and  I  can  eat 
anything  I  can  get  to  eat.  I  have  a  small  supply  of  gas 
yet,  which  I  use  when  I  feel  depressed.  1  will  order  an- 
other Treatment  before  long,  for  I  feel  sure  it  will  eventu- 
ally effect  a  cure.  I  cannot  say  how  thankful  I  am  for 
having  been  induced  to  send  to  you  for  the  Oxygen." 

LETTER  FROM  AN  OLD  PATIENT. 

We  make  an  extract  from  a  letter  recently  received 
from  one  of  our  patients,  which  shows  the  permanent 
effects  of  the  Oxygen  Treatment: 

"Tou  will,  no  doubt,  remember  ma  as  one  of  your 
patients  of  more  than  a  year  ago.  I  am  not  entirely 
cured,  nor  ever  expect  to  be,  as  my  business  is  such  that 
as  long  as  I  am  able  to  be  about  I  must  go.  I  am  manager 
of  a  large  grain  and  stock  farm,  and  my  business  keeps 
me  out  of  doors  most  of  the  time,  which  is  a  decided 
benefit  to  me.  I  have  felt  stronger  this  year  than  ever  before, 
and  have  done  ten  times  as  much  work  as  ever  before.  I  still 
have  a  part  of  the  last  Treatment,  which  I  use  once  in 
awhile  when  I  am  not  feeling  good,  and  it  immediately 
revives  me.  Only  this  morning  I  had  a  bad  headache,  and 
felt  badly  ;  /  took  an  inhalation  of  the  Oxygen  and  felt  like 
another  man." 


Our  Treatise  on  Compound  Oxygen  is  sent  free  of  charge.  It  contains  a  history  of  the 
discovery,  nature,  and  action  of  this  nev  remedy,  and  a  record  of  many  of  the  remarkable 
results  which  have  so  far  attended  its  use. 

Also  sent  free,  ^'Health  and  Life,"  a  quarterly  record  of  cases  and  cures  under  the 
Compound  Oxygen  Treatment. 

Depository  on  Pacific  Coast. — H.  E.  Mathews,  606  Montgomery  Street,  San  Fran- 
cisco, California,  will  fill  orders  for  the  Compound  Oxygen  Treatment  on  Pacific  Coast. 

DRS.  STARKEY  &  PALEN, 

G.  K  f™f  Jh.BfM.D.''-  1109  and  ]111  Girard  St.  (between  ChestEat  k  Market),  Phila.,  Pa. 


nTCE 


OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 


desk  from  which  borrowed. 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


'^CC-D  L,D 


NOV  2<i  iy4y 


,'.  \ '' 


19Sep5llU 


^Apr^O^ 


r:turned  to 

MATH.-STAT.  UB. 


=Y  2  S    1957 


23OCT 


'57A^ 


JUkUu. 


OCT    9  ^^5'' 

DEC  12  195? 

8Aug'63T;T 

REC'D  LD 


D  V-D 


REC 

FEB2S 
MAR     3  1966  8  7 


■£B17 


-^^ 


66 -10  PI 


S^ 


251968 


c-^ 


^' 


C^' 


d-' 


;-v 


SENT  ON  ILL 


DEC  2  0  1995 


U.  C.  BERKELEY 


'65-8  FM 


LD  21-100m-9,'48(B399sl6 


fiiSlD^Wtzi-SAiS 


TU    lx3U4b 


